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ENCYCLOPEDIA BRITANNICA.
€nt)»dopapDta Bntannica
OR, A
DICTIONARY
OF
ARTS, SCIENCES, AND MISCELLANEOUS
LITERATURE;
ENLARGED AND IMPROVED.
THE SIXTH EDITION.
Sllustrntrt Imtl) nrarlp on' inmarra (Engrabmgs.
VOL. XII.
INDOCTI DISCANT; AMENT MEMINISSE PERITI.
EDINBURGH:
PRINTED FOR ARCHIBALD CONSTABLE AND COMPANY;
AND HURST, ROBINSON, AND COMPANY, 90, CHEAPSIDE,
LONDON.
1823.
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K0ad, facing the Sea, near the West
X ieS) with over 200 additional Bed-
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.OPtEDIA Britannica.
ek.
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meriting October 1st, oed
e extra charges.
CULARS, CAN BE OBTAINED ON
TO THE MANAGER. tLo
c of Germany, in the
_r 7 tnded to the north by
Brabant, to the south by Champagne and Luxemburg,
to the east by Limburg and Juliers, and to the west by
Brabant, Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal
both in length and breadth; the former being in some
places above 90 miles, in others not half so much ; and
the latter in some places 45, in others hardly 2 5. Ihe
air here is very temperate; and the soil fruitful in
corn, wine, wood, and pasture. Here also are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries ot marble and
stone, and some celebrated mineral waters, as those
of Spa and Chau-fontaine. The principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambre. The manufactures and com¬
modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails,
serge, leather, with the products we have just men¬
tioned. The states of the bishopric are composed of
three bodies: the first is the chapter of Liege ; the
second, the nobility of the country; and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
three estates are seldom called together, except to
raise taxes for the service of the province, or upon
some particular emergency; but there is a committee
of the states, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of
war datly. They are always about the prince-bishop,
to make remonstrances, and demand the redress of
grievances. The bishop is spiritual and temporal lord
of the whole country ; but, as bishop, is suffragan to
the archbishop of Cologne. He styles himself, by the
grace of God, bishop and prince of Liege, duke of Bouil¬
lon, marquis of Franchimont, count of Loo%, Hoorn, fyc.
Hi s arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pedestal
of the same, with a crown or, in a field ruby. In the
matricula he was formerly rated at 50 horse and 170
,foot ; or 1280 florins monthly, in lieu of them, but
now only at 826. An abatement of one-third has also
been granted of the ancient assessment to the chamber-
court, which was 360 rix-dollars 62^ kruitzers for each
term. Here are several colleges which sit at Liege, for
the government of the country, and the decision of
causes, civil, criminal, spiritual, and feudal, and of
such also as relate to the finances. The chapter con¬
sists of 60 persons, who must either prove their nobility
for four generations, both by father and mother, be¬
fore they can be admitted; or, if they cannot do that,
must at least have been doctors or licentiates of divi¬
nity for seven years, or, of law, for five years, in some
famous university. The bishopric is very populous
VoL. XII. Part I.
L I E
and extensive, containing 1500 parishes, in which are Liege.
24 walled towns, besides others, 52 baronies, besides'—y~j
counties and seignories, 17 abbeys for men, who
must be all gentlemen, and 11 for ladies, exclusive
of others.
Liege, the capital of the bishopric of the same
name, stands upon the Maes, in a fine valley sur-1
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the largest and most eminent in Europe.
Though it is 100 miles from the sea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates ;
17 bridges, some of them very handsome ; 154 streets,
many of them straight and broad; a fine episcopal
palace ; a very large stately cathedral, in which, be¬
sides five great silver cotters full of relics, are several
silver statues of saints, and a St George on horseback
of massy gold, presented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by wfay of atonement for using the inhabi¬
tants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
that of St Paul is the most remarkable, both for its
structure and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are also two
castles on the mountain of the Holy W alburg lor its
defence. Besides a great number of other convents of
both sexes, here is a college of English Jesuits, found¬
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of English
ladies. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up the greater part of it.
The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it is a most blessed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradise of priests,
as it is expressly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower;
and the latter again into the island, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houses are high, and built
of bluish marble. In the town and suburbs are 12
public places or squares, 10 hospitals, a beguin-house,
and twro fine quays, planted with several rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air; but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, serge, and beer. In St William’s con¬
vent, without the city, is the tomb of the famous Eng¬
lish traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an inscrip¬
tion in barbarous French, requesting those who read it
to pray for his soul. Near it are kept the saddle,
spurs, and knife, that he made use of in his travels.
A ' f After
ROYAL. YOl
Centrally situated. Close to tlie Sea
1.0-5-83]   
ROYAL CRESCENT HO"
dPLENDUDLY eitnated in the highest and healthiest part
M Walk. Every care taken to ensure comfort of Visitors. H
Cuisine Wine, and attendance.
LANCASTER HOUSE,
DEtraca-Xi
FIIRST C3LASS BO^RIDIISS
Spacious Dra-wing, Dining, and Billiard Rooms (new L
Best Position, over-looUiujt Enclosures.
Lo-li-SS) 111
HAMBLIN’S fa
S'!, KING’S EOAI
FACES THE SEA. QUIET, COMFO!
Encyclopaedia Britannica.
Liege.
L I E
LTEGE, formerly a bishopric of Germany, in the
circle of Westphalia; bounded to the north by
Brabant, to the south by Champagne and Luxemburg,
to the east by Limburg and Juliers, and to the west by
Brabant, Namur, and Hainault. It is very unequal
both in length and breadth; the former being in some
places above 90 miles, in others not half so much ; and
the latter in some places 45, in others hardly 25. 1 he
air here is very temperate j and the soil fruitlul in
corn, wine, wood, and pasture. Here also are mines
of lead and iron, pits of coal, quarries of marble and
stone, and some celebrated mineral waters, as those
of Spa and Chau-fontaine. The principal rivers are,
the Maes and Sambi'e. The manufactures and com¬
modities of the country are chiefly beer, arms, nails,
serge, leather, with the products we have just men¬
tioned. The states of the bishopric are composed of
three bodies: the first is the chapter of Liege ; the
second, the nobility of the country } and the third, the
deputies of the capital and the other towns. The
thi-ee estates are seldom called together, except to
raise taxes for the service of the province, or upon
some particular emergency; but there is a committee
of the states, who meet thrice a-week, and in time of
war datly. They are always about the prince-bishop,
to make remonstrances, and demand the redress of
grievances. The bishop is spiritual and temporal lord
of the whole country •, but, as bishop, is suffragan to
the archbishop of Cologne. He styles himself, hy the
grace of God, bishop and prince of Liege, duke ofBouil-
lon, marquis of Franchimont, count oj Look, Hoorn, fc.
His arms for Liege are, a pillar argent, on a pedestal
of the same, with a crown or, in a field ruby. In the
matricula he wras formerly rated at 50 horse and 170
,foot; or 1280 florins monthly, in lieu of them, but
now only at 826. An abatement of one-third has also
been granted of the ancient assessment to the chamber-
court, which was 360 rix-dollars 624- kruitzers for each
term. Here are several colleges which sit at Liege, for
the govei'nment of the country, and the decision of
causes, civil, criminal, spiritual, and feudal, and of
such also as relate to the finances. The chapter con¬
sists of 60 persons, w ho must either prove their nobility
for four generations, both by father and mother, be¬
fore they can be admitted; or, if they cannot do that,
must at least have been doctors or licentiates of divi¬
nity for seven years, or, of law, for five years, in some
famous university. The bishopric is veay populous
Vol. XII. Part I.
LIE
and extensive, containing 1500 parishes, in which are
24 walled towns, besides others, 52 baronies, besides'-
counties and seignories, 17 abbeys for men, who
must be all gentlemen, and 11 for ladies, exclusive
of others.
Liege, the capital of the bishopric of the same
name, stands upon the Maes, in a fine valley sur¬
rounded with woods and hills, being a free imperial
city, and one of the largest and most eminent in Europe.
Though it is 100 miles from the sea by water, the
Maes is navigable up to it. The city has 16 gates ;
17 bridges, some of them very handsome j 154 streets,
many of them straight and broad j a fine episcopal
palace j a very large stately cathedral, in which, be¬
sides five great silver coffers full of relics, are several
silver statues of saints, and a St George on horseback
of massy gold, presented to the cathedral by Charles
the Bold, by way of atonement for using the inhabi¬
tants cruelly in the year 1468. Of the other churches,
that of St Paul is the most remarkable, both for its
structure and fine ornaments in painting and marble.
The city is well fortified, and there are also two
castles on the mountain of the Holy W alburg lor its
defence. Besides a great number of other convents of
both sexes, here is a college of English Jesuits, found¬
ed in the year 1616, and a fine nunnery of English
ladies. Indeed, churches, convents, and other reli¬
gious foundations, take up the greater part of it.
The reader, therefore, no doubt, will take it for
granted, that it is a most blessed, holy, and happy
city. But however it may fare with the profane, un¬
hallowed laity, it is certainly the paradise of priests,
as it is expressly called, by way of eminence. It is
divided into the old and new, or the upper and lower j
and the latter again into the island, and the quarter
beyond the Maes. The houses are high, and built
of bluish marble. In the town and suburbs are 13
public places or squares, 10 hospitals, a beguin-house,
and two fine quays, planted with several rows of trees,
for the burghers to take the air but a great part of
that within the walls is taken up with orchards and
vineyards. The manufactures of this city are arms,
nails, leather, serge, and beer. In St William’s con¬
vent, without the city, Is the tomb of the famous Eng¬
lish traveller Sir John Mandeville, with an inscrip¬
tion in barbarous French, requesting those who read it.
to pray for his soul. Near it are kept the saddle,
spurs, and knife, that he made use of in his travels.
A ' i After
Liege.
Liejre.
L I E [ 2
After having seen most of the cities of any note in the
'world, he made choice ot this to spend the e%e ot jus.
life in. A little way from the city, on the other side
of the Maes, stands the episcopal palace of Seraing, in
which the bishops generally reside during the summer.
The population is estimated at 80,000. IN. Lat. 50.
36. E. Long. 5. 40. . , 0
Some disturbances took place here in the year 1709,
in consequence of certain disputes that had arisen be¬
tween the prince-bishop and the inhabitants. I he lat¬
ter having demanded certain privileges, which he did
not think proper to grant, they took up arms, and com¬
pelled him and his chapter to comply with their re¬
quest. The prince, together with many of the. clergy,
nobility, and citizens, alarmed by this commotion, and
dreading the consequences of popular fury, winch when
once roused seldom knows any bounds, sought safety by
a voluntary exile. rJ hey then appealed to the imperial
chamber ; "and this tribunal, instead of acting the part
of arbiter, decided as a sovereign, and ordered the cir-
cles of the Lower lihme and estphalia to execute the
sentence.
The king of Prussia, at whose court one of the chiefs
of the insurrection had resided, and who wished to gain
a party at Liege, became mediator; and seemed to
favour'the Liegeois, many of whose claims were just,
though they attempted to enforce them by violence
and the most illegal steps. Intoxicated with this pro¬
tection, the people of Liege treated the remonstrances
of their bishop, the decrees of the imperial chamber,
and the resolutions of the directory of the two circles,
with the utmost contempt; and proceeded so far as
even to dethrone their prince, by appointing a regent
in the person of a French prelate. The electoral col¬
lege having deliberated on the best means of putting
an end to these disturbances, its propositions, though
modified by M. Dohm the Prussian plenipotentiary,
made the insurgents break out into open sedition. De¬
luded by their leaders, they gave themselves up every
day to new excesses; the effects of the citizens vieie
exposed to pillage, and their persons to insult. Hie
king of Prussia, who was desirous to bring matters to
an accommodation, and not to instigate the Liegeois to
become independent, finding that the efforts of Ins
minister were not attended with the desired success,
seemed unwilling to interfere any farther in an afiau
which might have led him into a quanel with the em¬
pire. The executive troops, at the same time, re¬
mained almost in a state of inactivity; and seemed ra¬
ther to guard the frontiers of this petty state, than to
make any attempt to reduce it to obedience. Neither
this conduct, however, nor the exhortations of Prussia,
added to the moral certainty of their being soon com¬
pelled to lay down their arms, made any change in the
conduct of the malecontents. They declared openly,
in the face of all Europe, that they would either con¬
quer or die; and they persisted in tins resolution, while
commerce, manufactures, and the public revenues,
were going daily to decay.
Having at length openly attacked the executive
forces without the territories of their city, the emperor
could no longer remain an indifferent spectator. It
was now full time to put a period to that madness to
which the people had abandoned themselves; and to
accomplish this in an effectual manner, the imperial
] L I E
chamber at Wctzlar requested the emperor, as a mem-
her of the ancient circle of Burgundy, to execute its Lkniery
orders respecting this object. In consequence of this
measure, Baron Alvinzi, who commanded a body of ,
Austrians cantoned in Limburg and the confines of
Brabant, notified, by order of Marshal Bender, to
the states and municipality of Liege, that the em¬
peror intended to send troops into their city and tei-
ritories, for the purpose of restoring tranquillity and
good order. The states had already been informed of
this resolution by their agent at Wetzlar. 1 bey there¬
fore wrote to Marshal Bender, to assure him of the
respectful confidence which they placed in the justice
and magnanimity of the emperor, and to request that
the Austrian troops might enter alone, without those of
the electors ; and that they might be confined to occu¬
py the gates and the suburbs only. lo this letter,
which was carried to Brussels by a deputation of the
states, Marshal Bender returned a very satisfactory an¬
swer, relating to the disposition of the electoial tioops .
but Baron Alvinzi, in a note wdiich he wrote to the
states, insisted among other articles, that all the citi¬
zens should throw down their arms; that proper accom¬
modations should he prepared for the officers and men;
that the w arlike stores, collected for making resistance,
should be removed; and that cockades, and every other
distinctive mark of the like kind, should be laid aside
before the arrival of the imperial troops. However
humiliating these preliminaries might be, especially
that of a general disarming, the states and municipali¬
ties acquiesced without the least reserve; and their sub¬
mission, as sudden as complete, was communicated to
the people, with an exhortation to follow their ex¬
ample.
Notwithstanding this pacific appearance, two days
before the entrance of the imperial tioops, the muni¬
cipal council of Liege, flattering themselves, peihaps,
with the hopes of assistance from Prussia, assured the
inhabitants that they w ould remain unshaken in their
post, and that they had sworn never to desert the cause
in which they were engaged. This, however, did not
prevent the Austrian troops, to the number of 6000,
from penetrating, without opposition, into the heart
of the city ; where they occupied every post; made
the citizens lay aside their arms, uniforms, and cock¬
ades ; and in a single hour, dethroned so many sove-;
reigns ot a year. Ihe greater part of the municipal
officers, who two days before had solemnly promised
such great things, betook themselves to flight, and re¬
tired either to France or Wesel; while the ancient
magistracy, which had been expelled in the month of
August 1789, was provisionally reinstated by the di¬
rectorial commissioners.—The decrees of the imperial
chamber at Wetzlar have since been executed in their
utmost extent. The ancient magistracy was restored ;
and the prince himself returned. The French took this
city in 1792, were driven out in I793> occupied it
again in 1794. From this time they retained posses¬
sion of it till 1815, when it was annexed to the king¬
dom of the Netherlands.
LIEN TER Y, a flux of the belly, in which the
aliments are discharged as they are swallowed, or very
little altered either iu colour or substance. See Medi¬
cine Index.
LTEVENS, John or Jan, a celebrated painter, was
born
lie r .
lievens, ljora at Leyden in 1607. He discovered nu early in-
Lleou- clination for the arts, and was the disciple first ot Jons
Kieou. van Schooten, and afterwards of Peter -Lastman. He
* v excelled principally in painting portraits j but he also
executed several historical subjects with great success.
He came over to England, where he resided three
years, and painted the portraits of Charles X. the queen,
the prince of Wales, and several of the nobility } after
which he returned to Antwerp, where he met with
full employment for his pencil. We have several
etchings by this master, which are performed in a
slight but masterly manner. The chiaro scuro is very
skilfully managed in them, so as to produce a most
powerful effect. His style of etching bears some re¬
semblance to that of Rembrandt; but it is coarser in
general, and less finished.
JjIF.OU-KIEOU, or Loo-Choo, the name of cer¬
tain islands of Asia, subject to China 5 but hitherto
little known to geographers, -who have been satisfied
with marking their existence and latitude in their
charts. They, however, form a considerable empire,
the inhabitants of which are civilized, and ought not to
be confounded with other savage nations dispersed
throughout the islands of Asia. Father Gabil, a Je¬
suit, has furnished us with some interesting details re¬
specting these islanders j and the journals of the officers
who visited Loo-Choo in 1817, in the Alceste and
Lyra, have made us well acquainted with their man¬
ners and situation. Father Gabil informs us, that
the emperor Kang-hi having resolved, in 1719, to
send an ambassador to the king of Lieou-kieou, chose
for this purpose one of the great doctors of the em¬
pire, named Supao-Koang. This learned man depart¬
ed from China in 1719, and returned to Peking in
1720, where, in the year following, he caused a rela¬
tion of his voyage to be published in two volumes. It
is in the first of these that he gives an accurate and
particular description of the isles of Ijoo-Choo; and
of the history, religion, manners, and customs, of the
people who inhabit them.
These isles, situated between Corea, Formosa, and
Japan, are in number 36. The principal and largest
is called Loo-Choo; the rest have each a particular
denomination. The largest island extends from south¬
west to north-east about 56 miles, with a breadth of 11
miles. According to the Chinese account, the south¬
east part of the island, where the court resides, is cal¬
led Cheon-li; and it is there that Kin-tching, the ca¬
pital city, is situated. The king’s palace, which is
reckoned to be four leagues in circumference, is built
on a neighbouring mountain. The existence of these
islands was not known in China before the year 605 of
the Christian era. It was in the course of that year
that one of the emperors of the dynasty of Soul, having
beard of these isles, was desirous of knowing their situa¬
tion. This prince at first sent some Chinese thither ;
but their expedition proved fruitless, as the want of in¬
terpreters prevented them from acquiring that know¬
ledge which was the object of their voyage. They on¬
ly brought some of the islanders with them to Sigan-
fou, the capital of the province of Chen-si, which was
the usual residence of the emperors of the dynasty of
*Soui. It fortunately happened, that an ambassador of
the king of Japan was then at court. This ambassador
and his attendants immediately knew the strangers to
] LIE
be natives of Loo-Choo: but they Spoke of these Llcmw
isles as of a miserable and wretched country, the in- Kieou.
habitants of which had never been civilized. I he v ^
emperor of China afterwards learned, that the principal
island lay to the east of a city called at present Fou*
tcheou-fouj which is the capital of the province of
Fokien ; and that, in a passage of five days, one
might reach the large island where the king kept
his court.
On this information, the emperor Yang-ti sent skil¬
ful men, accompanied by interpreters, to summon the
prince to do homage to the emperor of China, and to
pay him tribute. This proposal was very ill received.
The king of Lieou-kieou sent back the Chinese, tell¬
ing them sternly, that he acknowledged no prince to
be bis superior. This answer irritated the emperor,
who, to obtain revenge, caused a fleet to be immediate¬
ly equipped in Fokien, in which he embarked 10,000
men. This fleet set sail, and arrived in safety at the
port of Napa-kiang. The army, in spite of every ef¬
fort made by the natives, landed on the island ; and the
king, who had put himself at the head of his troops to
oppose the enemy, having fallen in battle, the Chinese
pillaged, sacked, and burnt the royal city, made more
than 5000 slaves, and returned to China.
It was only in 1372, under the reign of Hong-vou,
founder of the dynasty of Ming, that these islands sub¬
mitted voluntarily to the Chinese government. Hong-
vou had sent one of the grandees of his court to Tsay-
tou, who was then reigning at Lieou-kieou, to inform
him of his accession to the throne. The Chinese noble¬
man had received particular instructions respecting this
commission, and he acquitted himself of it with all the
prudence and address of an able minister. In a private
audience which he had with Tsay-tou, he exhorted
this prince to declare himself a tributary of the empire,
and laid before him the advantages he would derive
from this step. His reasoning, supported by the power
of his natural eloquence, made so much impression on
the mind of Tsay-tou, that he embraced the proposal
made him, and sent immediately to the emperor to de¬
mand the investiture of his states.
Hong-vou received his' envoys in a magnificent man¬
ner, and loaded them with presents. He solemnly de¬
clared Tsay-tou a vassal of the empire } and, after hav¬
ing received his first tribute (which consisted in valu¬
able horses, aromatic wood, sulphur, copper, tin, &c.)
he sent to this prince a golden seal, and confirmed the
choice he had made of one of his sons for successor.
The emperor afterwards sent 36 families, almost all
from the province of Fokien, to Loo-Choo. Tsay-
tou received them, assigned them lands near the port
of Napa-kiang, and appointed certain revenues for their
use, at the same time that Hong-vou made them con¬
siderable remittances. These families first introduced
into Loo-Choo the learned language of the Chinese,
the use of their characters, and the ceremonies practised
in China in honour of Confucius. On the other hand,
the sons of several of the grandees of the court of Tsay-
tou were sent to Nan-king, to study Chinese in the im¬
perial college, where they wrere treated with distinction,
and maintained at the emperor’s expence.
The isles of Lieou-kieou had neither iron nor porce¬
lain. Hong-vou supplied this want j he caused a great
number of utensils of irom and instruments to be made,
A 2 which
LIE . 4
v.likli he sent thither, together with a quantity ol por-
celala vessels. Commerce, navigation, and the arts
soon began to flourish. These islanders learned to cast
hells for their temples, to manufacture paper and the
finest stuffs, and to make porcelain, with which they
had been supplied belore from Japan.
The celebrated revolution which placed the lartars
on the imperial throne of China, produced no change
in the conduct of the kings of Lieou-kieou. Chang*
tche, who was then reigning, sent ambassadors to ac¬
knowledge Chun-tchi, and received a seal from him, on
which were engraven some Tartar characters. It was
then settled, that the king of Loo-Choo should pay
his tribute only every two years, and that the number
of persons in the train of his envoys should not exceed
A very interesting account of the manners of the
inhabitants is given by Captain Hall. ‘ Iheir manners,
he says, ‘ are remarkably gentle and unassuming, i hey
are observant, and not without curiosity but they re¬
quire encouragement to induce them to come forward,
being restrained, it would seem, by a genteel sell-denial,
from gratifying curiosity, lest it might be thought ob¬
trusive. Their dress is singularly graceful •, it con¬
sists of a loose flowing robe, with very wide sleeves,
tied round the middle by a broad rich belt or girdle ol
wrought silk, a yellow cylindrical cap, and a neat straw
sandal, over a short cotton boot or stocking. Two ot
the chiefs wore light yellow robes, the other dark blue,
streaked with white, all of cotton. The cap is flat at
top. They all carry fans, which they stick in their
girdles when not in use j and each person has a short to¬
bacco-pipe in a small bag, hanging, along with the pouch,
at the girdle. Many wear printed cottons, others have
cotton dresses with the pattern drawn on it by hand,
instead of being stamped } but blue, in all its shades, is
the prevalent colour, though there were many dresses
resembling in every respect Highland tartans. I he
children, in general, wear more showy dresses than the
men ; and of the dress of the women we can say no¬
thing, as none have yet been seen. Every person has
one of the girdles before described, which is always oi
a different colour from the dress, and is, in general,
richly ornamented with flowers in embossed silk, and
sometimes with gold and silver threads. This dress is
naturally so graceful, that even the lowest boatmen
have a picturesque appearance. Their hair, which is
of a glossy black, is shaved off the crown 5 but the
bare place is concealed by their mode of dressing the
hair in a close knot over it. Their beards and mus-
tachios are allowed to grow, and are kept neat and
smooth. They are rather low in stature, but are well
formed, and have an easy graceful carriage, which suits
well with their flowing dress. Their colour is not good,
some being very dark and others nearly white j but in
most instances they are of a deep copper. rJ his is fully
compensated for by the sweetness and intelligence oi
their countenance. Their eyes, which are black, have
a placid expression, and their teeth are regular and
beautifully white. In deportment they are modest,
polite, timid, and respectful } and, in short, appear to
he a most interesting and amiable people. The sick
were accommodated in the gardens oi a temple or place
of worship, of which the natives appeared to make very
little use, and where they were treated with the kindest
] LIE
and most unwearied attention by all classes of the in¬
habitants. Milk, eggs, meat, and vegetables, were
brought to them every day j and whenever they telt
disposed to walk, they were accompanied by one or
two of the natives, who took their arms on coming to
rough ground, and often helped them up the steep side
of the hill behind the hospital, to a pleasant grassy spot
on thc-summit, where the natives lighted pipes lor them.’
The rest of the crew, however, and even the officers,
were a good deal restricted in their communications
with the interior, being specially interdicted from enter¬
ing the town or large village near the landing place,
and generally confined, indeed, either to a walk along
the beach, or to the top of a small eminence in the
neighbourhood. .
6 Every person, of rank,’ says Captain Hall,
tended by a lad, generally his son, whose business it is
to carry a little square box, in which there are several
small drawers, divided into compartments, filled with
rice, sliced eggs, small squares ol smoked pork, cakes,
and fish : and in one corner a small metal pot ol sackee,
besides cups and chopsticks. By having this always
with them, they can dine when and where they choose.
They frequently invite us to dine with them *, and, if
we agree to the proposal, they generally ask any other
of the chiefs whom they meet to be ot the party, and
join dinners. The place selected for these pic-nics is
commonly under the trees, in a cool spot, where a mat
is spread on the grassj and everything being lai'd out
in great order, the party lies down in a circle, and sel¬
dom breaks up till the sackee pot is empty.
But it is not only their manners and tempers that are
thus singularly agreeable •,—their dispositions seem to
be thoroughly amiable and gentle, and their honesty
and integrity without blemish. During six weeks con¬
tinual intimacy, the British officers never saw any
thing approaching to a quarrel or affray, nor any pu¬
nishment inflicted beyond an angry look, or the tap oi
a fan ^ and not an article of any kind was stolen, or
suspected to be stolen, though every thing was. exposed
in a way that might have tempted persons, m whose
eyes most of them must have been less rare and pre¬
cious. To complete this picture of the golden age, it
is stated, that the chiefs never once appeared to treat
the inferior people with harshness or severity j that
there was nothing like poverty or distress oi any kind
to be seen—no deformed persons—and very little ap¬
pearance of disease } and finally, that they have no
arms of any sort for offence or defence, and positively
denied having any knowledge of war, either by expe¬
rience or tradition. It is at least equally certain, that
they have no knowledge of, or regard for money, as.
they appeared to set no value whatever either on the
dollars or gold pieces that were offered them by the na¬
vigators.
As to their knowledge and attainments, they manu¬
facture salt—build stone arches—cultivate their fields,
both for rice, millet, sugar, and other crops, with great
neatness—weave and stain their cotton cloths with sin¬
gular taste—and embroider their girdles and pouches
with a great deal of fancy and elegance. 1 heir silks
and woolens are said to be brought from China} and
the latter, Captain Hall conceives, from their appear¬
ance, to have come originally from England. The
most remarkable person that appeared, was a chief oi
the
Jatou-
Kieou.
LIE F ,
Utm. the name of Madera, who for several weeks dissembled
Kieou his high rank, and, in the habit of the lower orders, at-
II tracted the notice of every one by his singular curiosity
lgutenan! and intelligence, and ingratiated himself with every
one by his extreme good humour, kindness, and habits
of accommodation. In less than a month, he had ac¬
quired so much English as to be able to converse very
intelligibly, and, on many occasions, to perform the
part of an interpreter *, and, in a lar shorter time, he
had so perfectly familiarized himself with our usages,
as to have no appearance whatever of awkwardness or
embarrassment in the society ol the travellers. He
and the other chiefs cried bitterly at parting with their
English friends. # _
Their religion, it seems, is that of Luddh or Jro;
hut it seems to occupy scarcely any share ol then ie-
gard, and the priests are universally regarded as the
lowest and least respected class in the community.
These unhappy men are condemned to celibacy, and
seemed to have no occupation but to sweep the temple,
and keep the walks in the garden in order.
LIEUTAUD, Dr Joseph, counsellor of state and
first physician at the court of 1 ranee, was born at Aix
in Provence, and resided principally there till he took
the degree ol doctor of medicine. After tins he prose¬
cuted his studies for some years at Montpelier. He
returned to Aix, where he soon acquired extensive
practice, and became eminent for literary abilities.
He resided there till the year 1750, when he was in¬
vited to act as physician to the royal infirmary' at \ er-
^ sailles. There he practised with such reputation and
success, that he soon arrived at the head ol his profes¬
sion } and in the year 1774, upon the death of M. Se-
iiac, he was appointed archiater. His extensive en¬
gagements in practice did not prevent him from culti¬
vating the science of medicine in all its branches, and
from freely communicating to others the result of his
own studies. He published many valuable works ; a-
inongst which the following may he accounted the most
remarkable. 1. Element a Ehysiologice. 2. Precis de
la Medicine. 3. Pratique Precis de la Matiere Me-
dicalc. 4. Essais Anatomiques. 5. Synopsis Uni verses
Praxeos Medicines. 6. Historia Anatoniico-Medica.
He died at Versailles in 1780, aged 78 years.
LIEUTENANT, an officer who supplies the place
and discharges the office of a superior in his absence.
Of these, some are civil, as the lords-lieutenants of
kingdoms, and the lords-lieutenants ol counties •, and
ethers are military, as the lieutenant-general, lieute¬
nant-colonel, &c.
Lord-LlEUTENAXT of Ireland, is properly a viceroy 5
and has all the state and grandeur of a king ot Eng¬
land, except being served upon the knee. He has the
power of making war and peace, of bestowing all the
offices under the government, of dubbing knights, and
of pardoning all crimes except high treason *, he also
calls and prorogues the parliament, hut no bill can pass
without the royal assent. He is assisted in his govern¬
ment by a privy-council j and on his leaving the king¬
dom, he appoints the lords of the regency, who govern
in his absence.
Lords-LiEUTENANTS of Counties, are officers, who,
upon any invasion or rebellion, have power to raise
the militia, and to give commissions to colonels and
flther officers, to arm and form them into regiments,
- ] LIE
troops, and companies. Under the lords-lieutenants, £ieirtcnaiit
are deputy-lieutenants, who have the same power 5 * 111
these are chosen by the lords-lieutenants, out of the
principal gentlemen of each county, and presented to
the king for his approbation.
IiEUJ'ENJNT-Colonel. See CotONEL.
Lieutenant-General. See General.
Lieutenant, in the land service, is the second
commissioned officer in every company of both foot
and horse, and next to the captain, and who takes the
command upon the death or absence ol the captain.
Lieutenant of Artillery. Each company of artil¬
lery hath four j 1 first and 3 second lieutenants. The
first lieutenant hath the same detail of duty watli the
captain, because m his absence he commands the com¬
pany : he is to see that the soldiers are clean and neat^
that their clothes, arms, and accoutrements, are in
good and serviceable order and to watch over eveiy
thing else which may contribute to their health. II&
must give attention to their being taught the exercise,
see them punctually paid, their messes regularly kept,
and to visit them in the hospitals when sick. He must
assist at all parades, &c. He ought to understand the
doctrine of projectiles, and the science ot artillery,
with the various efiects of gunpowder, however mana¬
ged or directed 5 to enable him to construct and dis¬
pose his batteries to the best advantage j to plant his
cannon, mortars, and howitzers, so as to produce the
greatest annoyance to an enemy. He is to be well
skilled in the'attack and defence of fortified places j
and to be conversant in arithmetic, mathematics, me¬
chanics, &c.
Second Lieutenant in the Artillery, is the same as
an ensign in an infantry regiment, being the youngest
commissioned officer in the company, and must assist
the first lieutenant in the detail of the company’s duty.
His other qualifications should be equal with those of
the first lieutenant.
Lieutenant of a Ship of Jf ar, the officer next in
rank and power to the captain, in whose absence he
is accordingly charged with the command of the ship, as
also the execution of whate ver orders he may have receiv¬
ed from the commander relating to the king’s service.
The lieutenant who commands the watch at sea,
keeps a list of all the officers and men thereto belong¬
ing, in order to muster them when he judges it expe¬
dient, and report to the captain the names of those
who are absent from their duty. During the night
watch, he occasionally visits the lower decks, or sends
thither a careful officer, to see that the proper centi-
nels are at their duty, and that there is no disorder
amongst the rnen j no tobacco smoked between decks,
nor any fire or candles burning there, except the lights
which are in lanthorns, under the care of a proper
watch, on particular occasions. He is expected to he
always upon deck, in his watch, as well to give the ne¬
cessary orders with regard to trimming the sails and
superintending the navigation, as to prevent any noise
or confusion j but he is never to change the ship’s course
without the captain’s directions, unless to avoid an im¬
mediate danger. # • 1 1
The lieutenant, in time of battle, is particularly to
see that all the men are present at their quarters where
they have been previously stationed according to the
regulations made by the captain. He orders and ex-
D borts
L I F t
'Lieutenantliorta them even'tvliere to perform their il'itv, and ac-
Lite. quaints the captain at all other times ot the misbehayi-
•»—v— ' our 0f ally person in the ship, and of whatever else
concerns the service or discipline. _ .
The youngest lieutenant in the ship, who is also
styled lieutenant at arms, besides his common duty, is
particularly ordered, by his instructions, to train the
seamen to the use of small arms, and frequently to ex¬
ercise and discipline them therein. Accordingly Ins
office, in time of battle, is chiefly to direct and attend
them ; and at all other times to have a due regard to
the preservation of the small arms, that they be not lost
or embezzled, and that they are kept clean and in good
condition for service.
Lieutenant Reformed, he whose company or troop
is broke or disbanded, but continued in whole or halt
pay, and still preserves his right of seniority and rank
in the army.
LIFE, is peculiarly used to denote the animated
state of living creatures, or the time that the union of
the soul and body lasts.
The Rrolongation of Life is made by Lord Bacon
one of the three branches of medicine } the other two
relating to the preservation of health, and the cure of
diseases. See Medicine.
The theory of prolonging life he numbers among the
desiderata. Some means or indications that seem to
lead to it, he lays down as follow :
Things are preserved in two manners-, either in
their identity, or by reparation. In their identity ; as
a fly or ant in amber 5 a flower, fruit, or wood, in a
conservatory of snow j a dead carcase in balsams. By
reparation; as a flame, or a mechanical engine, &c.
To attain to the prolongation of life, both these methods
must be used. And hence, according to him, arise
three intentions for the prolongation of life ; Retarda¬
tion of consumption, proper reparation, and renova¬
tion of what begins to grow old.
Consumption is occasioned by two kinds of depreda¬
tion } a depredation of the innate spirit, and a depreda¬
tion of the ambient air. These may be each prevent¬
ed two ways} either by rendering those agents less
predatory, or by rendering the passive parts (viz. the
juices of the body) less liable to be preyed on. The
spirit wall be rendered less predatory, if either its sub¬
stance be condensed, as by the use of opiates, grief,
&c.-, or its quantity diminished, as in spare and mo¬
nastic diets j or its motion calmed, as in idleness and
tranquillity. The ambient air becomes less predatory,
if it be either less heated by the rays of the sun, as in
cold climates, in caves, mountains, and anchorets cells 5
or be kept off from the body, as by a dense skin, the
feathers of birds, and the use of oils and unguents with¬
out aromatics. The juices of the body are rendered
less liable to be preyed on, either by making them
harder, or more moist and oily •, harder, as by a coarse
sharp diet, living in the cold, robust exercises, and
some mineral baths : moister, as by the use of sweet
foods, &c. abstaining from salts and acids 5 and espe¬
cially by such a mixture of drink as consists Avholly of
line subtile particles, without any acrimony or acidity.
Reparation is performed by means of aliment j and
alimentation is promoted four ways: By the concoction
of the viscera, so as to extrude the aliment: By exciting
the exterior parts to the attraction of the aliment; as
6 1 L 1. F
in proper exercises and frications, and some unctions Life,
and baths : By the preparation of the food itselt, so as I.ile-B^at
it may more easily insinuate itself, and in some measure ' '' _v ~
anticipate the digestion ; as in various ways of dressing
meats, mixing drinks, fermenting breads, and reducing
the virtues of these tbree into one : By promoting the
act of assimilation itself, as in seasonable sleep, some
external application, &c.
The renovation of what begins to grow old, is per¬
formed two ways: By the inteneration of the habit of
the body j as in the use of emollients, emplasters, unc¬
tions, &c. of such a nature, as do not extract but im¬
press : Or by purging oft the old juices, and substitut¬
ing fresh ones } as in seasonable evacuations, attenuat¬
ing diets, &c.
The same author adds these three axioms : That the
prolongation of lite is to be expected, rather from some
stated diets, than either from any ordinary regimen or
any extraordinary medicines more from operating on
the spirits, and mollilying the parts, than from the
manner of feeding j and this mollifying ot the paits
without is to be performed by substantials, impriments,
and occludents. See Longevity.
L,iFE-Boat, a most important invention, consisting in
an improvement of the ordinary construction of a boat,
by which it cannot be sunk in the roughest sea *, so that
it is peculiarly fitted for bringing off mariners from
wrecks during a storm, and thus saving many valuable
lives. The life-boat was first conceived at South Shields,
in the county of Durham. A committee of the inhabi¬
tants of that town, who had often been the sad witnes¬
ses of many melancholy shipwrecks, in which by the
ordinary means no relief could be given, in a public
advertisement requested information on this subject,
with models of boats which would be most propei foi
the purpose of saving persons from shipwreck. I he
committee, it would appear, employed Mr Greathead,
a boat-builder in South Shields, who had with otheis
presented the model of a boat for this purpose, to build
the first boat, which upon trial was found fully to an¬
swer the purpose. Two claimants have since appear¬
ed for the honour of the invention, which according to
Mr Earles, the chairman of the committee, in his letter
to Mr Hails the supporter of one claim, belongs to two
of the members themselves, namely Mr Faides himself
and Mr Rockwood. The claimants above alluded to
are Mr Greathead, and a Mr Wouldhave a painter in
South Shields, and a very ingenious man, who also pre¬
sented a model to the committee. The claim of the
latter is keenly supported by Mr Hails, in a pamphlet
published in 1806, two years after Mr Greathead’s
pamphlet containing the history and progress of the in¬
vention, and of the boats which he had built for the
purpose, his application to parliament, and the premium
of 1200I. which he received for the invention, &c. and
four years after this application to parliament. It is
true that in 1802, Mr Wouldbave and his friends as¬
serted his claim in the Monthly Magazine, and in some
provincial newspapers j but still this was one year ajter
Mr Greathead’s application for reward was made to
parliament. But, without being at all understood to de¬
cide to whom the merit of the invention is due, we shall
leave it to our readers to examine the evidence for them¬
selves, and shall now proceed to give an account of the.
construction of the life-boat, of which 31 have been
built
I
L I F [ 7 ] L I F
•Boat, built by Mr GrcEtliead, ami sent to different parts of
v——' Britain, and the north of Europe. The following con¬
struction is according to Mr Grcathead’s plan :
“ The length thirty feet; the breadth ten feet ; the
depth, from the top of the gunwale to the lower part
of the keel in midships, three feet four inches ; from the
gunwale to the platform (within) two feet four inches;
from the top of the stems (both ends being similar) to
the bottom of the keel, five feet nine inches. The keel
is a plank of three inches thick, of a proportionate
breadth in midships, narrowing gradually toward the
ends, to the breadth of the stems at the bottom, and
forming a great convexity downward •, the stems are
segments of a circle with considerable rakes ; the bot¬
tom section, to the floor heads, is a curve fore and aft
with the sweep of the keel; the floor timber has a small
rise curving from the keel to the floor heads \ a bilge
plank is wrought in on each side next the floor heads,
with a double rabbit or groove of a similar thickness
with the keel, and on the outside of this are fixed two
bilge-trees corresponding nearly with the level of the
keel ; the ends of the bottom section form that fine
kind of entrance observable in the lower part of the
bow of the fishing boat called a coble, much used in the
north ; from this part to the top of the stem, it is more
elliptical, forming a considerable projection : the sides,
from the floor heads to the top of the gunwale, flaunch
oft on each side, in proportion to about half the breadth
of the floor the breadth is continued far forward to¬
ward the ends, leaving a sufficient length of straight
side at the top ; the sheer is regular along the straight
side, and more elevated toivard the ends *, the gunwale
fixed on the outside is three inches thick ; the sides,
from the under part of the gunwale along the whole
length of the regular sheer, extending twenty-one feet
six inches, are cased with layers of cork, to the depth
of 16 inches downward", and the thickness of this casing
of cork being four inches, it projects at the top a little
without the gunwale ; the cork on the outside is secured
with thin plates or slips of copper, and the boat is fas¬
tened with copper nails ; the thwarts (or seats) are five
in number, double hanked, consequently the boat may
he rowed with ten oars ", the thwarts are firmly stan¬
chioned ; the side oars are short (a), with iron tholes,
and rope grommets, so that the rower can pull either
wray. The boat is steered with an oar at each end; and
the steering oar is one-third longer than the rowing
oar j the platform placed at the bottom within the boat,
is horizontal the length of the midships, and elevated at
the ends, for the convenience of the steerman, to give
him a greater power with the oar. The internal part
of the boat next the sides, from the under part of the
thwarts down to the platform, is cased with cork 5 the
whole quantity of which, affixed to the life-boat, is
nearly seven hundred weight; the cork indisputably
contributes much to the buoyancy of the boat when
full of water, is a good defence when going alongside a
vessel, and is of principal use in keeping the boat in an
erect position in the sea, or rather of giving her a very
lively and quick disposition to recover from any sudden Life Boat
cant or lurch which she may receive from the stroke of1 
a heavy wave : hut, exclusive ol the cork, the admi¬
rable construction of this boat gives it a decided pre¬
eminence. The ends being similar, the boat can be
rowed either way, and this peculiarity of form allevi¬
ates her in rising over the waves j the curvature of ther
keel and bottom facilitates her movement in turning,
and contributes to the ease of the steerage, as a single
stroke of the steering oar has an immediate eftect, the
boat moving as it were upon a centre j the fine en¬
trance below is of use in dividing the waves, when
rowing against them ", and combined with the convexi¬
ty of the bottom and the elliptical form of the stem,
admits her to rise with wonderful buoyancy in a high
sea, and to launch forward with rapidity, without ship¬
ping any water, when a common boat would be in dan¬
ger of being filled. The fiaunching or spreading form
of the boat, from the floor heads to the gunwale, gives
her a considerable hearing } and the continuation ot the
breadth ivell forward, is a great support to her in the
sea : and it has been found by experience that boats of
this construction are the best sea heats for rowing
against the turbulent waves. The internal shallowness
of the boat from the gunwale down to the platform, the
convexity of the form, and the hulk of cork within,
leave a very diminished space for the water to occupy ”,
so that the life-boat, when filled with water, contains a
considerably less quantity than the common boat, and
is in no danger either of sinking or overturning.
It may he presumed by some, that in cases of high
wind, agitated sea, and broken waves, a boat of such
a hulk could not prevail against them by the force of
the oars •, hut the life-boat, from her peculiar form,
may he rowed a-head, when the attempt in other boats
would fail (b). Boats of the common form, adapted
for speed, are of course put in motion Avith a small
power; hut for want of buoyancy and bearing, are
overrun by the waves and sunk, when impelled against
them : and boats constructed for burthen, meet Avith
too much resistance from the wind and sea, Avhen oppo¬
sed to them, and cannot in such cases he rowed from
the shore to a ship in distress. An idea has been enter¬
tained that the superior advantages of the life-boat are
to be ascribed solely to the quantity of cork affixed;
hut this is a veiy erroneous opinion, and I trust has
been amply refuted by the preceding observations on
the construction of this boat. It must he admitted that
the application of cork to common boats would add to
their buoyancy and security; and it might he a useful
expedient, if there was a quantity of cork on hoard of
ships, to prepare the boats with, in cases of shipAvreck,
as it might he expeditiously done in a temporary way,
by means of clamps, or some other contrivance. The
application of cork to some of the boats of his majesty’s
ships (the launches) might be Avorthy of consideration,
more particularly, as an experiment might be made at
a little expence, and without injury to the boats.
“ The life-boat is kept in a boat-house, and placed
upon
(a) The short oar is more manageable, in a high sea, than the long oar, and its stroke is more certain.
(b) An extraordinary case might certainly happen, Avhen a forcible combination of the Avind, the wa\Tes, and
the tide, might render it impracticable to ioav the lifeboat from the shore.
L I F [ 8
Xife-Boat. upon four low wheels, ready to be moved at a moment 3
  * ' notice. These wheels are convenient in conveying
the boat along the shore to the sea j but it she had to
travel upon them, on a rough road, her frame would
be exceedingly shaken ; besides, it has been found dif¬
ficult and troublesome to replace her upon these wheels,
on her return from sea.
“ Another plan has therefore been adopted : two
wheels of 12 feet diameter, with a moveable arched
axis, and a pole fixed thereto, for a lever, have been
constructed. The boat is suspended, near her centre,
between the wheels, under the axis} toward each ex¬
tremity of which is an iron pin. When the pole is ele¬
vated perpendicularly, the upper part of the axis be¬
comes depressed, and a pair of rope slings, which go
round the boat, being fixed to the iron pins, she is
raised with the greatest facility, by means of the pole,
which is then fastened down to the stem of the boat.”
Temporary LiFE-Boat,—an inventionbythe reverend
Mr Bremner, minister of Walls and I lota in Orkney,
by which any ordinary ship’s boat may be converted
into a life-boat, so that in cases of shipwreck, the crew
may be saved by means of their own boats. Mr Brem¬
ner states, in describing his plan to the Highland So¬
ciety of Scotland, that it had received the approbation
of the Trinity houses of London and Leith, of the
Boyal Humane Society of London, and of many cap¬
tains of merchantmen. An experiment was made in
the port of Leith under the superintendence of Mr
Bremner himself, and in presence of a committee of the
directors of the society. This experiment proved satis¬
factory to the committee, whose favourable report to
the directors induced them to present Mr Bremner
with a piece of plate in testimony of their approbation
of his scheme. The following is a general description
of the method of preparing a boat for this purpose.
“ The dimensions of the sloop’s boat, with which
the experiment was tided, were 14 feet in length, 5
feet 4 inches in width, and 2 feet 2 inches in depth.
The only addition or previous preparation of the boat,
was four ring bolts in the inside, and two auger bores or
holes in the outside of the keel, as points of security
for fixing the necessary seizing ropes (c). The ring
bolts, within side the keel, were placed, the one for¬
ward, one-third from the stem, the other aft, one-third
from the stern *, the other two, the one directly at
the stem, the other at the stern. The auger bores,
outside the keel, being half w'ay betwixt the rings, viz.
the one betwixt the two rings forward, the other be¬
twixt the two rings aft.
“ Two empty hogsheads were then placed in the
fore part of the boat, parallel and close to each other,
and laid length-ways, fore ajul aft. These were secured
in their places by passing the seizing ropes round all,
that is, over the gunwales and through the auger bore
in the keel, as also from the ring bolt in the stem to
that next it in the keel, taking care in doing this, to
pass the rope also through eyes on the slings of the
casks, which have been previously prepared. The same
process was observed in the after part of the boat. And
] L I F
lastly, a bar of iron about three hundred weight, was Life-Boat,
fixed to the keel, on the inside. A small quantity of'
cork was also placed in the stern, intended chiefly to
raise to a proper height the casks placed above it, but
without which the result of the experiment would have
been the same.
“ The quantity of cork necessary, which will depend
on the size of the boat, is to be made up into several
parcels, but none larger than one person can easily
manage. Each parcel to be properly secured and num¬
bered, so as that the whole may fit and fill up the boat
completely,'in the spaces betwixt the ring bolts, lore
and aft, as above described and to answer the end, it
is material that there should be cork enough to rise
nearly three feet above the gunwales, so as to form an
arch from gunwale to gunwale. I he cork being
thus laid in the boat, it is to be properly secured, first
by passing a strong rope round ail, over the gunwales,
and through the auger bore, outside the keel j as also
by passing seizing ropes from the ring bolt in the stem,
to that next it in the keel, taking care to make as
many turns and seizings betwixt these ring bolts, as
completely to secure the cork from slipping out. The
very same thing to be done as to the rope round the
gunwales, and through the hole outside the keel, with
seizing ropes from the ring bolts, to be made aft, 01 in
the stern of the boat.
“ Where cork cannot be had, or may not be kept
in readiness on account of its expence, which, however,
is not very great, casks will answer the purpose, though
it may be doubtful whether there would not be a great¬
er chance that the fury of the waves might unloose
them, unless particular care was taken to have them
properly fixed. In the case of casks, two empty ones
are to be placed in the fore part of the boat, paiallel
to one another, close together, and to be laid length¬
wise fore and aft. Two other empty casks to be placed
in the same way in the stern, or aft part of the boat,
and the whole to be secured as firmly and compactly as
possible, by strong ropes round the boat and casks, and
also by seizing ropes in the same way as described in
the case of cork j then two other empty casks, of the
same dimensions, one fore, and another aft, to be
placed over and in the middle between the two al¬
ready fixed, and to be firmly secured, as above-men-
“ As the boat is to be thus prepared on the deck of
the ship, when danger appears, a piece of sail should
be thrown in below, betwixt, and about the casks, for
the more effectually securing them, and to prevent the
seizing ropes from so readily slipping } it would be
vroper also to have slings on the casks, with eyes in
them, through which to pass the seizing ropes.
“ Lastly, both in the case of cork and casks, an iron
bar, of about three hundred weight, tor such a boat as
above described, should be secured to the keel on the
inside, in the middle or empty space. 1 his middle, 01
empty space of the boat, is for the sailors, and in a
ship’s boat of the common size may hold eight people,
with room to work a pair of oars. Every thing eing
nrpviousl V
(c) It is probable, that ring bolts fixed in the gunwales, might answer as well as passing the ropes round the
bottom of the boat and through the auger bores in the keel.
L I G [ 9 ] L I G
J.tfe-Boat previously ready, it is certain that the necessary fixing
|| of the casks will not take up above ten or twelve mi-
I,igature. nutes, and it is obvious the cork can be fixed in a much
v" " shorter period. It is also completely ascertained, that
a boat so prepared, though full of water, will not sink,
but on the contrary be extremely buoyant, and will
easily go a-head: That it would be next to impossible
the boat should overset; but, in case of this at any time
happening, she would instantly return to her proper
position on her keel. Though the experiment was
tried only with casks, with but a small quantity of
cork, as before stated, yet it is generally believed, and
JNIr Bremner himself is of the same opinion, that it
might answer equally well, and perhaps better, to have
the cork or casks stowed in midships, leaving an empty
space in each end, by which means the management of
the boat by the helm or rudder would be preserved,
though the other plan seems better, in the view of using
oars.
Vegetable Life. See Plants.
Life-Rent, in Scots Law. When the use and enjoy¬
ment of a subject is given to a person during his life,
it is said to belong to him in life-rent.
LIGAMENT, in its general sense, denotes any
thing that ties or binds one part to another.
Ligament, in Anatomy, a strong compact substance,
serving to join two bones together. See Anatomy,
N° 7.
LIGARIUS, Quintus, a Roman proconsul in
Africa, 49 B. C. Taking part with Pompey, he was
forbid by Julius Caesar to return to Rome : to obtain
his pardon, Cicero made that admired oration in his
defence, which has immortalized the memory of the
client with that of his celebrated advocate.
LIGATURE, in Surgery, is a cord, band, or
string *, or the binding any part of the body with a
cord, band, fillet, &c. whether of leather, linen, or any
other matter.
Ligatures are used to extend or replace hones that
are broken or dislocated ; to tie the patients down in
lithotomy and amputations j to tie upon the veins in
jiblebotomv, ou the arteries in amputations, or in large
wounds ; to secure the splints that are applied to frac¬
tures 5 to tie up the processes of the peritonaeum with
the spermatic vessels In castration; and, lastly, in taking
oil warts or other excrescences by ligature.
Ligature, is also used to signify a kind of bandage
or fillet, tied round the neck, arm, leg, or -ather part
ot the bodies of men or beasts, to divert or drive <df
some disease, accident, &c.
Ligature, is also used for a state of impotency, in
respect to venery* pretended to he caused by some
charm or witchcraft.
Ksempfer tells of an uncommon kind of ligature or
knotting, in use among the people of Macassar, Java,
Malacca, Siam, &.c. By this charm or spell, a man
binds up a woman, and a woman a man, so as to put it
-out of their power to have to do with any other per¬
son •, the man being thereby rendered impotent to any
other woman, and all other men impotent with respect
Vo the woman.
* Some oi their philosophers pretend, that this liga¬
ture may be effected by the shutting of a lock, the
drawing ol a knot, or the sticking of a knife ir the
Vol, XII. Part 1. a
wall, at the point of time wherein the priest is joining Ligature,
a couple together} and that a ligature, thus effected, Light,
may be dissolved, by the spouse’s urining through a ~“v
ring. This piece of superstition is said to obtain also
among the Christians of the East.
The same author tells us, that during the ceremony
of marriage in Russia, he observed au old fellow lurk¬
ing behind the church-door, and mumbling over a
String of words 5 and, at the same time, cutting a long
rod, which he held under his arm into pieces j which,
it seems, is a common practice at the marriages of great
persons, and done with design to elude and counter¬
work any other person that might possibly be inducing
the ligature.
The secret of inducing a ligature is delivered by the
same author, as he was taught it on the spot by one of
their adepts : hut it is too absurd and obscene to de¬
serve being transcribed here.
M. Marshal mentions a ridiculous form of ligature,
which he received from a bramin of Indostan: “ If
(says he) the little worm in the wood lukerara kara
he cut into two, and the one part stirs and the other
not, if the stirring part be bruised, and given with half
a lieetle to a man, and the other half to a woman, the
charm will keep each from ever having to do with any
other person. Phil. Trans. N° 268.
Ligature, in the Italian music, signifies a tying
or binding together of notes. Hence syncopes are
often called ligatures, because they are made by the
ligature of many notes. There is another sort of
ligatures for breves, when there are many of these on
different lines, or on different spaces, to he sung to one,
syllable.
Ligatures, among printers, are types consisting of
two letters or characters joined together as 61, <$•, Jf,
Jl,fi. The old editions of Greek authors are extreme^
ly full of ligatures •, the ligatures of Stephens are by
much the most beautiful.—Some editions have been
lately printed without any ligatures at all j and thex’e
was a design to explode them quite out ot printing.
Had this succeeded, the finest ancient editions would
in time have grown useless : and the reading of old
manuscripts would have been rendered almost imprac¬
ticable to the learned themselves.
LIGHT, in the most common acceptation of the
word, signifies that invisible etherial matter which makes
objects perceptible to our sense of seeing. Figurative¬
ly, it is also used for whatever conveys instruction to
our minds, and likewise for that instruction itself.
For an account of the chemical properties of light,
see Chemistry Index; and for its physical properties,
see Optics.
Light independent of Heat. In general, a very con¬
siderable degree of heat is requisite to the emission of
light from any body ^ but there are several excep¬
tions to this, especially in light proceeding from pu¬
trescent substances and phosphorus, together with that
of luminous animals, and other similar appearances.
Light proceeding from putrescent animal and vege¬
table substances, as well as from glow-worms, is men¬
tioned by Aristotle. Thomas Bartholin mentions four Be luce
kinds of luminous insects, two with wings, and two animal.
without; but in hot climates travellers say they are lS3-
found in much greater numbers, and of different spe-
B t cies.
Linin'.
Lie; [
cies. .Columna, an industrious naturalist, observes, that
' their light is not extinguished immediately upon the
rlpntji of the animal. . , r*i# i i.
from IntJ EArltrS
A^mpendente ; wh^
P 45- that when* three Homan youths, rosing a Padua
had bought a lamb, and had eaten part ol it on ii.a
ster day i ^62, Several pieces of the remainder, which
they kept till the day following, shone like so many
candles when they were casually viewed m the dark.
Part of this luminous flesh was immediately sent to
Aquapendente, who was professor of anatomy m that
city. He observed, that both the lean and the fat ot
this meat shone with a whitish kind of light 5 and a so
took notice, that some pieces of kid s flesh, which ha
happened to have lain in contact with it, were luminous,
as well as the fingers and other parts of the bodies of
those persons who touched it. Those parts, he ob¬
served, shone the most which were soft to the touch,
and seemed to he transparent in candle light j but
where the flesh was thick and solid, or where a bone
was near the outside, it did not shine.
After this appearance, we find no account ot any
other similar to it, before that which was observed by
Bartholin, and of which he gives a very pompous de¬
scription in his ingenious treatise already quoted.
This happened at Montpelier in 1641, when a poor
old woman had bought a piece of flesh in the market,
intending to make use of it the day following. But
happening not to be able to sleep well that night, and
her bed and pantry being in the same room, she observ¬
ed so much light come from the flesh, as to illuminate
all the place where it hung. A part of this luminous
flesh was carried as a curiosity to Henry Bourbon,
duke of Conde, the governor of the place, who viewed
it for several hours with the greatest astonishment.
This light was observed to be whitish ; and not to
cover the whole surface of the flesh, hut certain paits
only, as if gems of unequal splendour had been scattered
over it. This flesh was kept till it began to putrefy,
when the light vanished; which, as some religious
people fancied, it did in the form of a cross.
It is natural to expect, that the almost universal ex¬
perimental philosopher Mr Boyle should try the effect
of his air-pump upon these luminous substances. Ac¬
cordingly, we find that he did not fail to do it } when-
he presently found that the light of rotten wood was
extinguished in vacuo, and revived again on the ad¬
mission of the air, even after a long continuance in
vacuo; but the extinguishing of this light was not so
complete immediately upon exhausting the receiver,
some little time afterwards. He could not perceive,
however, that the light of rotten wood was increased
in condensed air 5 but this, lie imagined, might aiise
from his not being able to judge very well of the de¬
gree of light, through so thick and cloudy a glass
vessel as he then made use of} hut we find that the
Ta t light of a shining fish, which was put into a condens¬
ing engine before the Royal Society, in 1668, was
rendered more vivid by that means. The principal
of Mr Boyle’s experiments were made in October
1667. r .
j^j, This philosopher attended to a great variety of cir¬
cumstances relating to this cusious phenomenon. A-
Lisfiit.
Works,
yoI. iii-
p. I56’
o ] L I G
mong other things he observed, that change of air was ^
not necessary to the maintenance of this light} for it
continued a long time when a piece of the wood was
put'into a very small glass hermetically sealed, and it
made no difference when this tube which contained
the wood was put into an exhausted receiver. Ibis
he also observed with respect to a luminous fish, which
he put into water, and placed in the same circum¬
stances. He also found, that the light of shining
fishes had other properties in common with that of
shining wood } but the latter, he says, was presently-
quenched with water, spirit of wine, a greater variety
of saline mixtures, and other fluids. W ater, however,
did not quench all the light of some shining veal on
which he tried it, though spirit of wme destroyed its
virtue presently. v r
Mr Boyle’s observation of light proceeding from
flesh meat was quite casual. On the i5thof February
1662, one of his servants was greatly alarmed with the
shining of some veal, which had been kept a few days,
hut had no bad smell, and was in a state very proper
for use. The servant immediately made his master ac¬
quainted with this extraordinary appearance; and though
he was then in bed, he ordered it to be immediately Birch, i£,
brought to him, and he examined it with the greatest 7o.
attention. Suspecting that the state of the atmosphere
had some share in the production of this phenome¬
non, he takes notice, after describing the appearance,
that the wind was south-ivest and blustering, the au
hot for the season, the moon W'as past its last quarter,
and the mercury in the barometer was at 29^0
inches. . .
Mr Boyle was often disappointed in his experiments fr03Bt
on shining fishes-, finding' that they did not always fishes,
shine in the very same circumstances, as far as he could
judge, with others which had shined before. At one
time that they failed to shine, according to his expec¬
tations, he observed that the weather was variable,
and not without some days of frost and snow. In
general he made use of whitings, finding them the
fittest for his purpose; In a discourse, however, up¬
on this subject at the Royal Society in 1681, it was
asserted, that, of all fishy substances, the eggs of lob¬
sters, after they had been boiled, shone the brightest.
Olig, Jacoboeus observes, that, upon opening a sen-Act Hafa„
polypus, it was so luminous as to startle several per-vol. v.
sons who saw it} and he says, that the more putrid theP- 2S2.
fish was, the more luminous it grew. The nails also,
and the fingers of the persons who touched it, became
luminous} and the black liquor which issued from the
animal, and which is its bile, shone also, hut with a
very faint light.
Mr Boyle draws a minute comparison between the
light of burning coals and that ot shining wood or fish,
showing in what particulars they agree, and in what
they differ. Among other things he observes, that ex¬
treme cold extinguishes the light of shining wood, as
appeared when a piece of it was put into a glass tube,
and held in a frigorifio mixture. He also found that
rotten wood did not waste itself by shining, and that
the application of a thermometer to it did not disco¬
ver the least degree of heat.
Of the ph.0'
1 llie least utgice ui utai. _ “ — r-
There is a remarkable shell-fish called fholas, which
forms for itself holes in various kinds of stone, &c-
That this fish is luminous, was noticed by Bliny } whofish>
observes,
L I G [i
observes, tliat it shines in the mouth of the person who
c—V-—I eats it, and, if it touch his hands or clothes, makes
them luminous. He also says that the light depends
upon its moisture. The light of this fish has furnished
matter for various observations and experiments to
M. lieaumur, and the Bolognian academicians, espe¬
cially Beccarius, who took so much pains with the
subject of phosphoreal light.
M. Reaumur observes, that, whereas other fishes
give light when they tend to putrescence, this is more
luminous in proportion to its being fresh j that when
they are dried, their light will revive if they be moisten¬
ed either with fresh or salt water, but that brandy im¬
mediately extinguishes it. He endeavoured to make
this light permanent, but none of his schemes suc¬
ceeded. . .
The attention of the Bolognian academicians was
engaged to this subject by JM. F. IMarsilius, 111 i'724j
who brought a number ol these fishes, and the stones
in which they were inclosed, to Bologna, on purpose
for their examination.
Com.Botion Beccarius observed, that though this fish ceased to
vol. ii. 232. shine when it became putrid ; yet that in its most pu¬
trid state, it would shine, and make the watei in which
it was immersed luminous, when it was agitated.
Galeatius and Montius found, that wine or vinegar ex¬
tinguished this light; that in common oil it continued
some days •, but in rectified spirit of wine or urine,
hardly a minute.
In order to observe in what manner this light was af¬
fected by different degrees of heat, they made use of a
Reaumur’s thermometer, and found that water render¬
ed luminous by. these fishes increased in light till the
heat arrived to 45 degrees j but that it then became
suddenly extinct, and could not be revived.
In the experiments of Beccarius, a solution of sea
salt increased the light of the luminous water •, a solu¬
tion of nitre did not increase it quite so much. Sal-
ammoniac diminished it a little, oil of tartar per deh-
quium nearly extinguished it, and the acids entirely.
This water poured upon fresh calcined gypsum, rock
crystal, ceruse, or sugar, became more luminous. He
also tried the. effects of it when poured upon various
other substances, but there, was nothing very remark¬
able in them. Afterwards, using luminous milk, he
found that oil of vitriol extinguished the light, but
that oil of tartar increased it.
This gentlemen had the curiosity to try how dif¬
ferently coloured substances were affected by this kind
of light; and having, for this purpose, dipped several
ribbons in it, the white came out the brightest, next
to this was the yellow, and then the green ; the other
colours could hardly be perceived. It was not, how¬
ever, any particular colour, but only light that was
perceived in this case. He then dipped boards painted
with the different colours, and also glass tubes, filled
with substances of different colours, in water rendered
luminous by the fishes. In both these cases the red
was hardly visible, the yellow was the brightest, and
the violet the dullest. But on the boards the blue was
nearly equal to the yellow, and the green more lan¬
guid ; whereas in the glasses, the blue was inferior to
the green.
Of all the liquors into which he put the pholades,
milk was rendered the most luminous. A single pho-
1 ] L I G
las made seven ounces of milk so luminous, that the
faces of persons might be distinguished by it, and it
looked as if it was transparent.
Air appeared to be necessary to this light; for
when Beccarius put the luminous milk into glass tubes,
no agitation would make it shine, unless bubbles oi
air were mixed with it. Also Montius and Galeatius
found, that, in an exhausted receiver, the pholas lost
its light, but the water was sometimes made more lu¬
minous which they ascribed to the rising ot bubbles
of air through it.
Beccarius, as well as Reaumur, had many schemes
to render the light of these pholades permanent. For
this purpose he kneaded the juice into a kind of paste,
with flour, and found that it would give light when
it was immersed in warm water; but it answered best
to preserve the fish in honey. In any other method ol
preservation, the property ot becoming luminous would
not continue longer than six months, but in honey it
had lasted above a year ; and then it would, when
plunged in warm water, give as much light as ever it
had done. .
Similar, in some respects, to those observations on Acla Cwf<u
the light of the pholas, was that which was observed
to proceed from wood which was moist, but not 111 Up 4S5.
putrid state, which was very conspicuous in the dark.
That the sea is sometimes luminous, especially when Light from
it is put in motion by the dashing of oars or theseawateIV
beating of it against a ship, has been observed with
admiration by a great number of persons. Mr Boyle,
after reciting all the circumstances ol this appearance,
as far as he could collect them from the accounts of
navigators 5 as its being extended as far as the eye
could reach, and at other times being visible only when
the water was dashed against some other body y that,
in some seas, this phenomenon is accompanied by some
particular winds, but not in others ; and that some¬
times one part ol the sea will be luminous, when an¬
other part, not far from it, will not be so } concludes
with saying, that he could not help suspecting that
these odd phenomena, belonging to great masses of wa¬
ter, were in some measure owung to some cosmical law
or custom of the terrestrial globe, or at least ol the
planetary vortex. . . -
Some curious observations on the shining of some Dr Beale s
fishes, and the pickle in which they were immersed,
were made by Hr Beale, in May 1665 ? and had they £sjies>
been properly attended to and pursued, might have
led to the discovery of the cause ot this appearance.
Having put some boiled mackerel into water, together
with salt‘and sweet herbs ; when the cook was, soraevo^ |jx
time after, stirring it, in order to take out some ol the p
fishes, she observed, that, at the first motion, the water
was very luminous} and that the fish shining through
the water added much to the light which the water
yielded. The water was of itsell thick and blackish,
rather than of any other colour 5 and yet it shined on
being stirred, and at the same time the fishes appeared
more luminous than the water. Wherever the drops
of this water, after it had been stirred, fell to the
ground, they shined; and the children in the lamily
diverted themselves with taking the drops, which were
as broad as a penny, and running with them about, the
house. The cook observed, that, when she turned up
that side of the fish that was lowest, no light cameTrom
B 2 ?
L I G
f
J^ight. ^ j thfet, when the water had settled tor some time,
1 v—in. i it did not shine at all. The day following, tlie water
gave hut little light, and only after a brisk agitation,
though the fishes continued to shine as well from the
inside as the outside, and especially about the throat,
and such places as seemed to have been a little broken
in the boiling.
When in the light of tire sun, he examined, with a
microscope, a small piece of a fish which had shined very
much the night before, he found nothing remarkable
on its surface, except that he thought he perceived
what he calls a steam, rather dark than luminous,
arising like a very small dust from the fish, and here
and there a very fmalt and almost imperceptible sparkle.
Of the sparkles he had no doubt*, but he thought it
possible that the steam might be a deception of the
sight, or some dust in the air.
Finding the fish to he quite dry, he moistened it
with his spittle *, and then observed that it gave a little
light, though but for a short time. The fish at that
time was not fetid, nor yet insipid to the best discern*
ing palate. Two of the fishes he kept two or three
days longer for farther trial: hut, the weather being
very hot, they became fetid: and, contrary to his ex¬
pectations, there was no more light produced either by
the agitation of tire water or in the fish.
Father Father Il0ur7.es, in his voyage to the Indies in
Bourzes’s 1704, took particular notice of the luminous appear-
account ot ance 0f the sea. The light was sometimes so great,
iniUI1,01.^ that Ire could easily read the title of a book by it,
though he was nine or ten feet from the surface ot the
water. Sometimes he could easily distinguish, in the
wake of a ship, the particles that were luminous from
those that were not ; and they appealed not to he all
of the same figure. Some of them were like points of
light, and others such as stars appear to the naked eye.
Some of them were like globes, of a line or tiro in
diameter *, and others as big as one’s head. Sometimes
they formed themselves into squares of three or four
inches long, and one or tivo broad. Sometimes all
these different figures were visible at the same time }
and sometimes they were tvhat he calls vortices of light,
which at one particular time appeared and disappeared
immediately like flashes of lightning.
Nor did only the wake of the ship produce this
light, but fishes also, in swimming, left so luminous a
track behind them, that both their size and species
might be distinguished by it. When he took some of
the water out of the sea, and stirred it ever so little
with his hand, in the dark, he always saw in it an in¬
finite number of bright particles 5 and he had the same
appearance whenever he dipped a piece of linen in the
sea, and wrung it in a dark place, even though it was
half dry } and he observed, that when the sparkles fell
upon any thing that was solid, it would continue shining
for some hours together.
His conjcc- After mentioning several circumstances which did
tare* eon- not contribute to this appearance, this father observes,
cerning the ^ depends very much upon the quality of the water ;
cause. arrd }u. was pretty sure that this light is the greatest
when the water is fattest, and fullest of foam. For in
the main sea, he says, the water is not everywhere
equally pure *, and tliat sometimes, if linen be dipped
in the sea, it is clammy when it is drawn up again:
and he often observed, that when the wake of the ship
12 | L I G
w'as the brightest, the water was the most fat ami gin- JJght.
tinous, and that linen moistened with it produced a“''v "
great deal of light, if it Were stirred or moved briskly.
Besides, in some parts of the sea, he saw a substance
like saw dust, sometimes red and sometimes yellow ;
and when he drew up the water in those places, it
was always viscous and glutinous. The sailors told
him that it was the spawn of wbales ; that there are
great quantities of it in the north } and that sometimes,
in the night, they appeared all over of a bright light,
without being put in motion by any vessel or fish pas¬
sing by them.
As a confirmation of this conjecture, that the more
glutinous the sea water is, the more it is disposed to
become luminous, he observes, that one day they took a
fish which was called a bo nit e, the inside of the mouth of
which was so luminous, that without any other light,
he could read the same characters which he had before
read by the light in the wake of the ship; and the
mouth of this fish was full of a viscous matter, which,
when it was rubbed upon a piece of wood, made it im¬
mediately all over luminous 5 though, when the mois¬
ture was dried up, the light was extinguished.
The abbe Nollet was much struck with the lumi- Abbe Nol-
nousness of the sea when he was at Venice in 1749 let’s theory
and, after taking a great deal of pains to ascertain the
circumstances of it, concluded that it was occasioned
by a shining insect ; and having examined the water
very often, lie at length did find a small insect, which
he particularly describes, and to which he attributes
the light. The same hypothesis had also occurred to
M. VianelU, professor of medicine in Cbioggia near
Venice *, and both he and M. Grizellini, a physician in
Venice, have given drawings of the insects irom which
they imagined this light to proceed.
The abbe was the more confirmed in his hypothesis,
by observing, some time after, the motion of some lumi¬
nous particles in the sea. For, going into the water,
and keeping his head just above the surface, he saw
them dart from the bottom, which was covered with
weeds, to the top, in a manner which he thought
very much resembled the motions of insects j though,
when he endeavoured to catch them, lie only found
some luminous spots upon his handkerchief, which were
enlarged when he pressed them with his finger.
M. le Hoi, making a voyage on the Mediterranean, Observa-
presentlv after the abbe Nollet made his observations ti°ns f M-
at Venice, took notice, that in the day time, the prow
of the ship in motion threw up many small particles,
which, falling upon the water, rolled upon the surface
of the sea for a few seconds before they mixed with Memo ires
it; and in the night the same particles, as he con- Presentes,
eluded, had the appearance of fire. Taking a quan-VO U1,
tity of the water, the same small sparks appeared
whenever it was agitated; but, as was observed with,
respect to Dr Beale’s experiments, every successive agi¬
tation produced a less effect than the preceding, except
after being suffered to rest a while $ for then a fresh
agitation would make it almost as luminous as the first.
This water, he observed, would retain its property of
shining by agitation a day or two *, hut it disappeared
immediately on being set on the fire, though it was
not made to boil.
This gentleman, after giving much attention to this
phenomenon, concludes, that it is not occasioned by
any
trait.
Experi¬
ments by
M. Ant.
Martin.
Steed.
Abhand.
vol. xxiii.
p. 225.
Hy Mr
Canton.
L I G f 1
Hbv sinning insects, as the abbe Nollct inragirtoci j cspo-
1 cially as, after carefully examining some of the lumi¬
nous points, which be caught upon an handkerchief,
fee found them to be round like large pins heads, but
with nothing of the appearance of any animal, though
he viewed them with a microscope. He also found,
that the mixture of a little spirit cf wine with water
just drawn from the soa, would give the appearance ot
a great number of little sparks, which would continue
visible longer than those iu the ocean. Ail tire acids,
and various other liquors, produced the same effect,
though not quite so conspicuously ; hut no fresh agi¬
tation would make them luminous again. M. le Kor
is far from asserting that there are no luminous insects
in the sea. He even supposes that the abbe No!let
and M. \ ianelli had found them. But he Was satisfied
that the sea is luminous chiefly on some other account,
though he does not so much as advance a conjecture
about what it is.
M. Ant. Martin made many experiments on the
light of fishes, with a view to discover the cause of the
light of the sea. He thought that he had reason to
conclude, from a great variety of experiments, that all
sea fishes have this property 5 but that it is not to be
found in any that are produced in fresh water. No¬
thing depended upon the colour of the fishes, except
that he thought that the white ones, and especially
those that had white scales, were a little more lumi¬
nous than others. This light, he found, was increased
by a small quantity of salt} and also by a small degree
of warmth, though a greater degree extinguished it.
This agrees with another observation of his, that it
depends entirely upon a kind of moisture which they
had about them, and which a small degree ot heat
would expel, when an oiliuess remained which did not
give this light, hut would burn in the fire. Light from
the flesh of birds or beasts is not so bright, he says, as
that wdiich proceeds from fish. Human bodies, he say’s,
have sometimes emitted light about the time that they
began to putrefy, and the walls and roof of a place
in which dead bodies had often been exposed, had a
kind of dew or clamminess upon it, which was some¬
times luminous} and he imagined that the lights which
are said to be seen in burying-groumls may be owing
to this cause.
From some experiments made by Mr Canton, he
concludes, that the luminousness of sea water is owing
to the slimy ami other putrescent substances it con¬
tains. On the evening of the 14th of June 1768, he
put a small fresh whiting into a gallon of sea water, in
a pan which was about 14 inches in diameter, and
took notice that neither the whiting nor the water,
when agitated, gave any light. A Fahrenheit’s ther¬
mometer, in the cellar where the pan was placed, stood
at 540. The 15th, at night, that part of the fish
which was even with the surface of the water was lu¬
minous, but the water itself was dark. He drew the
end of a stick through it, from one side of the pan to
the other j and the water appeared luminous behind
the stick all the wray, but gave light only where it
was disturbed. When all the water was stirred, the
whole became luminous, and appeared like milk, giv¬
ing a considerable degree of light to the sides of the
pan ; and it continued to do so for some time after it
was at rest. The water was most luminous when the
3 ] L I G
fish had been in it about 28 hours 5 hut Would not guv Jdgfct.
any light by being stirred, alter it had Wen in it three *
days.
He then put a gallon of fresh water into one pan,
ami an equal quantity ot sea water into another ■, and
into each pan he put a fresh herring of about three
ounces. The next night the whole surface of the sea
water was luminous without being stirred } hut it Was
much more so when it was put in motion 5 and the up¬
per part of the herring, which was considerably be¬
low the surface of die water, was also very bright *,
while at the same time the fresh water, and the fish
that was in it, were quite dark. There were several
very bright luminous spots on different parts of the
surface of the sea watery and the whole, when viewed
by the light of a candle, seemed covered with a greasy
scum. The third night, the light of the sea water,
while at rest, Was very little, if at all ItvSS than before j
but when stirred, its light was so great as to discover
the time by a watch, and the fish in it appeared as a
dark substance. After this, its light Was evidently de¬
creasing, hut was not quite gone before the 7th night.
The fresh water and the fish in it were perfectly dark
during tire whole time. The thermometer Was gene¬
rally above 6o°.
The preceding experiments were made w ith sea wa¬
ter : hut he now made use of other water, into which
he put common or sea salt, till he found, by an hydro¬
meter, diat k was of the same specific gravity with the
sea w ater; and, at the same time, in another gallon of
water, he dissolved two pounds of salt 5 and into each
of these waters he put a small fresh herring. The next
evening the whole surface ot the artificial sea water
was luminous without being stirred j but gave much
more light when it w as disturbed. It appeared exactly
like the real sea water in the preceding experiment j
its light lasted about the same time, and went oft iu
the same manner: while the other wTater, which was
almost as salt as it could be made, never gave any light.
The herring which was taken out of it the seventh
night, and washed from its salt, was found firm and
sweet •, but the other herring was very soft and putrid,
much more so than that which had been kept as long in
fresh water. If a herring, in warm weather, be put
into 10 gallons of artificial sea Water, instead of one,
the water, he says, will still become luminous, but its
light will not he so strong.
It appeared by some of the first observations on
this subject, that Acat extinguishes the light of putres¬
cent substances. Mr Canton also attended to this cir¬
cumstance ; and observes, that though the greatest sum¬
mer heat is well known to promote putrefaction, yet 20
degrees more than that of the human blood seems to
hinder it. For putting a small piece of a luminous
fish into a thin glass ball, he found, that water of the
heat of 118 degrees would extinguish its light in less
than half a minute $ but that, ou taking it out of the
water, it would begin to recover its light in about 10
seconds 5 but it was never afterwards so bright as be¬
fore.
Mr Canton made the same observation that Mr Ant.
Martin had done, viz. that several kinds of river fish
could not he made to give light, in the same circum¬
stances in which any sea fish became luminous. He
says, however, that a piece of carp made the water very
luminous,
L I G [ )
T • luminous, though the outside, or scaly part of it, did
not shine at all.
For the sake of those persons who may choose to re¬
peat his experiments, he observes, that artificial sea wa¬
ter may be made without the use of an hydrometer, by
the proportion of four ounces avoirdupois ot salt to seven
pints of water, wine measure.
A very elaborate paper on the subject by Dr Hulme
appeared in the Philosophical Transactions for 1800, to
which we refer our readers, apd to Chemistry, p. 451.
The ocean From undoubted observations, however, it appears,
luminous that in many places of the ocean it is covered with lu-
from in- minous insects to a very considerable extent. M. Da-
eects. gelet, a French astronomer who returned from the
Terra Australis in the year 1774, brought with him
several kinds of worms which shine in water when it is
set in motion ; and M. Rigaud, in a paper inserted (it
we are not mistaken) in the Journal des S^avans for
the month of March 1770, affirms, that the luminous
surface of the sea, from the port of Brest to the An¬
tilles, contains an immense quantity of little, round,
shining polypuses of about a quarter of a line in diame¬
ter. Other learned men, who acknowledge the exist¬
ence of these luminous animals, cannot, however, be
persuaded to consider them as the cause of all that light
and scintillation that appear on the surface of the
ocean : they think that some substance of the phosphe-
a-us kind, arising from putrefaction, must be admitted
“as one of the causes of this phenomenon. M. Godehoue
has published curious observations on a kind of fish cal¬
led in French Ionite, already mentioned ; and though
he has observed, and accurately described, several of
the luminous insects that are found in sea-water, he is,
nevertheless, of opinion, that the scintillation and flam¬
ing light of the sea proceed from the oily and greasy
substances with which it is impregnated.
The abbe Nollet was long of opinion, that the light
,of the sea proceeded from electricity (a) j though he
afterwards seemed inclined to think, that this pheno¬
menon was caused by small animals, either by their lu¬
minous aspect, or at least by some liquor or effluvia
which they emitted. He did not, however, exclude
other causes 5 among these, the spawn or fry of fish de¬
serves to be noticed. M. Dagelet, sailing into the bay
of Antongil, in the island of Madagascar, observed a
prodigious quantity of fry which covered the surface
of the sea above a mile in length, and which he at first
took for banks of sand on accountfof their colour j they
exhaled a disagreeable odour, and the sea had appear¬
ed with uncommon splendour some days before. The
same accurate observer, perceiving the sea remarkably
luminous in the road of the Cape of Good Hope during
a. perfect calm, remarked, that the oars of the canoes
produced a whitish and pearly kind of lustre j when he
took in his hand the water which contained this phos¬
phorus, he discerned in it, for some minutes, globules
of light as large as the heads of pins. When he pressed
these globules, they appeared to his touch like a soft
and thin pulp } and some days after the sea was covered
4 ] L I o
near the coasts with whole banks of the.se little fish in Light,
innumerable multitudes.
To putrefaction, also, some are willing to attribute
that luminous appearance Avhich goes by the name ot
ignis futuus, to which the credulous vulgar ascribe very Tgnisfa-
extraordinary and expecially mischievous powers. \xiuu"
is most frequently observed in boggy places and near
rivers, though sometimes also in dry places. By its
appearance benighted travellers are said to have been
sometimes misled into marshy places, taking the light
which they saw before them for a candle at a distance j
from which seemingly mischievous property it has been
thought by the vulgar to be a spirit ot a malignant na¬
ture, and been named accordingly Ji ill with a tvisp, or
Jack with a lanthorn ; for the same reason also it pro¬
bably had its Latin name ignis fatvus.
This kind of light is said to be frequent about bury¬
ing places and dunghills. Some countries are also
remar kable for it, as about Bologna in Italy, and some
parts of Spain and Ethiopia. Its forms are so un¬
certain and variable that they can scarce be described,
especially as few philosophical observers ever had the
good fortune to meet with it. Dr Derham, however,
happened one night to perceive one of them, and got
so near that he could have a very advantageous view
of it. This is by no means easy to be obtained j for
among other singularities of the ignis fatuus, it is
observed to avoid the approach of any person,^ and
fly from place to place as if it was animated, lhat
which Dr Derham observed was in some boggy ground
betwixt two rocky hills 5 and the night was dark and
calm '■) by which means, probably, he was enabled to
advance within two or three yards of it. It appeared
like a complete body of light without any division, so
that he was sure it could not be occasioned by insects,
as some have supposed j the separate lights of which^
he could not have failed to distinguish, had it been
occasioned by them. rJ he light kept dancing about
a dead thistle, till a very slight motion ot the air, oc¬
casioned, as he supposed, by his near approach to it,
made it jump to another place j after which it kept
flying before him as he advanced. M. Beccaria endea¬
voured to procure all the intelligence he could concern¬
ing his phenomenon, by inquiring of all his acquaint¬
ance who might have had an opportunity of observing
it. Thus he obtained information that twro ot these
lights appeared in the plains about Bologna, the one to
the north, and the other to the south, ot that city^and
were to be seen almost every dark night, especially that
to the eastward, giving a light equal to an ordinary
faggot. The latter appeared to a gentleman ot his ac¬
quaintance as he was travelling j moved constantly be¬
fore him for about a mile and gave a better light
than a torch which was carried before him. Both these
appearances gave a veiy strong light, and were con¬
stantly in motion, though this various and uncertain.
Sometimes they would rise, sometimes sink j but com¬
monly they would hover about six feet from the
ground j they would also frequently disappear on a sud-
(a) This hypothesis was also maintained in a treatise published at Venice in 17465 by an officer in the Aus¬
trian service, under the title JOclP Eletrecismo,
light.
L 1 G [ i.
ilen, and app'ear again in some other place. They dif¬
fered also in size and figure, sometimes spreading pret¬
ty wide, and then contracting themselves 5 sometimes
breaking into two, and then joining again. Sometimes
they would appear like waves, at others they would
seem to drop sparks ol fire : they were but little abort¬
ed by the wind ; and in wet and rainy weather were
.frequently observed to cast a stronger light than in dry
weather: they were also observed more frequently
when snow lay upon the ground, than in the hottest
summer j but he was assured that there was not a dark
night throughout the whole year in which they were not
to%e seen. The ground to the eastward of Bologna,
where the largest of these appearances was observed,
is a hard chalky soil mixed with clay, which will re¬
tain the moisture for a long time, but breaks and cracks
in hot weather. On the mountains, where the soil is of
a looser texture, and less capable of retaining moisture
the ignesfatui were less.
From the best information which M. Beccaria was
able to procure, he found that these lights were very
frequent about rivers and brooks. He concludes his
narrative wuth the following singular account . An
intelligent gentleman travelling in the evening, between
eight and nine, in a mountainous road about ten miles
south of Bologna, perceived a light which shone very
strangely upon some stones which lay on the banks of
the river Rioverde. It seemed to be about two feet
above the stones, and not far from the water. In size
and figure it had the appearance of a parallelopiped,
somewhat more than a foot m length, and halt a foot
high, the longest side being parallel to the horizon. Its
•light was so strong, that he could plainly discern by it
•part of a neighbouring hedge and the water of the ri¬
ver } only in the east corner of it the light was rather
•faint, and the square figure less perfect, as it it was
cut off or darkened by the segment of a circle. On
examining it a little nearer, he was surprised to find
that it changed gradually from a bright red, first to a
yellowish, and then to a pale colour, in proportion as
he drew nearer ; and when he came to the place itself,
it quite vanished. Upon this he stepped back, and not
only saw it again, but found that the farther he went
from it, the stronger and brighter it grew. TV hen he
examined the place of this luminous appearance, he
could perceive no smell nor any other mark of fire.”
This account wras confirmed by another gentleman, who
informed M. Beccaria, that he had seen the same light
five or six different times in spring and in autumn ;
and that it always, appeared of the same shape, and in
the very same place. One night in particular, he ob¬
served it come out of a neighbouring field to settle in
the usual place.
A very remarkable account of an ignis fituus is
given by Hr Shaw in his 'l ravels to the Holy Hand.
Jit appeared in the valleys of Mount Fphraim, and at¬
tended him and his company for more than an hour.
Sometimes it would appear globular, or in the shape of
the flame of a candle, j at others it would spread to such
a degree as to involve the whole company in a pale in¬
offensive light, then contract itself, and suddenly dis¬
appear *, but in less than a minute would appear again;
sometimes running swiftly along, it would expand itself
at certain intervals over more than two or three acres
of the adjacent mountains. The atmosphere from the
]
L I G
beginning of the evening had been remarkably thick
and hazy 5 and the dew, as they felt it on the bridles
of their "horses, was very clammy and unctuous.
Lights resembling the ignis fatuus are sometimes
observed at sea, skipping about the masts and rigging
of ships 5 and Dr Shaw informs us, that he has seen
these in such weather as that just mentioned when ne
saw the ignis fatuus in Palestine. Similar appearances
have been observed in various other situations 5 and we
are told of one which appeared about the bed of a wo¬
man in Milan, surrounding it as well as her body en¬
tirely. This light fled from the hand which approached
it; but was at length entirely dispersed by the motion
of the air. Of the same kind also, most probably, are
those small luminous appearances which sometimes ap¬
pear in houses of near them, called in Scotland L//-
candles, and which are supposed to portend the death
of some person about the house. In general these lights
are harmless, though not always ; for we have ac¬
counts of some luminous vapours which would encom*
pass stacks of hay and corn, and set them on fire •, so
that they became objects of great terror and concern to
the country people. Of these it was observed, that
they would avoid a drawn sword, or sharp-pointed iron
instrument, and that they would be driven away by a
great noise j both which methods were made use of to
dissipate them : and it was likewise observed, that they
came from some distance, as it were on purpose to do
mischief.
Several philosophers have endeavoured to account
for these appearances, but hitherto with no great
success j nor indeed does there seem to he sufficient
data for solving all their phenomena. Willoughby,
Ray, and others, have imagined that the light was
occasioned by a number of sinning insects } but tins
opinion was never supported in such a manner as
to gain much ground. T-he ignis fatuus seen by Hi
Herhana above mentioned, as well as all the other in-
tances we have related, seem to demonstrate the
contrary. Sir Isaac Newton calls it a vapour shin¬
ing without heat} and supposes that there is the same
difference between the vapour of ignns fatuus and
flame, that there is between the shining of rotten
wood and burning coals. But though this seems gene¬
rally to be the case, there are still some exceptions,
as has been instanced in the vapours which set fire to
the stacks of corn. Hr Priestley supposes that the light
is of the same nature with that produced by putres¬
cent substances} and others are of opinion, that the
electrical fluid is principally concerned ; but none have
attempted to give any particular solution of the pheno¬
mena. # #
From the frequent appearance of the ignis fatuus
in marshes, moist ground, burying-places, and dung¬
hills, we are naturally led to conclude, that putrefac¬
tion is concerned in the production of it. Ibis process,
we know, is attended with the emission of an aqueous
steam, together with a quantity of fixed, inflammable*
and azotic airs, all blended together in the foim
of vapour. It is likewise attended with some de¬
gree of heat y and we know that there are some % a-
pours, that of sulphur particularly, which become lu¬
minous, with a degree of heat much less than that suffi¬
cient to set fire to combustible bodies. There is no
inconsistency, therefore, in. supposing that the putrid
■vapour
Lisbt.
L I G [ 16 ] L I G
Jy^ht. '’apour may be capable of shining with a still smaller
degree of heat than that of sulphur, and consequently
become luminous by that which putrefaction alone af¬
fords. This would account for the ignis fatiiusy were
jt only a steady luminous vapour arising from places
where putrid matters are contained j but its extreme
mobility, and flying from one place to another on the
approach of any person, cannot be accounted tor on this
principle. If one quantity of the putrid vapour be¬
comes luminous by means of beat, all the rest ought
to do so likewise $ so that, though we may allow heat
and putrefaction to be concerned, yet of necessity wre
must have recourse to some other agent, which cannot
be any other but electricity. Without this, it is im¬
possible to conceive how any body of moveable vapour
should not be carried away by the wind *, but so far is
this from being the case, that the ignes fatin', described
by M. Beccaria, Avere but little affected by the wind.
it is besides proved by undoubted experiment, that
electricity always is attended with some degree of heat}
and this, however small, may be sufficient to give a lu¬
minous property to any vapour on Avhich it acts strong¬
ly not to mention, that the electric fluid itself is no
other than that of light, and may therefore by its action
easily produce a luminous appearance independent of
any vapour.
We have a strong proof that electricity is con¬
cerned, or indeed the principal agent, in producing
the ignis fatuus, from an experiment related by Dr
Priestley of a flame of this kind being artificially pro¬
duced. A gentleman, who had been making many
electrical experiments for a tvliole afternoon in a small
room, on going out of it, observed a flame following
him at some little distance. This, avc haA'e no reason
to doubt, Avas a true ignis fatuns, and the circumstances
necessary to produce it Avere then present, viz. an at¬
mosphere impregnated Avitli animal A'apour, and like¬
wise strongly electrified. Both these circumstances un¬
doubtedly must have taken place in the present case 5
for the quantity of perspiration emitted by a human
body is by no means inconsiderable } and It, as avcII as
the electricity, would be collected by reason of the
smallness of the room. In this case, hoAvever, there
seems to have been a considerable difference betAveen
the artificial ignis fatuus and those commonly met Avith*,
for this flame followed the gentleman as he went out
of the room} but the natural ones commonly fly
from those who approach them. This may be ac¬
counted for, from a dilference betAveen the electricity
of the atmosphere in the one room and the other j in
which ease the flame would naturally be attracted to¬
wards that place Avhere the electricity Avas either dif¬
ferent in quality or in quantity *, but in the natural
tvav, Avhere all bodies may be supposed equally elec¬
trified for a great Avay round, a repulsion Avill as natu¬
rally take place. Still, hoAvever, this does not seem to
be ahvays the case. In those instances Avhere traA-ellers
have been attended by an ignis futuus, avc cannot sup¬
pose it to have been influenced by any other poAA’er than
what Are call attraction, and which electricity is very
capable of producing. Its keeping at some distance is
UkeAvise easily accounted for ; as we knotv that bodies
possessed of different quantities of electricity may be
made to attract one another for a certain space, and
then repel Avithoitt having ever pome into contact.
On this principle tve may account for the light which
surrounded the Avoman at Milan, but fled from the
hand of any other person. On the same principle may
avo account for these mischievous vapours which set
fire to the bay and corn stacks, but Avere driven away
by presenting to them a pointed iron instrument, or by
making a noise. Both these are known to have a great
effect upon the electric matter j and by means of either,
even lightning may occasionally be made to fall upon
or to avoid particular places, according to the circum¬
stances by Avluch the general mass happens to he affect¬
ed at that time.
On the whole, therefore, it seems most probable, that
the ignis fa,tuns is a collection of vapour of the pu-
txxscent kind, very much affected by electricity •, ac¬
cording to the degree of Avhieh, it Avill either give a
Aveak or strong light, or even set fire to certain sub¬
stances disposed to receive its operation. This opinion
seems greatly to be confirmed from some luminous ap¬
pearances observed in privies, where the putrid vapours
have even collected themselves into balls, and exploded
violently on the approach of a candle. rlhi& last ellect,
hoAvever, avc cannot sowell ascribe to the electricity, as
to the accension of the inflammable air which frequent¬
ly abounds in such places.
In thfe appendix to Dr Priestley’s third volume of
Experiments and Observations on Air, Mr W arltire
gives an account of some very remarkable ignes fatui,
Avhich he observed on the road to Bromsgrove, about
five miles from Birmingham. The time of observation
Avas the 12th of December 1776, before day-light. A
great many of these lights Avere playing in an adjacent
field, in different directions ; from some of which there
suddenly sprung up bright branches of light, something
resembling the explosion of a rocket that contained
many brilliant stars, if the discharge Avas upAvards, in¬
stead of the usual direction *, and the hedge and trees
on each side of the hedge Avere illuminated. This ap¬
pearance continued hut a few seconds, and then the
jack-a-lanterns played as before. Mr W arltire Avas not
near enough to observe if the apparent explosions Avere
attended Avith any report.
Cronstedt gives it as his opinion, that ignis fatuus,
as avcII as the meteors called falling stars, are OAving to
collections of inflammable air raised to a great height
in the atmosphere. But, with regard to the latter,
the vast height at which they move evidently shotvs
that they cannot he the effect of any gravitating vapour
Avhatevcr j for the lightest inflammable air is one-twelfth
of that of the common atmosphere: and Ave have no
reason to belieA-e, that at the distance of 40 or 50 miles
from the earth, the latter has near one-tAvelfth of its
Aveight at the surface. From the account given by
Mr Warltire, Ave should he apt to conclude, that there
is a strong affinity betAvixt the ignes fatui naid fire balls,
insomuch that the one might he very easily converted
into the other. From this then Ave must ascribe an
electrical origin to the one as avc 11 as the other. Elec¬
tricity, Ave know, can assume both these appearances,
as is evident in the case of points •, or even when the
atmosphere is violently electrified, as around the string
of an electrical kite, which always Avill appear to be
surrounded Avith a blue flame in the night, if the elec¬
tricity be very strong.
On the Avhole, it appears, that electricity acting up¬
on.
light.
Phosphoric
'light.
L I G [i
on a small quantity of atmospherical air, with a certain
degree of vigour, will produce an appearance resem-
hling an ignis fatuus ; with a superior force it will pro¬
duce a fire ball ; and a sudden increase of electrical
power might produce those sparks and apparent ex¬
plosions, observed by Mr Warltire. The only diffi¬
culty therefore is, Why does electricity exert its power
upon one portion of the atmosphere rather than an¬
other, seeing it has an opportunity of diffusing itself
equally through the whole? lo this it seems im¬
possible to give any other reason than that we see the
fact is so ; and that in all cases where there is'a quan¬
tity of electrified air or vapour, there will be an accu¬
mulation in one part rather than another. Thus, in
the-experiment already related, where the gentleman
perceived a blue flame following him, the whole air
of the room was electrified, but the greatest power of
the fluid was exerted on that which gave the luminous
appearance.
With regard to the uses of the ignes fatui in the
.system of nature, we can only say, that they seem to
be accidental appearances resulting from the motion of
the electric fluid, and, no doubt, like other meteors,
subservient to the preservation of its equilibrium, and
thus are useful in preventing those dreadful commo¬
tions which ensue when a proper medium for so doing
is deficient.
A light in some respects similar to those above men¬
tioned has been found to proceed from that celebrated
chemical production called phosphorus, which always
tends to decompose itself, so as to take fire by the access
of air only. Phosphorus, therefore, when it emits
light, is properly a body ignited ; though when a very
small quantity of it is used, as what is left after draw-
ing it over paper, or what may be dissolved in essential
oil, the heat is not sensible. But perhaps the matter
■which emits the light in what we call putrescent sub¬
stances may be similar to it, though it be generated by
a different process, and burn with a less degree of heat.
Putrescence does not seem to be necessary to the light
of glow-worms or of the pholades j and yet their light
is sufficiently similar to that of shining wood or flesh.
Electric light is unquestionably similar to that of phos¬
phorus, though the source of it is apparently very dif-
.ferent.
Kunckel formed his phosphorus into a kind of pills
. about the size of peas, which being moistened a little,
and scraped in the dark, yielded a very considerable
light, but not without smoke. The light was much
more pleasing when eight or ten of these pills were put
into a glass of water ; for being shaken in the dark,
the whole glass seemed to be filled with light. Kunc¬
kel also reduced his phosphorus into the form of larger
stones; which being w’armed by a person’s hand, ami
.rubbed upon paper, would describe letters that were
very legible in the dark.
The greatest variety of experiments with the light
, of phosphorus was made by Dr SI are, who says, that
the liquid phosphorus (which is nothing more than the
solid phosphorus dissolved in any of the essential oils)
would not hurt even a lady’s hand 5 or that, when the
hands or face were washed with it, it would not only
• make them visible to other persons in the dark, but that
the light was so considerable as to make other neigh-
. flouring objects visible.
Vol. XIL Part I,
7 3 L I G
When the solid phosphorus is quite immersed in wa- Light,
ter, he observes that it ceases to shine $ but that if any v l~ri" '
part of it chance to emerge, or get into the air, it will
shine though the glass be hermetically sealed. In a
large glass he kept it without water for several days *,
and yet it continued shining, with very little diminu¬
tion of its light or weight. If the letters that were writ¬
ten with this phosphorus were •warmed by the fire, they
presently became dark lines, which continued upon the
paper, like ink. To try how much light was given by
a small quantity of this phosphorus, he observed that
it continued to flame in the open air for seven or
eight days j the light being visible whenever he shut
his window.
As air was generally thought to contain the pab?i-
lum of flame, IIr Slare was determined to try this with
respect to phosphorus j and for this purpose he placed
a large piece of it in a receiver j but upon exhausting
it, he perceived that it became more luminous, and
that, upon admitting the air, it returned to its former
state. This property of the light of phosphorus, which
is the very reverse of that of shining wood and fishes,
was also ascertained by several very accurate experi¬
ments of Mr Hauksbee’s.
Endeavouring to blow the phosphorus into a flame
with a pair of bellows, Dr Slare found that it was pre¬
sently blown out, and that it was a considerable time
before the light revived again. All liquors would ex¬
tinguish this light when the phosphorus was put into
them $ nor would it shine or burn, though it was even
boiled in the most inflammable liquors, as oil of olives,
spirit of turpentine, or even spirit ot wine.
In order to keep his phosphorus from consuming,
he used to put it in a glass of water \ and sometimes fie
has seen it, when thus immersed in water, make such
bright and vigorous coruscations in the air, as, he says,
would surprise and frighten those who are not used to
the phenomenon. This fiery meteor, he says, is con¬
tracted in its passage through the water, but expands
as soon as it gets above it. If any person would make
this experiment to advantage, he informs them that the
^lass must be deep and cylindrical, and not above three
quarters filled with water. This effect he perceived in
warm weather only, and never in cold.
The phosphorus of which we have been treating is
prepared from urine j but in some cases the sweat,
which is similar to urine, has been observed to he
phosphoraceous, without any preparation. This once L a ta ■
happened to a person who used to eat great quantities’^
of salt, and wfio was a little subject to the gout, afterp
sweating with violent exercise. Stripping himself in
the dark, his shirt seemed to be all on fire, which sur¬
prised him very much. Upon examination, red spots
wrere found upon his shirt j and the physician who was
present perceived an urinous smell, though it had no¬
thing in it of volatile alkali, hut of the muriatic acid:
the same, he says, that issues from cabbage much salt¬
ed, and strongly fermented.
The easiest method of accounting for all these kinds All these
of lights, perhaps, is from electricity. If light consists lights ae-
in a certain vibration of the electric fluid *, then it ^
lows, that in whatever substances such a vibration takes
place, their light must appear, whether in putrescent * See Elce-
animal substances, seawater, phosphorus, or any thingtricitp.
else. We know that the electric matter pervades all
C f terrestrial
Liftbt.
L I G L 1
terrestrial substances, andfevery 'da'.t. f. W se^“““;
i tlon from causes of winch we aic igno « ‘ , ,
tlon 0f the air by which putrefaction is produced may
be'one of these Luses > and it can by no « appear
surprising that the electric matter should act in the bo
dies of living animals in such a manner as to produce
a permanent light, certaml>: know .f f
some of them so powerfully as to P~J»« * itct ”vc
lar to that of a charged phial. -On tin - }
shall only observe farther, that when this vibration be
comes so^powerful as to penetrate the solid substance of
the body itself, the luminous body then becomes trans¬
parent, as in the milk mentioned m the for»ner part «f
{ids article j hut when it is only superficial, the body,
though it emits light, is itself opaque. .
Lwht from Diamonds. Among luminous bodies the
diamond is to be reckoned ; as some diamonds are k“otra
to shine in the dark. But on account of the f^hlene
of their splendour, it is necessary for the person who i
to observe them, previously to stay in the dark at least
a quarter of an hour } that the pupil ol the eye may
be dilated and enlarged, and so rendered capable of
receiving a large quantity of the rays of light. M- du
Fay has also observed, that the eyes ough to be shut
for this time, or at least one of them $ and that, m tha
case, the light of the diamond is afterwards only seen by
that eye which has been shut. Before the diamond is
brought into the dark room, it must be exposed to the
sunshine, or at least to the open daylight, to imbibe
a sufficient quantity of rays j and tins is done in one
minute, or even less-, eight or ten seconds having
been found to furnish as much light as a stone is ca¬
pable of receiving : and when brought into the dark,
its light continues about twelve or thirteen minutes,
weakening all the while by insensible degrees. It is
very remarkable, that in bodies so extremely similar to
each other as diamonds are, some should have this pro¬
perty of imbibing the sun’s rays, and shining in the
dark, and that others should not j yet so it is found
to be by experiment, and the most nearly resembling
stones shall be found one to have this property, and
another to he destitute of it while many of the most
dissimilar have the property in common. There seems
to be no rule, nor even the least traces of any imper¬
fect rule of judging, which diamonds have, and which
have not this property } their natural brightness, their
purity, their size, or their shape, contribute nothing
to it: and all that has been yet discovered of the least
regularity among them, is, that all yellow diamonds
have this property. This is supposed to arise from
their having more sulphur in their composition, and
therefore illuminating more readily, or emitting a more
visible flame.
The burning of diamonds is a term used among the
jewellers, for putting them into a fierce fire, as they
frequently do, when they are fouled with brown, or
yellow, or the like ; this always divests them of their
colour, without doing them the least Sensible injury..
M. du Fay, having been informed of this common prac¬
tice, formed a conjecture, that the difference of dia¬
monds in their shining or not shining in the dark, was
owing to it*, and that either all those which had been
burnt, or all those which had not, were those which
alone shone in the dark. But this was feand an eno-
iieous conjecture j for two (liajTAohds? one lucid m the
si . t i £ .
dark, the other not, were both burnt, and- afterwards Tight,
both were found to retaih the safne properties they
luul before. It is not only the open sunshine, or open
daylight, which gives to these diamonds the power of
shining in the dark j they receive it in the _ same man¬
ner even if laid under a glass, or plunged in water or
111 M. du Fay tried whether it was possible to make tffe
diamond retain, for any longer time, the fight 11 na¬
turally parts with so soon ; and found, that if the dia¬
mond", after being exposed to the light, be covered with
black wax, it will shine in the dark, as well six hours
afterwards as at the time it was first impregnated with
^Thl imbibing light, in this manner, being so mefe
a property as not to be found in Several diamonds, *
Was not to be supposed that it would be found m any
other stones: accordingly, on trial, the ruby, the sam¬
phire, and the topaz, were found wholly destitute ot
it • and among a large number of rough emeralds, one
only was found to possess it. Such is the strange un¬
certainty of these accidents.
All the other less precious stones were tried, and
found not to possess this property of imbibing light
from the daylight or sunshine, but they all became
luminous by the different means of heating or friction ;
with this difference, that some acquired it by one ol
these methods, and others by the other j each being
unaffected by That which gave the property to the-
other. The diamond becomes luminous by all these
>VA£ccarius also discovered, that diamonds have the
property of the Bolognidn phosphorus, about the sarte
time that it occurred to M. du lay. -?Q',0>.U
vol ii. P. 276. M. du Fay likewise observed, that the
common topaz, when calcined, had all the properties of
this phosphorus-, and punning the discovery he found
the same property in a great degree, in the helem-
nites, gypsum, limestone, and marble: though he was
Obliged to dissolve some very hard substances ol bis
kind in acids, before calcination could produce tins
change in them 5 and with some substances he could
not succeed even thus 5 especially with flint stones,
river sand, jaspers, agates, and rock crystal.
Light from Plants. In Sweden a very curious phe¬
nomenon has been observed on certain flowers by M.
Hao-gern, lecturer in natural history. One evening
he perceived a faint flash of light repeatedly dart from
a marigold. Surprised at such an xmcommon appear¬
ance, he resolved to examine it with attention ; and,
to be assured it was no deception of the eye, he placed
a man near him, with orders to make a signal at the
moment when he observed the light. Ihdy both saw
it constantly at the same moment.
The light was most brilliant on marigolds ot an-
orange or flame colour j but scarcely visible on pale
The flash was frequently seen on the same flower two
or three times in quick succession } hut more common¬
ly at intervals of several minutes: and when several
flowers in the same place emitted their light togethei,
it could be observed at a considerable‘distance.
This phenomenon was remarked in the months ot
July and August at sunset, and for balf’an hour, when
the atmosphere was clear j hut after a rainy day, or
Litfht
II
Light-
House.
T, I G [ i
wSeo the air was loaded svith vapours, uotliing of it
was seen. .
The following flowers emitted flashes, more o,r less
vivid, in this ordav :
1. The marigold, calendula ojfifinahs.
2. Monkshood, tropccohun majus.
3. The orange lily, lihuni bulbiferiun.
4. The Indian pink, tastes patula ct crecta.
To discover whether some little insects 01 phosphoric
worms might not be the cause of it, the flowers were
carefully examined, even with a microscope, without
any such thing being toimd.
From the rapidity of the flash, and other circum¬
stances, it may be conjectured that there is something
of electricity in this phenomenon. It is well known,
that when the pistil of a flower is impregnated, the
pollen bursts away by its elasticity, with which electri¬
city may be combined. But M. Haggern, after hav¬
ing observed the flash from the orange lily, the anthe-
rm of which arc a considerable space distant fioni tne
petals, found that the light proceeded from the petals
only ; whence he concludes, that this electric light is
caused by the pollen, which, in flying oft, is scattered
on the petals. Whatever be the cause, the effect is
singular and highly curious.
Lights, in Painting, are those parts ef a piece
which are illuminated, or that lie open to the lumi¬
nary by which the piece is supposed to be enlighten¬
ed ; and which, for this reason, are painted in bright
vivid colours.
In this sense light is opposed to shadow.
Different lights have very different effects on a pic¬
ture, and occasion a difference in the management ot
every part. A great deal therefore depends on the
painter’s choosing a proper light for his piece to he
illuminated by } and a great deal more, in the conduct
of tlie lights and shadows, when the luminary is pitch¬
ed upon.
The strength and relievo of a figure, as well as its
gracefulness, depend entirely upon the management of
the lights, and the joining of those to the shadows.
The light a figure receives is either direct or re¬
flected j to each of which special regal’d must be had.
The doctrine of lights and shadows makes that part of
painting called dair-obscui'e.
LiGUT-Horse, an ancient term in our English cus¬
toms, signifying an ordinary cavalier or horseman
lightly armed, and so as to enter a corps or regiment;
in opposition to the men-at-arms, who were heavily
accoutred, and armed at all points. See Light-IloRSE.
Light-Housc, a building erected upon a cape or
promontory on the sea-coast, or upon some rock in the
sea, and having on its top in the night-time a great
fire, or light formed by candles, which is constantly
attended by some careful person, so as to be seen at a
great distance from the land. It is used to direct the
shipping on the coast, that might otherwise run ashore,
or steer an improper course, when the darkness of the
wight and the uncertainty of currents, &c. might ren¬
der their situation with regard to the shore extremely
doubtful. . Lamp-lights are, on many accounts, pre¬
ferable to coal fires or candles j and the effect of these
may be increased by placing them either behind glass
hemispheres, or before properly disposed glass or me¬
9 1
L I G
tal reflectors, which last method is now very generally
adopted. Sec Beacons.
LiGiiT-Room, a small apartment, enclosed with glass
windows, near the magazine ol a ship of war. ltisu
used to contain the lights by which the gunner and his
assistants are enabled to fill cartridges with powder to
he r^ady for action.
LIGHTEK, a large, open, flat-bottomed vessel,
generally managed with oars, and employed to carry
goods to or from a ship when she is to be laden or de¬
livered.—Thyre are also some lighters furnished w ith
a deck throughout their whole length, in order to con¬
tain those merchandises which would he damaged by
rainy weather: these are usually called close lightens.
LIGHTFOOT, J OHN, a most learned English di¬
vine, was the son of a divine, and born m March
1602, at Stoke upon Trent in Staffordshire. After
having finished his studies at a school on Morton-greeh
near Congleton in Cheshire, he tvas removed in 1617
to Cambridge, where lie applied himself to eloquence,
and succeeded so well in it as to be thought the best
orator of thp under graduates in the university. He
also made an extraordinary proficiency in the Latin
and Greek ; hut neglected the Hebrew, and even lost
that knowledge he brought of it from school. . His
taste for the oriental languages wras not yet excited j
and as for logic, the study of it as managed at that
time among the academics, was too quarrelsome and
fierce for his quiet and meek disposition. .As soon as
he had taken the degree of B. A. he left the univer¬
sity, and became assistant to a school at Bepton in
Derbyshire. After he had supplied this place a year
or two, he entered into orders, apd became curate ot
Norton under Hales in Shropshire. This curacy gave
an occasion of awakening his genius for the Hebrew
tongue. Norton lies near Bellaport, then the seat ot
Sir Rowland Cotton •, who was his constant hearer,
made him his chaplain, and took him into his house.
This gentleman, being a perfect master of the Hebiew
language, engaged Light foot in that study 3 who, by
conversing with his patron, soon became sensible, that
Without that knowledge it was impossible to attain an
accurate understanding of the scriptures. He there¬
fore applied himself to it with extraordinary vigour,
and in a little time made a great progress in it: and
his patron removing with his family to reside in Lon¬
don, at the request of Sir Alland Cotton his uncle,
who w'as lord-mayor of that city, he followed his pre¬
ceptor thither. But he did not stay long there: for,
having a mind to improve himself by travelling abroad,
he went down into Staffordshire, to take leave of his
father and mother. Fussing through Stone in that
county, he found the place destitute ol .a jnituster:
the pressing instance* of the parishioners prevailed up¬
on him to undertake that Cure. Hereupon, laying
aside his design of travelling abroad, he began to turn
his thoughts upen settling at home.. During his resi¬
dence at Bellaport, he had fallen into the acquaint¬
ance of a gentlewoman who wras daughter of M illiam
Crompton of Stonepark, Esq. and now, being in pos¬
session of that living, he married her in 1628. But
notwithstanding this settlement, his unquenchable thirst
after rabbinical learning would not sufter him to con¬
tinue tbeye. Sion-college library at London, he knew,
■ 11 C 2 yras
LiShK
llousa
H '
iabtfoot.
L I G [20
Hotfoot, was well stocked with hooks of that kind. He there-
foie quitted his charge at Stone, and removed with his
family to Hornsey, near the city J where l.i gave the
public a notable specimen of his advancement in those
studies, by his “ Erubbim, or Miscellanies Christian
and Judaical,” in 1629. He was at Uns time only
27 years of age 5 and appears to have been well ac¬
quainted with the Latin and the Greek fathers as well
as the ancient heathen writers. These first fruits of
his studies were dedicated to Sir Rowland Cotton *, who,
in 1631, presented him to the rectory of Ashley in btai-
He seemed now to be fixed for life : Accordingly,
he built a study in the garden, to be out of the noise
of the house *, and applied himself with indefatigable
diligence in searching the scriptures. Thus employ¬
ed, the days passed very agreeably and he continued
quiet and unmolested, till the great change which hap¬
pened in the public affairs brought him into a share
of the administration relating to the church j for ie
was nominated a member of the memorable assembly
of divines for settling a new form of ecclesiastical po¬
lity. This appointment was purely the eflect of his
distinguished merit; and he accepted it purely with a
view to serve his country, as far as lay in Ins power.
The non-residence which this would necessarily occa¬
sion, apparently induced him to resign his rectory :
and having obtained the presentation for a younger
brother, he set out for London in 1642. He had now
satisfied himself in clearing up many of the abstrusest
passages in the Bible, and therein had provided the
chief materials, as well as formed the plan, of his
“ Harmony j” and an opportunity of inspecting it at
the press was, ho doubt, an additional motive for his
going to the capital : where he had not been long be¬
fore he was chosen minister of St Bartholomew’s, be¬
hind the Royal Exchange. The assembly of divines
meeting in 1643, our author gave his attendance dili¬
gently there, and made a distinguished figure in their
debates ; where he used great freedom, and gave signal
proofs of his courage as well as learning, in opposing
many of those tenets which the divines were endeavour¬
ing to establish. His learning recommended him to
the parliament, whose visitors, having ejected Dr Wil¬
liam Spurstow from the mastership of Catharine-hall in
Cambridge, put Lightfoot in his room, this year 1653;
and he was also presented to the living of Much-Mun-
den in Hertfordshire, void by the death of Dr Samuel
Ward, Margaret-professor of divinity in that univer¬
sity, before the expiration of this year. Meanwhile he
had his turn with other favourites in preaching before
the house of commons, most of which sermons were
printed ; and in them we see him warmly pressing the
speedy settlement of the church in the Presbytenan
form, which he cordially believed to be according to
the pattern in the Mount. He was all the while em¬
ployed in preparing and publishing the several branches
of his Harmony j all which were so many excellent spe-
cipiens of the usefulness of human learning to true ic-
Ijo-Inn: and he met with great difficulties and discou¬
ragements in that Avork, chiefly from that antierudi-
tional spirit which prevailed, and even threatened the
destruction of the universities. In 1^55 he entered
upon the office of vice-chancellor of Cambridge', to
which he was chosen that' year, having taken the de-
]
L I G
gree of doctor of divinity in 1652. He performed all Ligbtfoot*.
the regular exercises for his degree with great applause, , ^ing" ,
and executed the vice-chancellor’s office with exemplary
diligence and fidelity •, and, particularly at the com¬
mencement, supplied the place of professor of divinity,
then undisposed of, as an actAvhich was kept for a doc¬
tor’s degree in that profession. At the same time he
Avas engaged Avith others in perfecting the 1 olj glott
Bible, then in the press. At the Restoration he of¬
fered to resign the mastership of Cathanne-hall: But,
as Avliat he had done had been rather in compliance
Avith the necessity of the times than from any zeal or
spirit of opposition to the king and government, a con¬
firmation was granted him from the croAvn, both of the
place and of his living. Soon after this he was appoint¬
ed one of the assistants at the conference upon the li¬
turgy, which Avas held in the beginning of 1661, but
attended only once or twice } probably disgusted at the
heat Avith Avhich that conference Avas managed. Hoav-
ever, he stuck close to his design of perfecting his Har¬
mony : and being of a strong and healthy constitution,
which was assisted by an exact temperance, he prose¬
cuted his studies Avith unabated vigour to the last, and
continued to publish, notAvithstanding the many diffi¬
culties he met Avith from the expence of it. However,
not long before he died, some booksellers got a promise
from him to collect and methodise his Avorks, in order
to print them ; but the execution Avas prevented by lire
death, Avhich happened December 6. 1675. ^oc‘
tor was tAvice married : his first Avife, already men¬
tioned, brought him four sons and two daughters. His
second Avife was likeAvise a AvidoAV, and relict of Mr
Austin Brograve, uncle of Sir Thomas Brograve, Bart,
of Hertfordshire, a gentleman Avell versed in rabbinical
learning, and a particular acquaintance of our author.
He had no issue by her. She also died before him,
and Avas buried in Munden church 5 Avhere the doctoi
Avas himself likewise interred near both his Avives. Dt
Lightfoot’s Avorks were collected and published first m
1684, in two volumes folio. The second edition was
printed at Amsterdam, 1686, in tAVO volumes folio,
containing all his Latin writings, with a Latin transla¬
tion of those which he wrote in English. At the end
of both these editions there is a list of such pieces as he
left unfinished. It is the chief of these, in Latin, Avhich
make up the third volume, added to the former tAvo, in
a third edition of his Avorks, by John Leusden, at
Utrecht, in 1699, folio. They Avere communicated by
Mr Strype, Avho, in 1700, published another collec¬
tion of these papers, under the title of “ Some genuine
remains of the late pious and learned Dr John Light-
foot.”
LIGHTING of Streets. This invention, which
is generally considered as of modern date, contributes
greatly to the convenience and safety of the inhabitants
'of large cities, as Avell as to the ornament of their
> streets. It is not probable that the streets of ancient
Rome Avere lighted, since the Romans considered the
use of flambeaux and lanterns to be so necessary in re¬
turning home from their nocturnal visits. It appears
that such as Avalked the streets Avithout these Ayent home
in darkness-, and the return of Gito in the night-time,
' of Avhich Petronius makes mention, clearly proves that
the streets of Naples Avere not lighted. Such as have
ascribed a remote antiquity to the lighting of streets.
L I G [2
seem to have mistaken it for what are culled illumina¬
tions, which indeed are of great antiquity. Egyptians,
Jews, Greeks, and Romans, dux-ing the celebration ot
memorable festivals, were in the habit of illuminating
their houses ; but this is entirely different from the prac¬
tice which we are now considering.
Paris was pi'obably the first city in modern times,
the streets of which were lighted, about the beginning
of the 16th century, as they were very much infested
by robbers and incendiaries. This occasioned an edict,
issued in 1524, commanding the inhabitants, whose
windows fronted the street, to keep lights burning al¬
ter nine o’clock at night. In 1558, these were changed
for lanterns, of a similar construction with those used at
present. In 1671, the lanterns were ordered to be light¬
ed every year from the 20th October to the end of March
the ensuing year. Some time after this a premium was
ofl’ex-ed for a dissertation on the best means of improving
the lighting of the sti-eets, when a journeyman glazier
obtained a premium of 200 livres, and Messrs Bailly,
le Roy, and Bourgeois de Chateaublanc, 2000 livres.
The lamps of Paris amounted to 5772 in the year
1721, and, in 1771, to 6232. The city of Nantz
was lighted in 1777, and had no fewer than 500 lamps
in the year 1780.
The inhabitants of the city of London were ordered^
in 1688, to hang out lanterns duly at the accustomed
time, which was renewed in 1690 *, and in 1716 it was
enacted, that all those whose houses fronted any street,
lane, or public passage, should hang out one or more
lights, which were to burn from 6 o’clock to 11. By
another act, the lamps were increased from 1000 to
4769, and afterwards to 5000. But as these were
conhned to the city and liberties, about one-fifth of
the whole of London, the number of lamps could not
be less than 15,000. The continuance of their burn¬
ing was also increased from 750 to 5000 hours. In
1744, another act was obtained to regulate still far¬
ther the lighting of the city, and it was1 placed on the
footing on which it stands at present. These are now
so numerous, that Oxford street alone is said to con¬
tain more lamps than the whole city of Paris. Birm¬
ingham was lighted for the first time in 1733, with 700
lamps.
In 1669, Amsterdam was lighted by lanterns j the
Hague in 1553 was lighted in a particular manner, but
lamps were not fixed uji in all the streets till the year
1678. The streets of Copenhagen were lighted in
1681, the plan of which was much improved in 1683.
Berlin at present has 2354 lamps, kept lighted from
September to May, at the expence of the sovereign.
. Vienna began to be lighted in 1687, and lamps were
introduced in 1704. In 1776 their number amounted
■ to 2000, w’hich was increased to 3000, to be lighted at
the annual expence of 30,000 florins. Leipzig was
lighted in 1702, Dresden in 1705, Cassel in 1721, and
Gottingen in 1735. A practice so beneficial to the
safety and convenience of mankind, has been very lau¬
dably imitated by almost every city and town in Eu-
. rope. Beckman. Hist, of In vent.
By far the greatest impi'ovement that has been made
in the lighting of cities, is the application of coal gas
to this purpose. Gas lights were used so far back as
1792> hut they were not employed for lighting streets
: ] L I G
till 1811. In 1818 they were fii’st used to a limited Lighting
extent in the streets of Edinburgh. I he light the gas II
gives is much more powerful and steady than is given
by oil, and on a lai'ge scale it is also more economical, i
See Gas Lights, Supplement.
LIGHTNING, a bright and vivid flash of fire,
suddenly appearing in the atmosphere, and commonly
disappearing in an instant, sometimes attended with
clouds and thunder, and sometimes not. For an ac¬
count of the phenomena of lightning, and of the opi¬
nions concerning it, see Electricity Index.
Artificial Lightning. Before the discoveries of
Dr Franklin concerning the identity of electricity
and lightning, many contrivances were invented in
order to represent this terrifying phenomenon in mi¬
niature : the coruscations ol phosphorus in warm wea;
ther, the accension of the vapour ot spii'it of wine
evaporated in a close place, &c. were used in oi’dex* to
support the hypothesis which at that time prevailed j
namely, that lightning was formed of some sulphu-
I’eous, nitrous, or other combustible vapours, floating
in long trains in the atmosphexe, which by some un¬
accountable means took fu-e, and produced all the
destructive eflects of that phenomenon. These repx-e-
sentations, however, ai-e now no more exhibited 5
and the only true artificial lightning is universally ac¬
knowledged to be the discharge of electric matter from
bodies in which it is artificially set in motion by ma¬
chines.
Lightning was looked upon as sacred both by the>
Gi’eeks and Romans, and was supposed to be sent to
execute vengeance on the earth : Hence persons kill¬
ed with lightning, being thought hateful to the gods,
were buried apai’t by themselves, lest the ashes of other
men should receive pollution from them. Some say
they were interred upon the very spot where they died j
others will have it that they had no interment, but
were suffered to rot where they fell, because it was
unlawful for any man to approach the place. I or
this reason the ground was hedged in, lest any person
unawares should contract pollution from it. All
places struck with lightning were carefully avoided and
fenced round, out ol an opinion that Jupiter had ei¬
ther taken offence at them, and fixed upon them the
marks of his displeasure, or that he had, by this means,
pitched upon them as sacred to himself. The ground
thus fenced about was called by the Romans bidentuL
Lightning was much observed in augury, and was a
good or bad omen, according to the circumstances at¬
tending it.
LIGNICENCIS terra, in the Materia Medico,
the name of a fine yellow bole found in many parts of
Germany, particularly about Emcric in the circle of
Westphalia, and used as an astringent.
LIGNUM vit^:. See Guaiacum, Botany and
Materia Medica Index.
Lignum Aloes. See Excoecaria, Botany Index.
Lignum Hephriticum. See Guilandina, Botany
Index.
Lignum Rhodium, or Rosewood, in the Materia
Medica; a wood, or root, chiefly brought from the Ca¬
nary islands.
The taste of this wood is lightly bitterish, and some¬
what pungent j its smell is very fragrant, resembling
that
L I L [2
U*™ ** ^kept,
Lilburne. vieys an oiloriferous essential oil, m \617 small quan-
' “ Klioclium Is at present in esteem only upon ac~
count of its oil, which is employed as a high and agrce-
^Z/G.vr/M Ca/npcchcnse. See Hematoxylum, Bo¬
tany Index.
Lignum Colubrinum. See Ophiorhiza.
LIGULATED, among botanists, an appellation
given to sach floscules as have a straight end turned
downwards, with three indentures, but not separated
into segments. f
LIGURIA, in Ancient Geography, a country ot
Italy, bounded on the south by the Mediterranean sea,
on the north by the Apennine mountains, on the west
by part of Transalpine Gaul, and on the east by Etiu-
ria. There is a great disagreement among authors con¬
cerning the origin of the Ligurians, though most pro¬
bably they were descended from the Gauls. Some
carry up their origin as far as the fabulous heroes ol
antiquity; while others trace them from the Ligyes,
a people mentioned by Herodotus as attending Xerxes
in his expeditions against Greece. These Ligyes are
bv some ancient geographers placed in Colchis j by
others in Albania.—According to Diodorus Siculus,
the Ligurians led a very wretched life *, their country
beino- entirely overgrown with woods, which they were
obliged to pull up by the root, in order to cultivate
their land, which was also encumbered with great
atones, and, being naturally barren, made but very
poor returns for all their labour. They were much
addicted to huntings and, by a life of continual exer¬
cise and labour, became so strong, that the weakest
Ligurian was generally an overmatch for the strongest
and most robust among the Gauls. The women are
said to have been almost as strong as the men, and to
have borne an equal share in all laborious enterprises.
With all their bravery, however, they were not able
to resist the Roman power; but were subdued by that
Warlike nation about 2H B» C.
LIGUSTICUM, Lovage; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria class •, and in the natural
method ranking under the 45th order, Umbellatce.
See Botany Index. , , ^ ,
LIGUSTRUM, Privet •, a genus ot plants be¬
longing to the, diandria class 4 and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 44th order, Sepiarice. bee
Botany Index. ...
LILBURNE, JoflN, an enthusiastic demagogue,
who was tyrannically punished by the star-chamber
court, being put in the pillory, whipped, iined, and
imprisoned, for importing and publishing seditious
pamphlets, which he had got printed in Hoi and •,
they chiefly reflected on the church of England and
its "bishops. He suftered in 1637, and in prison was
doubly loaded With irons. In 1641, he was released
by the long parliament •, and from this time he had
the address to make himself formidable to all parties,
by his bold, aspiring genius. He signalized himselt
in the parliament army ; and was at one time the
■secret friend and confidant of Cromwell, and at ano¬
ther his avowed enenty and accuser ; so that, in toyo,
Cromwell found it to be his interest to silence him, by
2 ] LIE
a grant of some forfeited estates. But after tins, he laibum*
grew outrageous against the protector’s government ; ^
became chief of the levellers ; and was twice tried tor, 
high treason, hut acquitted by the juries. Hie ast
was for returning from exile (having been banished
by the parliament) without a pass. He died 111 1057,
aged 88.
LILIACEOUS, in Botany, an appellation given
to such flowers as resemble those of the lily.
LILIUM, the Lily j a genus of plants belonging
to the hexandria class-, and in the naturaL method
ranking under the 10th order, Coronanx. bee Bo¬
tany Index.
LILLO, George, an excellent dramatic writer,
was born at London in 1693. He was a jeweller by
profession, and followed his business for many years in
that neighbourhood with the fairest reputation. He
was at the same time strongly attached to the muses,
yet seemed to have laid it down as a maxim, that the
devotion paid to them ought always to tend to the
promotion of virtue, morality, and religion. In pur¬
suance of this aim, Lilly was happy m the choice ot
his subjects, and showed great poiver of allecting the
>,beart, by working up the passions to such a height a*
to render the distresses oi common and domestic 1 e
equally interesting to the audiences as that of kings
and heroes, and the ruin brought on private families
by an indulgence of avarice, lust, &c. as the havock
made in states and empires by ambition, cruelty, or
tyranny. His “ George Barnwell,” “ I atal Curiosi¬
ty ” and “ Arden of Feversham,” are all planned on
common and well known stories ; yet they have per¬
haps more frequently drawn tears from an audience
Rian the more pompous tragedies of Alexander the
Great, All for Love, &c. In the prologue to El-
meric,” which was not acted till after the authors
death, it is said, that when he wrote that play, he
« was depressed by want,” and afflicted by disease ;
but in the former particular there appears to be evi¬
dently a mistake, as he died possessed of an estate ol
60I. a-year, besides other effects to a considerable va¬
lue. His death happened in 1739, in the 47th year
of his age. His works have been collected, and pub¬
lished, with an account of his life, in 2 vols i2mo.
LILLY, John, a dramatic poet, was horn in the
Wealds of Kent, about the year 1553, and educated
in Magdalen-college, Oxford, where he took the de¬
gree of bachelor of arts in 1573, and that of master m
3575. From Oxford he removed to Cambridge 5 but
how long he continued there is uncertain. On his
arrival in London, he became acquainted with some ot
Queen Elizabeth’s courtiers, by whom he was caressed,
and admired as a poet and a wit; and her majesty,
on particular festivals, honoured his dramatic pieces
with her presence. His plays are nine in number.
His first publication, however, printed in 1580, was a
romance called Euphu&s^ Yf hich was universally read and
admired. This romance, which Blount, the editor ot
six of his plays, says introduced a new language, espe¬
cially among the ladies, is, according to Berkenhout,
in fact a most contemptible piece ot affectation and
nonsense : nevertheless it seems very certain, that it
■was in high estimation by the women of fashion ot
those times, who, we are told by W halley, the editor
of Ben Johnson’s works, had all the phrases by heart:
and
L I L l 23
and tliosa who did not speak Euphuism were as little
regarded at court as it' they could not speak French.
« He was (says Oldys) a man of great reading, good
memory, ready faculty of application, and uncommon
eloquence*, but he ran into a vast excess ot allusion.
When or where he died is not known. Anthony ood
says he wa-s living in 1597, when his last comedy was
published. After attending the court ot Queen Fliz-a-
beth 13 years, notwithstanding his reputation as an au¬
thor, hfc was under the necessity ot petitioning the
fiueen for some small stipend to support him in his old
acre. His two letters or petitions to her majesty on tins
subject are preserved in manuscript.
Lilly, William, a noted English astrologer, boin
in Leicestershire in 1602 *, where his father not be-
jner able to give him more learning than common
writing and arithmetic, he resolved to seek his for¬
tune in London. He arrived in 1620, and lived tour
years as a servant to a mantua-maker in the parish of
St Clements Danes 5 but then moved a step higher to
the service of Mr Wright, master of the Salters com¬
pany in the Strand, who not being able to write, Lilly
among other ofiices kept his books. In 1627, when
bis master died, He paid his addresses to the widow,
\vhotn he married With a fortune of i-oool. Leingnow
his own master, he followed the puritanical preachers j
and, turning his mind to judicial astrology, became pu¬
pil to one Evans, a profligate Welsh parson^ in that
pretended art. Getting a MS. of the Ars Notitia df
Corn. Agnppa, with alterations, he drank in the doc¬
trine of the magic circle, and the invocation of spi¬
rits, with great eagerness. He was the author of the
Mcrlimts Angliens junior i The Supernatural Sight j
and the White King’s Prophecy. In him we have an
instance of the general superstition and ignorance that
prevailed in the time of the civil war between Charles I.
and his parliament: for the king consulted this astro¬
loger to know in what quarter he should conceal him¬
self, if he could escape from Hampton court *, and Ge¬
neral Fairfax, on the oilier side, sent for him to his
army, to ask him if he could tell by his art, whether
God was with them and their cause ? Lilly, who made
his fortune by favourable predictions to both parties,
assured the general that God would be with him and
his army. In 1648, he published his Treatise of the
Three Suns seen the preceding winter j and also an
astrological judgment upon a conjunction of Saturn
and Mars. This year the council of state gave him in
money 50I. and a pension of look per annum, which
lie received for two years, and then resigned on some
disgust. In June 1660, he was taken into custody by
order of the parliament, by whom he was examined
concerning the person who cut of! the head of King
Charles I. The same year he sued out his pardon un¬
der the great seal of England. ’I he plague raging in
London, he removed with his family to his estate at
Hersham; and in October 1666 was examined before
a committee of the house of commons concerning the
lire of London, which happened in September that
year. After his retirement to Hersham, he applied
himself to the study of physic, and, by means of his
friend Mr Ashmole, obtained from Archbishop Shel¬
don a license for the practice of it. A little before his
death he adopted for his son, by the name of Merlin
junior, one : Henry Ccdey, *a taylor by trade j and at
] L I M
the same time gave him the impression of his almanack,
after it had been printed for 36 years. He died in
1681 of a dead palsy. Mr Ashmole set a monument
over his grave in the church of W alton upon I hames.
His “ Observations on the Life and Death of Charles,
late king of England,” if we overlook the astrological
nonsense, may be read with as much satisfaction as
more celebrated histories j Lilly being not only very
well informed, but strictly impartial. This work, with
the Lives of Lilly and Ashmole, written by them¬
selves, were published in one vol. 8vo, in 1774, by Mr
Burman.
LILY. See Lilium, Botany Index.
Lily of the Valley. See Convallaria, Botany
Index. .
LlLYBiEUM, in Ancient Geography, a city of Si¬
cily, situated on the most westerly promontory of the
island of Sicily, and said to have been founded by the -
Carthaginians on their expulsion from Motya by Dio¬
nysius, tyrant of Syracuse. It is remarkable for three
sieges it sustained *, one against Dionysius the tyrant,
another against Pyrrhus, king of Epirus, and the third
against the Homans. 1 he two first failed in theii at¬
tempts, hut the Homans with great difficulty made
themselves masters of it. No remains of this once
stately city are now to he seen, except some aqueducts
and temples j though it was standing in Strabo’s time.
LILYE, William, the grammarian, was born in
the year 1466 at Oldham in Hampshire j and in i486
was admitted a semi-commoner of Magdalen college
in Oxford. Having taken the degree of bachelor of
arts, he left tile university, and travelled to Jerusalem.
Returning from thence, he continued five years in the
island of Rhodes, where he studied the Greek language,
several learned men having retired thither after the ta¬
king of Constantinople. From Rhodes he travelled to
Rome where he improved hinaself in the Greek and
Latin languages, under Sulpitius and P. Sahinus. He
then returned to London, where for some time he
taught a private grammar-school, being the first per¬
son who taught Greek in the metropolis.^ In 1510,
when Dr Colet founded St Paul’s school, Lilye was ap¬
pointed the first master 5 at which- time, it seems, he was
married and had many children. In this- employment
he had laboured 12 years, when, being seized by the
plague, which then raged in London, he died in 1’ e-
bruary 1523, and was buried in the north yard of St
Paul’s. He had the character of an excellent gramma¬
rian, and a successful teacher of the learned languages.
His principal work is Erevissima institutio, seu ratio
gramniatices cognoscendce; Loud. I5I3* Reprinted
times without number, and commonly called Lilyc's
grammar. The English rudiments were written by Dr
Colet, dean of St Paul’s j and the preface to the first
edition, by Cardinal Wolsey. The English syntax was
written by Lilye 5 also the rules for the genders of
nouns, beginning-with propria yiue maribus ; and those
for the preterperfect tenses and supines, beginning with
As in presenti. - The Latin syntax was chiefly the work
of Erasmus. See WTard’s preface to his edition of
Lilye’s grammar, 1732.
LIMA, the metropolis of Peru, contains 209 squares
of buildings, which comprise 8222 doors of dwelling
houses and shops, and these- are branched out into 355
streets. In order to maintain peace and tranquillity
among
Lilly
II
Linja.
l r m
[ 24 ]
L I M
among the itihabitants, ami for the accommodation of
the police, the city is divided into four quarters, con¬
taining 3 5 districts, over each of which there presides an
alcaid, who is always elected from among the people ot
the most distinguished rank. The population, accoid-
tng to estimate made at different periods, is as follows.
In 1600,
16x4,
.1700,
1746,
i755>
1781,
1790,
14,262
25455
37459
60,000
54,000
■60,000
52,627.
By this table it appears, that from 1746 to 1755, the
population suftered a diminution of 6000, which w as
owing to an earthquake that happened at the former
period 5—a calamity with which that city is often vi¬
sited. Were it not for this circumstance, Lima would
he a perfect paradise, as the adjacent country abounds
with corn, wine, oil, sugar, fruits, and flax. Such
abundance of wealth do the inhabitants enjoy, that
when the duke of Palata was sent from Spain as vice¬
roy to Peru, they paved the streets through which he
was to pass with ingots of silver. Libertinism and de¬
bauchery are the distinguishing characteristics of the
people of Lima, for which even the nuns are as notori¬
ous as the rest of the females, seldom being free from
venereal complaints.
In the month of March 1543, the emperor Charles V.
established an audience at Lima, in consequence of which
the inhabitants were freed from the painful necessity of
seeking a redress of their grievances at so great a di¬
stance as Panama. Among the excellent institutions
by which the Peruvian capital is distinguished, we may
rank the provincial councils, which shew the constant
zeal of the sovereigns of Spain for the defence ot reli¬
gion and preservation of discipline. The prelates, by
their pastoral vigilance, spare neither pains nor labour
to promote their views, to accomplish their sacred and
interesting purposes.
• By a decree of the Spanish emperor, which reached
Lima in 1553, a university was begun in a central spot
•of the capital, called the university of St Mark, which
is now in a most flourishing condition. Don I rancisco
Toledo assigned 20,312 piastres as a fund for the main¬
tenance of the professors, arising from the tributes paid
by the Indians. Two lectures are given daily on
grammar, one on the Indian language, three on philo¬
sophy, three on theology, three on law, two on canons,
and two on medicine. In the year 1790 an amphi¬
theatre was erected for the use of the anatomical stu¬
dents. • •
The college for female orphans was founded by
Mateo Pastor de Valesco, not at the hour of death,
which often gives to charitable endowments an air of
suspicion, but when he was in the full possession of per¬
fect health. In 1597 a pious philosopher founded a
charitable institution for the support of such helpless
children as were laid down in the streets by their un¬
feeling parents. This building was destroyed by the
earthquake of 1687, which laid in ruins the greater
part of the city. It was afterwards rebuilt, and is at
present in a flourishing condition. In 1559 an hospital
^•was erected for the relief of the unfortunate sick, who
might otherwise have perished for want of medical aid, Lima,
and obtained the name of the Fellowship of Charity mid Limassol.
Compassion. A general hospital for the poor w as be-
gun about 1758, but not completed till 1770, which
in 1790 afforded a comfortable asylum to 29 poor
people. The asylum for penitent females was founded
in 1669. It has been said that there is not a city in
the world in which so many alms are distributed as in
Lima. _ . ■ . .
In the centre of the great square there is a fountain
of bronze, the ornaments of which are conformable to
the rules of the Composite order. It has an elevation
°f 15! yards to the helmet of Fame, from which de¬
ducting 13: yards for the height of that figure, the re¬
mainder gives the part to which the water rises in
order to diffuse itself. This production of art, combin¬
ing magnificence in every part of it with fine architec¬
tural taste, is surro mded by 24 pieces of artillery, and
16 iron chains, a narrow space being left for access to
the inhabitants.
Coffee-houses were not known in Lima till the year
1771, when one was opened in the street of Santo Do¬
mingo, and another the year following. A third was
established in 1775, a fourth in 1782, and a fifth m
1788, in each of which there is a billiard table for the
amusement pf the inhabitants. M e are sorry to say
that the barbarous practice of cock-fighting obtains in
Lima, for which purpose a building was erected in
the year 1762. The tennis court is open to the public,
and affords the spectator an agreeable hour of relaxa¬
tion from more serious pursuits. Lima is situated in
W. Long. 76. 44. $>• Lat. 12. 1. .
, LIMASSOL, or Limisso, a town of Cyprus, in the Mm iti's
south of the island. Of the ancient city nothing but
ruins now remain *, though it was a celebrated place, Cyprus.
even under the government of the dukes. King Rich¬
ard, the conqueror of the last of these vassals of the
empire, razed it in 1191, and it was never afterwards
rebuilt. This city originally was the same as Ama-
thus, or Amathonte; so famous, as Pausanias tells us,
for its temple erected in honour of Venus and Adonis.
Amathus was the residence of the first nine kings of
the island •, and, amongst others of Onelistus, who was
subjected afterwards by the arms ot Artabanes, the
Persian general. This city, erected into an archbishop¬
ric in the time of the Christians, has produced a num¬
ber of personages celebrated for their knowledge and
the sanctity of their lives. In the neighbourhood there
are several copper mines, which the Turks have been
forced to abandon. The following lines, in the tenth
book of Ovid’s Metamorphoses, prove that they were
known in the time of that poet:
Capta viriforma, non jam Cytherea curat
Littora, non alio repetit Paphon ceqiwre cinctam,
Piscosamque Guidon, gravidamqueAmathunta metallis.
The place where the new Limassol now stands, former¬
ly had the name of Nemosia, from the multitude of
woods by which it was surrounded. Richard, king of
England, having destroyed Amathonte, Guy de Lusig-
nan, in the 12th century, laid the foundation of that
new city which the Greeks called Neopoleos. The fa¬
mily of Lusignan, who continued to embellish and for¬
tify it, built there palaces, and Greek and Latin
churches j and made it the seat of a bishop. When
the
L I M [ 25 ] L I M
Limassol the island was taken by the Turks in 1570, the Otto-
|| man army entered this city on the 2d of July, and ra-
Limbat. vage(i it without mercy. It was then destroyed by the
flames : and at present it is only a wretched place, in
which one can scarcely distinguish any remains ol its
ancient edifices. It is governed by a commissary and
a cadi: the latter judges cases only provisionally, before
they are carried to the superior tribunal of Nicosia.
The harbour is very commodious : and being sheltered
from impetuous winds, it affords a safe and calm asy¬
lum to vessels when overtaken by a storm. The carob
tree is here more abundant than anywhere else ; and
it is from the port of Limassol that the greatest quan¬
tity of its fruit is exported. The inhabitants export
also salt, procured from a lake near Salines. Cotton,
wheat, barley, and mulberry trees, are both plentiful
and well cultivated in this part of the island: the
ground also produces all kinds ol garden stufls. rIhe
best Cyprus Avine is made from the vines that groAV on
the hills of Limassol. All the Avines of the country
are collected in this city to be transported to Larnic,
where there are the largest cellars, and which on that
account becomes the natural centre of commerce.
LIMAX, the Slug, or Naked Snail; a genus of
animals belonging to the class vermes. See Helmin¬
thology Index.
LIMB, in general, denotes the border or edge of a
thing ; thns Ave say, the limb of a quadrant, of the sun,
of a leaf, &c.
Limb, in Anatomy, an appellation given to the ex¬
tremities of the body, as to the arms and legs.
Limb, Limbus, in the church of Rome, is used in
two different senses. 1. The limb of the patriarchs is
said to be the place Avhere the patriarchs waited the
redemption of mankind : in this place they suppose
our Saviour’s soul continued from the time of his death
to his resurrection. 2. The limb of infants dying
without baptism, is a place supposed to be distinct
both from heaven and hellsince, say they, children
dying innocent of any actual sin, do not deserve bell j
and, by reason of their original sin, cannot be admitted
into heaven.
LIMB AT, the name of a peiaodical wind common
in the island of Cyprus, and of great service in mode¬
rating the heats of the climate, which would otherwise
be intolerable.
According to the abbe Mariti, it begins to bloiv
at eight in the morning the first day •, increases as the
sun advances till noon ; then gradually Aveakens, and
at three falls entirely. On the second day it arises at
the same hour; but it does not attain its greatest
strength till about one in the afternoon, and ceases at
four precisely. On the third day it begins as before ",
but it falls an hour later. On the five succeeding
days, it folloAvs the same progression as on the third;
but it is remarked, that a little before it ceases, it be¬
comes extremely violent. At the expiration of five
days it commences a neAV period like the former. By
narrowly observing the sea on that side from Avhich
it is about to bloAV, a little before it arises, one may
determine Avhat degree of strength it will have during
the day. If the horizon is clear, and entirely free
from clouds, the wind Avill be weak, and even almost
insensible ; but if it is dark and cloudy, the wind Avill
be strong and violent. This limbat wind, netwith-
Vol. XU. Part I.
standing its utility in moderating the ex'cessive heat, of- Liinbat
ten becomes the cause of fevers, especially to Europeans, ||
from theft’ being less habituated to the climate, and Limburgk
more apt than the natives to sufler themselves to be sur¬
prised by the cool air when in a state ot perspiration.
This Avind, the falling of which happens an hour s6on-
er or later, is succeeded by a calm, accompanied by a
certain moisture that renders the air somcAvhat heavy.
This moisture disappears in the evening, being dissipa ¬
ted by a Avind Avhich arises every day at that period.
This Avind is considered as a land breeze by the inha¬
bitants of the southern and eastern parts of the island ;
but it is called a sea bree%e by those in the northern
and western, Avho indeed receive it immediately from
the sea. In summer it bloAVS till four o’clock in the
morning, and Avhen it ceases, it leaves a profound calm,
Avhich continues till the hour when the limbat com¬
mences. In autumn and Avinter it never falls till day¬
break, Avhen it is succeeded by other winds, which
proceed from the irregularity of the season. In spring
it does not continue longer than midnight; and is then
succeeded by that happy calm, during Avhich those re¬
freshing deAvs are formed that moisten the earth at sun¬
rising. The liinbat Avinds, which arise in the beginning
of summer, cease about the middle of September ; and
this is the period Avhen the most insupportable heats
commence, because their violence is not moderated by
the smallest breeze. They are, hoAA'ever, luckily not of
long duration ; and about the latter end oi October
they decrease sensibly, as the atmosphere begins to be
loaded Avith Avatery clouds.
LIMBORCH, Philip, a learned Avriter among th®
remonstrants, born at Amsterdam in 1633* After ha¬
ving made great proficiency in his studies, he Avas, in
1655, admitted to preach in public, AA’hich he did first
at Haerlem. His sermons had in them no affected elo¬
quence ; but Avere solid, methodical, and edifying. He
was chosen minister of Goudja ’, from Avhence he Avas
called to Amsterdam, where he had the professorship
of divinity, in which he acquitted himself Avith great
reputation till bis death, which happened in 1712.
He had an admirable genius, and a tenacious memory.
He had many friends of distinction in foreign parts as
AA’ell as in his oavia country. Some of his letters to Mr
Locke are printed Avith those of that celebrated author.
He had all the qualifications suitable to the character
of a sincere divine, lived an example of every virtue,
and preserved the Arigour of his body and mind to a
considerable age. He Avrote many Avorks, which are
esteemed; the principal of which are, I. Arnica colla-
tio de veritate religionis Christiana: cum cnidito Judao,
in 121110. 2. A Complete Body of Divinity, accord¬
ing to the opinions and doctrines of the Remonstrants.
3, A History of the Inquisition ; which has been trans¬
lated into English by Dr Samuel Chandler. Lim-
borch also published the works ot the famous Episcopi-
us, who Avas his great-uncle by the mother’s side.
LIMBURGH DUCHY, a province of the Austrian
Netherlands, bounded by the duchy of Juliers on^ the
north and east, by Luxemburgh on the south, and by
the bishopric of Liege on the Avest. It is aoout 30
miles in length, and 25 in breadth; and consists of good
arable and pasture land, Avith plenty of Avood, and some
iron mines.
LlMBURGH, the capital city of the duchy of Lim-
D f burgh,
L I M
[
Limburgh
II.
Limerick.
burgh, iti the Austrian Netherlands, is seated on a steep
rock near the river Vesse. Ibis town is small, but p ca-
santly seated on a hill, with shady woods-, and consists
chiefly of one broad street, not very well built. It is
strong by situation, and almost inaccessible-, howevci,
it was taken by the French in 1675, and by the con¬
federates under the duke of Marlborough in 1703, tor
the house of Austria, to whom it remains by the trea¬
ties of Rastadt and Baden, after having been dismant¬
led. It is famous for its cheese, winch is exceeding
good. F. Fong. 6. 8. N. Fat. 50. 40,
LIME, a peculiar earth. See CHEMISTRY Index.
LiME-Tree. See Citrus, Botany Index.
Lime or LrNDEN-Tree. SeeTiEiA, Botany Index.
LniE-Water. See Pharmacy Index.
Lime, or Lyme. See Lyme.
LIMERICK, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Munster, is bounded on the east by I ipperary, on
the west by Kerry, on the north by the river Shan¬
non, and on the south by Cork. It is a fnutiul and
populous tract, the soil requiring little or no manure
in most places : besides rich pasture for sheep and cows,
it produces rich crops of all kinds ot corn and rape,
with some hemp. It gave title oi earl to the. family ol
Donegal. It contains 375,320 Irish plantation acres,
about 96 church livings, though a much greater num¬
ber of parishes, 10 baronies, three boroughs j and
formerly sent eight members to parliament. It now
sends two members to the British parliament. It has
some clays, furze, fern, and mountain lands, and is fa¬
mous for good cyder -, it has been much benefited by
the Palatines, who settled there and increased tillage ;
they are a laborious independent people., mostly em¬
ployed in their own farms. This county is well water¬
ed by large and small rivers -, the Shannon runs at the
north side of the county, and fertilizes its banks. . The
firing of the inhabitants is chiefly turf. At Loghill in
the west of the county, there is a mine of coal or culm,
but it is more used in kilns than in houses. . There are
few lakes except Lough Gur j and the principal hills
are Knockgreny, Knockany, Knockfiring, and loryhill.
The mountains lie westward, the highest being Knock-
patrick or St Patrick’s hill. This county is about 45
miles long and 42 broad.
Limerick, or Lough-Meath) a market town, a no-
rough, and a bishop’s see, now the metropolis of the
province of Munster. It is situated on the river Shan¬
non, 94 miles from Dublin} and wras the strongest
fortress in the kingdom. Its ancient name was Lun-
,leach ; and during the first ages it was much frequent¬
ed by foreign merchants, and after the arrival of the
Danes was a place of considerable commcice until the
12th century. It was plundered by IMalion, brother
of Brien Boromh, after the battle of Sulchoid, in 970 j
and Brien, in a future period, exacted from the Danes
0f this city 365 tons of wine as a tribute, which shows
the extensive traffic carried on by those people in that
article. About the middle of the 6th century, St
Muuchin erected a church and founded a bishopric
here } which, however, was destroyed by the Danes on
their taking possession of this port in 853? a.nt\ 1 emain-
ed in ruins until their conversion to the Chi istian faith
in the 10th century ", at which period the church of St
Munclun was rebuilt, and the bishopric established.
26 ‘1 L X M
Donald O’Brien, about the time of the arrival of the Lhaei
Knolish, founded and endowed the cathedral -, and Do- v
nat O’Brien, bishop of Limerick, in the 13th century,
contributed much to the opulence of the see. About
the close of the 12th century, the bishopric of Inms-
Cathay was united to that of Limerick. It was besieged
by King William III. in the year 1690, and though
there was no army to assist it, the king was. obliged to
raise the siege. In the year 1691, it was again besieged
by the English and Dutch on the 21st of September ,
and it was obliged to surrender on the 13th of October
following, not without the loss of abundance of men -,
however, the garrison had very honourable and advan¬
tageous conditions, and the Roman Catholics by these
articles were to be tolerated in the free exercise of their
religion. Within a century this place was reckoned
the second city in Ireland : at present it has lost its
rank ; not because it thrives less, but because Cork,
thrives more. It is composed of the Irish and English
town ; the latter stands on the King’s island, formed
by the river Shannon. The town is three miles in
circumference, having weekly markets on M ednesi ay
and Saturday, and fairs on Easter luesday, 1st July,
4th August, and 12th December. Ihere is a privi-
lecre annexed to the fair held on 4th August, that, du¬
ring 15 days, no person can be arrested in the city or
liberties, on any process issuing out of the tbo sel
court of Limerick. Ardfert and Achadoe, m the
county of Kerry, are united to the bishopric of Li¬
merick. This city formerly returned two members to
parliament; and now sends one to the British par¬
liament. It gives title of viscount to the family ot
Hamilton. L is governed by a mayor, sheriffs, record¬
er, aldermen, and burgesses -, there is also a barrack
and a military governor and town major: it had some
lime the privilege of coinage -, and different, paiiia-
ments have been held there. The town was formerly
entirely walled in-, and in 1760, there were 17 of the
city gates standing-, hut to the great improvement of
the place they are now all demolished, except the wa¬
ter-gate of King John’s castle. The linen, woollen,
and paper manufactures, ave carried on here to great
extent, and the export of provisions is very considerable.
Here are many charitable hospitals, and handsome pub¬
lic buildings, besides the cathedral and other churches.
A charter was granted to this city by King John, and
confirmed in succeeding reigns.. Dr Campbell ob¬
serves, that as you approach Limerick, the grounds
oroAV rich and exquisitely beautiful -, the only dis¬
agreeable matter is, that the situation renders the au
moist, and consequently rather unwholesome to stran¬
gers. About six miles from this is the famous Castle-
connel spa. Limerick is 50 pailes from Cork, 50
from Galway, and 73 from Waterford. It appears
that Limerick obtained the privilege of having ma\ois
10 years before that right was allowed to the citizens
of London. It was before governed by provosts, of
which the first was John Spafford in 1195 and 1197
during the provostship of Henry Iroy a charter was
granted, 9 Richard I. whereby the citizens were allow¬
ed to choose mayors and bailiffs, Adam Servant, in
1198, being the first mayor. It continued to he go¬
verned by mayors and bailiffs, until the office of bailiff
was changed into that of sheriff in 1609.
Limerick
Limerick
II
Limning
L I M [27
ILiMF.RU K is also the name of a fair-town in the
county of Wexford and province of Leinster j the fairs
are four in the year.
LIM1NGTON, a town of Hampshire in England.
See Lymingtox.
LIMIT, in a restrained sense, is used by mathema¬
ticians for a determined quantity to which a variable
one continually approaches; in which sense, the aide
may be said to be the limit of its circumscribed and
inscribed polygons. In Algebra, the term limit is ap¬
plied to two* quantities, one of which is greater and
the other less than another quantity ; and in this sense
it is used in speaking ot the limits ot equations, whereby
their solution is much facilitated.
LIMITED PROBLEM, denotes a problem that has
hut one solution, or some determinate number ol solu¬
tions ; as to describe a circle through three given points
that do not lie in a right line, which is limited to one
solution only \ to divide a parallelogram into two pqusd
parts by a line parallel to one side, which admits ct
two solutions, according as the line is parallel to the
length or breadth of the parallelogram •, or to divide a
triangle in any ratio by a line parallel to one side,
which is limited to three solutions, as the line may be
parallel to any of the three sides.
LIMME, a town of Kent, in England, near Hithe,
and four miles from Romney, was formerly a port,
till choked up by the sands ; and though it is thereby
become a poor town, yet it has the horn and mace
and other tokens left of its ancient grandeur, and used
to be the place where the lord warden of the cinque
ports was sworn at his entrance upon his office. 'Hie
Roman road from Canterbury, called Stane-strcet, end¬
ed here •, and from the brow of its hill may be seen
the ruinous Roman walls almost at the bottom of the
marshes. Here formerly was a castle, now converted
into a farm-house. When or by whom this edifice
was erected is not known. It has, however, great
marks of antiquity j as has also the adjoining church,
on which are sevex-al old tombstones with crosses on
them.
LIMNING, the art of painting in water colours,
in contradistinction to painting which is done in oil-
colours.
Limning is much the more ancient kind of paint¬
ing. Till a Flemish painter, one John van Eyck, bet¬
ter known by the name of John oj Bruges, found out
the art of painting in oil, the painters all painted in
water and in fresco, both on their walls, on wooden
boards, and elsewhere. When they made use of
boards, they usually glued a fine linen cloth over them,
to prevent their opening ; then laid on a ground of
white ; lastly, they mixed up their colours with water
and size, or with water and yolks of eggs, well beaten
with the branches of a fig tree, the juice whereof thus
mixed with the eggs ) and with this mixture they paint¬
ed their pieces.
In limning, all colours are proper enough, except
the white made of lime, which is only used in fresco.
The azure and ultramarine must always be mixed with
size or gum ; but there are always applied two layers
of hot size before the size colours are laid on : the co¬
lours are all ground in water, each by itfelf j and, as
they are required in working, are diluted with size wa¬
ter. When the piece is finished, they go over it with
L I N
the white of an egg well beaten j and then with varnish, Limning
if required.
To limn, or draw a face in colours ; Having all the
materials in readiness, lay the prepared colour on the
card even and thin, free from hairs and spots, over the
place where the picture is to he. The ground being
laid, and the party placed in a due position, begin the
work, which is to be done at three sittings. At the
first you are only to dead-colour the face, which will
require about two hours. At the second sitting, go
over the work more curiously, adding its particular
graces or deformities. At the third sitting, finish the
whole ; carefully remarking whatever may conduce to
render the piece perfect, as the cast of the eyes, moles,
scars, gestures, and the like.
LIMOGES, an ancient town of France, in the late
province of Guienne, and capital of the department of
Upper Vienne, with a bishop’s see. It is a trading
place, and its horses are in great esteem. It is seat¬
ed on the river Vienne, in E. Long. 1. 20. N. Lat.
Linacre.
45* 5°*
LIMGSIN, a late province of France, now the de¬
partment of Upper Vienne, bounded on the north by
La Marche, on the east by Auvergne, on the south
by Qucrcy, and on the west by Perigord and'Angou-/
mois. One part is very cold, but the other more tern-.-
perate. It is covered with forests of chesnut trees ; and
contains mines of lead, copper, tin, and iron ; but the
principal trade consists in cattle and horses.
LIMPET, a genus of shell-fish. See Patella,
Conchology Index.
LIMPURG, a barony of Germany, in the circle
of Franconia, included almost entirely within Suabia,
and seated to the south of Hall in Suabia. It is a-
bout 1 ^ miles long, and eight broad. Gaildorf and
Shonburg, near which is the ca'stle of Limpurg, are
the principal places.
Limpurg, a town of Germany, in the electorate
of Triers or Treves, and in Wetteravia, formerly free
and imperial, but now subject to the electorate of
Treves. It is seated on the river Lhon. E. Long. 8.
13. N. Lat. 50. 18.
LINACRE, Thomas, physician, was born at Can¬
terbury about the year 1460, and there educated under
the learned William Selling : thence he removed to
Oxford, and in 1484 was chosen fellow of All-Soul’s
college. Tilly, alias Selling, his former instructor,
being at this time appointed ambassador from King-
Henry VII. to the court of Rome, Mr Linacre accom¬
panied him to Italy, where he attained the highest de¬
gree of perfection in the Greek and Latin languages.
At Rome, he applied himself particularly to the study
of Aristotle and Galen, in the original. On his return
to Oxford, he was incorporated doctor of physic, and
chosen public professor in that faculty. But he had not
been long in England, before he was commanded to
court by King Henry VII. to attend the young prince
Arthur as his tutor and physician. He was afterwards
appointed physician to the king, and after his death, to
his successor Henry VIII. Dr Linacre founded two
medical lectures at Oxford, and one at Cambridge } but
that which most effectually immortalized bis name a-
mong the faculty, is his being the first founder of the
college of physicians in London. He beheld with vexa¬
tion the wretched state of physic in those times 3 and,
D 2 by
LIN [28
by an api#ication to Cardinal Wolsey, outaioed a pa¬
tent in 1518, bv which the physicians ol London were
incorporated, the intention of this corporation was to
prevent illiterate and ignorant medicasters from prac¬
tising the art of healing. Dr Linacre was the first pre¬
sident, and held the office as long as he lived. Their
meetings were in his own house in Kflighb-rider street,
which house he bequeathed to the college. But our
doctor, when he was about the age of 50, took it into
his head to study divinity; entered into orders ; and
was collated, in 1509, to the rectory of Mersham. In
the same year he was installed prebendary of Wells, in
1518 prebendary of York, and in the following year
was admitted precentor of that cathedral. This, we are
told, he resigned for other preferments. He died ol
the stone in the bladder in October 1524, aged 64 j
and was buried in St Paul’s. Thirty-three years after
bis death, Doctor John Cains caused a monument to
he erected to his memory, with a Latin inscription,
which contains the outlines of his life and character.
He was a man of great natural sagacity, a skilful phy¬
sician, a profound grammarian, and one of the best
Greek and Latin scholars of his time. Erasmus in
his epistles speaks highly of the Doctor’s translations
from Galen, preferring them even to the original
Greek. His works are, 1. De emendata structura La-
tini sermonis, libn sex; London, printed by Pynson,
1524, 8vo, and by Stephens, I527> I532* 2* ^ie
Rudiments of Grammar, for the use of the princess
Mary, printed by Pynson. Buchanan translated it
into Latin j Paris, 1536. He likewise translated in¬
to very elegant Latin several of Galen’s works, which
wrere printed chiefly abroad at different times. Also
Procli Diadachi spheera, translated from the Greek ;
Venet. 1499, 1 ?oo.
LINARIA. See Fringilla, OrnithologyMe-r.
LINCOLN, a city of England, and capital of a
county of the same name, is distant 132 miles from
Londoiv It stands on the side of a lull £ at the bot¬
tom of which runs the river Witham in three small
channels, over which are several bridges. The old
Lindum of the Britons, which stood on the top of the
hill, as appears from the vestiges of a rampart, and
deep ditches still remaining, was taken and demolished
by the Saxons j who built a town upon the south side
of the hill down to the river side, which was several
times taken by the Danes, and as often retaken by the
Saxons. In Edward the Confessor’s time, it appears,
from Doomsday book, to have been a very consider¬
able place •, and in the time of the Normans, Malmsbury
says, it was one of the most populous cities in Eng¬
land. William I. built a castle upon the summit of
the hill'above the town. The diocese, though the bi¬
shopric of Ely was taken out of it by Henry II. and
those of Peterborough and Oxford by Henry VIII. is
still vastly large, containing the counties of Leicester,
Huntingdon, Bedford, and part of Bucks, making 1255
parishes. Though the other churches are mean, the
cathedral or minster is a most magnificent piece of GoT
tliic architecture. Here is a prodigious large bell,
called Tom of Lincoln, which is near five ton in weight,
and 23 feet in compass. 1 he hill on which the church
stands is so high, and the church itself so lofty, that
it may be seen 50 miles to the north and 30 to the
south. Besides other tembs, it contains cne of brass,
] « LIN
in which are the entrails of Queen Eleanor, wife to U»eoin,
Edward I. It is said there were anciently 52 churches,
which are now reduced to 14. Such is the magnifi¬
cence and elevation of the cathedral, that the monks
thought the sight of it must be very mortifying to the
devil j whence it came to be said of one who was dis¬
pleased, that he looked like the devil over Lincoln. I he
declivity on which the city is built being steep, the
communication betwixt the upper and lower town is
very troublesome, and coaches and horses are obliged
to make a compass.
King Edward III. made this city a staple lor wool,
leather, lead, &c. It was once burnt ; once besieged
by King Stephen, who was here defeated and taken
prisoner j and once taken by Henry II L from his re¬
bellious barons. It abounded heretofore with mona¬
steries and other religious houses. There is a gie_aT-
pool here, formed by the river on the west side of it,
called Swan Pool, because of the multitude of swans
on it. The Roman north gate still remains entire, by
the name of Newport Gate. It is one of the noblest
of this sort in Britain. It is a vast semicircle of stones
of very large dimensions laid without mortar, connect¬
ed only by their uniform shape. This magnificentaich
is 16 feet in diameter, the stones are four feet thick at
the bottom. It seems to have a joint in the middle,
not a keystone j and on both sides, towards the uppei
part, are laid horizontal stones ol great dimensions,
some 10 or 12 feet long. This arch arises from an im¬
post of large mouldings, which are not perceivable;
now *, there are also divers fragments of the old Roman
wall. Over against the castle is an intrenchment cas‘'
up by King Stephen and here are carved the ai ms of
John of Gaunt duke of Lancaster, who lived here like
a king, and had a mint. I he city has a communica¬
tion with the Trent, by a canal called the loss-dyke.
In the centre of the old ruined castle there is a hand¬
some modern structure for holding the assizes. Its
walls are almost entire, and very substantial : the keep
or principal tower is situated on a high and very steep
mount, which yet continues in its original state, but the
remains of the tower on it are only five or six yards
high. The outer walls of the castle are of very con¬
siderable height, which appear still higher than they
really are from their lofty situation and the moat below
them. The great gateway is still entire.. This city
is a county of itself, and has a viscountial jurisdiction,
for 20 miles round, which is a privilege that no other
city in England can equal. It now consists principal-)
ly of one street above two miles long, well paved, be¬
sides several cross and parallel streets well peopled.
Here are some very handsome modern buildings, hut
more antique ones •, upon the whole, it has an air of
ancient greatness, arising in a great measure from the
number of monastic remains, most of which are now
converted into stables, out-houses, &c. Upon the hill,
in the castle, are the ruins of the bishop’s palace, and
other ruins of ancient grandeur and magnificence.
The city is supplied with water by several conduits,
among which is a modern one, somewhat in the pyra-
midical style, enriched with sculpture. It is governed
by a mayor, twelve aldermen, two sheriffs, a recorder,
four chamberlains, a swordbearer, four coroners, and
above forty common-council men. Here are lour char
rity schools, where 120 poor children are taught by
LIN L' 29 ] LIN
lan^oln t,ie clergymen. The neighbouring course
j| is noted far its frequent horse-races. On the down oi
Lindsay. Lincoln, towards Boston, that rare low! the bustard is
‘ sometimes seen, as well as on Salisbury plain. Lincoln-
Heath extends above §o miles, viz. Irom Slealord and
Ancaster south to the Humber north, though it is but
three or four miles over where broadest. Five miles
from Boston, on this extensive heath, Lord le Despcn-
ser built a tower for the direction ot strangers.. It is a
lofty square building with a staircase, terminating’ in a
flat roof, and round the base is a square court-yai d.
Great part of this extensive heath has been enclosed.
We read that David king of Scots met King John here,
on the 22(1 of November, in the third year oi his reign,
and performed homage to him on a hill without the
city, for his English territories, in presence of the
archbishops ol Canterbury, York, and Bagusa, 13 bi¬
shops, and a vast number of temporal lords and knights.
King Henry VII. kept his court hefe at Easter in
i486. The population of Lincoln in 1811 was 8861.
The Jews were oucc its chiel inhabitants, till they
were forced to remove, alter having impiously cru¬
cified the child of one Grantham, and thrown it in¬
to a well, to this day called Grantham's Well. Lin¬
coln has given the title of earl to the family ot Clinton
ever since the reign ot Queen Elizabeth. AV. Long.
0. 35. N. Lat. 53. 16.
LiNCOLN-Shire, a maritime county of Lngland, 77
miles in length and 48 in breadth, is bounded on the
cast by the German ocean, on the west by Nottingham¬
shire, on the north by Yorkshire, on the south by Rut¬
landshire, Northamptonshire, and Cambridgeshire. It
contains 631 parishes, and 31 market towns, and re-
turns 12 members to parliament. The principal rivers
are the Humber, the Trent, the Witham, the Nenn,
the Welland, the Ankham, and the Dun. It is divided
into three parts, Lindsey, Kestoven, and Holland
the air of which last is unwholesome and foggy, on ac¬
count of the fens and large marshes- The soil of the
north and west parts is very fertile, and abounds in corn
and pastures. The east and south parts are not so pro¬
per for corn j but then they supply them with fish and
fowl, in great plenty, particularly ducks and geese.
Lincoln is the principal town. By inland navigation,
this county has communication with the rivers Mersey,
Dee, Kibble, Ouse, Darwent, Severn, Thames, Avon,
&c. 5 which navigation, including its windings, extends
above 500 miles through different counties.
This county, in 1811, contained 46,368 houses-, and
the total number of inhabitants amounted to 237,891.
LINDESFARN, or Landisfarn. See Holy-
Islancl.
LINDSAY, Sir David, a celebrated Scots poet,
, was descended of an ancient family, and born in the
reign of King James TA . at his father’s seat, called the
Mount, near Cupar, in Eifeshire. He was educated
at the university of St Andrew’s •, and, after making
the tour of Europe, returned to Scotland in the year
1514. Soon after his arrival, he was appointed gen¬
tleman of the bedchamber to the king, and tutor to
the young prince, afterwards James V. From the
verses prefixed to his dream, we learn that he enjoyed
several other honourable employments at court : but,
jn 1533, he was deprived of all his places, except that
of Lyon king at arms, which he held to the time of
his death. His disgrace was most prooaliJy owing to Lindsay
his invectives against the clergy, which are frequent in H
all his writings. Alter the decease of King James V., Lirdus.
Sir David became a favourite of the earl of Arran, re¬
gent of Scotland j but the abbot of Paisley did not suL
fer him to continue long in favour with the earl. He
then retired to his paternal estate, and spent the re¬
mainder of his days in rural tranquillity. He died in
the year 1553. His poetical talents, considering the
age in which he wrote, were not contemptible j hut he
treats the Romish clergy with great severity, and writes
with some humour: but whatever merit might be for¬
merly attributed to him, he takes such licentious liber¬
ties with words, stretching or carving them for measure,
or rhime, that the Scots have a proverb, when they
hear an unusual expression, that, There is nae sic a
word in a' Davie IJndsay. Mackenzie tells us, that
his comedies were so facetious, that they afforded abun¬
dance of mirth. Some fragments of these comedies are
still preserved in manuscript. He is said to have also
written several tragedies, and to have first introduced
dramatic poetry into Scotland. One of his comedies
was played in 1515. Mackenzie says, he understood
nothing of the rules of the theatre. He was cotempo¬
rary with John Heywood, the first English dramatic
poet. His poems are printed in one small volume j and
fragments of his plays, in manuscript, are in Mr \Y il-
liam Carmichael’s collection.
LINDSEY, the third and largest division of the
county of Lincolnshire in England. On the east and
north it is washed by the sea, into which it runs out
witli a large front; on the west it has Yorkshire and
Nottinghamshire, from which it is parted by the rivers
Trent and Dun ; on the south it has Kestoven, from
which it is separated by the river AYitham and the
Foss-dyke, which is seven miles long, and was cut by
Henry I. between the AVitham and the Trent, for the
convenience of carriage in those parts. It had its name
from Lincoln, the capital of the county, which stands
in It, and by the Romans called Lindum, by the Bri¬
tons Lindcoite, by the Saxons Lindo-collyne, probably
from its situation on a hill, and the lakes or woods that
were anciently thereabouts j but the Normans called it
Nichol. It gives title of earl and marquis to the duke
of Ancaster.
LINDUS, in Ancient Geography, a town of Rhodes,
situated on a hill on the west side of the island. It was
built by Tlepolemus the son of Hercules, according
to Diodorus Siculus by one of the Heliades, grand¬
sons of the Sun, named Lindus, according to Strabo.
It was the native place of Cleobulus, one of the wise
men. Here we sec the famous temple of the Lindian
Minerva, which was built by the daughters of Danaus.
Cadmus enriched this temple with many splendid of¬
ferings. The citizens dedicated and hung up here
the seventh of Pindar’s Olympic odes, written in let¬
ters of gold. The ruins, of that superb edifice are still
to be seen on the top of a high hill which overlooks
the sea. Some remains of the walls, consisting of
stones of an enormous size, still show it to have been
built in the Egyptian style. The pillars and other or¬
naments have been carried ofi. On the most elevated
peak of the rock are the ruins of a castle, which may
have served as a fortress to the city. Its circumference
is very extensive, and is filled with, rubbish,
Linda}.
IJuJus
.11
Luiea.
LIN [ . J
Undo, tlie modem city, stands at tlie foot of tlm hill.
A bay of considerable wideness and depth serves as a
harbour to the city. Ships find good anchorage there
' in 20 fathoms water. They arc safely sheltered from
the south-west winds, which constantly prevail through
the severest season of the year. In the beginning of
winter, they cast anchor off a small village named Mas-
sary. Before the building of Rhodes,^ Lmdus was the
harbour which received the fleets ol Egypt and lyre.
It was enriched by commerce. Mr Savary observes
that a judicious government, by taking advantage o
its harbour and happy situation, might yet restore it to
a flourishing state.
LINE, in Geometry, a quantity extended in length
only, without any breadth or thickness. It is formed
by the flux or motion of a point. Sec Fluxions, and
Geometry. . „ ^ ,.
Line, in the art of war, is understood oi the dispo¬
sition of an army ranged in order or battle, wit i tne
front extended as far as may be, that it may not be
^Line of Battle, is also understood of the disposition
of a fleet'in the day of engagement •, on which occasion
the vessels are usually drawn up as much as possible in
a straight line, as well to gain and keep the advantage
of the wind as to run the same board. See Naval 1 ac¬
tios.
Horizontal Line, in Geography and Astronomy, &
line drawn parallel to the horizon of any part ot the
earth. , . . ,
Equinoctial Line, in Geography, is a, great circle
on the earth’s surface, exactly at the distance ot 90
from each of the poles, and of consequence bisecting
the earth in that part. From this imaginary line, the
degrees of longitude and latitude are counted. n
astronomy, the equinoctial line is that circle which the
sun seems to describe round the earth on the days ot
the equinox in March and September. See Astro¬
nomy and Geography. . i .
Meridian Line, is an imaginary circle drawn through
the two poles of the earth and any part of its suriace.
See Geography Index.
Ship of the Line, a vessel large enough to be
drawn up in the line, and to have a place in a sea-
iight. . f ,
Line, in Genealogy, a series or succession ot rela¬
tions in various degrees, all descending from the same
common father. See Descent. . .
Line, also denotes a French measure containing
the 12th part of an inch, or the 144th part of a foot.
Geometricians conceive the line subdivided into six
points. The French line answers to the English barley¬
corn.
Fishing Line. See Fishing Line.
Lines, in Heraldry, the figures used in armories to
divide the shield into different parts, and to compose
different figures. These lines, according to their dir-
ferent forms and names, give denomination to the pieces
or figures which they form, except the straight or plain
lines. See Heraldry.
LTNEA alba, in Anatomy, the concourse ot the
tendons of the oblique and transverse muscles of the
abdomen; dividing the abdomen in two, in the mine e.
It is called linea, line, as being straight; and alba, iiom
its colour, which is white.—the hue a alba receives a
o ] LIN
twio- of a nerve from the intercostals in each of its di-
gitations or indentings, which are visible to the eye,
in lean persons especially. _ . . r
LINEAMENT, among painters, is used .or the
outlines of a lace. . „ 1
LINEAR numbers, m Mathematics, such as have
relation to length only ; such is a number which repre¬
sents one side of a plain figure. It the plain uguie be
a square, the linear figure is called a root.
Linear Problem; that which may »e solved geome¬
trically by the intersection of two right lines. Hus is
called a simple problem, and is capable but oi one so-
L1NEN, in commerce, a well known kind ol
cloth, chiefly made of flax.—Linen was not worn by
the Jews, Greeks, or Romans, as any part o. their
ordinary dress. Under-tumes ol a finer textuic sup¬
plied the place of shirts: Hence the occasion tor fre¬
quent bathing. Alexander Severus was the first em¬
peror who wore a shirt: but the use of so neces¬
sary a garment did not become common till long alter
hlIThe linen manufacture was probably introduced into
Britain with the first settlement of the Romans. _ lue
flax was certainly first planted by that nation m the
British soil. The plant itself indeed appears to have
been originally a native of the east. Ihe woo en-
drapery would naturally be prior in its origin to the
linen; and the fibrous plants from which the threads ol
the latter are produced, seem to have been first noticed
and worked by the inhabitants ot Egypt. n ‘gyp ,
indeed, the linen manufacture appears to have been
very early : for even in J oseph’s time it had risen to a
considerable height. From the Egyptians the know¬
ledge of it proceeded probably to the Greeks, am.
from them to the Romans. Even at this day the
flax is imported among us from the eastern nations ;
the western kind being merely a degenerate species 0
In order to succeed in the linen manufacture, one
set of people should he confined to the ploughing and
preparing the soil, sowing and covering the seed, to
the weeding, pulling, rippling, and taking care of the
new seed, and watering and dressing the fiax till it is
lodged at home : others should lie concerned in the dry¬
ing; breaking, scutching, and heckling the flax, to hi
it for the spinners; and others in spinning and reeling
it to fit it for the weaver : others should be concerned
in taking due care of the weaving, bleaching, beetling,
and finishing the cloth for the market. It is reason¬
able to believe, that if these several branches ot the
manufacture were carried on by distinct dealers m bco -
land and Ireland, where our home-made linens are ma¬
nufactured, the several parts would he better executed,
and the whole would he afforded cheaper, and with
greater profit. . .
• Staining of Linen. Linen receives a black colour
with much more difficulty than woollen or cotton, i he
black struck on linen with common vitriol and gafis, or
logwood, is very perishable, and soon washes out.—•in¬
stead of the vitriol, a solution of iron in sour strong beer
is to be made use of. This is well known to all the calico-
printers ; and by the use of this, which they call their
iron-liquor, and madder root, are the blacks and pur¬
ples made which we see on the common printed
J.me»
11
Linen.
LIN [3
, Tile method of milking this iron Htiuor is as Wiows :
|| A quantity of iron is put into the sour strong beer ;
Linlithgow. aml, to promote the dissolution of the metal, the whole
 ' is occasionally well stirred, the liquor occasionally drawn
off, and the rust beat from the iron, alter which the li¬
quor is poured on again. A length of time is required
to make the impregnation perfect; the. solution being
reckoned unfit for use till it has stood at least a twelve-
month. This solution stains the linen of a yellow, and
different shades of buff-colour; and is the only known
substance by which these colours can be fixed m linen.
The cloth stained deep with the iron-liquor, and after¬
wards boiled with madder, without any other addition,
becomes of the dark colour which we see on printed
linens and cottons ; which, it not a periect blacK, has
a very near resemblance to it. Others are stained palex
with the same liquor diluted with water, and come out
purple.
Linen may also be stained of a durable puiph
means of solution of gold in aqua regia. The solution
for this purpose should be as fully saturated as possible;^
it should be diluted with three times its quantity of
water ; and if the colour is required deep, the piece,
when dry, must lie repeatedly moistened with it. I he
colour does not take place till a consideiable time,
sometimes several days, after the liquor hao been ap¬
plied : to hasten its appearance, the subject should be
exposed to the sun and free air, and occasionally xe-
moved to a moist place, or moistened with water.—
When solution of gold m aqua regia is soaked up in
linen cloths, the metal may he recovered by drying and
burning them.
Linen flowered with Gold-leaf. Dr Lewis mentions
a manufacture established in London for embellishing
linen with flowers and ornaments of gold-leaf. ihe
linen, he says, looks whiter than most of the printed
linens ; the gold is extremely beautiful, and bears ■wash¬
ing well. The doctor informs us, that he had seen a
piece which he was credibly informed had been washed
three or four times, with only t*ie same precautions
which are used for the finer printed linens ; and on
which the gold continued entire, and of great beauty.
Concerning the process used in this manufacture, he
gives us no particulars.
Fossile Linen, is a kind of amianthus, which consists
of flexible, parallel, soft fibres, and which has been ce¬
lebrated for the use to which it has been applied, of be¬
ing woven, and forming an incombustible cloth. 1 a per
also, and wicks for lamps, have been made of it. See
Amianthus, Asbestos, and Mineralogy Index.
LING, a species of fish belonging to the genus Ga-
dus, which see in Ichthyology Index.
LINGEN, a strong town of Germany, in the cir¬
cle of Westphalia, and capital of a county of the same
name. It belongs to the king of Prussia ; and is situ¬
ated on the river Embs, in E. Long. 7- 3°* ^Si* Dat.
52. 32.
LINIMENT, in Pharmacy, a composition of a con¬
sistence somewhat thinner than an unguent, and thicker
than an oik Bee MATERIA Medica Index.
LINLITHGOW, the chief town of West Lothian
in Scotland. It is supposed to be the lindam of Ptole¬
my ; and to take its name from its situation on a lake,
which the word Lin or Lyn signifies.— ft is distant 16
miles from Edinburgh, and is a royal borough and seat
] L I N
of a presbytery. Here is carried on a considerable trade Lin’iih-
in dressing of white leather, which is sent abroad to be gow
manufactured; and many bands are employed m dressing (rows,ii|.e<
of flax ; also in wool-combing, the wool for which is
brought from the borders. Its port, was formerly Blac 1-
ness ; hut since the decline of that place, Jiorrou'sf tunness,
about two miles distant from Linlithgow. Ihe town
consists of one open street, from whence lanes are de¬
tached on both sides ; the houses are built of stone,
tolerably neat and commodious ; and the place is a-
dorned with some stately public edifices. Ihe palace,
built, as Sibbald supposed, 011 the seat of a Roman sta¬
tion, forms a square with towers at the corners, and
stands on a gentle eminence, with the beautiful loch be¬
hind it to the west. It Avas one of the noblest of the rov-
al residences; and Avas greatly ornamented by James ^ .
and VI. Within the palace is a handsome square; one
side of Avhich is more modern than the otheis, ha a ing.
been built by James VI. and kept in good repair till
Avhen it Avas accidentally damaged by the king
forces making fires on the hearths, by Avhich means
the joists Aveie burnt. A stone ornamented fountain 111
the middle of the court was destroyed at the same
time. The other sides of the square are more ancient.
In one is a room ninety-five feet long, thirty feet six
inches wide, and thirty-three high. At one end is a
gallery Avith three arches, perhaps for music. iSaiioAv
galleries run quite round the old part, to preserAe com¬
munication Avith the rooms; in one of which the un¬
fortunate Mary Stuart first saw light. On the north
side of the high street, on an eminence east of the pa¬
lace, stands St Michael’s church ; a handsome structure,
where James V. intended to have erected a throne ami
twelve stalls for the soA'ereign and knights of the ordei
of St Andrew. In the market-place is another foun¬
tain, and surmounted like the former with an impel ial
crown. In one of the streets is shoAvn the gallery
where the regent Murray Avas shot. Here was a
house of Carmelites, founded by the towns people in
1290, destroyed by the Reformers 1559* ^^ie Hnm.y
of Livingston, who took the title of earl from this
place, were hereditary keepers of the palace,^ as also
bailiffs of thel king’s hailifry, and constables of Black¬
ness castle; lint by their concern in the rebellion of
1715 all these honours Avith their estate Avere for¬
feited to the crown. Sir James Livingston, son of the
first earl bv marriage Avith a daughter of Callendar, Avas
created earl of Callendar by Charles I. 1641, which title
sunk into the other. Population, m 1811, ^022.
LINLITHGOWSHIRE, or West Lothian,
nearly approaches in form to a parallelogram, about
20 miles long from east to AArest, and from 10 to 13
broad, from north to south. It is hounded by the nv< 1
Forth on the north ; by the river Amend on the south¬
east; by Lanarkshire on the south-west, and by the
river Avon on the Avest. It is allowed to he one ol the
richest counties in Scotland, the soil in general being a
rich loam, in a high state of cultivation and improve¬
ment. Its surface is diversified by gentle swells and
fertile plains ; and the number of elegant scats almost
everyAvhere to he met with, gives it both a rich and de¬
lightful appearance. The Avhole is a composition of
all that is great and beautiful; towns, villages, seats,
and ancient toivers, decorate each bank of that, fine
expanse of water, the frith of Forth. I he lofty moun¬
tains
linlith-
gowshire,
liinnsBus.
L I N
tains of tlie Highlands form a distant, but
boundary towards the north-west-, and the eastern view
is enlivened with ships perpetually appearing or vanish¬
ing, amidst the numerous islands. Hopetoun-house,
Barnbougle-castle, Calder-house, Craigle-hall, and the
seat of General Dundas, are some of the principal orna¬
ments of this county. It contains two royal boroughs,
Linlithgow and Queensferry, besides the towns of
Borrowstounness, Bathgate, and Kirklistoun. It is
poorly supplied with running water, the Avon and
Amond being the only streams which are deserving of
notice. There are many valuable minerals found in it
in abundance, such as coal, limestone, and some lead
ore. In the reign of James VI. a vein of lead was dis¬
covered, so rich in silver, that it was thought worthy
of being wrought for the sake of that metal alone.
Almost every parish abounds with ironstone, which is
extensively wrought in the parish of Bathgate. In many
places there are appearances of whinstone or basalt, par¬
ticularly at Dundas-hill, in tbe parish of Dalmeny,
where there is a solid front of basaltic rock, exhibiting^
in some places regular columns. The population of
this county in 1801 amounted to 17,844, and in 1811
19,451. The following is the population of the parishes
according to the Statistical History.
Population
in i75S*
1037
Parishes.
5
10
13
Abercorn
Bathgate
Borrowstounness
Carridden
Dalmeny
Ecclesmachan
Kirklistoun
Linlithgow
Livingstone
Queensferry
Torphichen
UphaH
Whitburn
1594
2668
1164
1103
351
1461
3296
598
451
1295
690
1121
16,829
Population in
1790—1798.
870
23°9
31?8
I45°
907
215
I5°4
3221
420
5°5
J069
600
1322
i7?570
16,829
Increase, 741
'LINNiEUS, Sir Charles, a celebrated botanist
and natural historian, was born on May 24. 1707, in
h village called Roeshvlt in Smaland, where his father,
Nicholas Linnaeus, was then vicar, but afterwards pre¬
ferred to the curacy of Stenbrohult. We are told, that
on the farm where Linnaeus was born, there yet stands
a large lime, tree, from which his ancestors took the
surnames of Tiliander, Lindelius, wahLinnceus; and that
this origin of surnames, taken from natural objects, is
not uncommon in Sweden.
This eminent man, whose talents enabled him to re¬
form the whole science of natural history, accumulated,
very early in life, some of the highest honours that a-
vvait the most successful proficients in medical science •,
since we find that he was made professor of physic and
botany, in the university of Upsal, at the age of 34
and six years afterwards, physician to Adolphus king
•of Sweden-, who in the year 1753 honoured him still
farther, by creating him knight of the order of the
3
[ 32 1 LIN
august Polar Star. His honours did not terminate here : for Linnaeus,
in 1757 he was ennobled-, and in 1776 the king of ^
Sweden accepted the resignation of his office, and re- ,s
warded his declining years by doubling his pension, and Gmerai
bv a liberal donation of landed property settled on him View of the
and his family. Life and
It seems probable, that Linnaeus’s taste for the stu- ^
dy of nature was caught from the example of bis fa¬
ther y who, as he has himself informed us, cultivated,
as his first amusement, a garden plentifully stored with
plants. Young Linnaeus soon became acquainted with
these, as well as with the indigenous ones of his neigh¬
bourhood. Yet, from the straitness of his father’s in¬
come, our young naturalist was on the point of being
destined to a mechanical employment-, fortunately,
however, this design was overruled. In 1717 he was
sent to school at Wexsio } where, as his opportunities
were enlarged, his progress in all his favourite pursuits
was proportionably extended. At this early period he
paid attention to other branches of natural history, par¬
ticularly to the knowledge of insects.
The first part of his academical education Linnaeus
received under Professor Stobaens, at Lund, m bcania,
-who favoured his inclinations to the study of natural
history. After a residence of about a year, he remov¬
ed in 1728 to Upsal. Here he soon contracted a
close friendship with Artedi, a native of the province
of Angermania, ivho had already been four years a stu¬
dent in that university, and, like himself, had a strong
bent to the study of natural history in general, but par¬
ticularly to ichthyology. Soon after his residence at
Upsal, our author was also happy enough to obtain
the favour of several gentlemen of established character
in literature. He was in a particular manner encou¬
raged in the pursuit of his studies by the patronage of
Dr Olaus Celsius, at that time professor of divinity,
and the restorer of natural history in Sweden j who,
being struck with the diligence of Linnseus in describ¬
ing the plants of the Upsal garden, and his extensive
knowledge of their names, not only patronized him in
a general way, but admitted him to his house, his. ta¬
ble, and his "library. Under such encouragement it is
not strange that our author made a rapid progress,
both in his studies and the esteem of the professors :
in fact, we have a very striking proof of his merit and
attainments ; since we find, that, after only two years
residence, he was thought sufficiently qualified to give
lectures occasionally from the botanic chair, in the
room of Professor Rndbeek.
In the year 1731, the Royal Academy of Sciences at
Upsal having for some time meditated the design of
improving the natural history of Sweden, at the in¬
stance particularly of Professors Celsius and Rudbeck,
deputed Limueus to make the tour of Lapland, with
the sole view of exploring the natural history of that
arctic region-, to which undertaking, his reputation,
already high as a naturalist, and the strength of his
constitution, equally recommended him. He left Up¬
sal the 13th of May, and took his route to Gevalia or
Gevels, the principal town of Gestricia, 45 miles di¬
stant from Upsal. Hence he travelled through Hel-
singland into Medalpadia, where he made an excur¬
sion, and ascended a remarkable mountain before he
reached Hudwickswald, the chief town of Helsingland.
From hence he went through Angermanland to Hex--
nosand,
LIN [ 33 1 LIN
Linnwus. nosand, a sea-port on the Bothnic gulf, 70 miles distant
—v——> from Hudwickswald. When he had proceeded thus
far, he found it proper to retard his journey, as the
spring was not sufficiently advanced j and took this
opportunity of visiting those remarkable caverns on
the summit of Mount Skula, though at the hazard of
his life.
When Linnaeus arrived at Uma, in West Both¬
nia, about 96 miles from Hernosand, he quitted the
public road, and took his course through the woods
westward, in order first to traverse the most southern
parts of Lapland. Being now come to the country
that was more particularly the object of his inquiries,
equally a stranger to the language and to the manners
of the people, and without any associate, he committed
himself to the hospitality of the inhabitants, and ne¬
ver failed to experience it fully. He speaks in several
places, with peculiar satisfaction, of the innocence and
simplicity of their lives, and their freedom from diseases.
In this excursion he reached the mountains towards
Norway ; and after encountering great hardships,
returned into West Bothnia, quite exhausted with
fatigue. Our traveller next visited Fitha and Lula,
upon the gulf of Bothnia j from which latter place he
took again a western route, by proceeding up the ri¬
ver of that name, and visited the ruins of the temple ol
Jockmock in Lula Lapland or Lap Mark : thence he
traversed what is called the Lapland Dcwrf, destitute of
all villages, cultivation, roads, or any conveniences j
inhabited only by a few straggling people, originally
descended from the Finlanders, and who settled in this
country in remote ages, being entirely a distinct people
from the Laplanders. In this district he ascended a
noted mountain called Wallevari ; in speaking of which
he has given us a pleasant relation of his finding a sin¬
gular and beautiful new plant {Andromeda tetragona)
when travelling within the arctic circle with the sun
in his view at midnight, in search of a Lapland hut.
From hence he crossed the Lapland Alps into Fin-
mark, and traversed the shores of the North sea as far
as Sallero.
These journeys from Lula and Pitha on the Both-
nian gulf, to the north shore, were made on foot 5 and
our traveller was attended by two Laplanders, one his
interpreter, and the other his guide. He tells us that
the vigour and strength of these two men, both old,
and sufficiently loaded with his baggage, excited his
admiration : since they appeared quite unhurt by their
labour, while he himself, although young and robust,
was frequently quite exhausted. In this journey he
was wont to sleep under the boat with which they ford¬
ed the rivers, as a defence against rain, and the gnats,
which in the Lapland summer are not less teasing than
in the torrid zones. In descending one of these ri¬
vers, he narrowly escaped perishing by the oversetting
of the boat, and lost many of the natural productions
which he had collected.
Linnaeus thus spent the greater part of the summer
in examining this arctic region, and those mountains
on which, four years afterwards, the French philoso¬
phers secured immortal fame to Sir Isaac Newton. At
length, after having sufiered incredible fatigues and
hardships, in climbing precipices, passing rivers in mi¬
serable boats, suffering repeated vicissitudes of extreme
Feat and cold, and not unfrequentiy hunger and thirst,
Vox. XII. Fart I. 1 J
he returned to Tornea in September. He did net L;Bn<T„s.
take the same route from Tornea as when he came u—y——
into Lapland, having determined to visit and examine
the country on the eastern side of the Bothnian gulf;
his first stage, therefore was to Ula in East Bothnia •,
from thence to Old and New' Carlebay, 84 miles south
from Ula. He continued his route through A Vasa,
Christianstadt, and Biorneburgh, to Abo, a small uni¬
versity in Finland. Winter was now setting in apace;
he therefore crossed the gulf by the island of Aland,
and arrived at Upsal in November, after having per¬
formed, and that mostly on foot, a journey of ten de¬
grees of latitude in extent, exclusively of those devia¬
tions which such a design rendered necessary.
In 1733 he visited and examined the several mines
in Sweden; and made himself so well acquainted with
mineralogy and the docimastic art, that we find he W’as
sufficiently qualified to give lectures on these subjects
upon his return to the university. The outlines ol his
system on mineralogy appeared in the early editions of
the Systema Natures ; but he did not exemplify the
whole until the year 1768.
In the year 1734 Linnaeus was sent by Baron Reu-
terholm, governor of Halccarlia, with several other na¬
turalists in that province, to investigate the natural
productions of that part of the Swedish dominions; and
it was in this journt y that our author first laid the plan
of an excellent institution, which was afterwards exe¬
cuted, in a certain degree at least, by himself, with
the assistance of many of his pupils, and the result pub¬
lished under the title of Pan Suecicus, in the second
volume of the Amccmtaics Academicce.
After the completion of this expedition, it appears
that Linnaeus resided for a time at Fahlun, the prin¬
cipal town in Dalecarlia; where he tells us that he
taught mineralogy and the docimastic art, and prac¬
tised physic ; and where he was(very hospitably treat¬
ed by Hr More, the physician of the place. It also ap¬
pears, that he contracted at this time an intimacy with
one of that gentleman’s daughters, whom he married
about five years afterwards upon his settling as a physi¬
cian at Stockholm.—In this journey he extended his
travels quite across the Dalecarlian Alps into Norway;
but we have no particular account of his discoveries in
that kingdom. In 1735 Linnaeus travelled over many
other parts of Sweden, some parts of Denmark and
Germany, and fixed in Holland, where he chiefly re¬
sided until his return to Stockholm, about the year
1739. In 1735, the year in which he took the degree
of M. D. he published the first sketch of his Systema
Natures, in a very compendious way, and in the form
of tables only, in 12 pages in folio. By this it appears
that he had at a very early period of his life (certain¬
ly before he was 24 years old), laid the basis of that
great structure which he afterwards raised, not only
to the increase of his own fame, but to that of natural
science.
In 1736, Linnaeus came into England, and vi¬
sited Dr Dillenius, the learned professor at Oxford,
whom he justly considered as one of the first botanists
in Europe. He mentions with particular x-espcct the
civilities he received from him, and the privileges
he gave him of inspecting his own and the Sherardian
collections of plants. It is needless to say, that he
visited Dr Martyn, Mr Rand, and Mr Miller, and
E f that
LIN L34j -L.il>
t tf» he Avas nroperly entertained by the Jussieus, at that Linn*wf>'.
that he was in a ^ “on. He aL con- time the bL botanists in Fiance The opportunity   ^
the friendship of Dr Isaac La ^ ^ ^ £his gave him of mspecting the Herbaria of Koyen
and Tournefort, and those of the above-named gentle-
afforded him great satisfaction. He had m-
He also con
tracted an intimate friendship with Mr Peter Colhn-
son, which was reciprocally increased by a multitude
of good offices, and continued to the last without any
diminution. Dr Boerhaaye had furnished him with
letters to our great naturalist Sir Hans Sloane J but, it
is with regret that we must observe, they did not pro¬
cure him the reception winch the warmth ot his re¬
commendation seemed to claim.
One of the most agreeable circumstances ^ haP-
pened to Linnseus during his residence in Holland,
arose from the patronage of Mr Clifford, in whose
house he lived a considerable part ot his time, being
now as it were the child of fortune :—fifn'i patna
trivinta sex nummis aureis dives—ave his own words.
With Mr Clifford, however, he enjoyed pleasures and
privileges scarcely at that time to be met with else¬
where in the world y that of a garden excellently stored
with the finest exotics, and a library furnished with
almost every botanic author ot note. How happy he
found himself in this situation, those only who nave
felt the same kind of ardour can conceive. VN hilst in
Holland, our author was recommended by Boerhaave
to fill the place, then vacant, of physician to the
Dutch settlement at Surinam but he declined it on
account of his having been educated in so opposite a
climate. <
Besides being favoured with the particular patron¬
age and friendship of Boerhaave and Mr Clifford,
as is above mentioned, our author had also the plea¬
sure of being contemporary with, and of reckoning
among the number of his friends, many other learned
persons who have since proved ornaments to theii P10*
fession, and whose merit has most deservedly raised
them to fame and honour. Among these we may pro¬
perly mention Dr John Burman, professor of botany
at Amsterdam, whose name and family are well known
in the republic of letters, and to whom our author dedi¬
cated his Bibliotheca Botanica, having been greatly as¬
sisted in compiling that work by the free access he
had to that gentleman’s excellent library j John Fre¬
derick Gronovius of Leyden, editor of Clayton’s Flora
Virginica, and who very early adopted Linnaeus’s
system, Baron Van Swieten, physician to the em¬
press queen*, Isaac Lawson, before mentioned, after¬
wards one of the physicians to the British army, who
died much regretted at Oosterhout in the year
and from whom Linnaeus received singular and very
important civilities; Kramer,. since well known for
an excellent treatise on the docimastic art *, Van Boy-
en, botanic professor at Leyden } Lieberkun of Berlin,
famous for his skill in microscopical instruments and
experiments. To these may be added also the names
of Albinus and Gaubius, and of others, were it re¬
quisite to show that our author’s talents had very early
rendered him conspicuous, and gained him the regard
of all those who cultivated and patronized any branch
of medical science } and to which, doubtless, the sin¬
gular notice with which Boerhaave honoured him did
not a little contribute.
Early in the year 1738, after Linnaeus had left
Mr Clifford, and, as it should seem, when he resided
with Van Royen, he had a long and dangerous fit of
sickness y and upon his recovery went to Paris, where
men,    e  .
tended to have gone from thence into Germany, to
visit Ludwig and the celebrated Haller, with whom
he was in close correspondence j but he was not able
to complete this part of his intended route, and was
obliged to return without this gratification.
Our author did not fail to avail himself of every
advantage that access to the several museums ot this
country afforded him, in every branch of natural hi¬
story *, and the number and importance of his publi¬
cations, during his absence from his native country,
sufficiently demonstrate that fund of knowledge which
he must have imbibed before, and no less testify hw
extraordinary application. These were St/stema Na~
tw'(P, Fundamenta Botanica, Bibliotheca Botamca, and
Genera Plantarum ; the last of which is justly consi¬
dered as the most valuable of all the works of this ce¬
lebrated author. What immense application had been
bestowed upon it, the reader may easily conceive, on
being informed, that before the publication ot the first
edition the author had examined the characters ot
8000 flowers. The last book of Linnseus’s composi¬
tion, published during his stay in Holland, was the
Classes Blunt arum, which is a copious illustration ot ther
second part of the Fundamenta.
About the latter end of the year 1738, or the be¬
ginning of the next, our author settled as a physician
at Stockholm ; where he seems to have met with con¬
siderable opposition, and was oppressed with many
difficulties *, but all of these at length he overcame, and
got into extensive practice ; and soon after ^his settle¬
ment married the lady before spoken of. By the in¬
terest of Count Tessin, who was afterwards his great
patron, and even procured medals to be struck in ho¬
nour of him, he obtained the rank of physician to the
fleet, and a stipend from the citizens for giving
lures in botany. And what at this time especially
was highly favourable to the advancement of his cha¬
racter and fame, by giving him an opportunity of dis¬
playing his abilities, was the establishment of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Stockholm j of which
Linnaeus was constituted the first president, _ and to
which establishment the king granted several privileges,
particularly that of free postage to all papers directed
to the secretary. By the rules of the academy, the
president held his place but three months. At the ex¬
piration of that term, Linnaeus made his Oratio de nie-
morahilibus in Inscctis, Oct. 3. 1739*, in which he en¬
deavours to excite an attention and inquiry into the
knowledge of insects, by displaying the many singular
phenomena that occur in contemplating the nature of
those animals, and by pointing out, in a variety of in¬
stances, their usefulness to mankind in particular, ami
to the economy of nature in general.
During all this time, however, Linnaeus appears to
have had his eye upon the botanic and medical chair
at Upsal, at this time occupied by Rudbeck, who
was far advanced in life. We learn indeed that he
was so intent on pursuing and perfecting his great de¬
signs in the advancement of his favourite study of na¬
ture, that he had determined, if he failed in procuring
’ the
LIN [
the professorship at Upsal, to accept the ofter tnat
had been made to him by Haller of filling the botanic
chair at Gottingen. However, in course ot time, he
obtained his wish. In the year lyd1* ^P®11 ^ie re'
signation of Roberg, he was constituted joint piofes-
sor of physic, and physician to the king, with Rosen,
who had been appointed in the preceding year on the
death of Rudbeck. These two colleagues agreed to
divide the medical departments between them } and
their choice was confirmed by the university. Rosen
took anatomy, physiology, pathology, and the the-
rapeutic part} Linnoeus, natural history, botany, ma¬
teria medica, the dietetic part, and the diagnosis mor-
bonun.
Haring the interval of his removal from Stockholm
to Upsal in consequence of this appointment, our pro¬
fessor was deputed by the states of the kingdom to
make a tour to the islands of Oeland and Gothland in
the Baltic, attended by six of the pupils, commissioned
to make such inquiries as might tend to improve agri¬
culture and arts in the kingdom, to which the Swedish
nation had for some time paid a particular attention.
The result of this journey was very successful, and
proved fully satisfactory to the states, and was after¬
wards communicated to the public. On his return he
entered upon the professorship, and pronounced before
the university his oration de Peregrinationum intra Pa-
triam necessitate, October 17. 1741 j. in which he for¬
cibly displays the usefulness ot such excursions, by
pointing out to the students that vast field of objects
which their country held out to their cultivation, whe¬
ther in geography, physics, mineralogy, botany, zoo-
logy, or economics, and by showing the benefit that
must accrue to themselves and their country as rewards
to their diligence. That animated spirit which runs
through the whole of this composition, renders it one of
-4he most pleasing and instructive of all our author’s
productions.
Linnaeus was now fixed in the situation that was the
best adapted to his character, his taste, and abilities j
and which seems to have been the object ot his ambi¬
tion and centre of his hopes. Soon after his establish¬
ment, he laboured to get the academical garden, which
had been founded in 1657, put on a better footing, and
very soon effected it; procuring also a house to be
built for the residence of the professor. I he whole had
been in ruins ever since the fire in 1702 j and at the
time Linnaeus was appointed professor of botany, the
garden did not contain above fifty plants that were ex¬
otic. His correspondence with the first botanists in
Kurope soon supplied him with great variety. He re¬
ceived Indian plants from Jussieu of Paris, and from
Van Royen of Leyden j Luropean plants from Haller
and Ludwig j American plants from the late IVIr Col-
linson, Air Catesby, and others j and variety of annuals
from Dillenius : in short, how much the garden owed
to his diligence and care in a few years, may be seen
by the catalogue published under the title of Ilortus
Upsaliensis, exhibens Plantas exoticas horto Upsahen-
sis Academice a sesc (Linnceoy illatas ab anno I742> in
annum 1748, additis differentiis synonymis, habitatio-
nibus, hospitiis, rariorumqae descriptionibus, in gra-
tiam studiosce juventutis ; Holm. 1748, 8vo. pp. 306.
tab. 3. By tbis> catalogue it appears, that the profes¬
sor had introduced 1100 species, exclusively of all the
35 1
Swedish plants and of varieties : which latter, in ordi¬
nary gardens, amount not unfrequently to one-third of
the whole number. Jbe preface contains a curious his¬
tory of the climate at Upsal, and the progress of the
seasons throughout the whole year.
From the time that Linnaeus and Rosen were ap
pointed professors at Upsal, it should seem that the cre¬
dit of that university, as a school of physic, had been
increasing : numbers of students resorted thither from
Germany, attracted by the character of these two able
men •, and in Sweden itself many young men were in¬
vited to the study of physic by the excellent manner in
which it w'as taught, who otherwise would have enga¬
ged in different pursuits.
Whilst Linnaeus was meditating one of his capital
performances, which had long been expected and great¬
ly wished for, he was interrupted by a tedious and
painful fit of the gout, which left him in a very weak
and dispirited state 5 and, according to the intelligence
that his friends gave of him, nothing was. thought to
have contributed more to the restoration of his spirits
than the seasonable acquisition, at this juncture, of a
collection of rare and undescribed plants.
The fame which our author had now acquired by his
Systema Natuinx, of which a sixth edition, much en
larged, had been published at Stockholm in 174^ bi
8vo. pp. 232, with eight tables explanatory of the
classes and orders (and which W'as also republished
Gronovius at Leyden), had brought, as it were, a con¬
flux of every thing rare and valuable in every branch
of nature, from all parts of the globe, into Sweden.
The king and queen of Sweden had their separate col¬
lections of rarities : the former at Ulricksdahl ; the lat¬
ter, very rich in exotic insects and shells, procuied at
a great expence, at the palace of Hrottningholm j both
of which our author was employed in arranging and de¬
scribing. Besides these, the museum of the Royal
Academy of Upsal had been augmented by a consider¬
able donation from the king, whilst hereditary prince,
in 1746 } by another from Count Gylh nborg the year
before j by a third from M. Grill, an opulent citizen
of Stockholm.
From this time we see the professor in a more
elevated rank and situation in life. His reputation
had already procured him honours from almost all the
royal societies in Europe ; and his own sovereign,
truly sensible of his merit, and greatly esteeming
his character and abilities, favoured him with a mark
of his distinction and regard, by creating him a
knight of the Polar Star. It was no longer laudatur ct
alget. His emoluments kept pace with his fame and
honours : his practice in his profession became lucra¬
tive } and we find him soon after possessed of his coun¬
try house and gardens at Hammarby, about five miles
from Upsal. He had moreover received one of the
most flattering testimonies of the extent and magnitude
of his fame that perhaps was ever shown to any lite¬
rary character, the state of the nation which conferred
it, with all its circumstances, duly cpnsidered. ^ I his
was an invitation to Atadrid from the king ot. Spain,
there to preside as a naturalist, with the offer ot an an¬
nual pension for life of 2000 pistoles, letters of nobi¬
lity, and the perfect free exercise of his own religion .
But, after the most perfect acknowledgments of
the singular honour done him, he returned for answer,
b E 2 ‘that
L I N
[ 36 ]
L I N
Linnaeus. ‘ that if he had any merits, they were due to his own
li“—-wcountry.’ , , , - 0 .
In the year 1755, the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Stockholm honoured our professor with one of the
first premiums, agreeably to the will of Count Sparree,
who had decreed two gold medals, of ten ducats value
each, to be annually given by the academy to the au¬
thors of such papers, in the preceding year’s Stock¬
holm Acts, as should be adjudged most useful m pro¬
moting agriculture particularly, and all branches of ru¬
ral economy. This medal bore on one side the arms
of the count, with this motto, Superstcs in scientiis
amor Frederici Sparree. Linmeus obtained it in con¬
sequence of a paper De Plantis quee Alpunn Suecica-
ru/n indigence, magno rci crconomicce ct medico: emolu-
mento fieri possint: and the ultimate intention was to
recommend these plants as adapted to culture in Lap-
land. This paper was inserted 111 the Stockholm Acts
for 1754, vol. xv. LimiEeus also obtained the prcemium
centum avreortnn, proposed by the Imperial Academy
of Sciences at Petersburg!!, for the best paper written
to establish or disprove, by new arguments, the doc¬
trine of the sexes of plants. It was, if possible, an
additional glory to Linnaeus to have merited this pre¬
mium from the Petersburgh academy •, inasmuch as a
professor of that society, a few years before, had with
r*ore than common zeal, although with a futility We
that of the other antagonists of our author, endeavoured
to overturn the whole Linnaean system of botany, by at¬
tempting to show that the doctrine of the sexes of plants
had no foundation in nature, and was unsupported by
facts and experiments.
It appears that Linnceus, upon the whole, enjoyed
a good constitution •, but that he was sometimes se¬
verely afflicted with a hemicrania, and w'as not exempt¬
ed from the gout. About the close of 1776, he was
seized with an apoplexy, which left him paralytic 5 and
at the beginning of the year 1777, he suffered another
stroke, which very much impaired his mental powers.
But the disease supposed to have been the more im¬
mediate cause of Ins death, was an ulceration of the
urinary bladder ", of which, after a tedious indisposition,
he died, January 11. 1778, in the 71st year of his age.
_His principal other works, beside those already men¬
tioned, are, The Iter Oelandicum et Gotlandicum, Iter
Scanicum, Flora Suecica, Fauna Suectca, Flatet ia Alc-
dica, Fhilosophia Botanica, Genera Morborum, dif¬
ferent papers in the Acta Upsaliensa, and the Anicent-
tates Academic#. The last of this great man’s trea¬
tises was the Mantissa Altera, published in 1771 ? hut
before his death he had finished the greatest part ot the
Mantissa Tertia, afterwards completed and published
by his son.
To the lovers of science it will not appear strange,
nor will it be unpleasant to hear, that uncommon re¬
spect was shown to the memory of this great man. W e
are told, “ that on his death a general mourning took
place at Upsal, and that his funeral procession was at¬
tended by the whole university, as vyell professors as
students, and the pall supported by sixteen doctors of
physic, all of whom had been his pupils.” The king
of Sweden, after the death of Linnaeus, ordered a me¬
dal to be struck, of which one side exhibits Linnaeus’s
bust and name, and the other Cybele, in a dejected at¬
titude, holding in her left hand a key, and surrounded
with animals and growing plants with this legend, _ Lmns-us. ^
Fleam luctus angit amissi; and beneath, Post Qbitum v
Upsalice, die x. Jan. M.DCC.LXXVlll. Rcge jubente.—
The same generous monarch not only honoured the
Royal Academy of Sciences with his presence when
Linnaeus’s commemoration was held at Stockholm, but,
as a still higher tribute, in his speech from the throne
to the assembly of the states, he lamented Sweden’s
loss by his death. Nor was Linnaeus honoured only in
his own country. The late worthy professor of botany
at Edinburgh, Dr Hope, not only pronounced an eulo-
gium in honour of him before his students at the open¬
ing of his lectures in the spring 1778, but also laid the
foundation stone of a monument (which he afterwards
erected) to his memory, in the botanic garden there j
which, while it perpetuates the name and merits of
Linnaeus, will do honour to the founder, and, it may
be hoped, prove the means of raising an emulation fa¬
vourable to that science which this illustrious Swede so
highly dignified and improved.
As to the private and personal character of this il¬
lustrious philosopher: His stature was diminutive and
puny} his head large, and its hinder part very high ;
his look was ardent, piercing, and apt to daunt the be¬
holder j his ear not sensible to music : his temper quick,
but easily appeased.
Nature had, in an eminent manner, been liberal m
the endowments of his mind. He seems to have been
possessed of a lively imagination, corrected however by
a strong judgment, and guided by the laws of system.
Add to these, the most retentive memory, an unremit¬
ting industry, and the greatest perseverance in all his
pursuits 5 as is evident from that continued vigour with
which he prosecuted the design, that he appears to have
formed so early in life, of totally reforming and fa¬
bricating anew the whole science of natural history j
and this fabric he raised, and gave to it a degree of
perfection unknown before 5 and had moreover the un¬
common felicity of living to see his own structure use
above all others, notwithstanding every discourage¬
ment its author at first laboured under, and the opposi¬
tion it afterwards met with. Neither has any writer
more cautiously avoided that common error of building
his own fame on the ruin of another man’s. He every¬
where acknowledged the several merits of each author s
system ; and no man appears to have been more sensible
of tbe partial defects of his own. Those anomalies
which had principally been the objects of criticism, he
well knew every artificial arrangement must abound
with } and having laid it down as a firm maxim, that
every system must finally rest on its intrinsic merit, he
willingly commits his own to the judgment ot poste¬
rity. Perhaps there is no circumstance of Linnaeus’s
life which shows him in a more dignified light than his
conduct towards his opponents. Disavowing controver¬
sy, and justly considering it as an unimportant and
fruitless sacrifice of time, he never replied to any, nu¬
merous as they were at one season.
To all who see the aid this extraordinary man has
brought to natural science, his talents must appear in
a very illustrious point of view ■, but more especially t®
those who, from similarity of tastes, are qualified to see
more distinctly the vast extent of his original design,
the greatness of his labour, and the elaborate execution
he has given to the whole. He had a happy com¬
mand
LIN [37
IjnsiKU* mantl of the Iiatin tongue, which is alone the language
|| of science •> and no man ever applied it more successrul-
Linsecd. ]y to ^jg purposes, or gave to description such copious-
uegg^ united with that precision and conciseness which
so eminently characterize his writings.
The ardour of Linnaeus’s inclinations to the study of
nature, from his earliest years, and that uncommon ap¬
plication which he bestowed upon it, gave him a most
comprehensive view both of its pleasures and usefulness,
at the same time that it opened to him a wide field,
hitherto but little cultivated, especially in his own
country. Hence he was early led to regret, that the
study of natural history, as a public institution, had
not made its way into the universities j in many of
which, logical disputations and metaphysical theories
had too long prevailed, to the exclusion of more useful
science. Availing himself therefore of the advantages
which he derived from a large share of eloquence, and
an animated style, he never failed to display, in a live¬
ly and convincing manner, the relation this study hath
to the public good } to incite the great to countenance
and protect it •, to encourage and allure youth into
its pursuits, by opening its manifold sources of plea¬
sure to their view, and showing them how greatly this
agreeable employment would add, in a variety of in¬
stances, both to their comfort and emolument. His
extensive view of natural history, as connected with al¬
most all the arts of life, did not allow him to confine
these motives and incitements to those only who were
designed for the practice of physic. He also laboured
to inspire the great and opulent with a taste for this
study and wished particularly that such as were de^
voted to an ecclesiastic life should share a portion of na¬
tural science; not only as a means of sweetening their
rural situation, confined, as many are, perpetually to a
country residence, hut as what would almost inevitably
lead, in a variety of instances, to discoveries which on¬
ly such situations could give rise to, and which the
learned in great cities could have no opportunities to
make. Not to add, that the mutual communication
and enlargement of this kind of knowledge among
people of equal rank in a country situation, must prove
one of the strongest bonds of union and friendship,
and contribute, in a much higher degree than the usual
perishing amusements of the age, to the pleasures and
advantage of society.
LinnaeUs lived to enjoy the fruit of his own labour
in an uncommon degree. Natural history raised it*-
self in Sweden, under his culture, to a state of per¬
fection unknown elsewhere j and was from thence dis¬
seminated through all Europe. His pupils dispersed
themselves all over the globe ; and, with their master’s
fame, extended both science and their own. More
than this, he lived to see the sovereigns of Europe
establish several public institutions in favour of this
study *, and even professorships established in divers
universities for the same purpose, which do honour to
their founders and patrons, and which have excited a
curiosity for the science, and a sense of its worth, that
cannot fail to further its progress, and in time raise it
to that rank which it is entitled to hold among the
pursuits of mankind.
LINNET. See Fringilla, Ornithology In¬
dex.
LINSEED, the seed of the plant linum.-r-Linseed
]
L I N
steeped and bruised in water gives it very soon a thick Linseed
and communicates much of its
See Linum.
Linen j and Linum, Botany
mucilaginous nature,
emollient virtue to it.
LINT. See Flax
Index.
Lint, in Surgery, is the scrapings of fine linen,
used by surgeons in dressing wounds. It is made into
various forms, which acquire different names accord¬
ing to the difference of the figures.—Lint made up in
an oval or orbicular form is called a pledgit; if in a
cylindrical form, or in shape of a date, or olive-stoncy
it is called a dossil.
These different forms of lint are required for many
purposes-, as, 1. To stop blood in fresh wounds, by
filling them up with dry lint before the application of
a bandage: though, if scraped lint be not at hand, a
piece of fine linen may be torn into small rags, and ap¬
plied in the same manner. In very large haemorrhages
the lint or rags should be first dipped in some styptic
liquor, as alcohol, or oil of turpentine ; or sprinkled
with some styptic powder. 2. To agglutinate or heal
wounds ; to which end lint is very serviceable, if spread
with some digestive ointment, balsam, or vulnerary
liquor. 3. In drying up wounds and ulcers, and for¬
warding the formation of a cicatrix. 4. In keeping
the lips of wounds at a proper distance, that they
may not hastily unite before the bottom is well di¬
gested and healed. 5. They are highly necessary to
preserve wounds from the injuries of the air.——Sur¬
geons of former ages formed compresses of sponge*
■wool, feathers, or cotton } linen being scarce: but
lint is far preferable to all these, and is at present uni¬
versally used.
LINTERNUM, or Literum, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a city of Campania, situated at the mouth of the
Clanius, which is also called Liturnus, between Cumae
and \ ulturnum. It received a Roman colony at the
same time with Puteoli and Vulturnum ; was improved
and enlarged by Augustus afterwards forfeited its
right of colonyship, and became a prefecture. Hither
Scipio Africanus the Elder retired from the mean envy
of his ungrateful countrymen ; and here he died, and
was buried : though this last is uncertain, he having a
monument both here and at Rome. No vestige of the
place now remains.
LINTSTOCK, in military affairs, a wooden staff
about three feet long, having a sharp point in one
end and a sort of fork or crotch on the other $ the
latter of which serves to contain a lighted match, and
by the former the lintstock is occasionally stuck in the
ground, or in the deck of a ship during an engage¬
ment. It is very frequently used in small vessels*
where there is commonly one fixed between every two
guns, by which the match is always kept dry, and ready
for firing.
L1NTZ, a very handsome town of Germany, and
capital of Upper Austria, with two fortified castles ;
the one upon a hill, the other below it. Here is a
hall in which the states assemble, a bridge over the
Danube, a manufacture of gunpowder, and several
other articles. It was taken by the French in 1741.,
but the Austrians retook it in the following year. E-
Long. 14. 33. N. Lat. 48. 16. i . . . .
Lintz, a town of Germany, in the circle ot the
Lower Rhine, and electorate of Cologne, subject to
L I O
[ 38 ]
L I P
Lidtz
II
Liotard.
tliat elector. It is seated on the river Rhine, in E.
Long. 7. I. N. Lat. 50. 31. - i . . .
LINUM, Flax ; a genus of plants belonging to
the pentandria class j and in the natural method rank¬
ing under the 14th order, Gruinalts. See Botany
Index. ,.
LINUS, in classical history, a native of Colchis,
contemporary with Orpheus, and one of the most an¬
cient poets and musicians of Greece. It is impossible,
at this distance of time, 'to discover whether Linus
was the disciple of Orpheus, or Orpheus of Linus.
The majority, however, seem to decide this question
in favour of Linus. According to Archbishop Usher,
he flourished about 1280 B. C. and he is mentioned by
Eusebius among the poets who wrote before the time
of Moses. Diodorus Siculus tells us, from Dionysius of
Mitylene the historian, who was contemporary with Ci¬
cero, that Linus was the first among the Greeks who in¬
vented verses and music, as Cadmus first taught them
the use of letters. The same writer likewise attributes
to him an account of the exploits of the first Bac¬
chus, and a treatise upon Greek mythology, written
in Pelasgian characters, which were also those used by
Orpheus, and by Pronapides the preceptor of Homer.
Diodorus says that he added the string lichanos to the
Mercurian lyre ; and ascribes to him the invention of
rhime and melody j which Suidas, who regards him
as the most ancient of lyric poets, confirms. Mr
Marpurg tells us, that Linus invented cat-gut strings
for the use of the lyre, which, before his time, was
only strung with thongs of leather, or with different
threads of flax strung together. He is said by many
writers to have had several disciples of great renown j
among whom were Hercules, Thamyris, and, accord¬
ing to some, Orpheus.—Hercules, says Diodorus, in
learning from Linus to play upon the lyre, being ex¬
tremely dull and obstinate, provoked his master to
strike him j which so enraged the young hero, that in¬
stantly seizing the lyre of the musician, he beat out his
brains with his own instrument.
LION, m Zoology. See Felis, Mammalia
LIONCELLES, in Heraldry, a term used for se¬
veral lions borne in tbe same coat of arms.
LIOTARD, called the Ttirk^ an eminent painter,
was born at Geneva in 1702, and by his father was
designed for a merchant j but, by the persuasion of his
friends, who observed the genius of the young man, he
■was permitted to give himself up to the art of painting.
He went to Paris in 1725, and in 1738 accompanied
the marquis de Puisieux to Rome, who was going am¬
bassador to Naples. At Rome he was taken notice of
by the earls of Sandwich and Besborough, then Lord
Duncannon, who engaged Liotard to go with them
on a voyage to Constantinople. There he became ac¬
quainted with the late Lord Edgecumbe, and Sir Eve-
rard Fawkener, our ambassador, who persuaded him
to come to England, where he staid two years. In
his journey to the Levant he had adopted the eastern
habit, and wore it here with a very long beard. It
contributed much to the portraits of himself, and some
thought to draw customers ; but he was really a paint¬
er of uncommon merit. After his return to the conti¬
nent, he married a young wife, and sacrificed his beard
to Hymen. He came again to England in I772j an<^
brought a collection of •pictures of diflerent masters,
Lipari.
which he sold by auction, and some pieces of glass Liotard
painted by himself, with surprising effect of light and
shade, but a mere curiosity, as it was necessary to
darken the room before they could be seen to advan¬
tage ; he affixed, too, as usual, extravagant prices to
them. He staid here about two years, as in bis former
journey. He has engraved some Turkish portraits,
one of the empress queen and the eldest archduchess
in Turkish habits, and the heads of the emperor and
empress. He painted admirably well in miniature
and finally in enamel, though he seldom practised it.
But he is best known by his works in crayons. His
likenesses were as exact as possible, and too like to
please those who sat to him ; thus he had great busi¬
ness the first year, and very little the second. Devoid
of imagination, and one would think of memory, he
could render nothing but what he saw before his eyes.
Freckles, marks of the smallpox, every thing found its
place not so much from fidelity, as because he could
not conceive the absence of any thing that appeared
to him. Truth prevailed in all his works, grace in
very few or none. Nor was there any ease in his
outline j but the stiffness of a bust in all his por¬
traits. ff alpole.
LIP, in Anatomy. See there, N° 102.
Hare-Lip, a disorder in which the upper lip is in a
manner slit or divided, so as to resemble the upper lip
of a hare, whence the name. See Surgery.
LIPARA, in Ancient Geography, the principal of
the islands called JEolia, situated between Sicily and
Italy, with a cognominal town, so powerful as to have
a fleet, and the other islands in subjection to it. Ac¬
cording to Diodorus Siculus, it was famous for excel¬
lent harbours and medicinal waters. He informs us
also, that it suddenly emerged from the sea about the
time of Hannibal’s death. Tlhe name is Punic, ac¬
cording to Bochart: and given it, because, being a
volcano, it shone in the night. It is now called Lt-
pari, and gives name to nine others in its neighbour¬
hood j viz. Stromboli, Pare, Rotto, Panaria, Saline,
Volcano, Fenicusa, Alicor, and Ustica. T.hese are
called, in general, the Lipari Islands. Some of these
are active volcanoes at present, though Lipari is not.
It is about 15 miles in circumference j and abounds in
corn, figs and grapes, bitumen, sulphur, alum, and mi¬
neral waters.
LIPARI, an ancient and very strong town, and
capital of an island of the same name in the Medi¬
terranean, with a bishop’s see. It was ruined by
Barbarossa in 1544, who carried away all the in¬
habitants into slavery, and demolished the place } but
it was rebuilt by Charles V. E. Long. 15. 30. N. Lat.
38. 35.
Lipari, properly, is the general name of a cluster of
islands. These, according to M. Houel, are principally
ten in number, the rest being only uninhabitable rocks-
of narrow extent. The largest and the most populous
of them, that above mentioned, communicates its name
to the rest. Volcano is a desert but habitable island,
lying south from the large island of Lipari. Salines,
which lies west-north-west from the same island; Fe-
licudi, nearly in the same direction, but 20 miles farther
distant 5 and Alicudi, 10 miles south-west of Felicudi j
are inhabited. ' Pannari is east of Lipari, the famous
Stromboli north-east, and both of them are inhabited.
The
L I P
[ 39 ]
L I P
Lip'ui.
The rest are in a desert state; such as Baxihixzo,
'which was formerly inhabited} Attalo, which might be
inhabited j and L’’Exattibianca, on which some remains
of ancient dwellings are still to be found. L'Escanera
is nothing but a bare rock.
The Fcrmicoli, a word signifying ants, are a chain
of small black cliffs which run to the north-east of Li-
pari, till within a little way ol Exambianca and Esca-
nera, rising more or less above the water, according as
the sea is more or less agitated.
Ancient authors are not agreed with respect to the
number of the Lipari islands. Few of those by whom
they are mentioned appear to have seen them *, and in
places such as these, where subterraneous tires burst
open the earth, and raise the ocean from its bed, ter¬
rible changes must sometimes take place. _ Volcanello
and Volcano were once separated by a strait, so as to
form two islands, file lava and ashes have tilled up
the intervening strait 5 and they are now united into
one island, and have by this change become much more
habitable.
The castle of Lipari stands upon a rock on the east
quarter of the island. rlhe way to it trom the city
leads up a gentle declivity. There are several roads
to it. This castle makes a part of the city •, and on the
summit of the rock is the citadel, in which the governor
and the garrison reside. The cathedral stands in the
same situation. Here the ancients, in conformity to
their usual practice, had built the temple ot a tutelary
god. This citadel commands the whole city •, and it is
accessible only at one place. Were an hostile force to
make a descent on the island, the inhabitants might re¬
treat hither, and be secure against all but the attacks
of famine.
The ancient inhabitants had also fortified this place.
Considerable portions of the ancient walls are still
standing in different places, particularly towards the
south : Their structure is Grecian, and the stones are
exceedingly large, and very well cut. The layers are
three feet high, which shows them to have been raised
in some very remote period. 1 hese remains are sur¬
rounded with modern buildings. T-he remains of Avails
which are still to be seen here, have belonged not only
to temples, but to all the different sorts of buildings
Arhich the ancients used to erect. Ihe vaults, which
are in a better state of preservation than any of the
other parts of these monuments, are now converted to
the purpose of a prison.
In the city of Lipari there are con\Tents of monks
of two different orders 5 but there are no convents for
women, that is to say, no cloisters in which women are
confined} those, however, Avhose heads and hearts
■move them to embrace a state of pious celibacy, are at
liberty to engage in a monastic life, with the concur¬
rence of their confessors. They put on the sacred ha¬
bit, and vow perpetual virginity, but continue to live
Avith their father and mother, and mix in society like
other women. The vow and the habit even enlarge
their liberty. This custom will, no doubt, M. Ilouel
observes, appear very strange to a I rench woman ; but
this was the way in which the virgins of the primitive
church lived. The idea of shutting them up together
did not occur till the fifth century. The life of these
religious ladies is less gloomy than that which those un¬
der the same vows lead in other countries. They wear
clothes of particular colours, according as they belong Liparf. <
to this or that order. Their dress gives them a right v
to frequent the churches at any hours *, aild the voice of
censure, which takes particular pleasure in directing
her attacks against pious ladies, goes so far as to assert
that some young Avomeh assume the habit with no
other views but that they may enjoy greater free-
dom.
In this island oxen of a remarkably beautiful species
are employed in ploughing the ground. The ancient
plough is still in use here. The mode of agriculture
practised here is very expeditious. One man traces a
furrow, and another iollotvs to sow in it gram and pulse.
The ploughman, in cutting the next furrow, covers up
that in which the seed has been sotvn : and thus the
field is both ploughed and soavii at once. Nature seems
to be here uncommonly vigorous and fertile. ^ egeta-
tion is here more luxuriant, and animals gayer and
more healthful, than almost anywhere else.
Near the city of Lipari, the traveller enters deep
narroAV roads, of a very singular appearance. T-he
whole island is nothing but an assemblage of moun¬
tains, all of them consisting of ashes or lava discharged
from the depths of the volcano by which it tvas at
first produced. The particles of this puzzolana, 01
ashes, are not very hard *, the action of the rain water
has accordingly ciit out trenches among the moun¬
tains *, and these trenches being perhaps less uneven
than the rest of the surface, have of consequence been
used as roads by the inhabitants, and have been ren¬
dered much deeper by being worn for so many ages
by the feet of men and other animals. These roads
are more than five or six fathoms deep, and not more
than seven or eight feet Avide. I hey are very crooked,
and have echoes in several places. You would think
that you were Avalking through narroAV streets without
doors or AVindoAVS. Their depth and Avindings shelter
the traveller from the sun while .he is passing through
them ; and he finds them deliciously cool.
The first A’olcanic eruption in the Lipari islands men¬
tioned in history, is that of which Callias takes notice
in his history of the wars in Sicily. Callias was con¬
temporary with Agathocles. That eruption continued
Avithout interval for several days and nights 5 and threw
out great stones, Avhich fell at more than a mile’s dis¬
tance. The sea boiled all around the island, h©
works of Callias are lost, and we know not whether he
descended to a detail of particulars concerning the ra¬
vages produced by this eruption. Under the consulship
of ^Emilius Lepidus and L. Aurelius Orestes, 126
years before the Christian era, these islands were af¬
fected with a dreadful earthquake. The burning of
^Etna was the first cause ot that. Around Lipari and
the adjacent islands, the air Avas all on fire. ^ egeta-
tion Avas withered ; animals died j and fusible bodies,
such as AVax and resin, became liquid. If the inhabi¬
tants of Lipari, from whom our author received these
facts, and the writers who have handed doAvn an account
of them, have not exaggerated the truth, Aye must be¬
lieve that the sea then boiled around the island j the
earth became so hot as to burn the cables by Avhich ves¬
sels Avere fixed to the shore, and consumed the planks,
the oars, and even the small boats. <
Pliny, the naturalist *, speaks of another similar* Lib. iu
event which happened 3^ ^ 4® yeafs after wards, in,aI -
the
L I P
[ 40 ]
LIP
the time of the war of the allied states of Italy against
Rome. One of the iEolian islands, says he, Avas all
on fire as well as the sea ; and that prodigy continued
to appear, till the senate appeased, by a deputation, the
wrath of the gods. From the time of that war, which
happened 86 years before the birth of our Saviour,
till the year 144 of our era, Ave have no account of
anv eruption of these volcanoes : and from that period
again, till the year 1444, Ave hear of no explosion from
them, that is,'for the space of 1300 years. But at
that time both Sicily and the iEolian isles Avere agi¬
tated by dreadful shocks of earthquakes : the volcano
of these isles poured forth streams of lava Avith an aAV-
ful violence, and emitted a volume of flame and smoke
which rose to an amazing height. After that it dis¬
charged enormous stones which fell at the distance of
more than six miles.
A century later, in the year 155°» ^ury
volcano Avas again reneAved. 'I he ashes and stones
'discharged from the crater filled up the strait betAveen
Volcano and Yolcanello.
About Iavo centuries after that, in the year 1739’
there AV'as a sixth eruption. The burstings of the vol¬
canic fire Avere attended Avith a noise so dreadful, that
it was heard as far as Melazzo in Sicily.
Father Leandro Alberti says, that on one of those
dreadful occasions, the women of Lipari, after im¬
ploring in vain all the saints, voived to drink no more
Avine if the volcano should spare them. Their giv¬
ing up this small gratification Avas doubtless of great
service-, yet the eruptions still continue, and have
CAren become more frequent since that time. Only
36 years intervened between this eruption and that
which happened in the year I775- wh0!6 island
was then shaken } subterraneous thunder Avas heard ",
and considerable streams of flame, Avith smoke, stones,
and vitreous lava, issued from the crater. Lipari Avas
covered over with ashes ; and part of these Avas con¬
veyed by the winds all the Avay into Sicily. live
years after, hoAvever, in the month of April 1780,
there issued a ncAV explosion from Volcano -, the smoke
was thick, the shocks constant, and the subterraneous
noise very frequent. So great Avas the consternation
among the inhabitants of Lipari on this occasion, that
the commander Deodati Dolomieu, Avho visited these
islands not long after that event, informs us, that the
inhabitants in general, but especially the Avomen, de¬
voted themselves as slaves to the service of the blessed
virgin j and Avnre ou their arms, as tokens of their
servitude, small iron chains, Avhich they still continue
to Avear.
This act of piety, hoAA'ever, Avas not so efficacious
as the deputation of the senate had been. For after
that deputation, more than 200 years passed before the
iEolian isles Avere afflicted by any other eruption, at
least by any considerable one: Whereas, in three
years after the ladies devoted themselves in so submis¬
sive a manner to the service of the virgin, the isles of
Lipari Avere agitated anew by that fatal earthquake
Avhich ravaged Calabria and part of Sicily, on the 5th
of February 1783.
The dry baths of St Calogero, in the island of Li¬
pari, are stoves, Avhere sulphureous exhalations, knoAvn
to be of a salutary nature, ascend out of the earth
by holes or spiracles. A range of apartments are
built around the place Avhere the exhalations arise. Lipari.
The heat is communicated through those apartments,y—
in such a Avay, that when entering at one end, you ad¬
vance towards the other, the heat still increases upon
you till you gain the middle apartment, and again di¬
minishes in the same manner as you proceed from the
middle to the other end of the range of chambers. In
consequence of this disposition of these apartments,
the sick person can make choice of that temperature
Avhich best suits the nature of his disease. There are a
feAV miserable huts and a small chapel tor the acconuno-
dation of the people Avho repair to these baths. I he
people of the place are ready to attend them. Physi¬
cians likeAvise follow their patients thither, when the
disease is of such a nature as to render their attendance
requisite, and the patient rich enough to afford them
handsome fees : but there is no physician settled in the
place. Besides these dry baths, there are baths of hot
water, distinguished by the name of St tu/ogero's Baths.
There are around them buildings sufficient to lodge a
considerable number of sick people Avith their necessary
attendants. At present, however, these buildings are
but in a bad condition.
The baths consist of two halls ; one square, the other
round. The former is antique ^ it has been built by
the Romans } it is arched with a cupola, and 12 feet
in diameter j it has been repaired : The other is like¬
wise arched Avith a cupola both within and Avithout.
The water conies very hot into the first. It gushes
up from among pieces of la\ra, which compose a pail
of the mountain at the foot of Avhich these baths aie
built. Those stones remain in their natural state. All
that has been done is the raising of a square building
enclosing them. ithin that building the sick per¬
sons either sit doivn on the stones, or immerse them¬
selves in the intervening cavities Avhich are filled Avith
water. They continue there for a certain time, and
approach nearer to, or remain at a farther distance
from the spring, according as their physician directs.
The place serves also as a stove. Ihe hot vapours
arising from the Avater communicate to the suiround¬
ing atmosphere a considerable degiee of heat. It is
indeed not inferior to that of the hot baths of ler-
Avluch owe their heat to a similar cause. In
mini,   -
these baths, therefore, a person can have the benefit
either of bathing in the hot Avatcr, or of exposing him¬
self to the vapour, the heat of Avhich is more mode¬
rate. The bath before mentioned, under the appella¬
tion of dry bath, is also a stove; but the hot vapour
Avith Avhich it is filled issues directly from the volcano.
The place of the bath is, hoAvever, at such a distance
from the volcanic focus, that the heat is not at all in¬
tolerable. ■ “ '
The mountain at the foot of Avhich these baths are
situated is round, and terminates at the summit in a
rock of petrified ashes, which are very hard and of a
very fine grain. This petrifaction consists of pretty
regular strata, and appears to have been greatly prior
in its origin to the adjacent rocks j Avhich consist like-
Avise of ashes, but ashes that have been deposited at a
much later period. From this rock there proceeds
likeAvise a stream of hot Avater, by Avhich some mills in
the neighbourhood are moved.
It cannot but appear surprising that nature has
placed nearly on the summit of a volcanic mountain
springs
LIP [4i
Lipari. springs which Supply so considerable a quantity ot wa-
—  ter. To account for such a phenomenon would be
well worthy of some ingenious naturalist. Nor are
these hot springs all j pi'oceeding around the same hill,
at about a mile’s distance, we find a spring ot cold
water rising from the summit of the same rock, which
on the north-west produces three hot springs. Ihe cold
water is very pleasant to drink, and much used hot i
by men and cattle.
Among these mountains there are many enormous
loose masses of lava, the appearance of which, M.
Houel informs us, naturally leads the observer to take
notice, that the lava of the volcano of Lipari is ot a
much greater diversity of colours, and those richer
and more lively, than the lava of Vesuvius and iEtna.
The lava of Lipari is in some places, tor several miles,
of a beautiful red colour. It contains likewise in great
abundance small black crystallized scoriae, as well as
the small white grains which are commonly found in
lava. 1 . „
Among the eminences which overlook the city oi
Lipari, there are some rocks ot a species which is very
rare in Europe. These are large masses ot vitrified
matter, which rise six or eight teet above the surface
of the ground, and appear to extend to a great depth
tinder it. They exist, through that range of moun¬
tains, in enormous masses, mixed with lavas ot every
different colour, and always standing detached and in¬
sulated. Were they cut and followed under ground,
they would probably be found to exist in immense
quarries in the bowels, ot the earth. The glass of
which they consist might be employed with great ad¬
vantage in manufactures. It is ready made, and might
be easily purified. It is green, compact, and trans¬
parent.
The cultivation of the ground is the chief employ¬
ment of the inhabitants of Lipari. The possession ot
a few acres of land here gives a man great importance.
Parents, wrhen they settle their children, rather give
them money than any part ot their lands.
More than two-thirds of the island are planted with
vines : three-fourths of the grapes which these produce
are dried, and sent mostly to London under the name
of passola. There are different sorts of passola : one
of these, called the black passoh/ia, is prepared from a
particular kind of grape, ot which the berries are un¬
commonly small *, and sold to Marseilles, Holland, and
Trieste. The vines are in small arbours, which rise
only to the height of two feet and a half above the
ground. Under these arbours there grow beans, gourds,
and other leguminous vegetables. In so hot a climate,
the shade of the vines does not injure but protect the
vegetables growing under it: they would otherwise
be withered by the heat of the sun.
The method of preparing passola and passolina is
curious enough : They first make a lixivium of com¬
mon ashes; after boiling this, they pass it through a
cloth or a sieve •, they then put it again on the fire} and
when it is observed to boil hard, suddenly immerse the
grapes, but instantly bring them out again, and ex¬
pose them to the sun to dry on broad frames of cane.
When sufficiently dry, the raisins are put into casks
and barrels to be sold and exported. The number ot
casks of different sorts of raisins annually exported from
Lipari is estimated at 10,000.
Vol. XII. Part I.
]
L i r
This island likewise produces figs. There is sbfne
white malmsey and a little red wine exported from it.
About 60 or 80 years since, sulphur was one of the
articles with which the inhabitants of this island sup¬
plied foreign merchants. But that trade has been
given up, from an idea which the Liparese entertain,
that sulphur infects the air so as to injure the fertility
of the vines. The same prejudice prevails in Sicily,
but it seems to be ill founded.
There are courts of justice in Lipari of the same
powers and characters with those in the cities of Sicily.
Causes of more than ordinary importance are carried to
Palermo.
The island is entirely free from every kind of im¬
position. The king receives nothing from it j because
Count Roger anciently bestowed on its bishop all his
rights of royalty over Lipari. The bishop there re¬
ceived annually from the inhabitants a tenth part of
the products of their lands. They afterwards, to pre¬
vent fraud, estimated the value of that tithe for one
year; and on the condition of their paying in future a
sum of money equal to what that year’s tithe was va¬
lued at, lie not only gave up his right to the tithe, but
also ceded to them a considerable extent of land which
belonged to him.
In the archiepiscopal palace, and in the palace of
the Baron de Monizzio, there are some noble pieces of
painting by Sicilian painters :—A St Peter, a St Ro¬
salia, Jesus disputing with the Jewish doctors, the adul¬
terous woman, the incredulity of St I homas.
LIPOTHYMIA, Fainting, may arise from seve¬
ral causes •, as too violent exercise, suppression of the
menses or other accustomed evacuations, &c. Sec Me¬
dicine Index.
LIPPA, a town of Hungary, with a castle. It
was taken by the Turks in 1552 } by the Imperialists
in 1688 } and by the Turks again in 1691 •, who aban¬
doned it in 1695, after having demolished the fortifi¬
cations. It is seated on a mountain, in E. Long. 21.
55. N. Lat. 36. 5.
LIPPE, the capital of a county of the same name
in Germany, and the circle of Westphalia. It is seat¬
ed on a river of the same name, and was formerly the
residence of the principal branch of the house of Lippe.
It is now in the possession of the king of Prussia, and
carries on a good trade in preparing timber for build-
in<>- vessels on the Rhine, with which it has a commu¬
nication by the river Lippe. The country round it is
unwholesome and marshy. E. Long. 8. 12. N. Lat.
31.43.
LIPPI, Lorenzo, a painter of history and portraits,
was born in 1606, and learned the principles of paint¬
ing from Matteo Roselli. He had an exquisite genius
for music and poetry, as well as for painting, and in
the latter his proficiency was so great, that some of
bis compositions in the historical style were taken for
those of Roselli. However, growing at last dissatisfied
with the manner of that master, he chose the manner
of Santi di Titi, who was excellent both in design and
invention, and appeared to have more of simple nature
and truth in his compositions than any other artist of
that time. At Florence Lippi painted many grand
designs for the chapels and convents, by which he en¬
larged liis reputation j and at the court of Inspiuck,
he painted a great number of portraits of the fust no-
f F bility,
Lippi
II
Lis.
L I S
deservedly admired.
[ 42 ] L 1 s .
, .. . Yet al- Paolo Veronese, and Domenico Petti, so effectually,
l„Uty, wl>icl. were ^ ^ture wilhoet that he improved Ids taste and judgment, and altered
though he was fond of imitating simp ^ hel4 hU manneI. entirely. He soon received marks of public
, any embellishments from ■"v™t'on’1 , a; f t,ie .,pprobation ; and his compositions became universally
Zl: tft Correctness ^of Colnl, and for alired for their good expression, for their lively and
Lis,
Lisbon.
tliniegant disposition of the figures. He died in
^LIPSIUS, Justus, a learned critic, was born at
Isch, a small village near Brussels, in 1547' 1 J-61
having distinguished himself in polite literature, he be¬
came Secretary to Cardinal de Granvellan at Borne,
where the best libraries were open to lum * and he
spent much labour in collating the MSS. of ancient
authors. He lived 13 years at Leyden ; during which
he composed and published what he esteems his best
works : but settled at Louvain, where he taught polite
literature with great reputation. He was remarkable
for unsteadiness in religion, fluctuating olten between
the Protestants and Papists; but he became finally a
bigotted catholic. He died at Louvain in 1606 j and
his works are collected in six volumes folio.
LIQUEFACTION, an operation by which a solid
body is reduced into a liquid by the action of heat. See
Fluidity, Chemistry Index.
LIQUID, a body which has the property of fluidi¬
ty, as water, mercury, &c. See Fluid.
Liquid, among grammarians, is a name applied to
certain consonants opposed to mutes, ihus 1, m, n,
and r, are liquids.
LIQUIDAMBAR, Sweet-gum-tree, a genus of
plants, belonging to the monoecia class; and in the na¬
tural method ranking with those of which the order is
doubtful. See Botany Index.
LIQUOR, a name for any fluid substance of the.
aqueous or spirituous kind.
The principal beverage amongst the Jews, as well as
the Greeks and Romans, in their early state, was wa¬
ter, milk, and the juices of various plants infused there-
m.' For a long time, under the commonwealth of Rome,
wine ivas so scarce, that in their sacrifices to the. gods
the libations were made with milk only. Wine did not
become common there till A. U. C. 600, when vines
began to be planted.
Liquor of Flints. See Chemistry, N° 1450.
Smoking Liquor of Libavius. See Chemistry,
N Mineral Anodyne Liquor of Hoffman.^ This is a
composition of highly rectified spirit of wine, vitriolic
ether, and a little of the dulcified oil of vitriol. See
Chemistry, N° 849.
LIQUORICE. See Glycyrrhiza, Botany and
Materia AIedica Index.
LIRIODENDRON, the Tulip tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyandria class, and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 5 2d order, Coadunatee.
See Botany Index. _
LIS, or Lys, John Vander, painter of history, land¬
scapes, and conversations, was born at Oldenburgh
in 1 C70, but went to Haerlem to place himself as a
disciple under Henry Goltzius j and as he was endowed
with great natural talents, he soon distinguished him¬
self in that school, and imitated the manner of his ma¬
ster with great success. He adhered to the same style
till he went to Italy, where, having visited Venice
and Rome, he studied the works of Titian, Tintoretto,
natural colouring, and the sweetness and delicacy of
his pencil: although it must be acknowledged, that he
could never totally divest himself of the ideas and taste
peculiar to the Flemings. His subjects usually were
histories taken from the sacred writings, or the repre¬
sentations of rural sports, marriages, balls, and villagers
dancing, dressed in Venetian habits j all which subjects
he painted in a small as well as a large size, with a
number of figures, well designed, and touched with a
great deal of delicacy. He was likewise accounted to
paint naked figures admirably, with natural and elegant
attitudes, and a very agreeable turn of the limbs.
A capital picture of this master is, Adam and La e
lamenting the death of Abel j which is extremely ad¬
mired, not only for the expression, but also for the,
beauty of the landscape j and in the church of St Ni¬
cholas at Venice is another of his paintings, represent¬
ing St Jerome in the desert, with a pen in his hand, and
his head turned to look at an angel, who is supposed to
he sounding the last trumpet. The colouring of this
picture is rather too red ; but it is designed in a fine,
style, and charmingly penciled. rl he paintings of this
master are very rarely to be purchased. He died in.
162a. . ...
Lis, John Vander, of Breda, historical painter, was
born at Breda about the year 1601, and became a dis¬
ciple of Cornelius Polemburg, whose manner he imitated,
with extraordinary exactness, in the tintof his colouring,
his neatness of penciling, and the choice of his subjects-
There are some paintings of this master’s hand, which,
though they appear to have somewhat less freedom am
lightness of touch, are nearly equal to those of Polem-
buro-, and are frequently taken to be his. At Rotterdam,
in the possession of Air Bisschop, there is a delicate
painting representing Diana in the bath, attem ei y
her nymphs; and his most capital performance, m
England, is said to be in the possession of the viscount
Middleton, The portrait of Vander Lis, painted by
himself, is in the possession of Horace AValpole, Esq.
which is described by that ingenious gentleman as be¬
ing worked up equal to the smoothness of enamel.
LISBON, the capital of the kingdom of Portugal,
situated in the province of Estremadura, on the banks
of the river Tagus, in AA7. Long. 9. 25. N. Lat. 38. 42.
It was anciently called Ohsipo, Ohsippo, and Ulyssipo.
It first became considerable in the reign of King Ema¬
nuel ; from that time it has been the capital of the king-
dom, the residence of its monarchs, the seat oi the chief
tribunals and offices of the metropolitans, a noble univei-
sity, and the receptacle of the richest merchandise^ of the
East and AVest Indies. Its air is excellent •, being re¬
freshed by the delightful sea breezes, and those of the
Tagus. The city extends for about two miles along
the Tagus } but its breadth is inconsiderable. Like old
Rome, it stands on seven hills: but the streets in gene¬
ral are narrow and dirty, and some of them are very
steep neither are they lighted at night. The churches,
in general, are very fine j but the magnificence of the
chapel royal is amazing. Here is one of the finest
harbours in the world j and there were a great number
not
LIS [ 43 ]
ljs1)on not only of fine churches and convents here, hut also
|| of other public buildings, and particularly ol royal pa-
Lisle. laces, and others belonging to the grandees ; but the
—v ' greatest part of them, and of the city, were destroyed
by a most dreadful earthquake, on Nov. I. i'/55> from
which it will require a long time to recover. ri lie
inhabitants, before the earthquake, did not at most
exceed 150,000. The government of it is lodged in
a council, consisting of a president, six counsellors, and
other inferior officers. The harbour has water enough
for the largest ships, and room enough for 10,000 sail
without being crowded. For its security, there is a
fort at the mouth of the river, on each side, and a bar
that runs across it, and is very dangerous to pass with¬
out pilots. Higher up, at a place where tlm river is
considerably contracted, there is a fort called Torre de
Belem, or the Tower of Belem, under whose guns all
.ships must pass in their way to the city •, and on the
other side are several more forts. Before the earth¬
quake, most of the private houses were old and un¬
sightly, with lattice windows and the number of con¬
vents and colleges amounted to 50, namely, 32 lor
monks, and 18 for nuns. The king’s principal palace
stands on the river, and is large and commodious. 01
the hospitals, that called the Great is obliged to re¬
ceive all persons, of what degree, nation, or religion
soever, without exception. At the village of Belem,
near Lisbon, is a noble hospital for decayed gentlemen
who have served the king, and have not wherewithal
to maintain themselves. That called the House of Mercy
is also a noble charity. In the centre of the city,
upon one of the highest hills, is the castle, which com¬
mands the whole, being large and ancient, and having
always a garrison of four regiments of foot. The
cathedral is a vast edifice of the Gothic kind, but
heavy and clumsy : it contains, however, great riches.
The whole city is under the ecclesiastical jurisdiction
of the patriarch, who was appointed in the year 1717.
Here is also an archbishop, who has, or at least had,
before the erection of the patriarchate, a revenue of
40,000 crusadoes, or 6000I. The university, which
was removed for some time to Coimbra, but afterwards
restored to its ancient seat, makes a considerable figure,
though much inferior to that of Coimbra. In Decem¬
ber 1807 the Portuguese court retired from Lisbon to
Brazil, and the city was occupied by the French,
who retained possession of it till August 1808, when it
was given up under the convention of Cintra.
LISBURN, a town of Ireland, in the the county of
Antrim and province of Ulster, 73 miles from Dublin.
It was burnt down about 50 years ago j but is now
rebuilt in a neat and handsome manner, and has a large
linen manufactory. It is seated on the river Laggan,
in W. Long. 6. 20. N. Lat. 54. 31. It gives title
of earl to the family of Vaughan, and formerly return¬
ed two members to parliament.
LISIEUX, a considerable town of France, in Up¬
per Normandy, with a bishop’s see. The churches and
religious houses, and the bishop’s palace, are all very
handsome structures. It is a trading place and is
seated at the confluence of the rivers Arbeck and Gassi,
in E. Long. o. 20. N. Lat. 49. ix.
LISLE, a large, rich, handsome, and strong town
of French Flanders, of which it is the capital, with a
strong castle, and a citadel built by Vauban, and said
to be the finest in Europe, as well as the best fortified. Lisle.
The largest square, and the public buildings, are very v
handsome ; and they have manufactures of silks, cam¬
brics, and camblets, as well as other stufls, which
have been brought to great perfection. It was taken
by the duke of Marlborough, after three months
siege and the loss of many thousands of men, in X7°^»
but restored to the French by the treaty of Utrecht,
in consideration of their demolishing the fortifications
of Dunkirk. It was besieged by the Austrians in I792>
who on the 29th of September began a heavy cannon¬
ading against it, which continued incessant till the 6th
of October, when they were obliged to raise the siege,
after having thrown into the city about 30,000 red-hot
balls, besides 6000 bombs. It is seated on the river
Duele, 14 miles west of Tournay, 32 south-west of
Ghent, 37 north-west of Mons, and 130 north of Paris.
E. Long. 3. 9. N. Lat. 50. 33.
Lisle, Joseph Nicholas clc, an eminent astrono¬
mer and geographer, vras born at Paris in the year
1688. His father having taught him the principles of
grammar, he afterwards attended lectures in the Maza¬
rine college, where he delivered his rhetorical exercises
in 1706. A total eclipse of the sun having taken
place on the 12th of March that year, his taste for
mathematics was thus discovered, and he was accord-
ingly placed under a proper tutor, who taught him the
elements of geometry, fortification and mechanics y but
his favourite study was the science of astronomy.
In 1707 he xvas offered the place of an engineer at
Martinico, which made him acquainted with the art of
drawing, an acquisition which proved highly useful to
him in his geographical labours, and also in the study
of astronomy. His lather having got a copy .of An
Account of a Voyage to the South sea from his son s
master, young de Lisle was excited by the perusal of it
to the study of natural history, and he began to make
collections of insects, and sketch their varieties; but
being afterwards persuaded that so extensive a study,
requiring such immense collections to be made as he
found in Aldrovandus, was wholly incompatible with
that unremitting attention which his favourite science
required, he relinquished it accordingly. The atten¬
tion he paid to astronomical researches was so great,
that he was considered as meriting the correspondence
of some of the ablest astronomers of Europe at the early
age of 21. In 1709 he made a wooden quadrant,
which he divided with the utmost accuracy, and which
answered the intended purpose in his early observations.
He likewise constructed a table for M. Cassini, ol the
right ascensions and declinations, adapted to all the de¬
grees of latitude and longitude of the planets, and the
obliquity of the ecliptic ; this table was made use of by
M. Cassini in foretelling the oceultations of the stars by
the moon.
De Lisle being informed by Cassini in 1710 of his
method of representing an eclipse ol the sun, by the
projection of a terrestrial parallel on a plane he in¬
stantly conceived the idea of applying it to every part
of the earth, by means of a globe mounted and pre¬
pared for that purpose. Such astronomer’s as he made
acquainted with his project, conceived it to be imprac¬
ticable j but when the machine was completed, they
bestowed the highest encomiums on the noble invention.
The first memorable observation made by de Lisle was
~ F 2 that
L I S
[ 44 J
L I S
r.i,le tint of the moon, on the 231! of January 1712, after
—V 1 which his labours experienced some interruption from
bodily indisposition. About this time the situation of
his lather’s numerous family rendered it necessary that
he should provide for himself, so that he was obliged to
make his astronomical knowledge subservient to the ab¬
surdities of astrology, receiving pecuniary presents from
the reo-ent for his services. He received also in 1715
the errant of a pension of 600 livres, on which occasion
he calculated tables of the moon according to the New¬
tonian theory, prior to Halley’s communications to
him, which were printed in 1719. He Lisle was cho¬
sen a member of the Academy of Sciences in 1714, on
which account his exertions were redoubled.
In 1720 he delivered a proposal to the academy tor
ascertaining in France the figure of the earth, a design
which was carried into execution some years afterwards,
fu 1723 he delivered to the same academy a memoir
on the transits of Mercury, wherein a method of calcu¬
lating them was proposed by him, the way in which
they^were to be observed, and the inferences to be de¬
duced from these observations. He proposed the use
of the quadrant in observing the transits of \enus and
Mercury, which has been found superior to any other
instrument for that important purpose, and is sanc¬
tioned since his day by the practice of the ablest astro¬
nomers. . ,
Our distinguished philosopher came over to England
in the year 1724, where he became acquainted with
Newton and Halley, and had the honour of obtaining
their approbation. Newton made him a present of his
own portrait, and Halley gave him a copy ol the tables
which he had published in 1719. He was also created
a member of the Royal Society, and he enjoyed similar
honours from every literary society in Europe before
his death. In 1721 be received an invitation from
Peter the Great to go to Petersburgb, to fill the chair
of astronomer in the Imperial Academy of Sciences.
On the death of that emperor, bis successor Catharine
renewed the invitation, offering him a considerable pen¬
sion, of which he accepted, and, in 1J26, set outfox
Petersburgb, accompanied by bis brother Lewis and M.
Vignon, who were to act as bis assistants. He reached
Petersburgb in the month of October, and was esta¬
blished in the observatory erected by Peter the Great,
which he occupied for 21 years. It was in every
respect commodious, but extremely deficient in astro¬
nomical apparatus, which his own ingenuity and inde¬
fatigable application in a great measure supplied.
A transit of Mercury over the sun’s disc was expect¬
ed in the year 1740* w'hich would not be visible in
Europe, and therefore de Lisle undertook a journey to
the distant regions of Asia} but after travelling tbiougli
the inhospitable wilds of Siberia, the cloudiness of the
atmosphere prevented him from observing the tiansit,——
a mortitication which he endeavoured to support by his
geographical and physical remarks, and in drawing up
a description of the country. He constructed an in¬
teresting map of Russia, assisted by his brother Lewis,
who was appointed to make observations in the most
distant parts of that immense empire. He was occa¬
sionally employed for the long period of foity years,
in making meteorological observations, which he exe¬
cuted with an accuracy almost incredible.
After a number of discouragements and difficulties,
and the irregular payment of his pension, had been long
experienced by de Lisle at Petersburgh, he returned
disgusted to his native place, and was chosen professor
of mathematics at the college-royal, where he did the
most essential service to the sciences, by the important
instructions which he gave to his numerous pupils,
many of whom became afterwards the most distinguish¬
ed characters, such as M. M. de la Lande and Mes¬
sier.
When the transit of Mercury over tne sun was ea¬
gerly expected in 1753 by the greatest astronomers, de
Lisle published an interesting map of the world, repre¬
senting the effect of Mercury’s parallaxes in different
countries, that such places might be known as were
proper for making those observations on the transit as
might determine the distance of the sun. As the ap¬
parent orbit of the planet traversed nearly the centre of
the sun, de Lisle made use ol this circumstance to de¬
termine the diameter of that luminary. The last woik
of our author which was inserted in the volumes oi t ic
French academy, was a memoir on the comet vine 1
appeared in the year 1758, discovered by a peasant m
the vicinity of Dresden.
It may perhaps he asserted with justice, that the most
important service which this great nian rendered to as¬
tronomers was, Ins correction of the double enoi of
Halley respecting the transit of Venus, looked for in
the year 1761, as by this means he prevented many
learned men from undertaking long voyages m order
to observe it. About the year 1754, de Lisle was ap¬
pointed by the king of France, astronomical geogra¬
pher to the marine, in which capacity he was to collect
plans and journals of naval captains, to arrange them
methodically, and to make extracts from them of what-
ever might be beneficial to the service. About the
year 1758 he withdrew into quiet retirement at toe ab¬
bey of St Genevieve, where much of his tune w’as spent
in devotional exercises, and in acts ol charity and bene¬
ficence. Still, bow'ever, he continued to prosecute those
studies which had been so dear to him duiing theearliei
part of his life', but in 1768 he was seized with a
scorbutic complaint, of which he was cured by his me¬
dical friends •, but in the month of September the same
year he was seized with a species of apoplexy, which
carried him off on the 11th day of that month, m the
81st year of his age.
His extraordinary merit as a man of science may in
some measure be gathered from this concise account
of his life ; and as a citizen of the world his piety was
unaffected, his morals pure, his integrity undeviating*
his spirit generous and disinterested, and his whole
manners highly amiable. The only publication of our
author’s, besides those already mentioned, consisted of
“ Memoirs illustrative of the History of Astronomy,
in two volumes 4to.
Lisle, Sir John, a brave loyalist in the time of
the civil wars, was the son of a bookseller in London,
and received his education in the Netherlands. He
signalized himself upon many occasions in the civil war,
particularly in the last battle of Newbury } where, in
the dusk of the evening, he led his men-lathe charge
in his shirt, that his person might be more conspicuous.
The king, who was an eye-witness of his bravery,
knighted him on the field of battle. In 1648, he rose
for his majesty in Essex > and was one of the royalists
lible.
LIS [ 45 ]
Tj,]c whoso obstinately defended Colchester, and who died
Lismore. for the defence of it. This brave man having tender-
-"“V——' ly embraced the corpse of Sir Charles Lucas, Ins de¬
parted friend, immediately presented himself to the
soldiers who stood ready for his execution. Thinking
that they stood at too great a distance, he desired them
to come nearer : one ot them said, “ I warrant you
Sir, we shall hit you.” He replied with a simile,
“ Friends, I have been nearer you when you have
missed me.” He was executed August 28. 1648.
LISMORE, one of the Western islands of Scot¬
land, seated at the mouth of Loche Linnhe, an arm of
the sea in Argyleshire, navigable for the largest ships
to Fort William, which is in the country called Locha-
ber. This island is 10 miles in length by one in
breadth ; and contained, in 1811, 1323 inhabitants. It
abounds in limestone, which forms a fine loamy and very
fertile soil, yielding rich crops oi barley. 1 his island
was formerly the residence of the bishop of Argyle, from
which he was frequently named Episcopus Listnorensis.
Great part of the cathedral yet remains, and part of it
is still employed as the parish church. 1 he bishop s
castle stands four miles from the cathedral j the walls
are yet pretty entire. There are some vestiges of for¬
tified camps, and an old castle with a ditch and draw¬
bridge, which, it is said, were erected by the Danes.
Lismore, a borough town of Ireland, in the county
of Waterford, and province of Munster, 100 miles
from Dublin *, N. Lat. 52. 5. W. Long. 7. 50. It was
anciently called Lessmore or Lios-more, i. e. the great
enclosure, or habitation it is now a bishopric, united
to Waterford, and formerly had an university. St Car-
thagh or Mochuda, in the beginning of the seventh cen¬
tury, founded an abbey and school in this place, which in
a short time was much resorted to, not only by the na¬
tives, but also by the Britons and Saxons, during the
middle ages. According to an ancient writer of the life
of St Carthagh, Lismore was in general inhabited by
monks, half of it being an asylum into which no wo¬
man dared enter j consisting entirely of cells and mo¬
nasteries, the ruins of which, with seven churches, are
yet visible. A castle was built here by Iking John.
The site of Lismore was in early ages denominated
?nagh skia, or the “ chosen shield,” being the situation
of a dun or fort of the ancient chieftains of the Decies,
one of whom granted it to St Carthagh on his expul¬
sion from the abbey of Ratheny in Westmeath. On
becoming an university, Math Sgiath obtained the
name of Dunsginne, or the “ lort of the Saxons,”
from the number of Saxons who resorted thereto 5 but
soon after, it was called Lios-more or Less-vwre, and
now Lismore; the bishopric of which was united to
that of Waterford in 1363, being 730 years after its
foundation. The public road to Cork was formerly
through this place, and at that time it had a better
face of business. St Carthagh, who retired to this
place with some of his religious in 636, to avoid the
fury of the then Irish monarch, tied his disciples to a
most strict rule of life } they never were allowed the
use of flesh, fish, or fowl j only the vegetables that
the ground produced at the ex pence of their own la¬
bour. Father Daniel, in his Histoire Monastiqm, men¬
tions one on the same foundation in France. The
castle here, which, as we have formerly mentioned, was
built by King John, was erected in 1195 on the ruins
of the abbey of St Carthagh : it belonged to the duke LismoSp,
of Devonshire, and gave birth to the great philosopher jj
Robert Boyle. In 1189 it was demolished by the,
Irish, who took it by surprise. Being afterwards re-
edified, it was for many years an episcopal residence,
till Myler Magrath, archbishop of Cashel, and bishop
of this see, granted the manor of Lismore to that no¬
ted scholar and soldier Sir Walter Raleigh, in the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, at the yearly rent ol 13I. 6s. 8d. j
hut that estate was lopped oil' with bis head in the
reign of King James I. After which it fell into the
hands of Sir Richard Boyle, who purchased all Sir
Walter’s lands > he beautified the whole, and added
many buildings to it, most of which were burned down
in the Irish rebellion ; at the breaking out of which,
it was closely beseiged by 5000 Irish commanded by
Sir Richard Beling, and was well defended by the
young Lord Broghiil, third son ol the earl of Cork,,
who obliged them to raise the siege. The castle is bold¬
ly seated on the verge of a rocky hill, rising almost per¬
pendicular to a considerable height over the river
Blackwater. The entrance is by an ancient and ve¬
nerable avenue of trees. Over the gate are the vener¬
able arms of the first earl of Cork. Opposite to the en¬
trance is a modern portico of Bath stone, ol the Doric
order, designed by Inigo Jones. Most of the buildings
have remained in ruins since the era of the rebellion j
but the several offices that make up two sides of the
square are kept in repair. At each angle is a tower,
the chief remains of its former magnificence. In Oc¬
tober 1785, the late duke of Rutland, then lord-lieute¬
nant of Ireland, whilst on a tour in Munster, held a
council in, and issued proclamations Irom this castle.
The cathedral is still pretty well kept in repair. Here
is a fine bridge over the river Blackwater, erected at a
very great expence by the duke of Devonshire : this
bridge is remarkable for the extent of the principal
arch, the span of it being 102 feet. Below the town
is a rich fishery for salmon, which is the greatest branch
of trade here. Though this place is at present much
reduced, yet Cambrensis informs us, that, not many
years after the conquest, this was a very rich city, and
held out some time against the English, who took it at
last by storm, and gained rich plunder here, enough to
load 16 sail of ships.
LISSA, an island in the gulf of Venice, on the coast
of Dalmatia, belonging to the Venetians, where they
have a fishery of sardines and anchovies. It produces
excellent wine, and is 70 miles west of Ragusa. E.
Long. 17. o. N. Lat. 43. 22.
Lissa, a town of Poland, in the palatinate of Posna,
of which it is the capital. E. Long. 16. o. N. Lat.
32. J5. •
Lissa, a village of Silesia, 16 miles from Breslau,
remarkable for a battle fought between the Prussians
and the Austrians on the 15th of December 1757,
when the latter were entirely defeated.
LISSUS, in Ancient Geography, the last town of
Illyricum, towards Macedonia, situated on the Drilo.
It had a capacious port, the work ot Dionysius the
Tyrant, who led the colony thither, enlarged and wal¬
led it round, (Diodorus Siculus). Noav called
in Albania, on the Drino, near the gulf of Venice. E.
Long. 20. N. Lat. 42.
LIST, in commerce, the border of cloth or stuff;
serving.
LIS [46
'tist. Serving not only to show their quality, but to preserve
■—v   them from being torn in the operations of iullmg, dye¬
ing, &c. List is used on various occasions ; but chiel-
lv by gardeners for securing their wall trees.
' List in Architecture, a little square moulding, other-
Vise called a fillet, listel, &e. See Architecture.
List, is also used, to signify the enclosed held or
ground wherein the ancient knights held their justs
and combats. It was so called, as being hemmed
round with pales, barriers, or stakes, as with a list.
Some of these were double, one for each cavalier.
which kept them apart, so that they could not come
nearer each other than a spear’s length. See Just,
Tournament, Duel, &c.
Civil List, in the British polity. The expences
defrayed by the civil list are those that in any shape re¬
late to civil government; as, the expences of the house¬
hold •, all salaries to officers of state, to the judges, and
every one of the king’s servants, the appointments to
foreign ambassadors ; the maintenance of the queen
and royal family *, the king’s private expences, or privy-
purse ; and other very numerous outgoings, as secret-
service money, pensions, and other bounties . w 11c 1
sometimes have so far exceeded the revenues appointed
for that purpose, that application has been made to
parliament to discharge the debts contracted on the ci¬
vil list j as particularly in 17 24, when one million was
oranted for that purpose by uie statute 11 Geo. 1. c. 17.
and, in 1769, when half a million was appropriated to
the like uses by the statute 9 Geo. III. c. 34.
Blackst. civil list is indeed properly the whole of the
Comment. kjngis revenue in his own distinct capacity ; the rest
being rather the revenue of the public, or its creditors,
though collected and distributed agaiw* in the name
^nd by the officers of the crown : it now standing in
the same place, as the hereditary income did formeily ,
and as that has gradually diminished, the parliamen¬
tary appointments have increased. The whole revenue
ef Queen Elizabeth did not amount to more than
6oo,oool. a-year: that of Kang Charles I. was8oo,oool.
and the revenue voted for King Charles II. was
1,200,000k though complaints were made (in the first
wears at least) that it did not amount to so much. But
it must be observed, that under these sums were inclu¬
ded all manner of public expences ; among which Lord
Clarendon, in his speech to the parliament, computed
that the charge of the navy and land forces amounted
annually to 800,000k which was ten times more than
before the former troubles. The same revenue, subject
to the same charges, was settled on King James II. j
but by the increase of trade, and more frugal manage¬
ment, it amounted on an average to 1,500,000k per
annum, (besides other additional customs granted by
parliament, which produced an annual revenue of
400,000k), out of which his fleet and army were main¬
tained at the yearly expence of i,ioo,OOoh After
the Revolution, when the parliament took into its own
hands the annual support of the forces both maritime
and military, a civil list revenue was settled on the new
kint>; and queen, amounting, with the hereditary du¬
ties" to 700,000k per annum) and the same was con¬
tinued to Queen Anne and King George L That of
See 7?r- King George II. was nominally augmented to 800,000k ,
venue. and in fact was considerably more : but that of his pre¬
sent majesty is expressly limited to that sum j though
3
i lit
100,cock hath been since added. And upon the whole, List
it is doubtless much better for the crown, and also for \\
the people, to have the revenue settled upon the mo-,
dern footing rather than the ancient. For the crown,
because it is more certain, and collected with greater
ease for the people, because they are now delivered
from the feudal hardships, and other odious branches
of the prerogative. And though complaints have some¬
times been made of the increase of the civil list, yet if
wc consider the sums that have been formerly granted,
the limited extent under which it is now established,
the revenues and prerogatives given up in lieu of it by
the crown, the numerous branches of the present royal
family, and (above all) the diminution of the value of
money compared with what it was worth in the last
century, we must acknowledge these complaints to be
void of any rational foundation and that it is impos¬
sible to support that dignity, which a king of Great
Britain should maintain, with an income in any degree
less than what is now established by parliament, bee
Revenue. .
To List or Enlist Soldiers, to retain and enroll
men as soldiers, either as volunteers, or by a kind of
compulsion. Persons listed must be carried within four
days, but not sooner than 24 hours after, before the
next justice of peace of any county, riding, cityr, 01
place, or chief magistrate of any city or town corporate
(not being an officer in the army) j and if before such
justice or magistrate they dissent from such enlisting,
and return the enlisting money, and also 20 shillings in
lieu of all charges expended on them, they are to be
discharged. But persons refusing or neglecting to re¬
turn and pay such money within 24 hours, shall be
deemed as duly listed as if they had assented thereto
before the proper magistrate ; and they shall, in that
case, be obliged to take the oath, or, upon refusal, they
shall be confined by the officer who listed them till they
do take it. . . .
LISTER, Dr Martin, an eminent English phy¬
sician and naturalist, was born in 1638, and educated
at Cambridge. He afterwards travelled into I ranee j
and at his return practised physic at A ork, and after¬
wards at London. In 1683, he was created doctor of
physic, and became fellow of the College of Physicians
in London. In 1698, he attended the earl of Port¬
land in his embassy from King William HI. to thecourt
of France ; of which journey he published an account
at his return, and was afterwards physician to Queen
Anne. He also published, 1. Historia animalium, An-
glice, quarto. 2. Conchyhoruni synopsis, folio. 3* Loch-
learum et limachum exercitatio anatomica, 4 vols. 8vo.
4. Many pieces in the Philosophical Iransactions j and
otherl works.
LISTOWEL, a parish, also a post and fair town, of
Ireland, in the county of Kerry and province of Mun¬
ster, 131 miles from Dublin, anciently Lis Tuathal,
i. e, “ the fort of Tuathal,” who was exiled in the first
century, but returned j and his life forms a brilliant
era in Irish history. Near this are the ruins of a castle,
pleasantly situated on the river Feale : it was taken in
November 1600, by Sir Charles Wilmot, being then
held out for Lord Kerry against Queen Elizabeth.
Five miles beyond Listowel are the ruins of a church.
The fairs are three in the year.
LITANA SILVA, in Ancient Geography, a wood
of
L I T [ 4
Litana in Gallia Togata, or Cispatluna, " here
|) the Komans, under L. Posthumius Albinus (whose
Litchfield. |iead the Boil cut off, and carried in triumph into their
'■ v 'most sacred temple), had a great defeat j ot twenty-
five thousand, scarcely ten escaping (Livy). Hol-
stcnius conjectures, that this happened above the
springs ot the Scultenna, in a part of the Appen-
niue, between Cersinianum and iVIutina. Now ^elva
di Lugo. .
LITANY, a solemn form of supplication to Ood,
in which the priest utters some things fit to be prayed
for, and the people join in their intercession, saying we
beseech thee to hear us, good Lord, &c. The word
comes from the Greek hflctm* “ supplication j” ot
kflxveva, I beseech.”
At first the use of litanies was not fixed to any stat¬
ed time, but wrere only employed as exigencies re¬
quired. They were observed, in imitation of the Ni-
nevites, with ardent supplications and fastings, to avert
the threatening judgments of fire, earthquakes, inun¬
dations, or hostile invasions. About the year 400, li¬
tanies began to be used in processions, the people
walking barefoot, and repeating them with great de¬
votion •, agd it is pretended, that by this means several
countries were delivered from great calamities. I lie
days on which these were used were called rogation
days : these were appointed by the canons ol different
councils, till it was decreed by the council of Toledo,
that they should be used every month throughout the
year j and thus by degrees they came to be used week¬
ly on Wednesdays and Fridays, the ancient stationary
days for fasting. To these days the rubric ot our
church has added Sundays, as being the greatest days
for assembling at divine service. Belore the last review
of the common prayer, the litany was a distinct service
by itself, and used some time alter the morning prayer
was over j at present it is made one office Avith the
morning service, being ordered to be read after the
third collect for grace, instead of the intercessional
prayers in the daily service.
4jjL LITCHFIELD, a city of Staffordshire, in Eng-
}and, 117 miles from London. It stands low, about
three miles from the Trent: and its ancient name is
said to have been Licidjield, signifying, “ a field of
carcasses,” from a great number of Christians having,
as ic is pretended, suffered martyrdom here in the per¬
secution under Dioclesian, In the Saxons time, it
was a bishoprick for a short space j and is now, toge¬
ther with Coventry, a bishoprick. It is divided into
two parts by a rivulet and a kind of shallow lake, over
which are two causeways with sluices. It is a long
straggling place j but has some very handsome houses,
and well paved clean streets. That part on the south
side of the rivulet is called the city, and the other the
close. The city is much the largest, and contains seve¬
ral public structures. It was incorporated by Edw. VI.
with the name of bailiffs and burgesses ; and is both a
town and county, governed by 2 bailiffs chosen yearly
out of 24 burgesses, a recorder, a sheriff, a steward, and
other officers. The city has power of life and death
within their jurisdiction, a court of record, and a pie¬
powder court. Here is a goal both for debtors and
felons, a free school, and a pretty large well endowed
hospital, for a master and 12 brethren. The county
L I T
of the city is 10 or 12 miles in compass, which the Liicinield.
sheriff rides yearly on the 8th of September, and then
feasts the corporation and neighbouring gentry. 1 he
close is so called from its being enclosed with a Avail
and a deep dry ditch on all sides except towards the
city, Avhere it is defended by a great lake or marsh
formed by its brook. The cathedral, which stands in
the close, Avas originally built by Oswius king of Nor¬
thumberland about 3C0. It was rebuilt and enlarged
by Offa king of Mercia in 766. In. 1148 it Avas rebuilt,
and greatly enlarged in 1296. In the civil wars its
spire was destroyed, and it converted to a stable. In
1776 a beautiful painted windoAV, by the benefaction
of Dr Adenbrook, was set up at the Avestern end of
the cathedral. In the civil Avars it Avas several times
taken and retaken, and thereby suffered much ; but
Avas so repaired after the Restoration, at the expence ot
20,goo1. that it 'was one the fairest and noblest
structures of the kind in England. It is walled in like
a castle, and stands so high as to be seen 10 miles round.
It is 450 feet long, of Avhich the choir is no, and the
breadth in the broadest place 80. Its portico is hard¬
ly to be paralleled in England. Fhere Avere, till lately,
26 statues of the prophets, apostles, kings of Judah,
and some kings of this land, in a roAV above it, as big
as the life j and on the top, at each corner of the por¬
tico, is a stately spire, besides a fine high steeple on the
middle of the church. The choir is paved in great
part Avith alabaster and cannel coal, in imitation of
black and Avhite marble. In 1789 it underwent a
general repair, when the massive groined arch betAvixt
the west end of the church and the transept, which
had forced the side wall out of its perpendicular, Avas
removed. The prebendaries stalls, Avhich are thought
to be the best in England, Avere most of them re-erect¬
ed at the charge of the country gentlemen, whose
names and arms are painted at the top ot the stalls.
The north door is extremely rich in sculpture, but
much injured by time. The body Avhich is supported
by pillars formed of numbers of slender columns, has
lately had its decayed leaden roof replaced by a neat
slated covering. The choir merits attention on ac¬
count of the elegant sculpture about the Avindows,
and the embattled gallery that runs beneath them ; to
which the altarpiece of Grecian architecture but ill
corresponds j behind which is Mary’s chapel, divided
from it by a most elegant stone skreen of beautiful Avork-
manship. Here stood St Chad’s shrine, which cost
2000I. The charter house is an octagon room. In
the same close are the palaces of the bishop and dean,
and the prebendaries houses in a court on the hill.
Here are three other churches 5 one of which, St Mi¬
chael’s, has a churchyard of 6 or 7 acres. Ihere was
a castle here, long since destroyed : and ancient camps
have been discovered in its environs. In the neigh¬
bourhood are frequent horse races. The markets here
are on Tuesday and Friday, and six fairs in the year.
By inland navigation, this place has communication
Avith the rivers Mersey, Dee, Ribble, Ouse, Trent,
DarAArent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &cc. ,
which navigation, including its windings, extends a-
bove 500 miles in the counties of Lincoln, Notting¬
ham, York, Lancaster, Westmoreland, Chester, War¬
wick, Leicester, Oxford, Worcester, &c. Litchfield
sends >
lit r 48
I.itclificld semis two members to parliament. The population in
11 1811 was 5,022.
Literature. LITERARY, any thing belonging to LlTERA-
TORE.
Literary Propertyy or Copy Right. See C orY Right.
LITERATI {letradoSy “ lettered”), an epithet given
to such persons among the Chinese as are able to read
and write their language. The literati alone are capa¬
ble of being made mandarins.
Literati, is also the name of a particular sect
•either in religion, philosophy, or politics, consisting
principally of the learned men of that country ; among
whom it is called JI/A700, i. e. “ learned.”
It had its rise in the year of Christ 1400, when the
emperor, to awaken the native affection of the people
for knowledge, which had been quite banished by the
preceding civil wars among them, and to stir up emu¬
lation among the mandarins, chose out 42 of the ablest
among the doctors, to whom he gave a commission to
compose a body of doctrine agreeable to that of the
ancients, which was then become the rule or standard
of the learned. The delegates applied themselves to
the business with very great attention : but some fancied
them rather to have wrested the doctrine of the anciems,
to make it consist with theirs, than to have built up
theirs on the model of the ancients.
They speak of the Deity, as if it were no more than
mere nature or the natural power or virtue that pro¬
duces, disposes, and preserves, the several parts of the
universe. It is, say they, a pure, perfect principle,
without beginning or end ; it is the source of all things,
the essence of every being, and that which determines
it to be what it is. They make God the soul of the
world; they say, he is diffused through all matter,
and produces all the changes that happen there. In
short, it is not easy to determine, whether they resolve
God into nature, or lift up nature into God j for they
ascribe to it many of those things which we attribute
to God.
This doctrine, in lieu of the idolatry that prevailed
before, introduced a refined kind of atheism. The
work, being composed by so many persons of learning
and parts, and approved by the emperor himself, was re¬
ceived with infinite applause by all the people. Many
were pleased with it, because it seemed to subvert all
religion others approved it, because the little religion
that it left them could not give them much trouble.
And thus was formed the sect of the Literati: which
consists of the maintainors and adherents to this doc¬
trine.
The court, the mandarins, and the persons of for¬
tune and quality, See. are generally retainers to it j but
a great part of the common people still hold to their
worship of idols.
The literati freely tolerate the Mahometans, because
they adore, with them, the King of heaven, and Au¬
thor of nature ; but they bear a perfect aversion to all
sorts of idolaters among them : and it was once re¬
solved to extirpate them. But the disorder this would
have occasioned in the empire prevented it *, they now
content themselves with condemning them, in general,
as heresies ; which they do solemnly every year at Pe-
kin.
LITERATURE denotes learning or skill in let-
j L I T
L1TERNUM. See LiNTERNUM. Li termini
LITHANTHRAX, or Fir-Coal, is a black or H
brown, laminated, bituminous substance •, not very ea-
sily inflammable, but, when once inflamed, burns longer , ^
and more intensely than any other substance. See
Mineralogy Index.
LITHARGE, a preparation of lead, usually m
form of soft flakes, of a yellowish reddish colour. It
calcined lead be urged with a hasty fire, it melts into
the appearance of oil, and on cooling concretes into
litharge. Greatest part of the- litharge met with in the
sliops is produced in the purification of silver from lead,
and the refining of gold and silver by means of this me¬
tal : according to the degree of fire and other circum¬
stances, it proves of a pale or deep colour: the first ha>
been commonly called litharge oj silver, the other li¬
tharge of gold. See Lead, Chemistry Index.
LITHGOW, William, a Scotsman, whose sufi'er-
ings by imprisonment and torture at Malaga, and
whose travels, on foot, over Europe, Asia, and Afri¬
ca, seem to raise him almost to the rank of a martyr
and a hero, published an account of his peregrinations
and adventures. Though the author deals much in
the marvellous, the horrid account of the strange cruel¬
ties of which he tells us, he was the subject, hare
however, an air of truth. Soon after his arrival in
England from Malaga, he was carried to Theobald’s
on a feather-bed, that King James might be an eye¬
witness of his martyred anatomy, by which he means
his wretched body, mangled and reduced to a skeleton.
The whole court crowded to see him; and his majesty
ordered him to be taken care of, and he was twice
sent to Bath at his expence. By the king’s command
he applied to Gondamor, the Spanish ambassador, lor
the recovery of the money and other things of value
which the governor of Malaga had taken from him,
and for icool. for his support. He was promised
a full reparation for the damage he had sustained : but
the perfidious minister never performed his promise.
When he was upon the point of leaving England,
Lithgow upbraided him with the breach of his woids-
in the presence-chamber, before several gentlemen of
the court. This occasioned their fighting upon the
spot 5 and the ambassador, as the traveller oddly ex¬
presses it, had his fistula (with which disorder he was
afflicted) contrabanded with his fist. 'Ihe unfortunate
Lithgow, who was generally condemned lor his spi¬
rited behaviour, was sent to the Marshalsea, where he
continued a prisoner nine months. At the conclusion
of the octavo edition of his Travels he informs us,
that, in his three voyages, “ his painful feet have tra¬
ced over (besides passages of seas and rivers) 36,000
and odd miles, which draweth near to twice the cir¬
cumference of the whole earth.” Here the marvellous
seems to rise to the incredible 5 and to set him, in
point of veracity, below Coryat, whom it is neverthe¬
less certain that he far outwalked. His description of
Ireland is whimsical and curious. This, together with
the narrative of his sufferings, is reprinted in Morgan’s
Phoenix Britannicus.
LITHIASIS, or Stone. See Medicine Index.
LITHOMANTIA, in antiquity, a species of di¬
vination performed with stones. Sometimes the stone
called sideidtes was used : this they washed in spring-
water in the night by candle-light j the person that
consulted
LIT [ 49 ] T I T
Xiithomau- consulted it was to be purified from all manner of pol-
tia lution, and to have his face covered; this done, he
11 repeated divine prayers, and placed certain characters
Jatlmanae an appo;ntea order 5 and then the stone moved of
itself, and in a soft gentle murmur, or (as some say)
in a voice like that of a child, returned an answer.
By a stone of this nature, Helenus is reported to have
foretold the destruction of Troy.
LITHONTRIPTICS (from “ a stone,” and
6^*1*), “ to break”) 5 an epithet for medicines that are
supposed to break the stone in the bladder. Though
the different stones that are generated in the human
bladder require different solvents when out of the bo¬
dy and though art hath not yet afforded a medicine
which, when injected into the bladder, will, without
injury thereto, dissolve the stone therein lodged; it
cannot thence be concluded, that there are no lithon-
triptic medicines. It may be here observed, that one
solvent affects one subject, but hath no effect on ano¬
ther; so a solvent may yet be met with that will de¬
stroy the stone, and not hurt the human body. The
water into which the boiled white of egg dissolves will
liquefy myrrh, but may be put into the human eye
without causing any uneasiness.
Soap ley taken at first in small doses in broth that
is freed from all its fat, succeeds in most cases which
require an alkaline solvent. The patient may begin
with 20 drops, and gradually increase the dose as he
is able ; and by repeating it three times a-day for six,
eight, or twelve months, the wished-for effects often
follow.
LITHOPHYTA, the name of Linnaeus’s third or¬
der of vermes. See Helminthology Index.
LITHOSPERMUM, G romwell, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class ; and in the natural
method ranking under the 41st order, Asperifolice. See
Botany Index.
LITHOSTJIOTON, among the Romans, was a
pavement of mosaic work, consisting of small pieces of
cut marble of different kinds and colours, first used in
the time of Sylla, who made one at Pneneste in the
temple of Fortune, and afterwards in private houses ;
and were brought to such perfection, that they exhibit¬
ed most lively representations of nature with all the ac¬
curacy of the finest painting.
LITHOTOMY, in Surgery, the operation of cut¬
ting for the stone. See Surgery Index.
LITHUANIA, an extensive province of Poland.
By the natives it is called Letwa, and has Great Po¬
land and Russia on the west; part of Muscovy on the
east; Livonia, the Baltic sea, and part of Muscovy,
on the north ; Red Russia, Volhinia, and Podolia, on
the south ; and the Ukraine on the south-east. Its
length is said to be about 360, and its breadth 340
miles ; but it is much indented both ways. Lithuania
was anciently overrun with wood ; and there are still
many forests in it, which yield a great deal of honey,
wax, pitch, tar, and timber; and abound with wild
boars, buffaloes, elks, wild horses, wild asses, uri, and
woodcocks. The lakes are also numerous, and well
stored with fish : but the air, by reason of these forests
and lakes, is said to be thick and foggy. The country
produces a great deal of buck wheat and other corn;
the pastures are luxuriant, and the flocks and herds
numerous: so that, notwithstanding agriculture is
VOL. XII. Part I. f
much neglected, provisions are exceeding cheap, and Lithua
money so scarce, that 10 per cent, is the common in- H
terest. The principal nobility have large estates, and i Ijltu
live in great pomp and splendour, generally retaining
some hundreds of those that are poor, in quality ol do¬
mestics. The established religion is Popery ; but Lu¬
therans, Calvinists, Jews, Turks, Greeks, and Socini-
ans, are very numerous. Lithuania was governed by
its own dukes till it was united to Poland, towards the
end of the 14th century, when the great duke Jagello
married Hedwig, the dowager of Louis king of Poland
and Hungary. It had even dukes after that, but they
were subordinate to the king ; and at this day, though
one diet serves for both countries, yet each has its
peculiar laws, customs, dialect, and privileges. In a
diet held at Lubin in 1569, it was enacted, that both
countries, for the future, should form but one state un¬
der the same prince. As to their courts of justice, the
tenth part of what is adjudged in all real actions goes
always to the judge’s box, and is immediately paid in
court; and in personal actions he claims half the da¬
mages given. A nobleman is only fined for murder, as
in Poland. The dialect is a language of the Sclavonic;
and they speak here, as in Poland, a barbarous kind of
Latin. Lithuania was divided into nine palatinates.
In 1772 the Poles were compelled to cede a part of
this province to Russia ; and at the partition in 1793?
this power acquired nearly the whole. In 1815 the king¬
dom of Poland was revived, the crown bging united to
that of Russia, but the part of Lithuania formerly
disjoined from this kingdom still continues annexed to
Russia.
LITMUS, or Lacmus, in the arts, is a blue pig¬
ment, formed from archil. It is brought from Hol¬
land at a cheap rate : but may be prepared by adding-
quicklime and putrified urine, or spirit of urine distil¬
led from lime, to the archil previously bruised by grind¬
ing. The mixture having cooled, and the fluid suffer¬
ed to evaporate, becomes a mass of the consistence of a
paste, which is laid on boards to dry in square lumps.
It is only used in miniature paintings, and cannot be
well depended on, because the least approach of acid
changes it instantly from blue to red. The best litmus
is very apt to change and fly.
LITTER (lectica), a kind of vehicle borne uport
shafts ; anciently esteemed the most easy and genteel
wray of carriage. Du Cange derives the word from the
barbarous Latin lecteriu, “ strawr or bedding for beasts.”
Others will rather have it come from lectus, “ bed.”
Pliny calls the litter the traveller's chamber ; it was
much in use among the Romans, among whom it w’as
borne by slaves kept for that purpose ; as it still conti¬
nues to be in the east, where it is called a palanquin.—
The Roman lectica, made to be borne by four men, was
called tetraphorum ; that home by six, hexaphorum;
and that borne by eight, octaphorum.
The invention of litters, according to Cicero, was
owing to the kings of Bithynia; in the time of Tiberius
they were become very frequent at Rome, as appears
from Seneca; and even slaves themselves were borne in
them, though never by more than two persons, whereas
men of quality had six or eight.
Litter also denotes a parcel of dry old straw put on
the floor of a horse’s stall for him to lie down and rest
upon. When a horse comes tired into a stable, fresh
G litter
L I T
[ 50
L 1 T
Litter
litter lias the virtue of making him stale immediately.
II This is known to be of very great advantage to a horse
Liturgy. in a tired state 5 and when the litter is old and dirty, it
 v ' never has any such effect upon him. If the owners knew
how refreshing it is for a horse to discharge his urine
on his return from labour, they would be more care¬
ful of riving them all means and occasions of it than
thev are. This staling after fatigue prevents those ob¬
structions in the neck of the bladder or urinary pas¬
sages which horses are too subject to.
LITTLETON, Sir Thomas, judge oi the com¬
mon pleas, was the eldest son of Thomas A\ estcote,
Esq. of the county of Devon, by Elizabeth, sole
heiress of Thomas' Littleton of Frankley in Wor¬
cestershire, at whose request he took the name and
arms of that family. He was educated at one ol our
universities, probably at Cambridge. Thence he re¬
moved to the Inner-Temple, where he became one 0
the readers } and was afterwards, by Henry V 1. made
steward or judge of the court of the palace or mar-
shalsea of the king’s household. In 1455, the thirty-
third of that reign, he was appointed king s serjeant,
and rode the northern circuit as judge ol assize, in
1462, the second of Edward IV., he obtained a par¬
don from the crown *, and, in 1466, was appointed one
of the judges of the common pleas, and rode the
Northamptonshire circuit. In the year 1474 he was,
with many of the first nobility, created knight ol the
Bath. He died in 1481 j and was buried in the ca¬
thedral church of Worcester, where a marble tomb,
with his statue upon it, was erected to his memo¬
ry As to his character as a lawyer, it is sufficient
to inform the reader, that he was the author of the
Treatise upon tenures, on which Sir Edward Coke
wrote a comment, well known by the title oi Coke
upon Littleton. .
Littleton, Adam, descended from an ancient
family in Shropshire, was born in 1627, educated at
Westminster school, and went to Oxford a student oi
Christ-church, whence he was ejected by the par la¬
ment visitors in 1648. Soon after, he became usher
of Westminster school, and in 1658 was made second
master of Westminster school. After the Restoration
he taught a school at Chelsea in Middlesex, of which
church he was admitted rector in the year 1664. in
1670 he accumulated the degrees m divinity, being
then chaplain in ordinary to his majesty. In \ 674, he
became prebendary of Westminster, of which church
lie was afterwards sub-dean. Beside the well-known
Latin and English Dictionary, he published several
other works. He died in 1694, and was interred at
Chelsea. He was an universal scholar *, and extreme-
Jv charitable, humane, and easy of access.
^ LITURGY, denotes all the ceremonies in general
belonging to divine service.
The word comes from the Greek Asi-rygyi*, service,
public ministry}” formed of Asm?, “ public,” and
work.” .... • j
more restrained signification, liturgy is used
egyov,
among the Romanists to signify the mass ; and among
us the common prayer. . . ,
All who have written on liturgies agree, that in the
primitive days divine service was exceedingly simple,
only clogged with a very few ceremonies, and consist¬
ing of but a small number of prayers j but, by degrees,
they increased the number of external ceremonies, and
added new prayers, to make the office look more awful  
and venerable to the people. At length things were
carried to such a pitch, that a regulation became ne¬
cessary j and it was found proper to put the service,
and the manner of performing it, into writing j and
this was what they called a liturgy.
Lituro-ies have been different at different times, and
in different countries. We have the liturgy of St Chry-
sostom, that of St Peter, of St James, the l.turgy ot
St Basil, the Armenian liturgy, the liturgy ot the
Maronites, of the Cophtae, the Roman liturgy, the
Gallican liturgy, the English liturgy, the Ambrosian
liturgy, the Spanish and Atrican liturgies, &.c.
In the more early ages of the church, every bishop
had a power to form a liturgy for his own diocese *,
and if he keep to the analogy of faith and doctrine, ail
circumstances were lett to his own discretion, j Iter-
wards the practice was for the whole province to ioi-
low the metropolitan church, which also became the ge¬
neral rule of the church : and this Lindwood acknow¬
ledges to be the common law of the church ; intimat¬
ing that the use of several services in the same pro¬
vince, which was the case in England, was not to be
warranted but by long custom. The liturgy of the
church of England was composed in the year 1547,
and established in the second year of King Edward J A .
stat. 2. and 3. Ed. 1. cap. 1. .
In the fifth year of this king it was reviewed j be¬
cause some things were contained in that liturgy w 11c 1
showed a compliance with the superstition of those
times, and some exceptions were taken against it by
some learned men at home, and by Calvin abroad.
Home alterations were made in it, which consisted in
adding the general confession and absolution, and the
communion to begin with the ten commandments. I he
use of oil in confirmation and extreme unction was
left out, and also prayers for souls departed, and what
tended to a belief of Christ’s real presence in the eu-
charist. This liturgy, so reformed, was established by
the act of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. cap. 1. However, it was
abolished by Queen Mary, who enacted that the ser¬
vice should stand as it was most commonly used in the
last year of the reign of King Henry A HI. Ihe li-
tuwy of 5 and 6 Ed. VI. was re-established with some
fevv alterations and additions, by 1 Eliz. cap. 2. Home
farther alterations were introduced, in consequence of
the review of the common-prayer book, by order of
King James, in the first year of his reign *, particular¬
ly in the office of private baptism, in several rubrics
and other passages, with the addition of five or six new
prayers and thanksgivings, and all that part of tne ca¬
techism which contains the doctrine of the sacraments.
The book of common-prayer, so altered, remained in
force from the first year of King James to the four¬
teenth of Charles II. But the fast review of the li¬
turgy was in the year 1661, and the last act of uni¬
formity enjoining the observance of it is 13 and 14
Car. II. cap. 4. See Common-Prayer. Many appli¬
cations have been since made for a review, but hither¬
to without success.
LITUUS, among the Romans, was the stall made
use of by the augurs in quartering the heavens. It
bore a great resemblance to the crosier of a bishop, but
was shorter. It was crooked at one end, and thickest
Liturgy,
X4tuus.
L I V [ 5
J^uus in tlie curved part, according to A. Gelims. e
|| frequently meet with a representation of it upon
Liver, medals, amongst other pontifical instruments. It was
—</—^ called Lituus Qiiirinalis, from Qulrinus, a name
of Romulus, who wras skilled in all the mysteries of
augury. # ...
Lituus, was also an instrument of music in use in
the Roman army. It was straight, excepting that it
had a little bending at the upper end like a htuus or
sacred staff of the augurs j and from the similitude it
derived its name.
LIVADIA. anciently Achaia and Hellas, or Greece
properly so called j a province of Turkey in Europe,
bounded on the north by Epirus and Thessaly, .from
which it is separated by Mount Oeta, now Banina, and
by the Euripus, now the strait of Negropont *, on the
east, by the Archipelago-, on the south, by the gulf
of Engia or Egina, the isthmus of Corinth, and the
gulf ofTiepanto-, and on the west, by the Ionian sea
and part of Epirus. Its extent is about 130 miles
from north-west to south-east; but its greatest breadth
is not above 36 miles. It is in general a mountainous
country j but neither unpleasant nor unfruitful. The
principal mountains are, Mount Oeta in Boeotia, where
is the famous pass of Thermopylae, not above 25 feet
broad 5 and Parnassus, Helicon, and Cythaeron in Pho-
cis, which were sacred to Apollo and the muses, and
consequently much celebrated by the poets. rhe ri¬
vers of most note are, the Sionapro, anciently the
Achelous, the Cephissus, the Ismenus, and the Aso-
pus. This province is at present divided into Livadia
proper, Stramulippa, and the duchy of Athens. The
principal places are, Lcpanto, anciently Naupactus;
Xfivadia, anciently Libadia or Lebadia; the celebrated
city of Athens, now Setines j Thebes, now Stihes;
Lepsina, anciently Eleusis j Castri, formerly Delphi y
and Megara.
Livadia, an ancient town of Turkey in Europe,
and capital of a province of the same name in Greece.
It is a large and populous place, seated on the gulf of
Lepanto, about 25 miles from the city of that name.
It has now a considerable trade in woollen stuff's and
rice. Anciently it was celebrated for the oracle of
Trophonius, which was in a cavern in a hill above the
town. E. Long. 23. 29. N. Lat. 38. 40.
LIVER, see Anatomy, N° 96.—Plato, ami others
of the ancients, fix the principle of love in the liver;
whence the Latin proverb, Cogit amare jecur: and in
this sense Horace frequently uses the word, as when he
says, Si iorr ere jecur quarus Idoneum. The Greeks,
from its concave figure, called it “ vaulted, sus¬
pended j” the Latins call it jecur, q. d. juxta cor, as
being “ near the heart.” The French call it joye,
from foyer, focus, or “ fireplace j” agreeable to the
doctrine of the ancients, who believed the blood to be
boiled and prepared in it.—Erasistratus, at first, called
\t parenchyma, i. e. effusion, or mass of blood ; and Hip¬
pocrates, by way of eminence, frequently calls it the
hypochondrium.
Liver of Antimony. See Chemistry Index.
Liver of Arsenic, is a combination of white arsenic
with potash. See Arsenic, Chemistry Index.
Liver of Sulphur. See Potash, Sulphuret of Che¬
mistry Index.
] L I V
Liver- JPoi't. See Marchantia and Lichen, Bo- Liver,
TANY Index. Liverpool
LIVERPOOL, a large, flourishing, and populous v
town of England, in the county of Lancaster, situated
at the influx of the river Mersey into the sea, in North
Lat. 53. 24. and West Long. 2. $0. This town was
of little importance till the end of the 17th century, but
from that time it has increased with extraordinary ra¬
pidity. In 1699 the population was about J030* an<l
in 1710, when the first wet dock was constructed, there
were about 84 ships belonging to the port, averaging
70 tons and 11 men each. In 1720 an act was pro¬
cured for opening an inland navigation with Man¬
chester, and for improving the water communication
with the Cheshire salt mines, both of which have been
of immense advantage to Liverpool. In 1764 the po¬
pulation was 26,000, in 1790 it was 56,000, in 1801
it was 77,600, and in 1811 it was 94,376, exclusive of
7000 sailors. In 1793 she possessed 92,098 tons of
shipping. In the year, ending 5th July 1818, the num¬
ber of ships that entered the port amounted to 6779,
the tonnage to 754,690. The dock duties, which in
1724 amounted to 810I. us. 6d., were 76,915k 8s. 8d.
in 1815, when the official value of the imports was
8,ooo,oool. sterling, and of the exports 12,000,000k
In 1818 the dock duties amounted to 98,538k 8s. 3d.
It is by far the greatest sea-port in Britain, except
London. It has been estimated that one twelfth of
the shipping of Great Britain is furnished by Liver¬
pool ; that it has one fourth of her foreign trade, and
one sixth of her general commerce ; and that its ex¬
ports and imports amount to not less than one half of
those of London.
The Liverpool merchants have engaged eagerly in
the trade to India since it was thrown open. One ves¬
sel was sent out in 1815 j next year there were eight
vessels in the trade j in 1817 they were increased to
17, with a tonnage of 7538 j and from the commence¬
ment to September 1818, no fewer than 80 vessels
have been employed in the Indian trade. The exports
in this trade are chiefly broad cloths and woollens, Bir¬
mingham hardware and Sheffield cutlery, Manchester
and Glasgow piece goods, Nottingham hosiery, Staf¬
fordshire earthen ware, Irish linens, iron, copper, lead,
salt, glass, hats, malt liquors, and dollars. ’Ihe im¬
ports are cotton, rice, indigo, sugar, saltpetre, ginger.,
pimento, and other spices, turmeric, safflower, and other
dyes.
The docks of Liverpool are upon a very extensive
scale. When the new one begun in 1816 is finished,
the total space occupied by the whole will exceed 60
acres. They communicate with one another by tun¬
nels, by which means the water of one is made to wash
out the others, and carry off the mud. Along the docks
are extensive warehouses, into which goods are removed
from the ships with great ease.
There are few manufactories in Liverpool. The
most considerable are those for articles connected with
the shipping, such as cordage. There is also an ex¬
tensive pottery, some salt-works, glass-houses, and up¬
wards of 50 breweries, from some of which large
quantities of malt liquor are sent abroad. Many of
the buildings are elegant but the old streets are
narrow •, which defect will soon be removed, as the
G 2 corporation
which they
great spirit
have
hav-
L I V
erpool. corporation have lately obtained an
-v”"—1 for the improvement of the town,
already begun to put in force with
ing taken down the principal streets in the centre ot
the town, and rebuilt them in a spacious and most mag¬
nificent manner-, so that in a few years it will be one
of the handsomest towns in England. 1 ins ^ town
contains sixteen churches, namely, St Enters, bt
Nicholas’s, St George’s, St Thomas s, St 1 aul s, St
Ann’s, St John’s, Trinity, St James’s, St Catherine s,
St Mary’s, St Stephen’s, St Matthew’s, St Mark s,
Christ Church, and All Saints. There are also meet¬
ings for independents, anabaptists, quakers, method ists,
and presbyterians. The exchange is a noble structure,
built of white stone in the form of a square, and round
it are piazzas where the merchants assemble to transact
business. Its area is twice the extent of that ol Eon-
don. Above it are the mayor’s offices, the sessions-
hall, the council-chamber, and two elegant ball-rooms.
The expence of erecting this building amounted to
nearly ioo,oool. In its centre is a superb group ot
bronze statuary, representing the death of Nelson.
The custom-house is situated at the head ot the old
dock, and is a handsome and convenient structure.
Here are many charitable foundations, among which
is' an excellent grammar school well endowed, and
many of the youth taught in it have exhibitions m the
universities. The infirmary is a large edifice ot brick
and stone, situated on a hill in a very pleasant airy
situation, at one end of the town. Above 1500
patients are admitted annually.
In the town is a charity-school, supported by volun¬
tary subscriptions and contributions, for 50 boys anc
12 girls, who are not only clothed and educated, but
also" provided with food and lodging: likewise several
alms houses for the widows of seamen and an excel¬
lent poor-house, superior to any in the kingdom, where
upwards of 800 men, women, and children, are support¬
ed, many of whom are employed in spinning cotton
and wool. The new prison is a noble edifice, and upon
a very extensive scale. It is built entirely on the plan
of the great and benevolent Mr Howard, for solitary
confinement 5 and is perhaps the most convenient, airy,
magnificent building of the kind of Europe.
Liverpool received its charter from King John j but
it was a borough by prescription long before Ins reign.
It is under the government of a recorder, mayor, and
an unlimited number of aldermen, two bailiils, and a
common council of forty ot the principal inhabitants,
with a town-clerk and other proper officers. The town
has a weekly market on Saturday, and is distant from
London 204 miles. The income of the corporation is
not less than L.60,000 a-year. It sends two members
to parliament, who are chosen like the magistrates, by
the votes of all the free burgesses not receiving alms.
The number who polled at the general election in 1818
was 2905. . . T. . ,
By means of inland navigation, Liverpool has com¬
munication with the rivers Dee, Kibble, Ouse, I rent,
Darwent, Severn, Humber, Thames, Avon, &c.-, winch
navigation, including its windings, extends above 500
miles, in the counties of Lincoln, Nottingham, York,
Westmoreland, Chester, Stafford, Warwick, Leicester,
Oxford, Worcester, &c. The Mersey, upon which
[ 52 ] L I V
act of parliament the town is situated, abounds with salmon, cod, floim- Liverpool
ders, turbot, plaice, and smelts } and at lull sea it is 11
above two miles over. Fresh water is brought into the ,  i
town by pipes, from some springs four miles oil, pur¬
suant to an act of parliament in the reign of Queen
Anne. The dispensary \>f ^ town d?63 llonour to
human nature, and has been of the most singular advan¬
tage to the afflicted, since 172,273 diseased persons
were cured between the years 17?^ ant^ I794» keing
on an average about 10,000 persons every year. Ihe
Union News Room was instituted on the 1st of January
1801 ; the Lyceum much about the same period, the
erection of which cost the sum of 1 i,oool. and the Com¬
mercial News Room in 1803. The Liverpool institu¬
tion for the promotion of science, literature, and the
arts, was founded in 1817. The institution for restor¬
ing drowned persons is worthy of notice, as more than
400 people have become objects of it since it was
founded, and more than one half of that number have
been restored. The Athenaeum, which comprises a
news room and library, was projected in 1798, and
finished before the close of the year. There are tour
weekly papers published at Liverpool.
LIVERY, in matters of dress and equipage, a cer¬
tain colour and form of dress, by which noblemen and
gentlemen choose to distinguish their seivants. .
Liveries are usually taken from fancy, or continued
in families by succession. The ancient cavaliers, at
their tournaments, distinguished themselves by wearing
the liveries of their mistresses : thus people of quality
make their domestics wear their livery.
Father Menestrier, in his Treatise of Carousals, has
given a very ample account of the mixtures of colours
in liveries. Dion tells us, that Oenomaus was the first
who invented green and blue colours, for the troops
which, in the circus, were to represent land and sea
SThe Romish church has also her several colours and
liveries white, for confessors and virgins, and in times
of rejoicing ; black, for the dead 5 red, for the apostles
and martyrs ; blue or violet, for penitents ; and greep,
in times of hope. _ . ,
Formerly, great men gave liveries to several, who
were not of their family or servants, to engage them in
their quarrels for that year; but this was prohibited
by the statutes 1 Rich. II. 1 Hen. IV. cap. 27. 2 and
? Hen. IV. 8 Hen. VI. cap. 4. 8 Ed. IV. cap. 2.
and no man, of whatever condition, was allowed to
give any livery, but to his domestic officers, and coun¬
sel learned in the law. However, most of the above
statutes are repealed by 3 Car. I. cap. 4.
Livery of Seisin, in Law, signifies delivering the
possession of lands, &c. to him who has a right to
them. r
LIVERYMEN of London, are a number ot men
chosen from among the freemen of each company. Out
of this body the common-council, sheriff, and other
superior officers for the government of the city, arc
elected j and they alone have the privilege of giving
their votes for members of parliament, from winch the
rest of the citzens are excluded.
LEV IDS, Titus, the best of the Roman histori¬
ans, as he is called by Mr Bayle, was born at Patavi-
um or Padua. Few particulars of his life have been
handed
T^ivius.
IV [ 53 ] L 1 V ,
Coming to Rome, lie acquired who was a native ot Palermo m Sicily, and ™ic otjdie
handed down to us. 0
1 tlie notice and favour of Augustus, and there he long
resided. Same have supposed, (for there v> not any
proof of it), that he was known to Augustus before,
by certain Philosophical Dialogues which he had de¬
dicated to him. Seneca says nothing of the dedication :
but mentions the dialogues, which he calls historical
and philosophical j and also some books, wiitten pui-
posely on the subject of philosophy. Be this as it will,
it is probable that he began bis history as soon as he
was settled at Rome *, and he seems to have devoted
himself so entirely to the great work he had underta¬
ken, as to be perfectly regardless of his own advance¬
ment. The tumults and distractions of Rome trequent-
ly obliged him to retire to Naples ; not only that he
might be less interrupted in the pursuit of his destin¬
ed task, but also enjoy that retirement and tranquillity
which he could not have at Rome, and which yet he
seems to have much sought after : lor he was greatly
dissatisfied with the manners of his age, and tells us,
that “ he should reap this reward ot his labour, in
composing the Roman history, that it would take his
attention from the present numerous evils, at least
while he was employed upon the first and eailiest ages.
He used to read parts ot this history, while he was
composing it, to Mectenas and Augustus} and the lat¬
ter conceived so high an opinion ot him, that he pitch¬
ed upon him to superintend the education oi Ins grand¬
son Claudius, who was afterwards emperor. After the
death of Augustus, Livy returned to the place ot his
birth, where he was received with all imaginable ho¬
nour and respect : and there he died, in the tourth
year of the reign of Tiberius, aged above seventy.
Some say, he died on the same day with Ovid : it is
certain that he died the same year.
Scarce any man was ever more honoured, alive as
well as dead, than this historian. Pliny the younger
relates, that a native gentleman travelled from Gades,
in the extremest parts ol Spain, to see Livy : and,
though Rome abounded with more stupendous and cu¬
rious spectacles than any city in the world, yet he im¬
mediately returned : as if, after having seen Livy, no¬
thing farther could be worthy of his notice. A mo¬
nument was erected to this historian in the temple of
Juno, where was afterwards founded the monastery of
St Justina. There, in 1413, was discovered the fol¬
lowing epitaph upon Livy : Ossa hti Livii Patavini,
omnium mortalium judicio digm, cujusprope invicto ca-
lamo invicti populi Romani res gestce conscriberentur ;
that is, “ the bones of Titus Livius of Patavium, a man
worthy to be approved by all mankind, by whose almost
invincible pen the acts and exploits of the invincible
Romans were written.” These bones are said to be
preserved with high reverence to this day, and are
shown by the Paduans as the most precious remains.
In 1451, Alphonsus, king of Arragon, sent his ambas¬
sador, Anthony Panormita, to desire of the citizens of
Padua the bone of that arm with which this their fa¬
mous countryman had written his history •, and, ob¬
taining it, caused it to be conveyed to Naples with the
greatest ceremony as a most invaluable relic. He is
said to have recovered from an ill state of health by
the pleasure he found in reading this history : and there¬
fore, out of gratitude, put upon doing extraordinary
honours to the memory of the writer. Panormita also
ablest men of the 15th century, sold an estate to pur-
chase this historian.
The history of Livy, like other great works ol an¬
tiquity, is transmitted down to us exceedingly mutilated
and imperfect. Its books were originally a hundred and
fortv-two, of which are extant only thirty-five. The
epitomes of it, from which we learn then number, all
remain, except those of the 136th and 137th hooks.
Livy’s books have been divided into decades, which
some will have to have been done by Livy himself, be¬
cause there is a preface to every decade ; while others
suppose it to be a modern contrivance, since nothing
about it can be gathered from the ancients. The first
decade, beginning with the foundation ot Rome, is ex¬
tant, and treats ot the affairs ot 460 years. Ihe se¬
cond decade is lost *, the years of which are seventy-
five. The third decade is extant, and contains the
second Punic war, including eighteen years. It is rec¬
koned the most, excellent part of the history, as giving
an account of a very long and sharp war, in which the
Romans gained so many advantages, that no arms could
afterwards withstand them. The fourth decade contains
the Macedonian war against Philip, and the Asiatic
Avar against Antiochus, which take up the space ot about
23 years. The five first books of the fifth decade were
found at Worms, by Simon Grynaeus, in 1431, but
are very defective ; and the remainder of Livy’s his¬
tory, which reaches to the death of Drnsus in Ger¬
many in 74^b together with the second decade, an
supplied by Freinshemius.
Never man perhaps Avas furnished with greater ad¬
vantages for Avriting a history than Livy. Besides his
own great genius, Avhich Avas in every respect, admi¬
rably formed for the purpose, he Avas trained as it weie
in a city, at that time the empress of the world, and
in the politest reign that ever Avas j having scarcely had
any other school than the court of Augustus. He had
access to the very best materials, such as the Memoirs
of Sylla, Cfesar, Labienus, Pollio, Augustus, and 0-
thers, written by themselves. “ A\ hat Avriters of me¬
morials (says Lord Bolingbroke), what compilers of the
Materia Historica, were these ! What genius Avas ne¬
cessary to finish up the pictures that such masters had
sketched ! Rome afforded men that were equal to the
task. Let the remains, the precious remains, of Sal¬
lust, of Livy, and of Tacitus, witness this truth. 
What a school of public and private virtue had been
opened to us at the resurrection of learning, if the lat¬
ter historians of the Roman commonwealth, and the
first of the succeeding monarchy, had come down to us
entire ! The feAV that are come down, though broken
and imperfect, compose the best body of history that
Ave have $ nay, the only body of ancient histoiy that
deserves to be an object ot study. It tails us indeed
most at that remarkable and fatal period, where our
reasonable curiosity is raised the highest. Livy em¬
ployed fbrty-five books to bring his history doAvn to the
end of the sixth century, and the breaking out ot the
third Punic war: but he efnployed ninety-five to bung
it down from thence to the death of Drusus; that is,
through the course of 120 or 130 years. Appian,
Dion Cassius, and others, nay, e\ren 1 lutarch included,
make us but poor amends for what is lost of Livy.
Speaking then of Tully’s orations and letters, as the
r ° best
L IV [ 54 ] L I V
best adventitious helps to supply this loss, he says, that
“ the age in which Livy flourished, abounded with
such materials as these : they were fresh, they weie au¬
thentic : it was easy to procure them ; it was safe to
employ them. How he did employ them in executing
the second part of his design, we may judge from his
execution of the first •, and, I own, I should be glad
to exchange, it it were possible, what we ha\e of this
history for what we have not. Would you not be glad
my Lord, to see, in one stupendous draught, the whole
-progress of that government from liberty to servitude ;
the whole series of causes and effects, apparent and real,
public and private ?” &c.
The encomiums bestowed upon Livy, by both an¬
cients and moderns, are great and numerous. He not
only entertains like Herodotus } he also instructs and
interests in the deepest manner. But his great probity,
candour, and impartiality, are what have distinguished
Livv above all historians-, for neither complaisance
to the times, nor his particular connexions with the
-emperor, could restrain him from speaking well ol Pom-
pey • so well, as to make Augustus call him ^ Pom¬
peian. This we learn from Cremutius Cordus, in Ta¬
citus who relates also, much to the emperor’s ho¬
nour, that this gave no interruption to their friend¬
ship. But whatever elogies Livy may have received
as an historian, he has not escaped censure as a writer,
in the age wherein he lived, Asinius Pollio charged
him with Patavinity j which Patavinity has been vari¬
ously explained by various writers, but is generally sup¬
posed to relate to his style. The most common is, that
this noble Roman, accustomed to the delicacy of the
language spoken in the court of Augustus, could not
-bear with certain provincial idioms, which Livy, as a
Paduan, used in divers places of his history. Pignorius
is of another opinion, and believes that this Patavinity
regarded the orthography of certain words, wherein Livy
used one letter for another, according to the custom of
his country, writing sibe and quase for sibi and qi/a.n ;
which he attempts to prove by several ancient inscrip¬
tions. The expressions, however, or the orthography
of words, are not loaded with obscurity, and the per¬
fect classic is as familiarly acquainted with those sup¬
posed provincialisms as with the purest Latinity.—Livy
has been censured too, and perhaps with justice, for be¬
ing too credulous, and burdening his history with vul¬
gar notions and superstitious tales. He may disgust
•when he mentions that milk and blood were rained from
heaven, or that an ox spoke or a woman changed her
sex yet he candidly confesses that he recorded only
what made an indelible impression upon the minds of a
jcredulous age.
Is it worth while to mention here the capricious and
tyrannic humour of the emperor Caligula, who accused
Livy of being a negligent and wordy writer, and resol¬
ved therefore to remove his works and statues out of all
libraries where he knew they were curiously preserved?
s Or the same humour in Domitian, another prodigy of
nature, who put to death Metius Pomposianus, because
he made a collection of some orations of kings and ge¬
nerals out of Livy’s history ? Pope Gregory the Great,
also, would not suffer Livy in any Christian library, be¬
cause of the Pagan superstition wherewith he abounded:
but the same reason held good against all ancient au¬
thors } anfl indeed Gregory’s zeal was far from being
2
levelled at Livy in particular, the pontiff having de¬
clared war against all human learning.
Though we know nothing of Livy’s family, yet we
learn from Quintilian, that he had a son, to whom he
addressed some excellent precepts in rhetoric. An an¬
cient inscription speaks also ot one of his daughters,
named L/via Quartet: the same, perhaps, that espoused
the orator Lucius Magius, whom Seneca mentions ;
and observes, that the applauses he usually received
from the public in his harangues, were not so much
on his own account, as for the sake of his father-in-
law.
Our author’s history has been often published with
and without the supplement of Freinshemius. The
best editions are, that of Gronovius, cum notis vario-
ntm et suis, Lugd. Bat. 1679, 3 vo*s* ^vo ’ t^at ot
Le Clerc at Amsterdam, 1709, lovols. i2mo; and that
of Crevier, at Paris, 1735, 6 vols. 4to. These have
the supplements.—Learning perhaps never sustained a
greater loss, in any single author, than by the destruc¬
tion of t^e latter and more interesting part ot Livy.
Several eminent moderns have indulged the pleasing ex¬
pectation that the entire work of this noble historian
might vet be recovered. It has been said to exist in an
Arabic version : and even a, complete copy of the ori-
nal is supposed to have been extant as late as the year
1631, and to have perished at that time in the plunder
of Magdeburg. The munificent patron of learning
Leo X. exerted the most generous zeal to rescue from
oblivion the valuable treasure, which one of his most
bigotted predecessors, above mentioned, had expelled
from every Christian library. Bayle has preserved, un¬
der the article Leo, two curious original letters of that
pontiff, concerning his hopes of recovering Livy } which
afford most honourable proofs ot his liberality in the
cause of letters.—A lately discovered fragment of Li¬
vy’s history was published in 1773 Lruns.
Livius Andronicus, a comic poet who flourished at
Rome about 240 years before the Christian era. He
was the first who turned the personal satires and fescen-
nine verses, so long the admiration of the Romans, in¬
to the form of a proper dialogue and regular play.
Though the character of a player, so valued and ap¬
plauded in Greece, was reckoned vile and despicable
among the Romans, Andronicus acted a part in his
dramatical compositions, and engaged the attention of
his audience, by repeating what he had laboured
after the manner of the Greeks. Andronicus was the
freedman of M. Livius Salinator, whose children he
educated. His poetry was grown obsolete in the age
of Cicero, whose nicety and judgment would not even
recommend the reading of it.
LIVONIA, a large province of the Russian empire,
with the title of a duchy. It is bounded on the
north by Esthonia, on the west by the gulf of Riga,
on the south by Courland, and on the east, partly by Rles-
cow, and partly by Novogorod. It is about 200 miles
from north to south, and 150 from east to west. I he
land is so fertile in corn, that it is called the granary oj
the north; and would produce a great deal more, if
it was not so full of lakes. The fish that abound here are
salmons, carps, pikes, flat fish, and many others. In
the forests there are wolves, bears, elks, rein-deer, stags,
and hares. The domestic animals are very numerous j
but the sheep hear very bad wool. Here are a great
number
Livius,
Livonia.
L O A [55
Livonia number of forests, winch consist of birch trees, pines,
|| and oaks ■, and all the houses of the inhabitants are
Loach, built with wood. The merchandises which they send
abroad are flax, hemp, honey, wax, leather skins, and
potashes. The Swedes were formerly possessed of this
province, but were obliged to abandon it to the Jhus-
sians after the battle of Pultowa } and it was ceded to
them by the peace of the north, concluded in 1722,
which was confirmed by another treaty in I742*
formerly included Estonia, with the two islands called
Oescl and Dagho. Riga is the capital.
LIVONICA-terra, a kind of fine bole used in the
shops of Germany and Italy. It is found in Livonia,
from whence it takes its name. It is in the form of
little cakes. _ ,
L1VRE, a French money of account, containing 20
sols. See Money-Table.
LIXA, or Li XUS, in Ancient Geography, a town on
the Atlantic near the river Lixus •, made a Roman co¬
lony by Claudius Caesar*, famous in mythology for the
palace of Antaeus and his encounter with Hercules,
(Pliny). Now Laroche, 65 leagues to the south of the
straits of Gibraltar.
LIX1VIOUS, an appellation given to salts obtained
from burnt vegetables by pouring water on their ashes.
LIXIVIUM, in Pharmacy, &c. a ley obtained by
pouring some liquor upon the ashes of plants *, which
is more or less powerful, as it has imbibed the fixed salts
contained in the ashes.
LIXNAW, a barony in the county of Kerry and
province of Munster in Ireland, which gives title ol
baron to the earls of Kerry j the village here of this
name being their ancient seat, where the castle w^as
erected. This seat stands agreeably on the river Brick,
which is here cut into several pleasant navigable canals,
that adorn its plantations and gardens. W. Long. 9. 15.
N. Lat. 52. 15.
LIZARD." See Lacerta, Erpetology Index.
Lizard, in Geography, a cape or promontory of
Cornwall, situated, according to the most common com¬
putation, in W. Long. 5. 47. N. Lat. 49. 50.
LLANDAFF. See Landaff.
LLOYD, William, a most learned English writer
and bishop, was born in Berkshire in England in 1627.
He was educated under his father, rector of Sonning,
and vicar of Tyle-hurst in Berkshire } then went to Ox¬
ford, and took orders. In 1660 he -was made preben¬
dary of Rippon *, and in 1666 chaplain to the king. In
1667 he took the degree of doctor of divinity *, in 1672
he was installed dean of Bangor j and in 1680 was con¬
secrated bishop of St Asaph. He was one of the six
bishops who, with Archbishop Sancroft, were commit¬
ted prisoners to the tower of London, for subscribing
a petition to the king against distributing and publishing
his declaration for liberty of conscience. Soon after the
Revolution he was made almoner to King William and
Queen Mary : in 1692 he was translated to the bishop¬
ric of Litchfield and Coventry j and in 1699, ^ie
see of \\ orcester, where he sat till his death, which
happened in 1717, the 91st year of his age. Dr Bur¬
net gives him an exalted character, and his works are
highly esteemed.
LOACH. See Cobitis, Ichthyology Index.
LOAD, or Lode, in Mining, a word used especial-
]
L O A
Load
ly in the tin-mines, for any regular vein or course, whe¬
ther metallic or not j but most commonly load means a H
metallic vein. When the substances forming these,Loa^0-
loads are reducible to metal, the loads are by the Eng¬
lish miners said to be alive j otherwise they are termed
dead loads.
In Cornwall and Devonshire the loads chiefly hold
their course from eastward to westward, though in other
parts of England they frequently run from north to
south. See Veins, Geology Index.
Load is also used for nine dishes of ore, each dish
being about half a hundred weight.
LOADSTONE. See Magnet.
LOAMS, in Natural History, are defined to be
earths composed of dissimilar particles, stilt, dense, hard,
and rough to the touch 5 not easily broke while moist,
readily diffusible in water, and composed ol sand and a
tough viscid clay. Of these loams some are whitish,
and others brown and yellow.
LOAN, any thing given to another, on condition of
return or payment.
Public Loans. See Funds and National Debt.
LOANDA, a province of the kingdom of Angola
in Africa. It is an island about 15 miles in length, and
three in breadth j remarkable chiefly for the capital of
Angola situated upon it, in E. Long. 12. 25. S* Lat.
8. 45. This town was built by the Portuguese in 1578,
under, the direction of the first Portuguese governor in
these parts. It is large, populous, and pleasantly seat¬
ed on the declivity of a hill near the sea-coast, and la¬
cing the south-west. The island is supplied with fresh
water from wells dug in it 5 and which are not sunk be¬
low the depth of three feet when they are filled with
excellent water. It is remarkable, however, that the
water of these w'ells continues good only during the
time of high tide ; for, as that sinks, the water becomes
more and more brackish, till at last it is quite salt, al¬
most as much as the sea itself. On the coast of this
island are fished the zimbis, or shells used in several
parts of Africa instead of money ; and with these shells,
instead of coin, is carried on a great part of the traffic
of this country.
LOANGO, a kingdom of Africa, extending itself
about 180 geographical miles in length from south to
north 5 that is, from Cape St Catherine under the se¬
cond degree ot south latitude, to a small river called
Lovando Louisia, on the 5th degree of the same. I rom
west to east it extends from Cape Negro on the coast
towards the Buchumalean mountains, so called on ac¬
count of the vast quantity of ivory and great droves of
elephants, about 300 miles. It is divided into four
principal provinces, viz. those of Lovangiri, Loango-
mongo, Chilongo, and Piri.
The inhabitants are very black, well shaped, and of
a mild temper. The men w'ear long petticoats, from
the waist downwards, and have a piece of cloth round
their waist. The women’s petticoats are made of straw.
This country abounds with poultry, oxen, cows, sheep,
goats, elephants, tigers, leopards, civet-cats, and other
animals j -so that here are great quantities of elephants
teeth, and fine furs, to be traded for.
The capital city, where the king resides, called
Loango, and in the language of the negroes, Boai'ic, is
situated in South Lat. 44 degrees, a league and a half
from.
L O C l 50
from the sea-coast, and is shaded and adorned vvith ba¬
nanas, and other trees, 1 he king, who resides in
a large palace in the middle of it, has about 1500
cubines. If any of them is surprised in adultery, she
and her paramour are instantly conveyed to the top of a
very high hill, whence they are hurled down headlong
from the steepest place.
Every man marries as many wives here as he pleases,
who are obliged to get their husbands a livelihood, as
is the practice all along the African coast inhabited by
blacks. The women, therefore, cultivate the land, sow
and reap, while the lazy husbands loiter away their time
in idleness.
The king’s revenue consists in elephants teeth, cop¬
per, and a kind of petticoats made of palm-tree leaves,
and called lavogus: he has whole store-houses full ol
these lavogus j but his greatest riches consist in slaves
■of both sexes. . .
LOBBY, in Architecture, is a small hall or waiting-
room : it is also an entrance into a principal apartment,
where there is a considerable space between that and a
portico or vestibule, and the length or dimensions will
not allow it to be considered as a vestibule or an anti¬
room. See Antichamber.
LOBE, in Anatomy, any fleshy protuberant part, as
the lobes of the lungs, the lobes of the ears, &c.
LOBELIA, Cardinal-flower •, a genus of plants
belonging to the syngenesia class j and in the natural
method ranking under the 29th order, Campanacece.
See Botany Index.
LOBETUM, anciently a town of the Hither Spain :
said to have been built vby the Eibyan Hercules,
( Pliny). Now Albaraz&in, a town of Arragon on the
confines of New Castile, on the river Guadalavir. L.
Long. 2. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LOBO, Jerome, a Jesuit missionary, was born at
Lisbon in the year 1593- He became a member of the
Jesuit society at 16 years of age, and in 1622 went out
as a missionary to the East Indies. He sailed to the
coast of Mozambique, after making some stay at Goa j
and afterwards penetrated into Abyssinia, where his
zeal and resolution brought on him the hatred of the
monks, from which he incurred much danger and suf¬
fering. As he returned to Portugal he was shipwreck¬
ed on the coast of Natal, where seven months were
spent in constructing shallops to bring them away.
One of them foundered, but that in which Father Eobo
sailed arrived safe at Angola. After a variety of ad¬
ventures he arrived at Lisbon } and he employed him¬
self in the-cause of the Ethiopian mission both at Ma¬
drid and Home. He took a second voyage to the In¬
dies, where he was made rector ol the house at Goa.
He returned to Lisbon in 1658, and was chosen rector
of the college of Coimbra, where he died in 1678, at
the age of 84. t , ,
Lobo wrote an historical account of Abyssinia in the
Portuguese language, which contains information both
curious and valuable. It was translated into French by
the abbe le Grand in 4to, in 1728-, and the earliest
production of Dr Samuel Johnson was an abridged ver¬
sion of this work.
LOBSTER, a species of cancer. See Cancer, En¬
tomology Index.
LOCAL, in Law, something fixed to the freehold,
<or tied to a certain place thus, real actions are local,
1
] LOG
since they must he brought in the country where they
lie •, and local customs are those peculiar to certain
countries and places.
Local Medicines, those destined to act upon par¬
ticular parts ; as fomentations, epithenis, vesicatories,
& LOCARNO, a town of Swisserland, capital of a
bailiwick of the same name, seated at the north end
of the lake Maggiore, near the r iver Magia. It car¬
ries on a great trade } and the country abounds in
pastures, wine, and fruits. It contains ijoo inhabi¬
tants. E. Long. 8. 41. N. Lat. 46. 6.
LOCHABER, a district of the shire of Inverness in
Scotland. It is hounded by Moydart on the west,
Glengarv on the north, Badenoch on the east, and
Lorn on the south. It derives its name from the lake
or loch Aber $ and extends about 20 miles from east to
west, and 30 from north to south. 'I he country is
barren, bleak, mountainous, and rugged. Near the
mouth of the river Aber, in the centre between the West
and North Highlands, stands Fort W illiam, with the
town of Maryburgh, built upon a navigable arm of the
sea, not far from the foot of Benevts. The town, designed
as a sutlerv for the garrison, was erected into a borough $
and the fort itself was designed as a check upon some of
the clans, who had been guilty ol depredations and other
irregularities. Lochaber is inhabited mostly by the
Macdonalds, Camerons, and Mackintoshes. Ihe castle
of Macdonald of Glengary, in this district, was burnt
to the ground in the year 1715, in consequence of his
declaring for the Pretender. The elegant house and
gardens belonging to Cameron ol Lochiel underwent
the same fate, for the same reason, in the year 1746*
LOCHIA, in Midwifery, a flux from the uterus
consequent to delivery. See Midwifery.
LOCK, a well-known instrument used for fastening
doors, chests, &c. generally opened by a key. _
The lock is reckoned the masterpiece in smithery j
a great deal of art and delicacy being required in con¬
triving and varying the wards, springs, bolts, &c. and
adjusting them to the places where they are to lie used,
and to the various occasions of using them.
From the various structure of locks, accommodated
to their different intentions, they acquire various
names. Those placed on outer doors are called stock-
locks ; those on chamber doors, spring-locks ; those on
trunks, trunk-locks, pad-locks, &c.
Of these the spring-lock is the most considerable,
both for its frequency and the curiosity of its structure.
Its principal parts are, the main-plate, the cover-plate,
and the pin-hole : to the main-plate belong the key¬
hole, top-hook, cross-wards, bolt-toe or bolt-knab,
drawback-spring tumbler, pin ol the tumbler, and the
staples •, to the cover-plate belong the pin, main-ward,
cross-ward, step-ward or dap-ward 5 to the pin-hole
belong the hook-ward, main cross-ward, shank, the pot
or bread, bow-ward, and hit.
As on the proper construction of locks the security
of the most valuable kinds of property almost entncly
depends, and as numberless devices are continually
fallen upon to elude the utmost efforts of mechanical
invention in this respect, it thence becomes an object
of no small importance to invent a lock which it should
he impossible to open except by its proper key. A trea¬
tise upon this subject has been published by Mr Jo¬
seph
Local
!!
Lock.
LOG
[
Lock.
scph Bramah j who is confident that he has brought
' the matter to the requisite perfection, and that every
one may rest assured of the security of his property
when under the protection of a lock, of his invention.
He begins with observing, that the principle on which
all locks depend, is the application of a lever to an in¬
terior bolt, by means of a communication from with¬
out; so that, by means of the latter, the lever acts
upon the bolt, and moves it in such a manner as to
secure the lid or door from being opened by any pull
or push from without. The security of locks in ge¬
neral therefore depends on the number of impediments
we can interpose betwixt the lever (the key) and the
bolt which secures the door 5 ancf these impediments
are well known by the name of wards, the number and
intricacy of which alone are supposed to distinguish a
good lock from a bad one. If these wards, however,
do not in an effectual manner preclude the access of aU
other instruments besides the proper key, it is still
possible for a mechanic of equal skill with the lock-
maker to open it without the key, and thus to elude
the labour of the other.
“ Locks (says our author) have been constructed,
and are at present much used and held in great esteem,
from which the picklock is excluded : but the admis¬
sion of false keys is an imperfection for which no lock¬
smith has ever found a corrective *, nor can this imper¬
fection be remedied whilst the protection of the bolt
is wholly confided to fixed wards." This position is
proved by a remark, that the wards, let them be as
intricate as we please, must all be expressed on wrhat is
called the bit or web of the key : and therefore when
all the varieties that can be expressed on this bit or web
have been run through, every succeeding lock must be
the counterpart of some other} and consequently the
same key which opens one will open the other also.
This is evident from the locks usually put upon drawers $
and which, though they should be made to resist the
picklock, are still liable to be opened by ten thousand
other keys besides that appropriated to each of them.
But though the variety of wards could be augmented
even to infinity, still there could be no security against
false keys 5 for as every one of the wards must be ex*
pressed on the web of the key, if another key with a
web quite plain be made to fit the key-hole exactly,
we have only to cover it over with some colouring sub¬
stance upon which the Wards may make an impression
after which, it is easy to cut out the web in a proper
manner for admitting them, when the lock w ill be as
easily opened by the false as by the true key.
The first person, according to our author, who had
any claim to merit in the branch ol lock-making, is
Mr Baron ; whose lock he acknowledges to be by far
more perfect and secure than any that ever appeared
before: though he still considers it as unfit for giving
that absolute security which is to be wished for. His
improvement consisted in the proper application of
what arc called tumblers. “ These (says Mr Bramah)
are a kind of grapple; by which the bolt is confined,
as well in its active as in its passive station, and render¬
ed immoveable till set at liberty by the key. One of
these instruments is commonly introduced into all locks
that are of any use or Value: it is lodged behind the
bolt, and is governed by a spring which acts upon the
tumbler as the tumbler acts upon the bolt : The ap-
Y01. XH. Part I.
57 J .LOG
plication therefore of any force to the tumbler, which
is superior to the force of the spring, will cause it to ^
quit its hold, and set the bolt at liberty.” In the
common method of applying these machines, however,
it matters nothing how far the tumbler is lifted above
the point at which it ceases to controul the bolt *, but
it is otherwise in those of Mr Baron’s construction.
The action of his tumblers is circumscribed by a cer¬
tain space cut in the centre of the bolt, ol dimensions
sufficient only to ansAver the purpose intended. The
space in which the tumbler moves is an oblong square j
and is not only furnished with niches on the under side,
into which the hooks of the tumblers are forced by the
spring as in other locks, but is provided with cor¬
respondent niches on the other side, into which the.
hooks are driven, if any greater force be applied to the
tumblers than Avhat is just sufficient to disengage them,
from the bolt. Hence it becomes absolutely necessary,
in the making of a false key, to construct it in such a
manner, that it may with the greatest exactness give
the requisite degree of pressure and no more.
Mr Bramah allosvs that this is a very great improve¬
ment, but objects that it is still possible to frame a key
which will open it as well as its own j nor will the ad¬
dition of any number ol tumblers preclude the possibi¬
lity of opening it. “ By giving (says he) an uniform
motion to the tumblers, and presenting them Avith a
face which exactly tallies Avith the key, they still par¬
take, in a very great degree, of the nature ol fixed
wards} and the security of this lock is thereby render¬
ed in a proportionable degree detective. rlhus, sup¬
pose the false key to haAre passed the Avards, and to lie
in contact Avith the most prominent of the tumblers,
the impression, which the slightest touch Avill leave on
the key, Avill direct the application of the file till
Sufficient space is prepared to giA'e it a free passage.
The key Avill then hear upon a more remote tumbler ;
Avhich difficulty being in like manner got over, the
lock Avill be as easily opened by the false as by the true
key.”
This seemingly insuperable objection to the perfec¬
tion of lock-making, hoAvever, our author removes with
the greatest ease imaginable, by causing the tumblers
Avhich project unequally to present a plane surface ;
whence they Avould require a separate and unequal mo¬
tion to disengage them ; of consequence no distinct im¬
pression could be made by them upon the plane surface
of the Aveb that Atould give any idea of their positions
with regard to one another, and the construction ot a
false key Avould be altogether impossible.
But though the principal difficulty Avith regard to
Mr Baron’s lock be now ovex-come, others still occur,
viz. the difficulty of making locks Avhich are construct¬
ed Avith tumblers sufficiently durable. The tumblers
themselves, he observes, must be but slightly made ;
and being exposed to perpetual friction by the key and
their oavu proper motion, they must soon decay •, arid
the keys of Mr Baron’s locks, he also observes, are
much less durable than those of any other locks he
ever saAV.
With regard to the lock which Mr Bramah pre¬
sents to the public as absolutely perfect, he informs
us, that the idea of constructing it Avas first suggested
by the alarming increase of house robberies, whichniay
reasonably be supposed to be perpetrated in a great
+ IJ measure
Lock.
L O C
[ 58 ]
LOG
I.di-tt
Plate
CCXCVI
measure by perfidious servants, or accomplished by their
connivance. Thus it is evident, that the locks which
might exclude ordinary housebreakers could be no se¬
curity against faithless servants, who having constant
access to the locks, might easily get false keys fabri¬
cated at their leisure. In considering the subject, our
author was convinced, that his hope of success de¬
pended entirely upon his using means as dissimilar as
possible to those by which the old locks were con¬
structed •, as these, however varied, had been tound
insufficient for the purpose. “ As nothing (says be)
can be more opposite in principle to fixed wards than
a lock which derives its properties from the motion ot
all its parts, I determined that the construction 01 such
a lock should be the subject of my experimellt.,, In
the prosecution of this experiment he had the satisfac¬
tion to find, that the least perfect of all his models
fully ascertained the truth and certainty ol his prin¬
ciple. The exclusion of wards made it necessary to cut
off all communication between the key and the bo t;
as the same passage, which (in a lock sfrap/y construct¬
ed) would admit the key, might give admission like¬
wise to other instruments. The office, therefore, which
in other locks is performed by the extreme point ot
the key, is here assigned to a lever, which cannot ap¬
proach the bolt till every part of the lock has under¬
gone a change of position. The necessity of this change
to the purposes of the lock, and the absolute impossi¬
bility of effecting it otherwise than with the proper
key, are the points to be ascertained j and tins our
author does in the following manner.
Fig. I. shows Mr Bramah’s first attempt to con-
. struct a lock upon this principle : which, to his sur¬
prise, turned out complete and perfect. A represents
a common axis on which the six levers, crossing the
face of the lock,, are united as on a joint. Bach ot
these rests upon a separate spring sufficiently strong to
bear its weight -, or, if depressed by a superior force,
to restore it to its proper position when that force is
removed. B represents a frame through which the
levers pass by separate grooves, exactly fitted to their
width, but of sufficient depth to allow them a free
motion in a perpendicular direction. The part which
projects from the opposite side of the joint A, and is
inserted in the bolt C, is a lever to which two offices
are assigned *, one to keep the bolt in a fixed position,
in the absence of the key •, the other, to give it its
proper .motion upon the application ot the key . H 13
a circular platform turning upon a centre. On this
the joint or carriage of the levers, and the springs on
which they rest, are fixed; and the motion of the plat¬
form impels the bolt, in either direction, by means of
the lever which is projected from the joint A. The
inviolable restraint upon this lock, by which means it
is subjected only to the action of the key, is lodged in
the part E, which is a thin plate, bearing at each ex¬
tremity on a block, and having of course a vacant space
beneath, equal in height to the thickness of the blocks
on which it rests. By this, plate the motion ol the
machine is checked or guided in the following manner:
On the edge of the plate which faces the movement
there are six notches which receive the ends of the
levers projecting beyond the frame B *, and while they
are confined in this manner the motion of the machine
is so totally suspended as to defy every power of art to
overcome.
To understand in what manner the proper key of
this lock overcomes these obstacles, it must be observ¬
ed, that each lever has a notch on its extremity, and
that those notches are disposed as irregularly as pos¬
sible. To give the machine a capacity of motion, these
notches must be brought parallel to each other, and
by a distinct but unequal pressure upon the levers, be
formed into a groove in a direct line with the edge of
the plate E, which the notches are exactly fitted to
receive. The least motion of the machine, while the
levers are in this position, will introduce the edge of the
plate into the groove 5 which, controuling the power
of the springs, will give liberty to the levers to move in
a horizontal direction as far as the space between the
blocks which support the plate E will admit, and
which is sufficient to give the machine a power of act¬
ing on the bolt. The impossibility of thus bringing
the notches on the points of the levers into a direct
line, so as to tally with the edge of the plate E by any
other means than the motion and impulse of the key^
is that which constitutes the principal excellency of this
° The key (fig. 2.) exhibits six different surfaces*
against which the levers are progressively admitted in
the operation of opening the lock : the irregularity of
these surfaces shows the unequal and distinct degiee ot
pressure which each lever requires to bring them to
their proper bearings, in order to put the machine in
motion. Hence it appears, that unless the various
heights of the surfaces expressed on the bit of the key
are exactly proportioned to the several distances neces¬
sary to bring the notches into a straight line with each
other, they must remain immoveable j “ and (says our
author) as one stroke of a file is sufficient to cause
such a disproportion as will prove an insurmountable
impediment to their motion, I may safely assert, that
it is not in art to produce a key or other instrument,
by which a lock, constructed upon this principle, can
be opened.”
On this principle it would even be a matter of great
difficulty for any workman, however skilful, to construct
a key for the lock when open to his inspection : “ for
the levers being raised, by the subjacent springs, to an
equal height in the frame B, present a plane surface *,
and consequently convey no direction that can be ot
any use in forming a tally to the irregular surface which
they present when acting in subjection to the key.
Unless therefore we can contrive a method to bring
the notches on the points of the levers in a direct line
with each other, and to retain them in that position
till an exact impression of the irregular surface, which
the levers will then exhibit, can be taken j the workman
will be unable to fit a key to the lock, or to move the
bolt. This process must be rendered extremely trou¬
blesome by means of the springs ; and if such diffi¬
culties occur, even when the lock is open to the in¬
spection of a skilful workman, much more must we
suppose it out of the power of one who has not access
to the internal parts to make a false key to a lock ol
this kind.
These difficulties render it necessary in, making locks
of this kind not to fit the key to the lock, as is usual
l/jck.
LOG [ 59 ] LOG
Lock. in other locks, but to fit the lock to the key. In
—v—this kind of lock, therefore, the key must be made first ;
and the inequalities upon the surface of the bit work¬
ed as chance or fancy may direct, without any refer¬
ence to the lock. The key being thus completed,
and applied to the surface of the levers, will, by a gen¬
tle pressure, force them to unequal distances from their
common station in the frame B, and sink their points
to unequal depths into the space beneath the plate E.
’While the levers are in this position, the edge of the
plate E will mark the pi'ecise point at which the notch
on each lever must be expressed. The notches being
cut by this direction, the irregularity which appears
when the levers resume their station in the frame B,
and the inequality of the recesses on the bit of the
key, will appear as a seal and its corresponding im¬
pression.
The following is a lock contrived upon the same
principle, but more curious ; and, in our author’s opi¬
nion, more extensively useful. Fig. 3. represents a
circular block of metal divided from the centre into
eight compartments, each containing a cell which forms
a passage through the block, as is represented by the
small circles described on the flat surface A. In each
of these cells two grooves are cut at opposite points,
which open a communication with the centre at one
point, and with the spherical surface of the block or
barrel at the other. The small circle, which marks
the centre of the flat surface A, is the key-hole, which
likewise forms a passage through the barrel in a parallel
line Avith the cells which surround it. This figure re¬
presents the frame in which the active parts of the lock
are deposited.
Fig. 4. shows a spiral spring lodged in the bottom
of each cell, and occupying one half of the space, the
other being filled with a slider resting upon the spring,
and represented by fig. 5. the office of these sliders ex¬
actly corresponding with that of the levers in the lock
already described. Thus, when lodged in their respec¬
tive cells, they are sustained, like the levers, by the
elasticity of the springs upon which they rest, till a su¬
perior power be applied } and they are again restored
to their stations by the reaction of the springs when
the weight is removed. The side B of each slider is
projected beyond the circular surface, as represented
fig. 6. in a manner similar to the projection of the le¬
vers in the former lock beyond the curved frame in
which they move. The point C is projected through
the interior groove into the space which forms the cen¬
tre or key-hole, expressed on the Hat surface A.
Fig. 7. represents the key. AY hen this is applied,
it must of course encounter these interior projections •,
and when pressed forward, the indented space on its
point being- unequal, will force the sliders to unequal
distances from their bearers •, bringing the notches ex¬
pressed on their exterior projections in a direct line with
each other, in a manner similar to that by which the
(■.fleet is produced upon the levers in the former lock.
When the key is withdrawn, and the sliders resume their
stations by the pressure of the springs, the disposition
of the notches must be irregular in the same proportion
that the indentations on the point of the key arc un¬
equal } and they must necessarily fall again into a
straight line when acted upon by the key.
Fig. 6. shows the barrel completely fitted for action.
Its interior end is caped with a plate, which unites Lock,
its compartments, and confines the springs and sliders ——v—**
within the cells to which they belong. From that plate
proceeds the point A, which represents the lever by
which the bolt is projected or withdrawn, according
to the direction in which the machine performs its re¬
volution.
Fig. 8. shows the flat surface of a thin plate, corre¬
sponding in its office with the part C of the former
lock. The space cut in its centre is exactly fitted to
the spherical surface of the barrel; the circle describing
its circumference, and the notches cut on its edge co¬
inciding with the projections of the sliders. The barrel,
when encircled with this plate at the middle of its sphe¬
rical surface, has its motion totally suspended till the
notches on the projections of the sliders are forced, by
the pressure of the key, into a line with each other: a
groove being thus formed on the spherical surface of the
barrel parallel to, and coinciding with, the edge of the
plate, the machine is at liberty to perform a revolution
in anv direction, but returns to its confined state when
the key is withdrawn.
The parts of the movement being thus united, the
interior end of the barrel is deposited in a bed repre¬
sented fig. 9. To this it is fastened at the angles of
the plate represented fig. 8. by which the barrel is en¬
circled. The station of the bolt is at A } the le\er
which acts upon it being projected on the other side.
Fig. 10. is a cap or mask which covers the face of the
movement, and completes the lock.
On this lock our author observes, that it is excellent
for street doors : “ lor no method of robbery (says he)
is more practised, than gaining admittance into houses
by those keys, which, as is well known, may be pro¬
cured at the old iron shops to fit almost any lock in
use. Such robberies are generally committed where
the servants are allowed to take the key with them
when sent on errands, it being impracticable while the
key is fixed in the lock. The variations, by which
the production of corresponding keys is avoided,, have
two sources j the one arising from the changes that may
be made in the disposition of the levers j the other from
the number of points contained on the projected sur¬
face of each lever j by which the position of its notch
may, in the smallest degree, be varied.
“ The variations produceable in the dispositions, of
six figures only, are 7 20 : these, being progressively
multiplied by additional figures, will increase by asto¬
nishing degrees ^ and eventually show-, that a lock con-,
tainingtwelve levers will admit of 479,001,500 changes,
which, with the addition of another lever, will increase
to 6,227,020,800. These being again multiplied by•
the number of changes which the projected surface of
the levers will admit in the disposition of the notches,:
their amount will exceed numeration, and may there¬
fore be properly said to he infinite. The slightest in¬
spection will at once show, that their construction pre¬
cludes all possibility of obtaining an impression of their
internal parts, which is necessary for the fabrication of
a false key *, for it will be easily seen, that the positions
into which the levers are forced by the pressure of the
key in opening the lock, can no more be ascertained
when the key is withdrawn, than the seal can be co¬
pied from its impression on a fluid, or the course of a
ship be discovered by tracing it on the surface of the
II 2 waves.
I
LOC [ 60
J>eck, waves.. But inviolable security is not the only excel-
Locke. Jence they possess j the simplicity of theii pnneip e
—V ' gives them likewise a great advantage oyer locks that
are more complicated, in point of duration } foi their
essential parts being subject to no friction, nor exposed
to any possible accident from without, they will bc^
less affected by use, and less liable to-sta»d4nr need ot
repair.” ... i
Lock, or Weir, in inland navigations, the general
name for all those works ol wosd or stone made to con¬
fine and raise the water of a river : the banks also winch
are made to divert the course of a river, are called by
these names in some places. But the term lock is more
particularly appropriated to express a kind of canal en¬
closed between two gates j the upper called by work¬
men the sluice gate, and the lower called the flood gate.
These serve in artificial navigations to confine the wa¬
ter, and render the passage of boats easy in passing up
and down the stream. See Canal.
LOCKE, John, an eminent English philosopher
and writer in the latter end of the I'yth century, was
sou of Mr John Locke of Pensford in Somersetshire,
and born at Wrington, near Bristol, in 1632. He
was sent to* Christ-church in Oxford \ but was highly
dissatisfied with the common course of studies then pur¬
sued in the university, where nothing was taught but
the Aristotelian philosophy } and had a great aversion to
the disputes of the schools then in use. Ihe first books
which gave him a relish for philosophy were the writ¬
ings of Des Cartes : for though he did not always
approve of his notions, yet he thought he wrote with
great perspicuity. He applied himself with vigour
to his studies, particularly to physic, in which he
gained a considerable knowledge, though he never
practised it. In 1664, he went to Germany as se¬
cretary to Sir William Swan, envoy from the Eng¬
lish court to the elector of Brandenburg and some other
German princes. In less than a year, lie returned to
England j where, among other studies, he applied
himself to that of natural philosophy, as appears from
a register of the changes of the air, which he kept at
Oxford from June 24. 1666, to March 28. 1667.
There he became acquainted with the lord Ashly,
afterwards earl of Shaftesbury, who introduced him in¬
to the conversation of some of the most eminent per¬
sons of that time. In 1670, he began to form the
plan of his Essay on Human Understanding but his
employments and avocations prevented him from finish¬
ing it then. About this time he became a member of
the Royal Society. In 1672, his patron, now earl of
Shaftesbury, and lord chancellor of England, appoint¬
ed him secretary of the presentations, which place
he held till the earl resigned the great seal. In 1673,
he was made secretary to a commission of trade, worth
500I. a-year ; hut that commission was dissolved in
1674. The earl of Shaftesbury being restored to fa¬
vour, and made president of the council in 1679, sent
for Mr Locke to London: but that nobleman did not
continue long in his post, being sent prisoner to the
Tower 5 and after his discharge retired to Holland ia
1682.
Mr Locke followed his patron thither. He had not
been absent from England a year, when he was ac-
Jtused at court of having written certain tracts against
the government, which were afterward discovered to be
] LOC
written by another person •, and in November
he was deprived of his place of student in Christ¬
church. In 1685, the English envoy at the Hague  
demanded him and 83 other persons to be delivered up '
bv the states general: upon which he lay concealed
till the year following j and during this time formed
a weekly assembly with Mr Limborch, Mr Le Clerc,
and other learned men at Amsterdam. In 1689 he
returned to England in the fleet which conveyed the
princess of Orange ; and endeavoured to procure his
restoration to his place of student of Chnst-churcb,
that it might appear from thence that lie had been un¬
justly deprived of it: but when he found the college
would admit him only as a supernumerary student, he
desisted from his claim.
Being esteemed a sufferer for revolution principles,
he might easily have obtained a more profitable post 5
but he contented himself with that of commissioner of
appeals, worth 200I. a-year, which was procured for
him by the lord Mordaunt ; and about the same time
he was offered an appointment in a diplomatic charac¬
ter, but the infirm state of his health prevented him
from accepting it. He went afterwards to reside with
Sir Francis Masham and his lady, at Oates in Essex,^
about 25 miles from London, where he spent most ot
his time during the rest of his life. In this agreeable,
situation he enjoyed that health and vigour which en¬
abled him to exert his talents in writing on political sub¬
jects. Hence he appears in defence ot the revolution in
one piece j and considering the great national concern
at that time, the ill state of the silver coin, and proposing
remedies for it, in others. Hence he was made a com¬
missioner of trade and plantations in 1695, which en¬
gaged him in the immediate business of the state *, and
with regard to the church, he published a treatise the
same year, to promote the scheme which King William
had much at heart, of a comprehension with the dis¬
senters. This, however, drew him into one contro¬
versy •, which was scarcely ended, when he entered into
another in defence of his essay, which he held till 1698 j
soon after which the asthma, his constitutional disor¬
der, increasing with his years, began to subdue him j.
and he became so infirm, that in 1700 he resigned his
seat at the board of trade, because he could no longer
hear the air of London sufficient for a regular attend¬
ance upon it. After this resignation he continued al¬
together at Oates ; in which retirement he employed
the remaining last years of his life entirely in the study
of the Holy Scriptures.
He died in 1704, aged 73. His writings will im¬
mortalize his name. The earl of Shaftesbury, author
of the Characteristics, though in one place he speaks
of Mr Locke’s philosophy with severity •, yet observes,
concerning 1ns Essay on the Human Understanding,
in general, “ that it may qualify men as well for busi¬
ness and the world, as for the sciences and the uni¬
versity.” His Discourses on Government, Letters on
Toleration, and Commentaries on some of St Paul’s
Epistles, are also held in much esteem.
LOCKED jaw. See Medicine Index.
LGCKMAN, an officer in the isle of Man, who
executes the orders of government, much like our under
sheriff.
Lockman, an eastern philosopher. See LokmaN.
LOCLE, a town in a district of the same name
in
Locke
H
Lode.
LOG [ 61
iu Switzerland, adjacent to NcufcliaUd and ^ alien-
(.•in, and united 'with another named La Ghana: de
Fond. But these districts occupy some valleys formed
by the mountains of Jura} the greatest part of which
not many years ago was one continued iorest, thougli
now converted into fine pasture ground filled with flou¬
rishing villages. The inhabitants are remarkable tor
their industry, and excel in many mechanical arts, par¬
ticularly in watch and clock making; 40,000 watches,
it is said, are made in a year. The most singular ob¬
ject at this place, is three subterranean mills, erected
on the river Bied, vertically above one another, and 10a
feet below the surface of the ground. _
LOCK!, or Locri Epizephyrii, in Ancient Geogra¬
phy, a town on the Ionian sea near the promontory
Zephyrium. The people are said to be the first who
used a code of written laws, compiled by Zaleucustrom
the laws of the Cretans and others.^
Locris, a country of Achaia in Greece; twotold,
and divided by Mount Parnassus. The Hither was oc¬
cupied by the Locri Oxolie, called also Zephyni, ov
"Western, contained between iEtolia and Phocis. I he
Tarther Locris lay beyond Parnassus, running out to¬
wards Thermopylae, and reaching to the Euripus of
Euboea $ occupied by the Locri Opuntii, and Epicne-
midii, who were called the Eastern Locri.
LOCUS GEOMETRICUS, denotes a line by which a
local or indeterminate problem is solved.
A locus is a hue, any point of which may equal y
solve an indeterminate problem. ^ bus if a right line
suffice for the construction of the equation, it is called
locus ad rectum; if a circle, locus ad circulum ; if a pa¬
rabola, locus adparabolam ; if an ellipsis, locus ad cllip-
sin: and so oi the rest of the conic sections.
LOCUL AMENTA, and Loculi, in Botany, cells
or pockets : The internal divisions ol a capsule, 01 othei
dry seed-vessel, enclosing the seeds.
LOCUST. See Gryllus, Entomology Indca:.
LocusT-Eaters. See Acridophagi.
American Locust, or Frog-hopper. See Cicada,
J^NTOMOLOGy Index.
Locusr-Tree. See Hymen®a and Gleditsia, Lo-
tany Index.
LOCUTIUS, in Mythology, the god of speech a-
mong the Romans, called by Livy Ants Locutius.
LUCUTORIUM. A hall or apartment in mona¬
steries, where the monks and other religious met after
dinner to converse together.
LODI, a walled town of Austrian Lombardy, situated
on the Adda, in 45. 20. N. Lat. and 9. 30. E. Long.
It has a cathedral, 9 churches, and 26 convents, and
about 12,000 inhabitants. Here Bonaparte defeated
the Austrians in 1796.
LODGMENT, in military affairs, a work made by
the besiegers in some part of a fortification (rvfter the
besieged have been driven out), to maintain it, and he
covered from the enemy’s fire.
LOG, in the Jewish antiquities, a measure which
held a quarter of a cab, and consequently five-sixths of
a pint. There is mention of a log, 2 Kings vi. 25.
under the name of afourth part of a cab. But in Levi¬
ticus the word log is often met wTith, and signifies
the measure of oil which lepers were to offer at the
temple after they were cured of their disease. Dr Ar-
buthuot says, that the log was a measure of liquids,
the seventy-second part of the bath or. ephah, and
4:
< ] LOG
twelfth part of the bin, according to all the accounts of
the Jewish writers. . .
Log, a sea term, signifying a small piece of timber a,
(tig. 3.) of a triangular, sectoral, or quadrantal figure,
on board a ship, generally about a quarter of an inch
thick, and five or six inches from the angular point to
the ciroumfereace. It is balanced by a thin plate of
lead, nailed to the arch, or circular side, so as to swim
perpendicularly in the water.
Loa-Line, a little cord, or line, about a hundred and
fifty fathoms long, fastened to the log by means of two
legs ab (fig. 4.), one of which passes through a hole
at the corner, and is knotted on the opposite side, while
the other leg is attached to the arch by a pin fixed into
another hole, so as to draw out occasionally. By these
legs the log is hung in equilibrio ; and the line thus
annexed to it is wound round a reel (fig. 2.), fixed for.
that purpose in the gallery of the ship.
This line, from the distance of about ten, tvveKe, or
fifteen fathoms off the log, has certain knots or divisions,
which ought to he at least fifty feet from each other *
though it was the common practice at sea not to have
them above forty-two feet asunder.
The length of each knot ought to be the same part
of a sea mile as half a minute is of an hour j and ad¬
mitting the measurement of Mr Norwood, who makes
a degree on a great circle of the earth to contain
367,200 English feet, or about 69I English statute
miles, and therefore ^th part of it, or a nautical
mile, will be 6120 feet y -rsoth 6t20, or 51 feet,
should be the length of each knot. But because it is
safer to have the reckoning rather before the ship than
after it, therefore fifty feet may be taken as the pro¬
per length of each knot. The knots are sometimes
made to consist only of forty-two feet each, even in the
present practice j and this method of dividing tw
line was founded on the supposition that 60 miles,
each of 5000 English feet, made a degree j for Tio 01
5000 is 41-y, or, in round numbers, 42 feet. Man¬
ners rather than quit the old wav, though known to
be erroneous, use glasses for halt minute ones, that run
but 24 or 25 seconds. They have also used a line of
45 feet or 30 seconds, or a glass of 28 seconds to 42
feet. When this is the case, the distance between
the knots should be corrected by the following pro¬
portion : as 30 is to 50 5 so is the number of seconds
of the glass to the distance between the knots upon
the line. The heat or moisture of the weather has of¬
ten a considerable effect upon the glass, so as to make
it run slower or faster; it should, therefore, be fre¬
quently tried by the pendulum in the following man¬
ner. On a round nail hang a string that lias a musket
ball fixed to one end, carefully measuring between the
centre of the ball and the string’s loop over the peg
39^- inches, being the length of a second' pendulum ;
then swing it, and count one for every time it pa^se.
under the peg, beginning at the second time it passes,
and the number of swings made during the time the
glass is running out shows the seconds it contains. I he
line also is liable to relax and shrink, and should there¬
fore be occasionally measured.
The use of the log and line is to keep account anw
make an estimate of the ship’s way or distance run ;
which is done by observing the length of line unwoun/t
in half a minute’s time, told by a half-minute glass
for so many knots as run out in that time, so many
jDuer
Piute
CCXVII.
tig- 3-
Fig. 4-.
Fig. z.
L«£.
LOG [
miles tlte sliip sails in an hour. Thus, if there be four
knpts veered out in half a minute, the ship is computed
to run four miles an hour.
The author of this device for measuring the ship’s
way is not known} and no mention of it occurs till the
year 1607, in an East India voyage published by Pur-
chas } but from that time its name occurs in other voy¬
ages among his collections 5 and henceforward it was
taken notice of both by our own authors and by foreign-
as by Gunter iu 1623 5 Snellius in 1624 > and al¬
most by all the succeeding writers on navigation
To Heave the Log, as they call it, they throw it in¬
to the water on the lee-side, letting it run till it comes
without the eddy of the ship’s wake j then one holding
a half minute glass, turns it up just as the first knot,
or the mark from which the knots begin to be reckon-
2. ed, turns off the reel (fig. 2.) or passes over the stern.
As soon as the glass is out, the reel is stopped, and the
knots run off are told, and their parts estimated.
It is usual to heave the log once every hour in ships
of war and East Indiamen, and in all other vessels
once in two hours, allowance being made for the wind
having increased or abated in the intervals.
The log is a very precarious way of computing,
and most always be corrected by experience, there be¬
ing much uncertainty from the motions of the ship, the
winds of variable force, the friction of the reel and light¬
ness of the log in the course of the current. Yet this is
a much more exact way of computing than any other in
use \ much preferable certainly to that of the Spaniards
and Portuguese, who guessed at the ship’s way by the
running of the froth or water by the ship’s side j or
to that of the Dutch, who used to heave a chip over¬
board, and to number the paces they walk on the deck
while the chip swims between any two marks or bulk
heads on the side.
Compound Log. The above-mentioned errors, and
particularly the log’s being subject to drive with the
motion of the water at its surface, whereas the experi¬
ment requires it to be fixed in the place where it is
when the mark commencing the knots goes off the reel,
62 ] LOG
and made of plates only two-thirds of the thickness of
the former, such a diver would weigh, with its solder, v-
about 20 ounces, and can be floated by a light fir cone
of four inches diameter in the base, and ten inches in
the slant height or length ; and such a compound log
might perhaps be found on trial to be affected by about
as much again as that proposed by M. Bouguer 5 and
consequently the difference between the numbers given
by the common log and compound log, must be aug¬
mented by two-thirds of itself for the necessary cor¬
rection as below. When the compound log oi Bou¬
guer, above described, is hove overboard, the diver
will sink too deep to be much affected by the current
or motion of water at the surface, and the log will
thereby keep more steadily in the place where it first
fell j and consequently the knots run off the reel
will show more accurately the ship’s rate of sailing.
As the common log is affected by the whole motion
of the current, so this compound log will feel only a
part thereof, viz. such a part nearly as the resistance
of the cone is to the resistance of the diver j then the
resistances of the above cone and diver are about as 1
to 5 *, and consequently this log will drive but one-
fifth part of what the common log would do ; and so
the ship’s true run will be affected by one-fifth only ot
the motion of the waters. To obtain the true rate of
sailing, it will be proper to heave alternately, hour and
hour, the common log, and this compound logthen
the difference of their knots run oft, augmented by its
one-fourth part, is the correction ; which applied to the
knots of the common log, will give the ship’s true rate
of sailing at the middle time between the hours when
these logs were hove. The correction is additive when
the compound log’s run is the greatest, otherwise it is
subtractive. To find the course made good : increase
the observed angle between the log lines by one-fourth
part-, and this gives the correction to be applied to
the apparent course, or the opposite of that shown by
the common log } the correction is to be applied to the
Los-
\1 left1 ^ °f tllC aPParent course> when tlle bcarir‘g °f
have been considered, and many methods proposed to , j js to the i !e^ \ of the compound
remove or to lessen them. M. Bouguer proposed the ine com 0 & l right $
Mem.Acad following method. Take for the log a conical piece of
Stun-1747. wood, which fix to the log-line passed through or along
its axis, at about 40, 50, or 60, or more feet, from one
end ; and to this end fix the diver, which is a body
formed of two equal square pieces of tin, or of thin iron
plate, fixed at right angles to one another along their
diagonals; and its size so fitted to that of the cone,
that the whole may float. A cone of three inches
diameter in the base, and of six inches in the slant
height, is proposed by M. Bouguer to suit a diver made
of plates about 9% inches square j the intersection of
the diagonals is joined to the log-line, and the loop
and peg fixed as in the common log. However, it has
been found, that no kind of wood used in British dock¬
yards, when formed into a cone of the above dimen¬
sions, will float a diver made of stout tin-plates, one side
of the square being 9! inches. Such a diver weighing
i|lb. avoirdupois, required to float it a cone of five
inches diameter and twelve inches on the slant side, so
as the point of the cone, which was made of light fir,
should just appear above the water. Now, supposing
one side of such a square tin diver to be about ten inches,
3
log. Or, thus: the lengths run off both logs, toge¬
ther with their bearings, being known; in a card or
compass apply the knots run oft', taken from a scale
of equal parts along their respective bearings from the
centre j join the ends •, and in this line produced, on
the side next the compound log’s length, take one-
fourth of the interval; then a line drawn from the
end, thus produced, to the centre of the card, will
show the true course and distance made good. When
a current, such as a tide, runs to any depth, the velo¬
city of that current may be much better ascertained by
the compound log than by the common one, provid¬
ed the diver does not descend lower than the run of
the current •, for as those ships which are deepest im -
merged, drive fastest with the tide *, so the diver, by
being acted on below, as well as .the log on the sur¬
face, their joint motion will give the total effect of the
current’s motion better than what could be derived
from the motion at the surface only. Also, by such a
compound log, the depth to which, any current runs
may be easily tried.
Other Logs. We have an account in the voyage to the
North
Log
LOG [ 63
North Pole, p. 97. of two other logs, which were tried
1 by Captain Phipps : one invented by Mr Russel, the
other by Foxon ; both constructed upon this principle,
that a spiral, in proceeding its own length in the direc¬
tion of its axis through a resisting medium, makes one
revolution round the axis \ if therefore the revolutions
of the spiral are registered, the number of times it has
gone its own length through the water will be known.
In both these the motion of the spiral in the water is
communicated to the clockwork within board, by
means of a small line fastened at one end to the spiral,
which tows it after the ship, and at the other to a
spindle, which sets the clockwork in motion. That
invented by Mr Russel has a half spiral of two threads,
made ot copper, and a small dial ot clockwork, to
register the number of turns of the spiral. The other
log has a whole spiral of wood with one thread, and a
larger piece of clockwork with three dials, two of
them to mark the distance, and the other divided into
knots and fathoms, to show the rate by the half-mi¬
nute glass, for the convenience of comparing it with
the log. This kind of log will have the advantage
of every other in smooth water and moderate wea¬
ther ; and it will be useful in finding the trim of a
ship when alone, in surveying a coast in a single ship,
or in measuring distances in a boat between head¬
lands and shoals j but it is subject to other inconve¬
niences, which will not render it a proper substitute
for the common log.
Perpetual Log, a machine so called by its inventor,
Mr Gottlieb of London, is intended for keeping a con¬
stant and regular account of the rate of a ship’s velo¬
city in the interval of heaving the log.
Plate Fig. 1. is a representation of the whole machine j
CCXCVII. the lower part of which, EFG, is fixed to the side of
fiar- i- the keel ; H representing only the boundary line of the
ship’s figure. EF are the section of a wooden external
case, left open at the ends KL, to admit the passage
of the water during the motion of the ship. At M is
a copper grating, placed to obstruct the entrance of
any dirt, &c. into the machine. I is a section of a
water wheel, made from 6 to 12 inches in diameter,
as may be necessary, with floatboards upon its circum¬
ference, like a common water wheel, that turn by the
resistance of the water passing through the channel
LK. It turns upon a shouldered axis, represented by
the vertical section at K. When the ship is in motion,
the resistance of the water through the channel LK
turns round the wheel I. This wheel, by means of a
] LOG
pinion, is connected with and turns the rod contained
in the long copper tube N. This rod, by a pinion
fixed at its upper extremity, is connected with and
turns upon the whole system ot wheels contained in
the dial of the case ABCD. This dial, by means et
the copper tube N, may be fixed to any convenient
place aboard the ship. In the front ot the dial are
several useful circular graduations, as follow : The re¬
ference by the dotted line A has a hand which is
moved by the wheels within, which points out the mo¬
tion of the ship in fathoms of 6 feet each. The circle
at B has a hand showing the knots, at the rate ot 48
feet for each knot: and is to be observed with the half¬
minute glass at any time. The circle at C has a short
and a long hand j the former of which points out the
mile in land measure, and the latter or longer the
number of knots contained in each mile, viz. 128,
which is in the same proportion to a mile as 60 minutes
to the hour in the reckoning. At e, a small portion of
a circle is seen through the front plate called the regi¬
ster; which shows, in the course of 24 hours (if the
ship is upon one tack) the distance in miles that she
has run j and in the 24 hours the mariner need take but
one observation, as this register serves as an useful
check upon the fathoms, knots, and miles, shown up¬
on the two other circles.
/ Is a plate showing 100 degrees or 6000 miles,
and also acts as another register or check j and is use¬
ful in case of any mistake being made in observing the
distant run by the other circles. The reckoning by
these circles, without fear of mistake, may therefore be
continued to nearly 12,000 miles.
A communication from this machine may easily be
made to the captain’s bedside, where by touching a
spring only, a bell in the head ABCD will sound as
many times in a half minute as the ship sails miles in
an hour.
Loa-Poard, a sort of table, divided into several co¬
lumns, containing the hours of the day and night, the
direction of the winds, the coui'se of the ship, and all
the material occurrences that happen during the 24
hours, or from noon to noon ; together with the lati¬
tude by observation. From this table the officers of
the ship are furnished with materials to compile their
journals.
Loc-Book, a book into which the contents of the log-
board is daily copied at noon, together with every cir¬
cumstance deserving notice that may happen to the ship,
either at sea or in a harbour. See Navigation.
LOGARITHMS.
gao to consider by what means they might simplify these
operations, or substitute for them others more easily
performed. Their efforts produced some ingenious
contrivances for abridging calculations, but of these the
most complete by far was that of John Napier Baron oj
Merchiston in Scotland, who invented a system of num¬
bers called logarithms, which were so adapted to the
numbers to be multiplied, or divided, that these being
arranged in the form of a table, each opposite to the
number
i
INTRODUCTION.
' | MIE labour and time required for performing the
arithmetical operations of multiplication, division,
and the extraction of roots, were at one time consider¬
able obstacles to the improvement of various branches
of knowledge, and in particular the science of astro¬
nomy. But about the end of the 16th century, and
the beginning of the 17th, several mathematicians be-
64
logarithms.
+ , mimber called Its logarithm, the product of any two
Introduce nun \ . . _ x r,t„c i)V the addition of their
tion.
number cancel us — * n j.i:t:nn nf f|1Pir
numbers in the table was found by the addition ot thei
1 logarithms ; and, on the contrary, the quotient arising
from the division of one number by another was found
by the subtraction of the logarithm of the dmsor from
that of the dividend-, and similar simplifications took
place in the still more laborious operations of involu-
tion and evolution. But before we proceed to relate
more particularly the circumstances of this invention,
it will*be proper to give a general view of the nature
of logarithms, and of the circumstances which render
them of use in c&Iculcition* «
Let there be formed two series of numbers, the one
constituting a geometrical progression, the first term
which is unity or I, and the common ratio any num¬
ber whatever, and the other an arithmetical progression,
the first term of which is o, and the common difference
also any number whatever j (but as a. particulai ex-
. ^ . 11  ratio of the (ICOmC-
2. The difference of the logarithms of any two num- Introduce
hers, or terms of the geometrical series, is equal to the . tlon- <
logarithm of that term of the series which is equal to J - *
the quotient arising from the division of the one number
by the other.
'Take for example the terms 128 and 32, the lo¬
garithms of which are 7 and J j the greater of these
numbers divided by the less is 4, and the dinerence o
their logarithms is 2 } and by inspecting the two senes,
this last number will be found to be the logarithm
of the former. In like manner, if the terms of the
geometrical series be X024 and 16, the logarithms
of which are 10 and 4, we find that 1024-t-i6—04,
and that 10—4=6 ; now it appears from die table
that the latter number, viz. 6, is the logarithm ot the
former 64. „
These two properties of logarithms, the second ot
which indeed is an immediate consequence of the first,
, * r i   4. Tvrnr^npf nr
“ . , . . /Lnt a ^articular ex- wnicn maeea hh numcvuatt ^
also any number whatever, ^but a • P f the mc. enab]e us to find with great facility the product or
ample we shall suppose the comm b t|ie tllc quotient of any two terms of a geometrical senes
trical series to be 2, and the common ^ written t0 which there is adapted an arithmetical series, so that
arithmetical senes 1), and let the two _ ^ each number has its logarithm opposite to it, as in the
opposite to each other in the for >  j; inWo TV>r it is evident, that to mul-
Geom. Prog.
1
2
4
8
16
32
64
128
256
512
1024
2048
4096
&c.
Arith. Prog.
O
1
2
3
4
5
6
7
8
9
10
11
12
Sec.
The two series being thus arranged, the terms in
the arithmetical series are called the logarithms ot the
corresponding terms of the geometrical series j that
is, O is the logarithm of I, and 1 is the logarithm
of 2, and 2 is the logarithm of 4, and 3 that of 8, and
From the manner in which the two series are related
to each other, it will readily appear by induction that
the logarithms of the terms of the geometrical senes
have the two following properties :
1 The sum of the logarithms of any two numbers
or terms in the geometrical series is equal to the loga¬
rithm of that number, or term of the senes, which is
equal to their product.
For example, let the terms of the geometrical senes
be 4 and 3 2 j the terms of the arithmetical series cor-
responding to them (that is, their logarithms) are 2
and c ; now the product of the numbers is 128, and the
sum of their logarithms is 7 -, and it appears by inspec¬
tion of the two series, that the latter number is the
logarithm of the former, agreeing with the proposition
we are illustrating. In like manner if the numbers or
terms of the geometrical senes be 16 and 64, the lo¬
garithms of which are 4 and 6, we find from the table
that 10=4+6 is the logarithm of 1024—16x64$
and so of any other numbers in the tabic.
preceding short table." For it is evident, that to mul¬
tiply two numbers we have only to add their loga-
ritlims, and opposite to that logarithm which is the sum
wfe shall find the product required. Thus, to mul¬
tiply 16 by 128 5 to the logarithm of 16, which is
4, we add the logarithm of 128, which is 7, and op¬
posite to the sum 11, we find 2048, the product sought.
On the other hand, to divide any number in the table
by anv other number, we must subtract the logarithm
of the divisor from that of the dividend, and look for
the remainder among the logarithms, and opposite to
it we shall find the number sought. Thus, to di¬
vide 2048 by 128-, from 11, which is the logarithm
of 2048 we subtract 7, the logarithm of 128, and
opposite to the remainder 4 we find 16, the quotient
Let us now suppose any number of geometrical means
to be interposed between each two adjoining terms of
the preceding geometrical series, and the same number
of arithmetical means between every two adjoining
terms of the arithmetical series-, then, as the results
will still be a geometrical and an arithmetical series,
the interpolated terms of the latter will be the logarithms
of the corresponding terms of the former, and the two
new series will have the very same properties as tfie
original series.
If we suppose the number of interpolated means to
be very great, it will follow that among the terms of
the resulting geometrical series, some one or other will
he found nearly equal to any proposed number what¬
ever. Therefore, although the preceding table exhi¬
bits the logarithms of I, 2, 4, 8, 16, &c. but does
not contain the logarithms of the intermediate num¬
bers, 3, 5, 6, 7, 9, xo, &c. yet it is easy to conceive
that a table might be formed by interpolation which
should contain, among the terms of the geometrical se¬
ries, all numbers whatever to a certain extent, (or at least
others very nearly equal to them) togethei wit 1 t eir
logarithms. If such a table were constructed, or at
least if such terms of the geometrical progression were
found together with their logarithms, as were eit er
accurately equal to, or coincided nearly, with a
LOGAR
Tntroduc- f)ers wxtliln certain limits (for example between i and
tioii, ioocoo), then, as often as we had occasion to multiply
v—or divide any numbers contained in that table we might
evidently obtain the products or quotients by the sim¬
ple operations of addition and subtraction.
The first invention of logarithms has been attributed
by some to Longo montun us, a n il by others to Juste Byrge,
two mathematicians who were cotemporary with Lord
Napier; but there is no reason to suppose,that either of
these anticipated him, for Longomontanus never publish¬
ed any thing on the subject, although he lived thirty-
three years after Napier had made known his discovery,
and as to Byrge, he is indeed known to have printed a
table containing an arithmetical and a geometrical pro¬
gression written opposite to eacli other, so as to form
in effect a system of logarithms of the same kind as those
invented by Napier, without however explaining their
nature and use, although it appears from the title he
intended to do so, but was probably prevented by some
cause unknown to us. But this work was not printed
till 1620, six years after Napier had published his dis¬
covery.
It is therefore with good reason that Napier is now
universally considered as the first, and most probably
as the only inventor. The discovery he published in the
year 16x4 in a book entitled Mirifici Logarithmorum
Canonis Descriptio, but he reserved the construction of
the numbers till the opinion of the learned concerning
his invention should be known. Mis work contains a
table of the natural sines and cosines, and their loga¬
rithms for every minute of the quadrant, as also the
differences between the logarithmic sines and cosines,
which are in effect the logarithmic tangents. There is
no table of the logarithms of numbers •, but precepts are
given, by which they, as well as the logarithmic tan¬
gents, may be found from the table of natural and lo¬
garithmic sines.
In explaining the nature of logarithms, Napier sup¬
poses some determinate line which represents the i-adius
of a circle to be continually diminished, so as to have
successively all possible values, and thus to be equal
to every sine, one after another, throughout the qua¬
drant. And he supposes this diminution to be effected
by a point moving from one extremity towards the other
extremity, (or rather some point very near it), with a mo¬
tion that is not uniform, but becomes slower and slower,
and such, that if the whole time between the beginning,
and the end of the motion be conceived to be divided
into a very great number of equal portions, the decre¬
ments taken away in each of these shall be to one ano¬
ther as the respective remainders of the line. Accord¬
ing to this mode of conceiving the line to decrease, it is
easy to shew that at the end of any successive equal in¬
tervals of time from the beginning of the motion, the
portions of the line which remain will constitute a de¬
creasing geometrical progression.
Again, he supposes another line to be generated by
a point which moves along it equably, or which passes
over equal intervals of it in equal times. Thus the
portions of the line generated at the end of any equal
successive intervals of time from the beginning of the
motion will, form a series of quantities in arithmetical
progression. Now if the two motions be supposed to be¬
gin together, at the end of any equal intervals of time
the remainders of the one line will form a series of
Vol. XII. Part I. f
65
and the corre- Introduc-
I T H M S.
quantities in geometrical progression
spending portions generated of the other line, will con¬
stitute a series in arithmetical progression, so that the
latter will be the logarithms of the former. And as
the terms of the geometrical progression decrease con¬
tinually from radius, which is the greatest term, to o,
while the terms of the cox-responding arithmetical pro¬
gression increase from o upwards, according to Napier’s
system the logarithm of radius is o, and the logarithms
of the sines from radius down to o, are a series of
numbers increasing from o to infinite.
The velocities or degrees of quickness with which
the motions commence may have to each other any ratio
whatever, and by assuming different ratios we shall
have different systems of logarithms. Napier supposed
the velocities to be equal; but the system of logarithms
produced in consequence of this assumption having been
found to have some disadvantages, it has been long dis¬
used, and a more convenient one substituted instead of
it, as we shall presently have occasion to explain.
Napier’s work having been written in Latin was
translated into English by Mr Edward Wright, an in¬
genious mathematician of that period, and the inventor
of the principles of what is commonly though errone¬
ously called Mercator's sailing. The translation was
sent to Napier for his perusal, and returned with his
approbation, and the addition of a few lines, intimating
that he intended to make some alterations in the system
of logarithms in a second edition. Mr Wright died
soon after he received back his translation ; but it was
published after his death, in the year 1616, accom¬
panied with a dedication by his son to the East India
Company, and a preface hy Henry Briggs, who after-
wards distinguished himself so much by his improvement
of logarithms. Mr Briggs likewise gave in this work
the description and draught of a scale which had been
invented by Wright, as also various methods of his own
for finding the logarithms of numbers, and the contrary,
by means of Napier’s table, the use of which had been
attended with some inconvenience on account of its con¬
taining only such numbers as xvere the natural sines to
every minute of the quadrant and their logarithms.
There was an additional inconvenience in using the
table, arising from the logarithms being partly positive
and partly negative } the latter of these was, however,
well remedied by John Speidell in his New Logarithms,
first published in the year 1619, which contained the
sines, cosines, tangents, cotangents, secants, and cose¬
cants, and given in such a form as to be all positive 5
and the former was still more completely removed by an
additional table, which he gave in the sixth impression
of his work, in the year 1624, and which contained the
logarithms of the whole numbers 1, 2, 3, 4, &c. to
1000, together with their differences and arithmetical
complements, &.c. This table is now commonly called
hyperbolic logarithms, because the numbers serve to
express the areas contained between a hyperbola and
its asymptote, and limited by ordinates drawn parallel
to the other asymptote. This name, hoxvever, is cer¬
tainly improper, as the same spaces may represent the
logarithms of any system whatever, (see Fluxions,
§ 152. Ex. 5.).
In 1719 liobert Napier, son of the inventor of lo¬
garithms, published a second edition of his father’s
Logarithmorum Canonis Descriptio. And along with
I this
5
LOGARITHMS.
In trod uc- this the promised Logan ikniorum Canonis Construction
tion. and other pieces written by his father and Mr Biiggs.
' » jVu exact copy of the same two w'orks in one volume
was also printed in 1620 at Lyons in I1 ranee. In 1618
or 1619 Benjamin Ursinus, mathematician to the elec¬
tor of Brandenburg, published Napier’s tables of lo¬
garithms in his Cursus Mathcmaticus, to which he ad-
ed some tables of proportional parts 5 and in 16245 be
printed his Trigonometria, with a table of natural sines,
and their logarithms of the Napierean kind and form,
to every ten seconds of the quadrant.
In the same year, 1624, the celebrated John Kepler
published at Marpurg, logarithms of nearly the same
kind, under the title of Chilias Logarithmorum ad to-
tidem Numeros Rotundas, pramissa Demonstratione le¬
git ima Ortus Logarithmorum eonnnque Usus, &c. and
in the following year he published a supplement to this
work. In the preface to this last he says, that several
of the professors of mathematics in Upper Germany,
and more especially those of them who were somewhat
advanced in years, and were grorvn averse to new me¬
thods of reasoning that carried them out of the old doc¬
trines and principles with which habit had rendered
them familiar, doubted in some degree whether Napier’s
demonstration of the property of logarithms was perfect¬
ly true, and whether the application of them to trigo¬
nometrical calculations might not be unsafe and lead
the calculator who should trust in them to erroneous
results j and in either case, whether the doctrine were
true or not, they considered Napier’s demonstration of
it as illegitimate and unsatisfactory. This opinion in¬
duced Kepler to compose the above-mentioned work, in
which the whole doctrine is treated in a manner strictly
geometrical, and free from the considerations of motion
which the German mathematicians had objected to
(and not without reason) in Napier’s mode of treating
the subject.
On the publicationof Napier’sLogarithms, Mr Henry
Briggs, some time professor of geometry in Gresham
college London, and afterwards Savilian professor of
geometry at Oxford (whom we have already mentioned)
applied himself with great earnestness to their study and
improvement, and it appears that he had projected at
an early period that advantageous change in the system
which has since taken place. From the particular view
rvhich Napier took of the subject, and the manner in
which he conceived logarithms to be generated, it hap¬
pened that in his system, the logarithms of a series of
numbers which increased in a decuple ratio, (as 1, 10,
100,1000, &c.) formed a decreasing arithmetical series,
the common difference of the terms of which was
2.3205851. But it occurred to Briggs that it would
be better and more conformable to the received deci¬
mal notation, to adopt a system in which the logarithms
of the terms of such a geometrical series should differ
from each other by unity or 1. This idea Briggs com¬
municated to the public in his lectures, and also to
Napier himself. He even went twice to Edinburgh to
see him, and to converse with him upon the subject ;
and on his first visit Napier said that he had also form¬
erly thought of the same improvement, but that he
chose to publish the logarithms he had previously cal¬
culated, till such time as his health and convenience
would allow him to make others more commodious.
And whereas in the change which Briggs proposed, it
was intended to make the logarithms of the sines to in- Introdse-
crease from o (the logarithm of radius) to infinity, tiorn
while the sines themselves should decrease, it was sug- ^
gested to him by Napier that it would be better to
make them increase so that o, instead of being the lo¬
garithm of radius, should be the logarithm of 1 ; and
that 100000, &c. should be the logarithm of radius j
ami this Briggs admitted wonld be an improvement •,
and having changed the numbers he had already cal¬
culated so as to make them suit Napier’s modification
of his plan, he returned with them next year to Edin¬
burgh, and submitted them to his perusaL
It appears therefore that Briggs was the inventor ol
this improved system of logarithms which has since
been universally adopted, and that the only share that
Napier had in it was his suggesting to Briggs to begin
with the low number 1, and to make the logarithms,
or the artificial numbers, as Napier had always called
them, to increase with the natural numbers, instead ol
decreasing, which made no alteration in the figures, but
only in their affections or signs, changing them from
negative to positive.
On Briggs’s return from Edinburgh, in 16175 he
printed the first thousand logat ithms to eight places oi
figures, besides the index, with the title of Logarit/imo-
rum Chilias prima; but these seem not to have been
published till after the death of Napier, which happen¬
ed in 1618, for in his preface he expresses a hope, that
the circumstances which led to a change in the system
would be explained in Napier’s posthumous work, which
was presently to appear. But although Napier had in¬
timated in a note he had given in Wright’s translation-
of the Canon Mirificus, as well as his Rabdologia, print¬
ed in 1617, that he intended to alter the scale, yet he
altogether omits to state that Briggs either was the first
to think of this improvement, or at least to publish it
to the world. And as the same silence on this point
was observed in Napier’s posthumous work published in
1619 by his son, Briggs took occasion in the preface to
his Arithmetica Logarithmica to assert his claims to the
improvement he had now carried into execution.
The studied silence which Napier seems to have ob¬
served respecting the improvement of the system, which
Briggs had communicated to him, has given just reason
to suspect that he wished to be considered as the author
of that improvement, as well as the original inventor.
But although it is possible that he thought of it as soon
as Briggs, it would seem to have been no more than
justice, if, when announcing his intended change of the
scale, he had acknowledged that the same idea had oc¬
curred to Briggs as well as to himself.
In 1620 Mr Edmund Gunter published his Canon oj
Triangles, which contains the artificial or logarithmic
sines and tangents to every minute to seven places of
figures besides the index, the logarithm of radius being
10. These logarithms are of the kind which had been
agreed upon between Napier and Briggs, and they were
the first tables of logarithmic sines and tangents that
were published of this sort. Gunter also in 1623 re¬
printed the same in his book de Sectore et Radio, toge¬
ther with the Chilias prima of Briggs } and in the same
year he applied the logarithms of numbers, sines, and
tangents, to straight lines drawn upon a ruler. This
instrument is now in common use for navigation and
other purposes, and is commonly called Gunter''s scale.
The
L O G A U 1T H M S.
The discoveries in Logarithms were first carried to
France by Air Edmund // rugate, but not first of all as
he says in the preface to his hook. lie published at
Paris in 1624 two small tracts in the irench language
upon logarithms, and these were reprinted with improve¬
ments at London in 1626.
In the year 1624, ifi'igg8 published his Anthnietica
Logarithmica, a stupendous work considering the short
time he had been in preparing it. He here gives the
logarithms of 30000 natural numbers to fourteen places
of figures, besides the index j namely, from I to 20000
and from 90000 to ioooco, together with the differ¬
ences of the logarithms. He also gives an ample
treatise on their construction and use, and he earnestly
solicits others to undertake the computation of the in¬
termediate numbers, offering to give instructions, and
paper ready ruled for that purpose, to any person in¬
clined to contribute to the completion of so valuable a
work. By this invitation he had hopes of collecting
materials for the logarithms of the intermediate 70000
numbers, while he should employ his time upon the
Canon of Logarithmic sines and tangents, and so can’y
on both works at once.
Soon after this, Adrian Vlacq or Flack of Gouda in
Holland completed the intermediate 70 chiliads, and
republished the Arithmetica Logarithmica in 1627 and
1628, with these intermediate numbers, making in all,
the logarithms of all numbers to 100,030, but only to
10 places of figures. To these was added a table of
artificial sines, tangents, and secants, to every minute
of the quadrant.
Briggs himself lived also to complete a table of lo¬
garithmic sines and tangents, to the 100th part of every
degree, to fourteen places of figures besides the index,
together with a table of natural sines to the same parts
to fifteen places, and the tangents and secants of the
same to ten places, with the construction of the whole.
But his death, which then happened, prevented him
from completing the application and uses of them.
However, when dying, he committed the performing
of this office to his friend Henry Gellibrand, who ac¬
cordingly added a preface, and the application of the
logarithms to plane and spherical trigonometry. The
work was called Trigonometria Britannica, and was
printed at Gouda in the year 1633 under the care of
Adrian Vlacq.
In the same year, 1633, Adrian Vlacq printed a
work of his own, called Trigonometria Artijlcialisy sive
Magnus CanonTriangulorum Logarithmicus ad Decadas
Secundorum Scrupulorum Constructus. This work con¬
tains the logarithmic sines and tangents to 10 places of
figures, with their differences for every ten seconds in
the quadrant. It also contains Brigg’s table of the
first 20000 logarithms to ten places, besides the index,
with their differences} and to the whole is prefixed a
description of the tables and their applications, chiefly
extracted from Briggs’s Trigonometria Britannica,
which we have already" mentioned.
Gellibrand published also, in 1635, An Institution
Trigonometrical, containing the logarithms of the first
10,000 numbers, with the natural sines, tangents, and
secants, and the logarithmic sines and tangents for de¬
grees and minutes •, all to seven places of figures besides
the index.
The writers, whose works we have hitherto noticed,
were for the most part computors of logarithms. But
the system best adapted to practice being now well as¬
certained, and the labour of constructing the table ac¬
complished, succeeding writers on the subject have had
little more to do than to give the tables in the most
convenient form. It is true that, in consequence of
the numerous discoveries which were afterwards made
in mathematics, particularly in. the doctrine of series,
great improvements were made in the method of com¬
puting logarithms ; hut these, for the most part, came
too late to be of use in the actual construction of the
table, although they might be applied with advantage
to verify calculations previously performed by methods
much more laborious.
As it is of importance that such as have occasion to
employ logarithms should know what works are held in
estimation on account of their extent and accuracy, we
shall enumerate the following.
1. Sherwin’s Mathematical Tables, in 8vo. These
contain the logarithms of all numbers to ioi,coo; and
the sines, tangents, secants, and versed sines, but na¬
tural and logarithmic, to every minute of the quadrant.
The third edition, printed in 1742, which was revised
by Gardiner, is esteemed the most correct; but, in the
fifth edition, the errors are so numerous, that no de¬
pendence can be placed upon it when accuracy is re¬
quired.
2. Gardiner’s Tables of Logarithms for all numbers
to 101,000, and for the sines and tangents to every ten
seconds of the quadrant 5 also for the sines of the first
72 minutes to every single second, &c. This work,
which is in quarto, was printed in 1742, and is held in
high estimation for its accuracy.
3. An edition of the same work, with some additions,
printed in 1770 in Avignon in France The tables in
both editions are to seven places of figures.
4. Tables Porlatives dc Logarithmes, publiee a Lon-
dres, par Gardiner, augmentees ct perfcctionees dans
leur disposition, par M. Callet.—This work is most
beautifully printed in a small octavo volume, and con¬
tains all the tables in Gardiner’s quarto volume ; with
some additions and improvements.
3. Hr Hutton’s Mathematical Tables, containing
common hyperbolic and logistic logarithms, &c.—This
work has passed through several editions, under the
care of the learned author : it is perhaps the most com¬
mon of any in this country, and is deservedly held in
the highest estimation, both on account of its accuracy,
and the very valuable information it contains respecting
the history of logarithms, and other branches of mathe¬
matics connected with them.
6. Taylor’s Table of Logarithmic Sines and Tangents
to every second of the quadrant 5 to which is prefixed
a table of logarithms from I to 100,000, &c.—This is
a most valuable work *, but being a very large quarto
volume, and also very expensive, it is less adapted to
general use than the preceding, which is an octavo,
and may be had at a moderate price.
7. Tables portatives des logarithmes, contcnant les
logarithmes des nombres depuis 1 jusqiT d 108,000; les
logarithmes des sinus et tangentes, de sccondc cn seconde
pour les cinq premiers degrees, de dix cn dix secondes
pour tons les degrees du quart-de cercle, et suivant la
I 2 ■ nouvelh
68
logarithms.
Nature of
Loga¬
rithms, 5c c
pencil that the logarithm of 10 was 2.302585, and this Nature of
assumption being made, the form of the system became Loga-
determinate, and the logarithm of every number fixed nthms, &cc.
to one particular value.
Mr Briggs however observed, that it would be bet¬
ter to assume unity for the logarithm ol 10, instead ot
'allv'sueeestediiy the celebrated Carnot, in conjunction making it the logarithm <rf MtSjSi, as in Napier’s
“ 7 pE„r£la Cote d’Or, and Brunei de Montpelier, system, and hence the logarithms of the terms ol the
x rc'--" geometrical progression
nouvelle division centesimale dedit-nnlheme en dix mil-
lieme, &c. par Callet.—This work, which is m octavo,
may be reasonably expected to be very accurate, it be-
W printed in the stereotype manner, by Vidot.
In addition to these, it is proper that we should no¬
tice a stupendous work relating to logarithms, origi
* Nichols.
Joum.
vol. v. 410
series,
p.311.
na
about the beginning of the French revolution. Ibis
enterprise was committed in the year 1794, to the care
of Prom/, a French mathematician of great eminence,
who was not only to compose tables which should leave
nothing to be desired with respect to accuracy, but to
make them the most extended and most striking monu¬
ment of calculation which had ever been executed or ever
imagined*. It appears that two manuscript copies ol
the work were formed, composed of 17 volumes large fo¬
lio 5 and contained, besides an introduction, the fol¬
lowing tables. l c
1. The natural sines for each 10,000th part of the
quadrant, calculated to twenty-five places ot decimals,
to be published with twenty-two decimals and five co¬
lumns of differences. V , , 1 r
2. The logarithms of these sines, calculated to four¬
teen decimals, with five columns of differences.
3. The logarithms of the ratios of the sines to the
arcs for the first five thousand 100,000th parts of the
quadrant, calculated to fourteen decimal places, with
three columns of differences.
4. The logarithms of the tangents corresponding with
the logarithms of the sines.
5. The logarithms of the ratios of the tangents to
the arcs, calculated like those of the third article.
6. Logarithms of numbers from I to 100,000 calcu¬
lated to nineteen places of decimals.
7. The logarithms of numbers from 100,000 to
200,000, calculated to 24 decimals, in order to be pub¬
lished to 12 decimals and three columns of differences.
The printing of this work was begun at the expence
of the French government, but was suspended at the
fall of the assignats j whether it has been since resumed
we cannot positively say, but it certainly is not yet
completed.
SECT. I.
OF THE NATURE OF LOGARITHMS AND
THEIR CONSTRUCTION.
We have already shewn that the properties of loga¬
rithms are deducible from those of two series, the terms
of one of which form a geometrical progression, and those
of the other an arithmetical progression ; and as this
manner of treating the subject is simple, it is perhaps
the best adapted of any to such of our readers as have
not pursued the study of mathematics to any great ex¬
tent. We shall now shew how, from the same princi¬
ples, the logarithm of any proposed number whatever
may be found.
The first step to be taken in constructing a system of
logarithms is to assume the logarithm of some determi¬
nate number, besides that of unity or 1, which must ne¬
cessarily be o. From the particular view whichNopzbr
took of the subject, he was led to assume unity for the
logarithm of the number 2.718282, by which it hap-
o, and that of 10
and that of 1000
I, 10, IOO, IOOO, IOOOO, &c.
were necessarily fixed to the corresponding terms of
this arithmetical progression,
O, 1, 2, 3, 4, &c.
That is, the logarithm of 1 being
being 1, the logarithm of too is 2,
is 3, and so on.
The logarithms of the terms of the progression, I, 10,
100, 1000, &c. being thus determined; in order to
form the logarithms of the numbers between 1 and 10,
and betAveen 10 and 100, and so on, Ave must conceive
a very' great number of geometrical means to be inter-
posed betAveen each tAvo adjoining terms of the prece¬
ding geometrical series, and as many arithmetical means
betAveen the corresponding terms of the arithmetical se¬
ries ; then, like as the terms of the arithmetical series
o, 1, 2, 3, &c. are the logarithms of the corresponding
terms of the geometrical series 1, 10, ico, 1000, &e.
the interpolated terms of the former Avill also be the lo¬
garithms of the corresponding interpolated terms of the
latter. Noav as by supposing the number of means in¬
terposed betAveen each two terms of the geometrical se¬
ries to be sufficiently great, some one or other of them
may be found which will be very nearly equal to any
proposed number ; it is evident that to find the lo¬
garithm of such a number, Ave have only to seek for one
of the interpolated means which is very nearly equal to
it, and to take the logarithm of that mean as a near
value of the logarithm required.
As a particular example, let it he required to find
the logarithm of the number 5, according to Briggs’s
system.
’ First step of the process.—The number 5 is between
1 and 10, the logarithms of which Ave already knoAv
to be o and x : Let a geometrical mean be found be¬
tAveen the tAvo former, and an arithmetical mean be¬
tween the tAvo latter. The geometrical mean will be
the square root of the product of the numbers x and
10, Avhich is 3.162277; and the arithmetical mean
will be half the sum of the logarithms o and 1, which
is 0.5; therefore the logarithm ot 3.162277 is o-5*
But as the mean thus found is not sufficiently near to
the proposed number, Ave must proceed with tne opera¬
tion as folloAvs:
Second step.—The number 5, Avhose logarithm is
sought is between 3.162277? the mean last found, and
10, the logarithms of which AAre know to be 0.5 and
I ; Ave must hoav find a geometrical mean betAveen the
tAvo former, and an arithmetical mean betAveen the
tAvo latter. The one of these is 1^/(3.162277 X 10)
— 5.623413, and the other is ■ ^ =0.75 ; there¬
fore the logarithm of 5.623413 is O.75.
Third step.—We have now obtained tAvo numbers,
namely
L O G A K
Nature or namely 3.162277 anil 5.623413, one on eacli side of
Log-a- 5, together with their logarithms 0.5 and .075, we
litlnns, &e. therefore proceed exactly as before, and accordingly we
^ find the geometrical mean, or ^(3.162277 X 5,^234I3)»
0.5 ^
to be 4.216964, and the arithmetical mean, or  
to he 0.625 i therefore the logarithm of 4.2x6964 is
0.625. , .
Fourth step.—We proceed in the same manner with
the numbers 4.216964, and 5.623413 (one ot which
is less, and the other greater than 5) and their loga¬
rithms 0.625 aml °-75’ a new geometrical
mean, viz.. 4.869674, and its corresponding arithmeti¬
cal mean, or logarithm, 0.6875.
We must go on in this way till we have found twenty-
two geometrical means, and as many corresponding
arithmetical means or logarithms. And that we may
indicate how these are found from each other, let the
numbers 1 and 10 be denoted by A and B, and their
geometrical means taken in their order by C, D, E,
&c. then the results of the successive operations will be
as in the following table :
Numbers. Logarithms.
A ~ 1.000000 0.0000000
B =: lo.ooocoo 1.0000000
C = x/AB = 3.162277 0.5000000
1) = = 5.623413 0.7500000
E zr VCD zr 4.216964 0.6250000
F zz VDE z: 4.869674 0.6875000
G zz VDF zz 5.232991 0.7187500
H zz VFG zz 5.048065 0.7031250
I ZZ VFH ZZ 4.958069 0.6953x25
K zz VHI zz 5.002865 0.6992187
L zz VDC zz 4.980416 0.6972656
M zz VKE zz 4.991627 0.6982421
N zz VK-M zz 4.997242 0.6987304
O zz VKN zz 5.000052 0.6989745
P zz VNO = 4-998647 c.6988525
Q = VDF = 4-999350 0.6989135
R zz V°Q = 4-999701 0.6989440
S zz VDR = 4.999876 0.6989592
T zz V/D^ = 4.999963 0.6989668
V — VDT zz 5.000008 0.6989707
W zz VTV zz 4.999984 0.6989687
X zz \/Vf\T r= 4.999997 0.6989697
Y zz zz 5.000003 0.6989702
Z zz zz 5.000000 0.6989700
As the last of these means, viz. Z, agrees with 5, the
proposed number, as far at least as the sixth place of de¬
cimals, we may safely consider them as very nearly equal,
therefore their logarithms will also be very nearly equal,
that is, the logarithm of 5 will be 0.6989700 nearly.
In performing the operations indicated in the prece¬
ding table, it will be necessary to find the geometrical
means at the beginning to many more figures than are
here put down, in order to obtain at last a result true
to 7 decimal places. Thus it appears that the labour
of computing logarithms by this method is indeed very
great. It is, however, that which was employed by
Briggs and \ lacq in the original construction of loga¬
rithms ^ but since the period in which they lived, others
more easy have been found, as we shall presently have
occasion to explain.
4lie logarithm of any number whatever may be
2
1T H M S. 69
found by a series of calculations similar to that which Nature of
we have just now explained. But in constructing the Lo^
table it would only be necessary to have recourse to this ntl'!as’ c;
method in calculating the logarithms of prime num¬
bers $ for as often as the logarithm of a number which
was the product of other numbers, whose logarithms
were known, was required, it would be immediately
obtained by adding together the logarithms of its fac¬
tors. On the contrary, if the logarithm of the product,
of two numbers were known, and also that of one of
its factors, the logarithm ot the other factor would be
obtained from these, by simply taking their difference.
From this last remark it is obvious, that having now
found the logarithm of 5, we can immediately find that
of 2 5 for since 2 is the quotient of 10 divided by 5,
its logarithm will be the difference of the logarithms
of 10 and 5 j now the logarithm of 10 is 1, and the
logarithm of 5 is 0.6989700, therefore the logarithm
of 2 is 0.3010300.
Having thus obtained the logarithms of 2 and 5, in
addition to those of 10, 100, 1000, &c. we may thence
find the logarithms of innumerable other numbers.
Thus, because 4z=2X 2, the logarithm of 4 will be the
logarithm of 2 added to itself, or will be twice the lo¬
garithm of 2. Again, because 5 X 10=50, the loga¬
rithm of 50 will he the sum of the logarithms of 5 and
11. In this manner it is evident we may find the lo¬
garithms of 8zz2X4, of i6z:2X 8, of 25=5x5? and
of as many more such numbers as we please.
Besides the view we have hitherto taken of the theo¬
ry of logarithms, there are others under which it has
been presented by different authors. Some of these we
proceed to explain, beginning with that in which they
are defined to be the measures of ratios; but to see the
propriety of this definition, it must-be understood what,
is meant by the measure of a ratio.
According to the definition of a compound ratio, as
laid down by writers on geometry, if there be any num¬
ber of magnitudes A, B, C, D, which are continual
proportionals, or such that the ratio of A to B is equal
to the ratio of B to C, and that again is equal
to the ratio of C to 1), and so on, the ratio of the first
of these magnitudes A to the third C is considered as
made up of two equal ratios, each equal to the ratio ot
the first A to the second B. And in like manner the
ratio of the first A to the fourth I) is considered as
made up of three equal ratios, each equal to the ratio
of the first to the second, and so on. (See Geometry,
Sect. III. Def. 10, 11, and 12.). Thus, to take a par¬
ticular example in numbers, because the ratio of 81 to
3 may be considered as made up of the ratio of 81 to
27, and of 27 to 9, and of 9 to 3, which three ratios
are equal among themselves, (Geometry, Sect. III.
Def. 4.) the ratio of 81 to 3 will be triple the ratio of
9 to 3 ; and in like manner the ratio of 27 to 3 will
be double the ratio of 9 to 3. Also, because the ratios
of 1000 to 100, 100 to 10, 10 to 1, are all equal, the
ratio of 1000 to 1 will be three times as great as the
ratio of 10 to 1 j and the ratio of 100 to 1 will be twice
as great *, ami so on.
Taking this view of ratios, and considering them as
a particular species of quantities, made up of others of
the same kind, they may evidently be compared with
each other, in respect of their magnitudes, in the same
manner, as we compare lines or quantities of any kind
whatever.
whatever. Ami as when estimating the relative mag¬
nitudes of two quantities, two lines tor example, it
we find that the one contains five such equal parts as
the other contains seven, we say the one line has to t le
other the proportion of 5 to 7 *, so, in like manner, it two
ratios be such, that the one can be resolved into five
equal ratios, and the other into seven ot the same ratios,
we mav conclude that the magnitude ot the one ratio
is to that of the other as the number 5 to the number
7 ; and a similar conclusion may be drawn, when the
ratios to be compared are any multiples whatever ot
some other ratio. , ,
It is well known that there may be lines and other
quantities, which, as they admit of no common measure,
are said to be incommensurable to each other •, and the
same will also happen to ratios : That is, there may be
two ratios such that into whatever number of equal ra¬
tios the one is divided, the other cannot possibly be ex¬
actly equal to a ratio composed of any number ot these.
We may however conceive the number of equal ratios
into which the one is divided to be so great, that a cer¬
tain number of them shall compose a ratio more nearly
equal to the other ratio than by any assignable diticr-
ence. Therefore, like as we can always find numbers
which shall have among themselves, either accurately,
or as nearly as we please, the same ratios as any num¬
ber of lines or other magnitudes have to each other,
and which therefore may be taken as the measures 01
representatives of the lines 5 so also, corresponding to
any system of ratios, there may be always found a series
of numbers which will have the same proportions a-
mang themselves as the ratios have to each other, and
■which may in like manner be called the measures of the
ratios. . .
Let us now suppose that unity, or 1, is assumed as the
common consequent of all ratios whatever; and that
the ratio of 10 (or some particular number) to 1 is
compounded of a very great number of equal ratios, as
for example 1000,000 : then, as each of these will be
very near to the ratio of equality, (for it will be the
ratio of the first term to the second of a series of one
million and one continued proportionals, tne hist oi
which is 10 and last 1), it will follow, and is easy to
conceive, that the ratios of all other numbers to unity
will each be very nearly equal to some multiple of that
small ratio. And by supposing the number of small
equal ratios of which the ratio of 10 to 1 is composed
to be sufficiently great, the ratios of all other numbers
to unity may be as nearly equal to ratios which are
multiples of that small ratio as we please. Let us still
suppose, however, for the sake of illustration, that the
number of small ratios contained in that ot 10 to 1 is
1000,000 •, then, as it may be proved that the ratio of
2 to 1 will be very nearly the same as a ratio composed
of 301030 of these; and that the ratio of 3 to 1 will
be nearly equal to a ratio composed of 477121 of tlien,»
and that the ratio of 4 to 1 will be nearly equal to a
ratio composed of 602060 of them, and so on 5 these
numbers, viz. xoooooo, 301030,477121, and 602060,
or any other numbers proportional to them, will be the
measures of the ratios of 10 to 1, 2 to 1, 3 * 1 *in 4
to 1, respectively j and the same quantities will also be
what have been called the logarithms ot the ratios ; for
the word logarithm, if regard be had to its etymology,
is Uyw X^uoi, ot the numbers of small and equal
I
logarithms.
ratios (or ratiunculm as they have been called) con- Nature of
tained in the several ratios of quantities one to another. Loga'
We have, for the sake ot illustration, assumed 100000Q t   ^
as the measure of the ratio of 10 to 1, by which it hap¬
pens, as already observed, that the measuies of the
ratios of 2 to I, 3*0 1, &c. ar(|y30I030 an<^ 477121
respectively } as, however, thes# measures are not abso¬
lute, but I’elative quantities, we may assume any other
numbers whatever instead of these, provided they have
the same proportions to each other as these numbers
have among themselves. Accordingly, we may assume 1
as the measure or logarithm of the ratio ol loto 1 j and
then the logarithms ol the ratios of 2 to 1, 3 to 1, See.
instead of being 30x030,477121, &c.will be .30103Q
and .477x21, &-c. respectively, that is, each will be the
one-millionth ot what it was before.
Ln Briggs's system, the logarithm ol the ratio of 10
to 1, or, to speak briefly, the logarithm ol xo, is unity j
but we are at liberty to assume any number whatever,
as that whose logarithm shall be unity. Napier, in con¬
sequence of his particular viexvs of the subject, chose
the number 2.718282 5 and hence it happens that the
logarithms of the ratios are expressed by different num¬
bers in the two systems.
It yet i*emains fox- us to shew the identity ol the pio-
perties of logarithms, as explained in the two different
views we have now given ol the subject; and this may
he done as follows.
Let A and B denote any two numbers. The ratio
► of their product to unity, that is, the ratio of A X I> to
X, is compounded ol the ratio oi A X B to B, and of
B to 1 *, (see Geometry, Part III. Def. 10.) but since
A X B, A, and 1, are four proportionals, the ratio ot
AxB to B is equal to the ratio of A to 1. Theie-
fore the ratio of AxB to 1 is compounded of the
ratio of A to I and of B to 1and consequently the
logarithm of the ratio of AxB to 1 will be equal
to^the sum of the logarithms of the ratios ol A to 1, and
of B to t 5 or, in other words, the logarithm of A X B
will be the sum of the logarithms of A and B.
And because log. (AxB)=log. A + log. B, there¬
fore, log. B=log. (A X B)—log. A. In this equation
]et — i,e substituted for B, and D lor A, then, (be-
C - - c
causeAxB=Dx^>=C) we have log.~=log. C-
log. D.
We have now given a short sketch of the theory
of logarithms as deducible from the doctrine of iatio.->.
It was in this way that the celebrated Kepler treated
the subject according to the strictest rules of geometri¬
cal reasoning j and in this he has been f ollowed by Mer¬
cator, Halley, Cotes, as well as by other mathemati¬
cians of later times, as by Air Baron Maseres, in Ins
“ Elements of Plane Trigonometry,” a work in which
the whole theory of logarithms is treated with all that
perspicuity and accuracy which characterize tne ingeni¬
ous author’s various writings. The same mode of treat¬
ing- the subject was likewise adopted by that excellent
geometrician Dr Robert Simson, as appears by a short
tract in Latin, written by him and published in his post¬
humous works. As, however, the doctrine of ratios is
of a very abstract nature, and the mode of reasoning up-
pon which it has been established is ol a peculiar an
subtle kind, we presume that the greater number o..
readers
Kuture of
Loga¬
rithms, See.
L O G AII
readers will think this view of the subject less simple
and natural than the following, in which we mean to
deduce the theory of logarithms, as well as the manner
of computing them, from the properties of the exponents
of powers.
If we attend to the common scale of notation in
arithmetic, we shall find that it is so contrived as to
express all numbers whatever by means of the powers
of the number 10, which is the root of the scale, and
the nine digits which serve as coelhcients to these
poivers. Thus, if R denote 10, the root ot the scale,
so that R* will denote 100, and R3 1000, and so on,
the number 471509 is otherwise expressed by 4Rs-{-
7R4 1R3 4. jjR2 4.0R1 + pR0, which is equivalent to
4RJ 4.7R4-f- R3 -|-5R1 -f 9. Again, the mixt number
0 2 4
371.243 is expressed by 3R*-}*7-^I + ^
4-, or by 3R2 + 7RI+R°-f2R—i + 4'r~2 + 3r”3,
R3
As to vulgar fractions, by transforming them to deci¬
mals, they may be expressed in the same manner.
Thus -|=.375=3R-'I + 7R—Also t=
.666, &c.=6R“I4-6R—2+6R“3 + &c.
Although the number 10 has been fixed upon as the
root of the scale of notation, any other number may
he employed to express all numbers whatever in the
same manner •, and some numbers are even preferable
to 10. Thus, making 8 the root of a scale, and de¬
noting it by R, the number 2735, when expressed ac¬
cording to this scale, is 5R3-f-2RI-j-5^I_t*7^ » °,r
5R3-f2Rz-}-5R + 7 j and here we may observe, that if
a number greater than 10 were assumed as the root of
the scale of notation, it would be necessary to adopt
some new numeral characters in addition to those in
common use, and if a smaller number were assumed,
we might dispense with some of those we already
have.
But instead of expressing all numbers by the sums of
certain multiples of the successive powers of some par¬
ticular number, we may also express them, if not accu¬
rately, at least as near as we please, by a single power,
whole or fractional, of any positive number whatever,
which may be either whole or fractional, but must no1:
be unity.
Let us take, for example, 2 as the number, by the
powers of which all others are to be expressed. Then
it may be shewn that the numbers, 1, 2, 3, &c. are all
expressible by the powers of 2, as follows.
1 = 2°
2=2*
3~2,,S849<5, nearly
4=2*
^_;2*.3»,9j nearly
and so on. And if instead of
then we have
1 = 10°
2~IO-3°103
3—lO’4771*
4=io,6°10(5
y — I Q169897
6—2*• 38496 nearly
7=r22'8073 nearly
8=23
p— 23-i699
io=23,3,I5) nearly,
we take the number to,
6—lo-mis
7 _ 10.843*°
8_io-90309
9==I 0*954*4
I0=ZI0X.
Hence we may conclude, fhat if /• be put for some
ITHMS. 7i
determinate number, and // for any indefinite positive Nature of
number, whole or fractional, it is always possible to find . a~
another number N, such that the number r being raised nln"^ c;
to the power N shall either be exactly equal to w, or
shall be as near toil as we please ; that is, we shall have
N  
When numbers are expressed in this way by the
powers of some given number r ; the exponent nj that
power of r whicli is equal to any assigned number is
called the logarithm of that number. Therefore, if —ni
fi being put for any number) then N will be the loga¬
rithm of the number n.
The logarithms which are produced by giving to r
some determinate value constitute a system of logarithms,
and the constant number from which the system is
formed, is called the base or radical number oi the
system.
The properties of logarithms may readily be deduced
from the above definition as follows. Let a and b be
put for any two numbers, and A and B for their loga¬
rithms } then, r being supposed to denote the base, or
radical number of the system, we have a~rx and
bzzr^ : now if we take the product of a and Z>, we
have a b—r^ X/ B =7’A"^Ii j according to the de¬
finition, A + B is the logarithm of a b, (for it is the in¬
dex of that power ofr which is equal to a b) therefore,
the sum of the logarithms of any two numbers a and b
is the logarithm of their product a b. Again, we have
b~r^~ ’
but here A—B is the index of that
power of r which is equal to )
therefore, A—B is the
logarithm of hence, if one number a be divided by
another number b, the excess of the logarithm of the divi¬
dend above that of the divisor is equal to the logarithm
.a
of the quotient -.
Let n express any number whatever, then raising
both sides of the equation a~i A to the «th power, we
have a11 = (rA ')n—rn^ j but here n A is manifestly
the logarithm of an *, therefore, the logarithm of a”, any
po wer of a number, is the product of the logarithm oj the
number by n, the index of the power. And this must
evidently be true, whether that index be a whole num¬
ber, or a fraction, either positive or negative.
Fiom these properties it is easy to see in what man¬
ner a table that exhibits the logarithms of all numbers
within certain limits may be applied to simplify calcu¬
lations ; for since the sum of the logarithms of any two
numbers is equal to the logarithm ot their product, it
follows, that as often as we have occasion to find the
product of two or more numbers, we have only to add
their logarithms into one sum, taking them from the
table, and to look in the table for the number whose
logarithm is equal to that sum, and this number will be
the product required. Also, because the excess, of the
logarithm of the dividend above that of the divisor is
equal to the logarithm of the quotient j as often as we
have occasion to divide one number by another, we have
only
72
Nature of
L,oga-
rithms, &c.
L O G A R IT H M S.
A! II
only to subtract the logarithm of the divisor from that
of 'the dividend, and opposite to that Ogarithm m
the table, which is the remainder, we shall hnd the
qU A^the logarithm of any power of a number is the
product of the logarithm of the number, and the in¬
dex of the power 5 and, on the contrary, the logarithm
of any root of a number is the quotient found by di¬
viding the logarithm of the number by the index ot the
root: it follows, that we may find any power or root ot
a number, by multiplying the logarithm of the number
by the index of the power, or dividing it by the index
of the root, and taking that number in the table whose
logarithm is the product or quotient for the power 01
root required.
If in the equation a=;A where a is any number,
A its logarithm, and /• the base of the system) we sup¬
pose a—1, then, in this case rA=i j but this equation
can only be satisfied by putting A = o. Hence it ap¬
pears, that in every system of logarithms, the logarithm
'if unity must he O. If on the other hand we assume
n—r ■ then we have the equation / =:rA, which is im¬
mediately satisfied by putting A=i ; therefore, the lo¬
garithm of the base, or radical number of every system,
is necessarily unity.
If wre suppose r to be a positive number greater than
unity, and a a positive number greater than unity, then
A will be a positive number j for il it be negative we
would have a proper fraction, and at
v r
the same time a number greater than unity by hypothe¬
sis, which is impossible. If on the contrary we sup¬
pose a a proper fraction, then A must necessarily be ne¬
gative, for if it were positive, then rA would be greater
than unity, and a{=A) also greater than unity, w'hile
by hypothesis it is a fraction less than unity, 11111011 is
impossible. Therefore, in every system, the base of which
■ is greater than unity, the logarithm of a whole or mixt
number is always positive, but the logarithm of a proper
fraction is always negative.
' Because the logarithm of r is unity, the logarithm
of rn will be n ; therefore, the logarithm of any in teger
power of the radical number r will always be an in¬
teger.
Let r and rJ denote bases of two different systems 5
and let A be the logarithm of a number, c, taken ac¬
cording to the first of these, and A' its logarithm taken
according to the last. Then because arrrA', and
C_.r/A'> it follows that and r=i'' A. Let us
now suppose that r" is the base of a third system of lo¬
garithms, and R and li' the logarithms of r and r’ ta¬
ken according to this third system •, then because
= A, and A : A'(: : K' : R) :
A" R'’
T
R
1
w
Hence it appears, that the logarithm of a number, taken
according to one system, has to its logarithm, taken ac¬
cording to any other system, a constant ixdio, which is the
same as that of the reciprocals of the logarithms of the
radical numbers of those systems, taken according to any
system whatever.
Let us next suppose, that a and b are two numbers,
and A and B their logarithms, taken according to the
same system, and r the base ol the system j then because
Nature df
loga¬
rithms, &c
A
r zza*
we have 1
,AB_B AB
}=G
= 6A:
therefore aB= A, and a=b*. Now as r is not found m
this equation, the value of the fraction depends only
on the numbers a and b ; therefore, the logarithms of
any two given numbers have the same ratio in every
system whatever. _ .
Having now explained the properties which belong
to the logarithms ol any system whatever, we proceed
to investigate general rules by which the number coi-
responding to any logarithm, and, on the contrary, the
logarithm corresponding to any number, may be found
the one from the other. And for this end let us de¬
note any number whatever by y, and its logarithm by x,
and put r as before for the base, or radical number ot
the system ; then by the nature of logarithms we have
this equation
y—rx.
Tut rrzi+ff, and let the expression (i-J-o)* be ex¬
panded into a series by the binomial theorem; thus we
shall have
1 a 4
x(x-
-1) , xix-
'« + —
-1) O—2)
_.2 ■ 1.2-3
*0-1) (*—0 &c.
i . 2.3.4
Let this series, the terms of which are arranged ac-
•cording to the powers ot tne quantity a, be transform¬
ed into another, the terms of which shall be arranged
•according to the powers ol x ,* and to eftect this we
must find the actual products of the factors which con-
‘Stitute the powers of x/, and arrange the terms anew, a?
follows,
1 = 1,
1
x a— -\-ax,
— 1) a*
—-a*— x +
2 2
?^/R = rl ■
i)G—2)fr, _ , A
1.2.3 3
11 * I “ ^
x «* + -7-vk
2 6
wehave^R=rR>"RR'=^R-,
B,
therefore rR'=7-'R, and r^rK' 5 but we have already
A- A' R
found r=r A, .therefore r'h =rR', and consequently
a:(A—1)0—2)(x—3).
1.2.3
•4
&c.
id , 11 o4 a4 o*
—x+ x* A
4 24 4 24
&c.
so that adding into one sum the quantities on each side
of the sign =r, and recollecting that the sum of these
on the left-hand side is equal to y, we have
L O G A R I T H M S.
7:
Katufc of
Loga¬
rithms, &o.
1
+ («
fl
2
a*
~6
+ (•
+ (-
a1 o3 °4 , c \
  &c.).v,
2 3 4
"3 ‘ IIfl4 .&c.>2,
24
— 4- See.)*3,
4 '
-}-( Scc.)^4,
24
. + &c*
-which equation, by substituting
o2 . a
X for +
2 3 4
A' for
A7 for
rt
11 n4
&c.
7   + ^-c*
6 4
l
-j- Aw ;z4 -j- ^cc*
only he identical, upon the supposition that the coefti- Nature of
cients of like terms in each are equal •, therefore, set- Lega¬
ting aside the first line of each side of the equation, he- ^c:
cause their terms are the same, and also the first term
of the second line, for the same reason, let the coeffi¬
cients of the remaining terms be put equal to one an¬
other, thus we have
A'" for &c.
24
&c.
may he abbreviated to
r'rr 1 -f A* -f- A'.v* -f A7a3 + A"'.*4 + &.c.
Next, to determine the law of connexion of the
quantities A, A', A", A'", &c. let x+z be substituted
in the last equation for x, (here z is put for any inde¬
finite quantity) thus it becomes
r* + *zrI+A(w + !S)+A'(tf-{-z)2-j-A''(.V-f 2;)3-f &C.
But r*+*=:r*Xr*> an<l since it has been shewn that
rxzz 1 + Aa’+AV+A"*3+A"'*4 + &c.
for the very same reason
r^=i-f Azs+AV-f A/,k3+Aw2;4-{- &c.
therefore the series
i-fA.(#+&)+A/(A:-Hz)*+A/'(tf+203+Aw(A?-f2;)4-f&c.
is equal to the product of the two series
I-f-A^-f-A'^2-}-A7A;3-j-A/7a’4-}- &c.
I + Az + A'iS* -f-A"!Z3+A/7254 + &c.
That is, by actual involution and multiplication,
i_f_A*-f- A'*2 + A"*3 -f A"' *4 + &c.')
-j-A«-f-2A'^iz4-3A7^2z-j-4Aw,w3;z -j- &c. |
4- A'sz2 4-3A,,A:«34-6Aw*2iz,4- &c- r> —
4_ X" z3 4-4A"'.v!z3 4- j
4- A'7 s4 4- &c.J
f 14-Aar 4-A'«8 4- A "a3 4- A"'*4 4-&c.
| 4-A2!4-A*«2 4-AAV2;4-AA"a?32s -f &c.
— J 4. A'z* 4-AA,ar2!24-A,A,a;*25*4- &c.
4- A7*;3 4-AA"afZ3 -f-
A.*—2 A!
A A'—3 A" 1
AA/'=4A'7 ^
&c.
and hence
we have
A —
A" —
A*
1 . 2
A3
Aw=r-
2.3
_A4
‘1.2.3
&c.
Here the law of the coefficients A, A', Am, &c. is ob¬
vious, each being formed from the preceding by multi¬
plying it by A, and dividing by the exponent of the
power of A which is thus formed. Let these values of
A', A", &c. be now substituted in the equation
ij—rx— 14- Ax 4- A'#14-A"*3 4- &c.
and it becomes,
y=i 4* A.v-
A*
:**+
A3
-a;34-
A4
-a?44~ &c.
2.3 ‘ i . 2.3.4
thus we have obtained a general formula expressing a
number in terms of its logarithm and the base of the
system, for we must recollect that the quantity A which
is equal to
1* c*
o— — -f- — —
2 3
is otherwise expressed by
(^•—0* , (>—0J
r—1-
° ° £>
  occ.
4 5
(r—I)4, Cr—1)!
2*3 4 5
where r denotes the base of the system (a).
If in the formula
■ &c.
A3
r2'—1 -f-A a 4- x% .
1 1.2 1.2.3
we suppose arm, it becomes
A* . A3
A4
1.2.3.4
ar44- &c.
rz=. 1 4-A-
A4
&c.
I .2' I.2.3 I-2.3.4’
an equation which contains r only j but as r has been
all along supposed an indeterminate quantity, this equa¬
tion must be identical, that is, if instead of A, its va¬
lue, as expressed above in terms of r, were substituted,
the whole would vanish.
Again, let us suppose that is substituted instead of
x in the general formula, thus it becomes
Now as the quantities A, A', A", &c. are quite inde¬
pendent of x and z, the two sides of the equation can
Vol. XII. Part I.
:I + I+-
1.2.3
K
1.2.3.4
4- &c.
Th us
(a) For other analytic methods of investigating the same formula, see ALGEBRA, § 293* aml Iluxjons, S 54.
and § 70. Ex. I. also § 200. Prob.
logarithms.
7+
Nature of £
• Tints the nuantitv rA, whatever he the value of r, is
nt m», ^ c. , eq|Ja| t0 a constant number, wlucli, as appears iog. j,=>.
from the last equation, is equal to the value of r when
^—1. By adtling together a sufficient number oi t
Nature of
terms of the series expressing the value of we find
that quantity equal to
2.718281828459045 .. .
I
Let this number be denoted by c, and we have rA=e,
and r=eA ; hence it appears, that if the number e he
considered as the base of a logarithmic system, the
quantity A, that is
(iV-r-lV
lo^ll will be unity, and the formula will become simply Loga-
log. r rithms, &c.
&c.u-v—'
2 ^ 3 .4
as we have already remarked. ^ Now this is the system
which was adopted by Lord Napier ; and although the
logarithms which were computed according to tais sys¬
tem, or upon the supposition that the radical number is
2.7182818, &c. have been called hyperbolic logariinms,
because they happen to be proportional to certain hy¬
perbolic spaces, yet, as the logarithms ol every system
have the same property, it is more proper to call them
Napiereaii logarithms.
(V—-1)3 O—i)4 , O'--1)5,
3 4 5
-&<
which occurs in
is the logarithm of r to the base e. But. as r is not re¬
stricted here to any particular value, we may substitute
y instead of it, keeping in mind that y denotes any
number whatever, and a* its logarithm *, thus we have a?
the logarithm of y, expressed by the series
(y-1^ ,
V-1— + 3 4 5
supposing that the base of the system is the number we
have expressed above by c. , „ , ,
Wc have now found a general formula lor tiie lo¬
garithm of any number, y, taken according to a parti¬
cular system, namely, that which has the number e lor
its base. But it is easy from hence to find a formula,
which shall apply to any system whatever. For it has
been shewn that the logarithms of the same number,
taken according to two different systems, are to each
other as the reciprocals ol the logarithms ol the bases
of the systems, these last logarithms being taken ac¬
cording to any system whatever, that is,
1 1
log. y to base e : log. y to base r :: g : logi r ?
hence we find
log. v to base r=!^-e Xlog. y to base e.
t> j iog. r
Let the value we have already found for the logarithm
of ?/ to base e be substituted in this equation, and it
becomes
log.r ^ _ ‘ (.y—0*, (y—I)3 (y—ll41 p,, i
— 4 x J
which is a general formula for the logarithm of any
number whatever, to the base r. And it is to be re¬
collected that in the fraction which is a common
multiplier to the series, the logarithms are to he taken
according to the same base, which however may be any
number whatever (b).
If in the above formula we suppose r=e, the mmtipher
i • i- e
As the constant multiplier y----,
the general formula for the logarithm of any number,,
is the only part of the formula which depends for its
value upon the base ol the system, it has been called
by writers on logarithms, the modulus of the system.
If we suppose the logarithms taken to the base c, then
the numerator, viz. log. e, will be unity, and the de¬
nominator wull be the Napierean logarithm of r. 11
however we suppose the logarithms taken to the ha^e
then the numerator will be log. e to base r; and the
denominator will be unity, so that the modulus oi any
system whose base is r, is the reciprocal of the Napierean
logarithm of that base; or it is the logarithm of the
number e (the base of the Napierean system) to the
base r. ...
In the Napierean system the modulus is unity, and
hence the logarithms of this system, as far as depends
upon facility of computation, are the most simple oi
any. It was, however, soon found that a system whose
base should be the same as the root ot the scale of tne
arithmetical notation, viz. the number 10, would, be
tbe most convenient of any in practice •, and according¬
ly such a system was actually constructed by Mv Briggs.
This is the only one now in common use, and is called
Briggs's system, also the common system of logarithms.
The modulus of this system therefore is the reciprocal
of the Napierean logarithm of 105 or it is the common
logarithm of e=2.7I828i8, &£c. the base ot the Na¬
pierean system. We shall in future denote this modulus
by M *, so that the formula expressing the common lo¬
garithm of any number y will be
5 (1—;/)2 . '~
log. 1/—M \ 1 —p +
_ 3 -. 4.
If the number ij, whose logarithm is required be very
near to unity, so that 1—y is a small quantity, then
the logarithm may be found from this formula with
great ease, because the series will converge very rapid¬
ly. If, however, 1—y be greater than unity, the sc¬
ries, instead of converging, wall diverge, so as to be in
its present form of no use.
It may however be transformed into another, which
shall converge in every case, by substituting in it 71 »J~y
/~h V
instead of y, and observing that log. (v V) ~~n~'
(b) For other methods of investigating the same formula see Algebra, 284, and Fluxions, § 70. Ex. 2«
also § 136.
LOGARITHMS.
75
Nature of it thus becomes
ritknT&e.log.y=»M I'Vj-l-'rC" v7?-')a+T("v/y-O3-&»-}
where n may denote any number whatever, positive or
negative. But whatever be the number y, we can al¬
ways take such, that „\/y shall be as nearly equal
to i, as we please, therefore by this last formula, we
can always find the logarithm of y to any degree of ac¬
curacy whatever.
If we suppose n to be taken negative, then v y
— —— and the series which expresses log. y becomes,
Vy.
by changing the signs.
log.y:
\'y
where all the terms are positive. Thus we have it in
our power to express the value of y, either by a series
which shall have its terms all positive, or by one wrhich
shall have its terms alternately positive and negative:
for it is evident that y being greater than unity, n
w ill also lie greater than unity, and y being less than
unity, ”*/.'/ will also be less than unity, but the differ¬
ences will be so much the smaller as n the exponent of
the root is greater j therefore n\fy—i will be positive
in the first case, and negative in the second.
Because T , therefore Nap. Iop-. io
Nap. log, xo r 6
= hence by the two last formulas wre have
~—n n \/10—I —4-( V10—1 )*+t(" \/lO—I)3_&e ^
also
It is evident that by giving to "\/y such a value that
x'V 1 is a fraction less than unity, we render both
Uie series for the value of log. y converging j for as
y i is a fraction less than unity, the expression
1"~”v5" Wil1 als° be leSS tban unity» seeing that it is
equal-to-Ap-—. Therefore, in the first series, the se¬
cond and third terms (taken together as one ternf) con-
stitute a negative quantity, and as the same is also true
of the fourth and fifth, and so on j the amount of all
the terms after the lust is a negative quantity, that is, a
quantity wuich is to be subtracted from the first, that
wre may have the value of log. ?/. Hence we may in¬
fer that ;
log. A
Arm since, on the contrary, the terms of the second se¬
ries are all positive, the amount of all the terms after
tue list is a positive quantity, that is, a quantity which
must be added to the first to give the value of' W. v :
=60 that we have ° J ’
log. (i—-A- ^ •
Thus we have two limits to the value of the lo- Nature of
garithm of ?/, which, by taking the number n suffi- Loga-
ciently great, may come as near to each other as we rithms.&e.
please.
In like manner wre find two limits to the value of
the reciprocal to the modulus, viz.
It is evident that the difference between the two li¬
mits of log. y, is
„M{(Vy—0—(.-
therefore if tve take either the one or the other of the
tAvo preceding expressions for log. y, the error in excess
or defect is necessarily less than this quantity.
By these formulas aa'c may depend upon having the
logarithm of any number true to m figures, if Ave give
to 7i such a value that the root n \/y shall have ni cy¬
phers between the decimal point and the first signifi¬
cant figure on the right. So that in general, as the er¬
ror is the smaller according as n the exponent of the
root is greater, Ave may conclude that it becomes no¬
thing, or may he reckoned as nothing, Avhen n is taken
indefinitely great j and this being the case, Ave may con¬
clude that either of these expressions.
7i M(" yb/—I ), 71 M( I — -ArA
" V y J
is the accurate value of log. ?/.
The best manner of a]>plving the preceding formula
is to take some poAver of the number 2 for n; for bv
tloing so, the root n\/y may be found by a repetition
of extractions of the square root only. It Avas in this
Avay that Briggs calculated the first logarithms j and
he remarked, that if in pqjforming the succcssNe ex¬
tractions of the square root, he at last obtained tAvice
as many decimal places as there Avere cyphers after the
decimal point, the integer before it being unity, then
the decimal part of this root Avas exactly the half of
that which Avent before; so that the decimal parts of
the tA\ro roots Are re to each in the same proportion as
their logarithms : uoav this is an evident consequence of
the preceding formula.
To give an example of the application of the formu¬
la, let it be required to find the numerical value of M,
the modulus of the common system of logarithms,
which, as it is the reciprocal of the Napierean lo¬
garithm of to, is equal to
„ . nearly
"Vic—i J
when n is some very great number. Let us suppose
«=260r=:820 j then, dividing unity by 8, and this result
again by 8, and so on, avc shall, after 20 divisions, have
i i ,
or glS eclual t0
o.ooooo ooooo ooooo ooc86 73617 37988 40354.
Also, by extracting the square root of 10, and the
square root of this result, and so on, after performing
60 extractions avc shall find n\/\o equal to
1.00000 ooooo ooooo 00199 7 j 74 2 0812550 5 2703 25 r.
K 2 Therefore,
76
Nature of
Loga¬
rithms, &c.
-5 or M, equal to
Therefore, - ><
n
J673r;r7379.8840i54=o 44Sl^
J097I7420SI255Q527
As a second example, let it be required to find ny
the same formula the logarithm of the number 3>
-vh:;:h is nearly equal to
L O G A It IT H M S.
K 1 for u, will be otherwise expressed thus,
quently,
n M (Vi—1)=
_^(V3—0 _
log- 3 = —r~-
"v/to—1’
71 being as before a very great number. Let us sup¬
pose also in this case that «—260*, then after 60 ex¬
tractions of the square root we have "y^S eqllal to
1,00000 00000 00000 0095 28942 64074 58932.
Therefore, taking the value of 7V10 ad foun^ hi last
example, we have
”\/3—t __ 95289426407458932
\/10—x 199717420812550527
=.4 7712 llSAl ip662-
This method of computing logarithms is evidently
attended with great labour, on account of the number
of extractions of roots which it requires, to obtain a re¬
sult true to a moderate number of places of figures.
But the two series, which we have given, serve to
t-implify and complete it. For whatever be the number
?/, it is only necessary to proceed with the extractions of
the square root, till we have obtained for 71 \/}j a value
which is unity followed by a decimal fraction; and
then n\/ii—I, being a fraction, its powers will also be
fractions, which will be so much the smaller as their
exponents are greater 3 thus a certain number of terms
of the series will serve to express the logarithm to as
many decimal places as may be required.
There arc yet olh;
Series
analytical artifices bv which the
log.y:
tog.
-f-,
and
-f- I
Kature of
Loga¬
rithms, tkc.
iog.K=2M.f^A + i(7qA) +l(-"+j) +^y>
and this formula for the logarithm of a number is not
only simple, but has also the property of converging in
every possible case.
That we may give an example of the utility of tins
formula, we shall employ it in the calculation of the
Napierean logarithm of 2, which by the above forum a
will be
2(- + -—3
+
3-3J ' 5-3s 7-3 9-y
A-{“-i B&-c•
&e
)
where A is put f<5r
„ 2 A , 2 _ B»
B for —- “ —, C for —7 — —,
3 9 o' 9
D for
lows.
37
8cc. The calculation will he as fol-
may he transformed into others which shall always
converge, and in particular the following. Let i-\-u
be substituted in the series for y; then it becomes
log. (1 -f «)=M --+   — + -J—i&c.J
In like manner let 1—u be substituted fory, and we
have
, , . , r / «2 u3 11* u* n \
log- (1— &c.J.
Let each side of the latter equation be subtracted
from the corresponding side of the. former 3 the result
on the left-hand side will be log. (i-|-z;) — log. (i—?/),
which, by the nature of logarithms, is equal to log.
i -4- it
—k— 3 and on the right-hand side the alternate terms
of the tivo series, having the same sign, these will by
subtraction destroy each other, so that we shall have
I ~j-« , r C u3 us
—I— —  1 k —
« l 3 5 7
which Series, by substituting % for •—
.666666666666
B— i .^-=.074074074074
C— i Brr.008230452674
D= | Czz.000914494742
F= -g-D=.OOOiOl6l0527
F= AErr.000011290059
G= i-F=.oooooi25445i
11= a G=.000000139383
1— AlI=.oooooooi5487
K= ^ I=.0000000017 21
L= a K=.000000000191
M= -gL=.000000000021
A=.666666666666
\ B=.02469i358025
1 €=.001646090535
l.D=.000130642106
a E=.ooooi 1290056
TV F=.oooocio26369
tA- G=.ooooooo96496
T'r H—.000C00C09292
/T K=.000000000911
■jL L = .000000000091
M=.000000000001
•% - l""‘—
Nap. log. 2 =.693x47180551
Thus, by a very easy calculation, we have obtained the
Napierean logarithm of 2 true to the first ten places of
figures 3 the accurate value, as far as the 12th place,
being 0.693147180550,
If this very simple process by which we have found
the logarithm of 2 (the whole of which is here actually
put down), he compared with the laborious calcula¬
tions which must have been performed to have found
the same logarithm by the method explained in the be¬
ginning of this section, the great superiority of this me¬
thod to the other, and even to the second method, by.
which wre have found the numerical value of M, and the
common logarithm of 3, must be very apparent.
In the same manner as we have found the logarithm
of 2 we may find those of 3, 5, &c. In computing the
logarithm.
L O G A R I T H M S.
Kdturc of logarithm of 3 the series would converge by the powers
ritlims,a&c. of the fraction and in computing the loga*
5
3-f 1
5+i
■T>
rithm of 5 it would converge by the powers of
but in each of these cases the series wW.d converge
slower, and of course the labour would be greater than
in computing the logarithm of 2. And if the number
whose logarithm was required was still more consider¬
able ; as for example 399, the series would converge so
slow as to be useless.
We may however avoid this inconvenience by again
transforming this last formula into another which shall
express the logarithm of any number by means of a
series, and a logarithm supposed to he previously known.
1 1 +w 1 25
To effect this new transformation, let  = 1+-,
1—u n
then, by resolving this equation in respect of w, ive have
u — —^—. Let these values of
2«+!3 . 1
tuted in the formula,
1 -j-«
and u he substi-
log.
i±^=2M(«+—+ —+ —+ &<A
1—« v r 3 - 5 ‘ 7 /
and we have log. ^I+“j equal to
2 m y &c. 1
^ 2« + i3 TV2«-f-iZ/ \2ri-\-%J 3
/ \ f_, eg
hut log. ^ I +-J = log. —= log. 0 + *) — log. »,
therefore, by substituting this value of log.
w -j- 2;
and
E—,/-rD^:.C000CI02.40C0
E=:AyE—.000000040960
G= ,/tF = .000000001638
ri=vTyG=r.000000000066
A=r.400000000000-
t B=:.oo53333'33333
j- Crr.oooioSoooooo'
il)= .000003657143
Err .OOOOOO113778
T’r F = .OOOOOOOO3 7 24
T*TGrr .OOOOOOOOOl 25
^-I3-H=r.oooooooooo04
.40546510810&
Nap. log. 2.= .69314718o5'51
Nap. log. 3.031.098612288659
This logarithm is true to >10 decimal places, the accu¬
rate value to 12 figures being 1.098612288668.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 4. This is im¬
mediately had from that of 2 by considering that as
4=z2a, therefore log. 4=rlog. 2-f- log. 2.
Nap. log. 230.693147180551
77
Nature of
Loga¬
rithms, &c.
transposing log. n to the other side of the equation, we
have
log. (ff + s) = log- » +
2mJ-—+j(-^—Y+if -^-Y+ &c.i
y 3\2«+Z/ ‘ ^\ 2n-f-2;/ 3
By the assistance of this formula, and the known pro¬
perties of logarithms, ive may proceed calculating the
logarithm of one number from that of another as fol¬
lows.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 3 from that of 2,
which has been already found. We have here «3T2,
33ri, and—Therefore the logarithm re¬
quired is equal to
log. 2 -{- 2 ( —|   + ; -| z-f- &-C. j
M 3-5 5-i1 7-5 >
= log. 2+ A +^B + JG + 4D + JE + &c.
where A is put for B for —, C for and so on.
25 25
The calculation may stand thus :
A 33.400000000000
B33-2^-A33.oi6ooooooooo
C^^Brr.000640000000
JD=-/3-C= .00002560000-0
Nap. log. 4331.386294361102
This logarithm is also true to 10 places besides the
integer.
To find the Napierean logarithm of 5, from that of
4: we have #3=4, 2=1, and ;—33~, therefore the
logarithm of 5 is expressed by
4+2(5+^,+^+^+&-)
log. 4-E A-J-yB-j-x^ + VD+ &cr;
where A3=|, B33u1t A, —/t B, &C-
The calculation.
&Z=.222222222227s
B—-g-T A 33.OO2743484225
C zr^VB =.000033870176
1)=^,XC =.000000418150
F.=f,xD=.oooooooo5 162
F=?VE=.000000000064
A—.222222222222
-] B =.000914494742
C=.ooooo6774035
x D=.000000059736
^ E =.000000000574
xxF=.000000000006
•223143551315
Nap. log. 4=1.386294361102
Nap. log. 5=1.609437912417'
This result is also correct to the first ten places of de-
Th«
cimafs.
7«
logarithms.
Nature of The logarithm of 6 is found from those of 2 and 3
Loga- Jjy considering, that because 6= 2X3> therefore log. 6
ritlmis, See. _ log> 2 + log# 3<
Nap. log. 2=0.693147180551
Nap. log. 3= 1.09S612288659
Nap. log. 6=1.79175946921°
This result is correct as far as the tenth decimal place.
We might find the logarithm of 7 from the loga¬
rithm of 6, that is, from the logarithm of 3 and 2, in
the same manner as we have found the logarithms oi 5
and 3 ; but it may be more readily found from the
logarithms of 2 and 5 by reasoning thus. Because
■2 * — — —, therefore log. 2 2 log. 5 — 2 ^°S- 7
T 49
=log.—, and consequently
log- 1—^ log- 2+ log- s—^
Now the logarithm of — may be readily obtained from
8 49
the formula
log.*=2M{£=I+!(2=2) +&c- }
; +
For substituting— for the formula gives
49
Nap. loj
5£.
49'
/ 1 1
’ b—
\QQ 3-Q
99 3-99 5-99
■ &c
■)
— A+|BH-4C-|- &c.
where A= , —, B
&c. This
This logarithm, like those we found before, is correct Nature of
in the first ten decimal places. , rfte&c
The logarithms of 8, 9, and ic are immediately ob- , ^,
tained from those of 2, 3, and 5, as follows :
Nap. log. 2= 0.693147180551
3
Nap. log. 8= 2.079441541653
Nap. log. 3 = 1.098612288659
2
Nap. log. 9= 2.197224577318
Nap. log. 2= 0.693*47*^°55*
Nap. log. 5 = 1.609437912417
Nap. log. 10= 2.302585092968
Thus by a few calculations we have found the Na«
pierean logarithms of the first ten numbers, each true
to ten decimal places } and since the Napierean loga¬
rithm of 10 is now known, the modulus of the common
system, which is the reciprocal oi that logarithm, will
also be known, and will be
:7o^k^8=-«429448i9
9.11 ' 9i.ii2’ 91.ix1
series converges with great rapidity, and a few of its
terms will be sufficient to give the logarithm of 7? ^
appears from the following operation.
B
A= .0 20 20 20 20 20 2
-A=.000002061220
9*.ii2
C =• B = .000000000210
91.ui
A=.0 20202020202
^-B = .000000687073
aC=.oocooooooo4 2
Nap. log. — = .020202707317
49
ITc common logarithms of the first ten numbers may
now be found from the Napierean logarithms by multi¬
plying each of the latter by the modulus, or dividing
by its reciprocal, that is, by the Napierean logarithm
of 10. And as the modulus of the common system is
so important an element in the theory of logarithms, we
shall give its value, together with that of its reciprocal,
as far as the 30th decimal place.
^[=.434294481903251827651128918917
^ = 2.302585092994045684017991454684
The formulas avc have already given are sufficient
for finding the logarithms of all numbers whatever
throughout the table; hut there are yet others which
may often he applied with great advantage, anu we
shall now im estigate some of thesg.
Because
,, C z—1 ,
log. 55= 2 M £ —r-; +
;+I
If we now suppose
(S+i) +fC+.i) &c'l
-i (/;—I)C7i-b1)
\ log. 2=0.346573590275
log. 5=1.609437912417
1.956011502692
log. ^°=o.oi0101353658
" 49  
'Nap. log. 7=1.945910149034
, z-—1 i
so that —-— =
iS-f-l 2/1*—l’
n%
log.
then the formula becomes
2*4-1- +
C 2«—1
(/l—l)(«+l)
(t=t) +&c-}
But
r = 2l0g. // — log. («— I) —
Nature of p , > „  ”
.' X^ga. B ut 1 S’ ( I) (n-j, I)
(w + l), therefore, putting N for the series
aM-f ——hif —*—-V-h(—r )*+&C.1
z [ 2 «3—I ^ 3 V 2 «*—I / ^X\2 «3—X / ^ $
we have this formula,
2 log. n—log. («—i)—log. (n-f- i)=N;
and hence, as often as we have the logarithms of any
two of three numbers whose common difference is unity,
the logarithm of the remaining number may be found.
Example. Having given
the common log. of 9=0.95424250943
the common log. of 10=1 5
it is required to find the common logarithm of 11.
Here we have // = io, so that the formula gives in
this case 2 log. 10—log. 9—log. il=N, and hence we
have
log. 11=2 log. 10—log. 9—N,
L O G A E I T H M S.
and hence by transposition, 8se.
79
Nature of
I.:0ga-
log. II=^N44 log. 2-f-log. 7—log. 9+log. 10$ ritlims, &c.
and in this equation
2M
N=
10601
&e.
The first term alone of this series is sufficient to give
the logarithm of ri true to 14 places.
Another formula, by which the logarithm ot a num¬
ber is expressed bv the logarithms of other numbers and
a series, may be found as follows.
Resuming the formula
log. +f(=r) +&c-]‘
j —J— X \ 2? -j— 1
Let us assume
(*—l)* (n+2)
z=
(«-
2) C«+i)5
2—I
then
—3 « + 2
«3—3 n—2
2
z-j-i «3—5
«
where N= [■
2M 2M
-f- &c.
199 ■ 3.199
M being .43429448190
Calculation of N.
A=^^=.oo436476866
199
B=—■ =.00000003674
3^99'
.00436480540
2 log. 10=2.00000000000
log. 9=0.95424250943
^=0.00436480 540
log. 9-^=0.95860731483
log. 11 = 1.04139268517
Here the series expressed by N converges very fast,
so that two of its terms are sufficient to give the loga¬
rithm true to 10 places of decimals. Rut the logarithm
of 11 may he expressed by the logarithms of smaller
numbers, and a series which converges still more ra¬
pidly, by the following artifice, which will apply also
to some other numbers. Because the numbers 98, 99,
and 100 are the products of numbers, the greatest
of which is 11, for 98=2X7*, 99=9X11, and
100=10X10, it folloAvs that if we have an equation
composed of terms which are the logarithms of these
three numbers, it may be resolved into another, the
terms of which shall be the logarithms of the number
11 and ether smaller numbers. Now by the preceding
formula, if we put 99 for «, we have
2 log. 99—log. 98—log. IOO = N,
that is, substituting log. 9-j-log. 11 for log. 99, log. 2-f-
2 log. 7 for log. 98, and 2 log. 10 for log. 100,
-S leg. ci-l-2 log. II—log. 2—2 log. 7—2 log. io=N,
Let these values of z, and
ss-f-i’
he substituted in
the formula, and it becomes
r , C^y+&c.7
(n—2)(/2-f-l)* L«3-3«~r\a3-3«/ j
But the quantity' on the left-hand side of this equation is
manifestly equal to 2 log. («—i)-j-log. (//-j-2)—log.
(«—2)—2 log. («-j-i), therefore, putting P for the
series.
2m|&c. 1
in3—3« ‘ t'tz3—3«/ ‘ ^v/z3—3«/ j
we have this formula,
log.(«-}-2)-f-2log.(ff—1)—log. («-2)-2log. (»-fi-l) = P.
By this formula we may find, with great facility, the
logarithm of any one of the four numbers n—2, //—1,
»-f-i, «-f-2, having the logarithms of the other three.
\v e may also employ it in the calculation of logarithms,
as in the following example. Let the numbers 3, 6, 7,
8, he substituted successively in the formula $ then, ob¬
serving that log. 6=log. 2-flog. 3, and log. 8=3 log. 2,
we have these four equations,
log. 7 + 2 log. 2—3 log. 3= &c.
2 M ^ M
—2 log. 7-Hog. 2+2 log. 5=—&c.
, i , 2 M 2 M
4 log. 3—4 log. 2—log. 5=-^ +^j-3+
log- 5 5 log. 3 + 2% 7=— + —,+ &c;
Let log. 2, log. 3, log. 5, and log. 7, be now con¬
sidered as four unknown quantities, and by resolving
those equations in the usual manner (see Algebra,
Sect. VII.) the logarithms may he determined.
Resuming once more the formula
log.
25=2 M
2S 1
55-f-I
}
let
So
Nature of
Loga¬
rithms, &c
let
Cw43) C"—3) (/?'+4) in—4)
instead of x, then, hy this substitution
—72
logarithms.
be substituted in it
will become
—25«2-f 72
log
the formula will be transformed to
(??—5)
0+3) C«—3) C" + 4) («—4)
=-2Ml •#+7^+^ +&c,3
Hence, putting the latter side of this equation equal to
Q, we have this formula,
2log.»+log.(»+5) + log.(«—5)—log-(f+3)7—o
—log.^z—3)—log.(«4-4)—log-C«—4) + ^ 3
which may be applied to the calculation of logarithms
in the same manner as the former. .
When it is required to find the logarithm of a high
number, as for example 1231, we may proceed as fol¬
lows :
log. I 23 I =log.(1 230 + 1) =log. { I23o( !+—)}
=rlog.i230+log.(i+Y^)'
Again, log. i23or=log. 2+log. 5 + log- I23, and log.
l23=1og.£i2°(i + —)}
—log- I20+log.(l-f-A)
log. X2Q=log. (23X3X 5)=3 loS- 2+loS- 3 + log- 5
Therefore
big. I23I=4log. 2+log. 3 + 2 log. 5+log* (r+^)
+log.^x +12^0 )
Thus the logarithm of the proposed number is expres¬
sed by the logarithms of 2, 3, 5, and the logarithms of
. I ! J L_, all of which may be easily found by
"•"qo ^1230 _
the formulas already delivered.
Having now explained, at considerable length, the
theory of logarithms upon principles purely analytical,
such being, as we conceive, the most natural way of
reasoning concerning the properties of number, we shall
conclude this section by stating briefly the ground upon
which it was referred to the principles of geometry by
the mathematicians of the 17th century. Let L (fig. 2.)
Plate be the centre, and CH, CK th® asymptotes of an hy-
CCXCVI. perbola. In either of these let there be taken any
llg' 2' number of continual proportionals CA, Lii, LIJ, LL,
&c. then if B b, D d, E 5, &c. be drawn parallel to
appears by this proposition that the segments CA, CB-,
CD, CE, &c. of the asymptote being taken in con- ‘he ^ ^
tinned geometrical progression, the corresponding by- ' v—t
perbolic areas A a & B, A a d D, zV a e E, &c. consti¬
tute a series of quantities in continued arithmetical pro¬
gression, it is evident that the two series will have, m
respect to each other, the same properties as numbers
and their logarithms 5 so that, if we assume CA an)
segment of the asymptote as the representative of unity,
and suppose CB, CD, CE, &c. to be the representa¬
tives of other numbers, the hyperbolic areas, A a o b,
Kad D, Afl<? E will be the geometrical representa¬
tives of the logarithms of these numbers j and so also
will the hyperbolic sectors C a C b d, C de, &c.
Let C A (the line denoting unity) be the side of a
rhombus C A a L inscribed at the vertex of the hyper¬
bola, and let CP=wXCA (/* being put for any mum
ber) ; draw Pp parallel to CL meeting the hyperbola
in />, then it may be shewn, by the methods usually
employed in reasoning about curvilineal areas, that the
area of the rhombus A c LC is to the hyperbolic area
A ap 1* as 1 to the Napierean logarithm of the number
11. Therefore if the hyperbola be equilateral, so that
AoLc is a square, &e. consequently its areanzi X I—I*
the Napierean logarithm of 7i^ and the area^ AtfjpP may
be taken as the mutual representatives of each other.
It is this circumstance which induced mathematicians
to call these logarithms hyperbolic. But with equal
propriety might the logarithms of any othei system be
called hyperbolic, as they may be equally expressed by
the area" of the equilateral hyperbola, or indeed by the
area of any hyperbola whatever, (see I'LUXXONS, § 152.
Ex. 5.).
SECT. II.
DESCRIPTION AND USE OF THE TABLE.
THE common system of logarithms is so constructed,
that, o being the logarithm of unity, or I, the loga¬
rithm of 10 is I by which it happens that the loga¬
rithm of 100 is 2, that of xooo is 3, and so on. Also,
the logarithm of tto> or •I» ^s’ 1 cons^ei”
ed as substractive j or, in the language of algebra,
'minus one j and the logarithm of -ro'o or 11 + ^ *
and the logarithm of .001 is—3, and so on, as in the
following short table.
Numbers. Logarithms.
.001
.00
.1
I
IQ
IOO
IOOO
&C.
—3
—2
—1
0
1
2
3
&C.
As the terms of the geometrical progression 1,1(0,
o^. liico.xx ~ 7. 7 , • a 1 p e 100, &c. continued backwards as well as forward, are
the other asymp o c, nv - ^ Ri^D DrfeE, the only numbers whose logarithms are integers j the
&c. the hyperbolic spacesA « bb, * ]ogaritlL of all other numbers whatever must be either
fractions or mixt numbers. Accordingly, the loga¬
rithms of all numbers, whether integer or mixt, be-
tween 1 and 10 are expressed by decimal fractions less’
than
6tc. the hvperoonc spaeco ’ .. '
&c. are equal to one another; also if straight lines be
drawn from C to the points n, b, d, e, &c. tie lyper
bolic sectors aCb,bC d, d C e, &c. shall also be «iua
^Conic Sectioss, Part 111- proa. 3c.). Notv, since it
LOGARITHMS.
81
Description than unity. The logarithms of numbers between 10
ud Use of and 100 are expressed by nrixt numbers composed of
die Table. unIty and a decimal fraction. The logarithms of num-
* bers between 100 and 1000 are expressed by mixt num¬
bers composed of the number 2 and a decimal fraction,
and so on. On the other hand, the logarithm of any
vulgar or decimal fraction less than I, but greater
than xo or .1, will be some negative decimal fraction
between o and —I ", and the logarithm of any fraction
between .1 and .01, will be a negative mixed quantity
between — I and —2, and so on.
But it must be remarked, that any fraction, or mixt
number, considered as entirely negative, may always
be transformed into another mixt number of equal va¬
lue, that shall have its integer part negative, but its
fractional part positive, by diminishing the integer by
unity, and increasing the fractional part by the same
quantity. Thus let the mixt quantity be —2^, which
may be also written thus —2—TV. Let the integer
— 2 be diminished by i,and the result is —2—1=—3.
Also, let the fraction —^ be increased by I, and it
becomes —TV + 1 — to '•> therefore the fraction
—2t3o or —2.3, when transformed, is—3_j-T?0-, or
—which may be written thus, 3.7 ", where the
negative sign is placed over the integer to indicate that
it is the only part of the expression that is considered
as negative, the other part, viz. .7, being reckoned po¬
sitive.
Since therefore any fractional or mixt quantity, con¬
sidered as entirely negative, is equivalent to another
mixt quantity, the integer part of which only is nega¬
tive, but the fractional part positive, it is evident that
instead of expressing the logarithms of fractions by num¬
bers considered as entirely negative, we may express
them by numbers having their integer parts negative,
and their decimal parts positive; and it is usual so to
express them. Thus the logarithm of .03, instead of be¬
ing expressed by —1.52288, that is, by —1—.52288,
is usually expressed by 2.47712, by which is to be un¬
derstood— 2-f .47712. Again, the logarithm of .7,
which, if considered as entirely negative, would be
—.15490, is otherwise 1.84510.
As the logarithms of any series of numbers forming
a geometrical progression, the common ratio of which
is 10, will exceed each other by the logarithm of 10,
that is, by 1, it follows that the logarithms of all num¬
bers denoted by the same figux’es, and differing only in
the position of the decimal point, will have the decimal
part of their logarithms the same 5 but the integers
standing before the decimals will be different, and will
be positive or negative, according as the numbers are
whole or fractional, as in these examples.
Numbers.
69150
69i5
691.5
69-15
6.915
.6915
.06915
Logarithms.
4.83980
3.83980
2.83983
1.83980
O.83980
1.83980
2.83980
1 he integer figure of a logarithm, is called its index
or characteristic; and it is always less by one than the
Vol. XII. Bart I.
number of integer figures which the natural number Description
consists of; or it is equal to the distance of the first and Use of
figure from the place of units or first place of integers, the lable^
whether on the left or on the right of it. v
The table of logarithms given at the end of this ar¬
ticle, contains the decimal parts of the logarithms of
all numbers from 1 to 10,000 ", and indeed of all num¬
bers which can be expressed by four figures, preceded
or followed by any numbers of cyphers, such as the
numbers 367500, .002795, &c. The index, however,
is not put down ; but it is easily supplied by the rule
which has just now been given. The table also con¬
tains the differences of the logarithms of all numbers
from 1000 to 10,000, by means of which the loga¬
rithm of any number consisting of five figures may be
easily obtained.
1. To find the logarithm of any number consisting of
four or any smaller number of figures. Look for the
number in the columns titled at the top Numbers ; and
in the same line with it, on the right, in the column of
logarithms, will be found the decimal part of its loga¬
rithm, to which supply the decimal point, and its index
according to rule delivered above. Thus,
The log. of 9 is found to be 0.95424
of 17
of 2.63
of 13.42
of 6280
of 3749
of .6027
of .00234
of 852600
1.23045
0.41996
2.12775
3-79796
3-57392
1.78010
3.36922
5-93075
2. To find the logarithm of a number consisting of
five figures.
Find the decimal part of the logarithm of the first
four figures of the number, (that is, find the logarithm
of the proposed number as if the last figure were a cy¬
pher), by the preceding rule, and find the difference
between that logarithm and the next greater, as given
in the column of differences (to the right of the column
of logarithms). Then state this proportion:
As 10,
To the tabular difference,
So is the last, or fifth figure of the number,
To a fourth proportional ;
which being added to the former logarithm, and the
decimal point and index supplied, will be the logarithm
sought.
Example. Required the logarithm of 186.47. The
decimal part of the logarithm of the first four figures,
viz. 1864, is .27045, and the difference opposite to it
in the column marked D on the top is 23. Therefore
we have this proportion :
10 : 23
, :7JL21=l6.t
. IO
The fourth proportional is 16.1, or, rejecting the deci¬
mal part, .16 nearly j therefore,
to log. of 1684 .27045
add
16
the log. of 168.47 is
L
2.27061
3- To
82
Description 3* ToPul the logarithm °f a ™lgar fraction or mixt
Tit rlble! ^YAthev reduce the vulgar fraction to a decimal, and
—v  find its logarithm as above, or else (having reduced the
mist number to an improper fraction) substract the lo-
f/aritbm of the denominator from the logarithm of the
numerator, and the remainder will be the logarithm of
the fraction sought.
logarithms.
The dec. part of given log. is
That of next less, viz. log. of 1357, is
.13278 Deseripbea
X 2 2 c 8 and Use of
the Tabl*.
Difference
20
The tabular difference is 32, therefore we have this
proportion,
32 : 10 :: 20
F,x. 1. To find the logarithm of TV
.-° ^ 6 nearly.
From the log. of 3
Subtract the log. of 16
0.47712
1.204I2
Rem. log. of TV or of .1875. I.27300
Here, as the lower number is greater than the upper,
the remainder must he negative j the subtraction, how¬
ever, is so performed, that the decimal part of the ie-
mainder is positive, and the integer negative.
Ex. 2. To find the logarithm of 13! or V*
From log. of 55
Subtract log. of 4
Rem. log. of 13! or of 13.75
1.74036
0.60206
1.13830
4. To find the number corresponding to any given lo-
^SeelTtlie decimal part of the proposed logarithm in
the column of logarithms, and if it be found exactly,
the figures of the number corresponding to it will be
found in the same line with it in the column 0 num¬
bers. If the index of the given logarithm is 3, the tour
figures of the numbers thus found are integers j but
if it be 2, the three first figures are integers, and the
fourth is a decimal, and so on 5 the number of integer
figures before the decimal point being always one great¬
er than the index, if it be positive j but if it be nega¬
tive, the number sought will be a decimal and the
number of cyphers between the decimal point and first
siimificant figure will be one less than the index.
amples. The number corresponding to the logarithm
2.q7^Q2 is 3749- The nnmber corresPonjhnS 0
1.1277 s is I3-42- Tlie number corresponding to
7.26Q22 is .00234, and soon. _ , f ,.
But if the given logarithm is not exactly found in
the table, subtract the next less tabular logarithm from
it and take the difference between that logarithm, and
the next greater (as given in the column of differences).
Then state this proportion :
As the difference, taken from the table,
SoTs the difference between the given logarithm and
the next less,
To a fourth proportional,
which being annexed to the four figures corresponding
to the logarithm next less than the given one, will he
the logarithm required.
Example. Find the number answering to the loga¬
rithm 4.13278.
Therefore the number corresponding to the proposed
^Inlike manner^may the numbers to the following lo¬
garithms be found.
Logarithms. Numbers.
1.23457 I7-l62Q
3.73430 5423-y
1.09214 *I23^3
4.61230 40954
The talk of logarithms of numbers is followed by t.
Table of logarithmic Hines and Tangents, for every mt-
,2 o/tlmradran,, with their
explanation of this table we refer to TRtGONOMETRY,
to which branch of mathematics it is intended to be ap-
Pl We shall now give practical rules, illustrated by ex¬
amples, for performing the different operations of arith¬
metic by logarithms.
MULTIPLICATION by Logarithms.
Rule.
T\kf out the logarithms of the factors from the
tabTe?the°n add tlJ, together, -d then sum - 1 be
the logarithm of the product required. Ihen Hml, ny
inspection of the table, the natural number answering
to their sum, and it will be the product required.
Observing to add what is to be carried Lorn the Ue
cimal part iff the logarithm to the positive index or in¬
dices or else subtract it from the negative.
Also adding the indices together when they are o^
the same kindf that is, both positive or both negative ,
hut subtracting the less from the greater "
is positive and the other negative, and prefixing
sign of the greater to the remainder.
' Examples.
Ex. i. To multiply 2.3x4 by 5°-62-
Numbers. Logarithms. , ,
2.314 O.36436 ...a
30.62 i.7°432
Product 117.13 2.06868
Ex. 2. To multiply 2.5819 by 3.4573-
Numbers. Logarithms.
2.5819
3-4573
0.41194
0.53874
Prod. 8.9265 0.95068
LOGARITHMS.
■wiption Fx- 3- To multiply 39.02, and 597.16, and .03147
iad Use of together. - <
i;l»e Table. .r ,
 . Numbers.
Prod.
20.02
597-^
•°3I47
753-3
JLogarithms.
I.59129
2.77609
2.49790
2.86528
Here the sum of the positive indices, together with I
which we carry, is 4, and from this we subtract 2, be¬
cause of the negative index -—2.
Ex. 4. To multiply 3.586 and 2.1046, and 0.8372
and 0.0294 all together.
Numbers.
3-J86
2.1046
0.8372
0.0294
Logarithms.
O.55461
O.32317
1.92283
2.46835
I.26896
Number*.
Divid. 24163
Divis. 4567
Ex. 2,
Quot. 5.2908
To divide 37.15
Number*.
Divid. 37.15
Divis. 523.76
Logarithm*.
4-383I5
3-65963
O.72352
by 523.76.
Logarithm*.
I.56996
2-7i9,3
Quot. .07093 2.85083
Ex. 3. Divide .06314 by .007241.
Numbers. Logarithm*.
Divid. .06314 2.80030
Divis. .007241 3.85980
33
Deseriptiua
and U«« of
the Tabic.
Quot. 8.720
O.9405O
Here I carried from the decimals to the -—3 makes it
— 2, which taken from the other —2, leaves o re¬
maining.
Ex. 4. Divide .7438 by 12.947.
Numbers, Logarithm*.
Divid. 7438 1.87146
Divis. 12.947 1.11218
Quot. .057449
Here the 1 taken from the
to set down.
2.75928
-1 makes it become —2
Here the 2 to carry cancels the —2, and there re¬
mains the —-1 to set down.
DIVISION nr Logarithms.
Rule.
Subtract the logarithm of the divisor from the lo¬
garithm of the dividend, and the number answering to
the remainder will be the logarithm of the quotient re¬
quired.
Observing to change the sign of the index of the di¬
visor from positive to negative, or from negative to
positive j then take the sum of the indices if they be of
the same name, or their difference .when they have dif¬
ferent signs, with the sign of the greater for the index
to the logarithm of the quotient.
Also, when 1 is borrowed in the left-hand place of
the decimal part of the logarithm, add it to the index
of the divisor when that index is positive, but subtract
it when negative j then let the index arising from thence
be changed, and work with it as before.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To divide 24163 by 4567.
PROPORTION by Logarithms.
Rule,
Add the logarithms of the second and third terms,
and from the sum subtract the logarithm of the first
term by the foregoing rules, the remainder will be the
logarithm of the fourth term required.
Or in any compound proportion whatever, add toge¬
ther the logarithms of all the terms that are to be mul¬
tiplied ; and from that sum take the sum of the others,
the remainder will be the logarithm of the answer.
But, instead of subtracting any logarithm, we may
add its arithmetical complement, and the result will be
the same. By the arithmetical complement is meant
the logarithm of the reciprocal of the given number,
or the remainder by taking the given logarithm from,
o, or from 10, changing the beginning of the seal®
from o to 105 the easiest way of doing which is to be¬
gin at the left hand, and subtract each figure from 9,
except at the last significant figure on the right hand,
which must be subtracted from 10. But when the in¬
dex is negative, it must be added to 9, and the rest
subtracted as before; and for every complement that is
added, subtract 10 from the last sum of the indices.
Examples.
Ex. 1. Find a fourth proportional to 72.34, 2.519.
and 357.48.
Ntmber*. Logarithm*.
As 72.34 1.85938
To 2.519
So is 357.48
To 12.448
0.40123
2-5532J
2.95448
1.09510
Here the logarithms of the second and third terms are
added together, and the logarithm of the first term is
subtracted from the sum; but by taking the arithmeti-
JL 2 sal
84
LOG AHITHMS.
Description cal complement of the first term, the work might stand
and Use of thus :
the Table.^ 72.34 Comp. log. 8.I4062
To 2.519 0.40123
So Is 357.48 2.55325
2 to carry, the difference —5, is the index of the Description
5 J and Use nf
product.
Ex. 4. To raise 1.0045 to the 3^5^ P°wer*
Number.
Root 1.0045
v
Logarithm.
O.OOI95
and Use of
the Table.
To 12.448 1.09510
Ex. 2. If the interest of tool, for a year, or 365
days, be 4.5, What will be the interest of 279.25I. for
274 days ?
975
1170
585
As
100
J 279*25
I274
So is 4.5
To
Comp. long.
8.00000
7-43771
2.44599
243775
0.65321
Power 5.1493 •7II75
EVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
To 9.4333 0.97466
Here, instead of subtracting the sum of the logarithms
of 100 and 365, we add the arithmetical complement
of the logarithms of these numbers, and subtract 20
from the sum of the indices.
INVOLUTION by Logarithms.
Rule.
Divide the logarithm of the number by the index
of the root, and the number answering to the quotient
is the root sought. .
When the index of the logarithm to be divided is
negative, and does not exactly contain the divisor with¬
out some remainder, increase the index by such a num¬
ber as will make it exactly divisible by the index ot the
root, carrying the units borrowed as so many tens to
the left-hand place of the decimal, and then divide a#
in whole numbers.
Multiply the logarithm of the given number by
the index of the power, and the number answering to
the product will be the power required.
Note.—In multiplying a logarithm with a negative
index by a positive number, the product will be nega¬
tive. But what is to be carried from the decimal part
of the logarithm will always be positive. And there¬
fore the difference will be the index of the product,
and is always to be made of the same kind with the
greater.
Examples.
Ex. 1. To square the number 2.579.
Number. Logarithm.
Root 2.569 0.41145
The index 2
Power 6.6513 0.82290
Ex. 2. To find the cube of 3.0715.
Number. Logarithm.
Root 3.0715 0.48735
The index 3
Power 28.976 1.46205
Ex. 3. To raise .09163 to the fourth power.
Number. Logarithm.
Root .09163 2.96204
4
Power .000070495 5.84816
Mere 4 times the negative index being —8, and
Examples.
Ex. I. Find the square root of 2.
Number. Logarithm.
Power .2 2)0.30103 .j
Root 1.4142 0.15051 %
Ex. 2. Find the 10th root of 365.
Number. Logarithm.
Power 365 10)2.56229
Root 1.804 0.25623
Ex. 3. To find -vAoPS*
Number. Logarithm.
Power .093 2)2.96848
Root .30496 1.48424
Here the divisor 2 is contained exactly in the nega¬
tive index —2, and therefore the index of the quo¬
tient is —1.
Ex. 4. To find 3i/ .00048.
Number. Logarithm.
Power .00048 3)4.68124
Root .078298 2.89375
Here the divisor 3, not being exactly contained in -—4,
it is augmented by 2 to make up 6, in which the divi¬
sor is contained just 2 times, then the 2 thus borrowed
being carried to the decimal figure 6, makes 26, which
divided by 3 gives 8, &c.
i N. Log.
1 00000
2 3OIO3
347712
4 60206
j 69897
6 77815
7 845iq
8 90309
9 95424
10 00000
11 04139
1207918
13 I1394
14 14613
_i5 17609
16 20412
i? 23°45
182 c C27
1927875
20 30103
21 32222
22 34242
23 36i73
24 38021
25 39794
2641497
2743I36
28 44716
29 46240
3° 47712
3M9I36
32 5°5I5
33 5i85j
34 53I48
3 S 544°7
3655630
37 $6820
38 57978
3959I06
40 60206
41 61278
4262325
43 63347
4464345
4565321
4666276
47 67210
48 68124
49 69020
5° 69897
51 70757
52 71600
5372428
54 73239
55 74036
5674819
57 75587
58 76343
5977085
6077815
N. Log.
60
61
62
63
64
65
66
67
68
69
7°
71
72
73
74
75
76
77
78
79
80
83
778J5
78533
79239
79934
80618
81291
81954
82607
83251
83885
84510
85126
85733
86332
86923
87506
88081
88649
89209
89763
90309
90849
91381
91908
8492428
8592942
8693450
87
88
89
90
91
92
93
93952
94448
94939
9^424
95904
96379
96848
9497313
95 97772
96
97
98
99
100
101
102
103
104
105
98227
9867
99I23
99564
00000
00432
00860
01284
01703
02119
106
107
108
109
no
0253
02938
03342
03743
04139
in
112
“3
H4
11
116
117
118
0453
04922
05308
0569'
50607
06446
0681
07188
7555
120 0791
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
I 20
I 21
122
123
124
125
126
I 27
128
129
130
131
132
133
*34
T35
Log.
07918
08279
08636
8991
09342
9691
10037
10580
10721
H059
'I394
11727
12057
12385
12710
i3033
136
137
!38
139
140
13354
15672
3988
14301
14613
141
142
143
144
145
14922
1 c 229
15534
15836
16137
146
147
148
149
150
151
152
153
154
15 S'
156
157
158
159
160
161
162
163
164
165
16435
16732
17026
7319
17609
17898
18184
18469
18752
19033
•9312
19590
19866
20140
20412
20683
20952
21219
21484
21748
166
167
168
169
170
171
172
173
174
175
2201
22272
2253
22789
23045
23300
23553
23805
24°55
24304
1762455
177
178
ij9
180
24797
25042
25285
25527
N. Log.
180
181
182
183
184
18 ^
186
187
188
189
19c
191
192
193
194
25527
25768
26007
2624 5
2648.
26717
26951
27184
27416
27646
27875
28103
28330
28556
28780
19529003
196
197
198
199
20c
29226
29447
9667
29885
30103
201
202
203
2043
205
206
207
208
209
210
30320
30535
30750
0963
3II75
31387
3IS97
31806
32015
32222
211
212
213
214
215
32428
32634
32838
3304
33244
216
217
218
219
220
33445
33646
33846
34044
34242
221
222
223
224
225
34439
34635
34830
35025
35218
22635411
227
22
22
230
35603
835793
935984
36173
231 36361
36549
36736
36922
37107
232
233
234
235
236
237
238
23
240
37291
37475
37658
937840
38021
N.
240
241
242
243
244
245
246
247
248
249
250
Log.
38021
38202
38382
38561
38739
38917
39094
39270
39445
3962c
39794
251
252
253
25
255
39967
40140
40312
440483
40654
2 c6
257
258
259
260
40824
40993
41162
41330
41497
261
262
263
2644
265
41664
4i830
41996
2160
42325
266
267
268
2694
270
271
272
273
42488
4261:1
42813
2975
43136
43297
43457
43616
27443775
27543933
2764409
277
278
279
2804
44248
44404
44560
47i6
281
282
283
284
285
44871
45025
45J79
45332
45484
286
28
288
2894
290
291
292
293
29
295
296
297
298
29
300
4'637
745788
45939
6060
46240
46389
46538
46687
446835
4698
47129
47276
47422
947567
4771
N. Log.
300
301
302
3°3
304
3°5
47712
47857
48001
48144
48287
48430
206
307
308
309
310
48572
48714
48855
48996
49*36
311
312
313
314
315
316
317
318
319
320
321
322
323
324
325
49276
49415
49554
49693
4983*
49969
50106
50243
50379
505*5
50651
50786
50920
5io55
51188
326
327
328
329
33°
51322
5M55
51587
51720
51851
331
332
333
334
335
51983
5 2114
'52244
52375
52504
336
337
338
339
340
52634
52763
52892
53020
53148
341
342
343
344
345
346
347
348
349
350
53275
53403
53529
53656
53782
53908
54033
54158
54283
54407
351
352
353
354
355
5453i
54654
54777
54900
55023
356
357
358
359
360
55M5
55267
55388
55509
55630
N. Log.
3 6 O'
361
362
363
364
365
55630
5575*
55871
5599i
56110
56229
366
367
368
369
370
56348
56467
56585
56703
56820
37*
372
373
374
375
376
377
378
379
380
381
382
383
384
385
386
387
388
389
56937
57054
57i7i
57287
57403
575*9
57634
57749
57864
57978
58092
58206
58320
58433
58546
39*
392
393
394
395
58659
58771
58883
58995
39c|59io6
59218
59329
59439
59550
59660
396
397
398
39
400
401
402
403
404
4°5
5977°
59879
59988
960097
60206
60314
60423
60 531
60638
60746
406
4°7
408
4°9
410
60853
60959
61066
61172
61278
411
412
413
414
415
416
4*7
418
419
420
61384
61490
6i595
61700
61805
61909
62014
62118
6222
62325
N.
42c
421
422
423
424
425
426
427
Log.
62325
62428
62531
62634
62737
62839
62941
63043
42863144
63246
63347
429
43°
431
432
433
434
435
63448
63548
63649
63749
63849
43663949
437
438
439
440
441
442
443
444
445
447
64048
64'47
64246
64345
64444
64542
64640
64738
64836
44664933
65031
44865128
44965225
45065321
65418
655M
65610
45465706
45565801
451
452
453
456
457
458
459
460
65896
65992
66087
66181
66276
461
462
463
465
467
468
66370
66464
66558
46466652
66745
466 66839
66932
67025'
46967117
470 67210
47
47
473
474
475
67302
67394
67486
67578
67669
476
577
478
479
480
67761
67852
67943
68034
68124
N. Log.
48c
481
482
483
484
485
487
68124
682x5
68305
68395
6848 5
68574
48668664
68753
48868842
48968931
490 69020
491
49 2
493
49
495
496
69108
69197
6928 5
4^9373
69461
69548
49769636
49869723
49969810
50069897
50‘
502
5°3
5°4
5°5
69984
70070
7OI57
70243
7°329
506
507
508
509
510
7°41
705°
70586
7067
70757
511
512
5r3
51
5i5
70842
7°927
7101
4 71096
7118
516
517
518
5X9
7i265
7x349
7I433
715I
520 7x600
5 21
522
523
524
525
71684
71767
718 50
7r933
72016
5 26
527
528
52
53°
72099
72181
72263
9 72346
72428
531
53 2
533
534
725°9
7259x
72673
72754
53517 28 3 5
536 72916
537
538
539
540
72997
73078
73l59
73239
N. Log.
54°
541
542
543
544
545
546
547
548
549
550
73239
73320
73400
73480
7356o
7364c
737*9
73799
73878
73957
74036
551
552
553
554
555
74XI5
74194
74273
7435*
74429
556
557
558
559
560
561
c62
563
564
565
74507
74586
74663
7474
748x9
74896
74974
7505
7 C128
75205
566
567
568
569
570
75282
75358
75435
755*
75587
571
572
573
574
575
75664
7574°
758
7589
75967
576
577
578
579
580
76042
76118
76i93
76268
76343
58x
582
583
584
585
586
587
c88
589
59°
76418
76492
76567
76641
76716
76790
76864
76938
77012
77085
591
59 2
593
594
595
77*59
7723
77305
77379
7745
596
597
77525
77597
5987767
77743
7781
599
600
logarithms of numbers.
N.
600
601
602
603
604
605
606
607
608
609
610
Log.
778*5
77887
77960
78032
78104
78176
78247
783*9
78390
78462
78533
611
612
613
614
615
6x6
617
618
78604
78675
78746
78817
78888
78958
79029
79099
619 79169
620
79239
621
622
623
624
625
79309
79379
79449
795*8
79588
626
627
628
629
630
79657
79727
79796
79865
79934
631
632
633
634
635
636
637
80003
8007
80140
80209
80277
80346
80414
638 80482
639
640
641
642
643
64
645
80 5 50
80618
80686
80754
80821
480889
80956
646
647
648
649
650
81023
81090
81158
81224
81291
651
652
653
654
655
81358
81425
81491
81558
81624
656
657
658
659
660
81690
81757
81823
81889
8x954
N.
660
661
662
663
664
665
666
667
668
669
670
Log. I |l N. Log.
81954
82020
82086
82151
82217
82282
82347
82413
82478
82543
82607
671
672
673
674
675
676
677
678
679
680
82672
82737
82802
82866
82930
82995
83059
83*23
83187
83251
681
682
683
684
685
833*5
83378
83442
83506
83569
68683632
687 83696
688 83759
68983822
690 83885
691
692
693
694
695
83948
84011
84073
84136
84198
696
697
698
699
7°
84261
84323
84386
84448J
8451c
70
7°
703
7°4
705
706
7°7
708
7°9
710
84572
84634
84696
84757
84819
84880
84942
85003
8506 5
85126
85*87
85248
85309
853/0
85431
716
7*7
7x8
719
720
85491
85552!
8561
85673!
85733
720
721
722
723
724
725
726
727
728
729
85733
85794
85854
859*4
85974
86034
86094
86153
86213
86273
73086332
73*
732
733
734
735
736
737
738
739
74°
86392
86451
865x0
86570
86629
86688
86747
868
86864
86923
74*
742
743
744
745
86982
87040
87099
87*57
87216
746
747
748
749
75°
87274
87332
87390
87448
87506
75
752
753
754
755
87564
87622
87679
87737
87795
756
757
758
759
760
76
76
763
763
765
766
767
768
769
77
77
77
87852
87910
87967
88024
880
88138
88195
88252
88309
88366
88423
8848c
88536
88593
88649
88705
88762
88818
88874
N.
780
781
782
783
784
785
786
787
788
789
79°
Log.
89209
89265
89321
89376
89432
89487
89542
89597
89653
89708
89763
79*
792
793
794
89818
89873
89927
89982
795 90037
7969009
797
798
146
90200
799
800
90255
90309
90363
90417
90472
80490526
801
802
803
805
9058c
806
807
808
809
810
90634
90687
9074
90795
90849
811
812
8*3
814
81
816
8*7
ix
81
820
821
822
823
824
825
826
827
828
829
830
90902
90956
1009
1062
91116
1169
91222
9*275
91328
91381
9*434
91487
9*54°
9*593
9*645
91698
9*75*
91803
91855
91908
83
83
833
834
91960
9201
92065
9211
83592169
836 92221
837
838
839
840
92273
92324
92376
92428
N.
840
841
842
843
844
845
846
847
848
849
850
Log.
92428
92480
9253*
92583
92634
92686
92737
92788
92840
92891
92942
85*
852
853
854
855
92993
93044
93095
93*46
93*97
856
857
858
859
93247
93298
93349
93399
86093450
861
862
863
864
865
935oo
9355
936o
9365
937°
866
867
868
869
870
871
872
873
875
876
877
878
879
880
9375
93802
9385
03902
93952
94002
94052
94101
87494*5
9420
94250
94300
94349
94399
94448
881
882
883
884
885
94498
94547
94596
94645
94694
886
887
888
94743
94792
94841
889 94890
890 94939
891
892
893
894
895
896
897
898
899
900
94988
95036
95085
95*34
95*82
9523*
95279
95328
95376
95424
N. Log.
900
901
902
903
904
905
95424
95472
95521
95569
95617
9^5
906(957*3
907195761
90895809
909
910
95856
95904
91*
912
9*3
9*4
9*5
916
9*7
918
9*9
920
96190
96237
96284
96332
96379
921
922
923
927
928
929
93°
95952
95999
96047
96095
96142
96426
96473
96520
92496567
92596614
92696661
96708
96755
96802
96848
93*
932
933
934
935
96895
96942
96988
970.35
9708
93697128
937 97*74
93897220
939
94°
97267
973*
94*
942
943
97359
97405
9745*
945
946
948
95°
95
952
953
95
955
956
957
94497497
97543
97589
947 97635
97681
94997727
97772
97818
97864
97909
497955
98000
98046
98091
95898137
95998182
960
98227
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
8"/
N. Log.
D.
96098227
96198272
96298318
96398363
964 98408
965 98453
96698498
96798543
968 98588
969 98632
97098677
97198722
97298767
97398811
97498856
97598900
97698945
97798989
97899034
97999078
98099123
98199167
98299211
983 99255
98499300
98599344
98699388
98799432
988 99476
98999520
99099564
1020
1021
1022
1023
1024
1025
99199607
99299651
99399695
99499739
995 99782
99699826
99799870
998 999^
999 99957
100000000
1001 00043
00087
1002
1003
1004
1005
00130
00173
00217
1006
1007
1008
1009
1010
1012
1013
1014
1015
00260
00303
00346
00389
0043 2
20475
0051
00561
00604
00647
1016
1017
00689
00732
1019
1020
roi8 00775
00817
00860
N.
1026
1027
1028
Log.
D
00860
00903
00945
00988
01030
01072
01115
01157
01199
102901242
103001284
1031
1032
l°33
1034
1035
01326
01368
01410
01452
01494
1036
1037
1038
1039
1040
1041
1042
1043
1044
I°45
oi536
01578
01620
01662
01703
OI745
01787
01828
01870
01912
43
42
43
42
42
43
42
42
43
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
41
42
42
41
42
1046
1047
1048
1049
1050
1051
1052
1053
i°54
io55
02160
02202
02243
02284
02325
43
44
43
43
44
43
43
43
43
43
43
8 43
43
43
43
42
43
43
42
10 ;6
1057
1058
1059
1060
02366
02407
02449
02490
0253I
1061
02572
1062 02612
!o63
1064
1065
1069
1070
1071
1072
1073
1074
107 <;
1076
1077
1078
1079
OI953
oi995
02036
02078 4
02119
026 53
02694
02735
106602776
1067
1068
02816 4°
02857
02898
02938
1080
1081 03383
1082 03423
1083 03463
08403503
08503543
108603583
108703623
1088 03663
1089 03703
1090 03743
109103782
1092 03822
1093 03862
1094 03902
1095 03941
40
02979
33°^4i
03060^
03100
03141
03181
03222
03262
0330
40 iu/y'j33Ux
1108003342
N.
Log.
03342
D.
1096 03981
1097 04021
1098 04060
1099 04100
110004139
41
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
40
39
40
40
40
39
40
40
39
40
39
N.
1140 05690
1141
05729
114205767
05805
05843
1x45 05881
1143
1144
1101 04x79
110204218
1103 °4258
1104 04297
110504336
1106 04376
110704415
1108 04454
1109 04493
111004532
111104571
11x204610
11130465c
1114 04689
111504727
1116 04766
1117 04805
1118 04844
111904883
112004922
112104961
1122 04999
1123 05038
112405077
II25 °5II5
1x26 05154
1127 05192
112805231
1129 05269
113005308
1146
1147
1148
1151
1152
H53
1154
1155
Log.
39
38
38
38
38
- 837
059x8 b
5956^8
38
38
D.
05994
114906032
115006070
06108
0614s
06183
06221
06258
1156 06296
1157
1158
06333
06371
1131 05346
1132 o
1133 °5423
1*3405461
**35 05500
4°
39
40
39
39
40
39
39
39
39
39
39
4°
39
38
39
39
39
39
39
39
38
39
39
38
39
38
39
38
39
38
1159 06408
1160 06446
1161
1162
1163
x 164
06483
06521
06558
06595
116506633
**3605538
*137 05576
113805614
113905652
114005690
1166
1167
1168
1169
1170
06670
06707
06744
6781
06819
1171
1172
**73
1174
**75
38
39
38
38
38
38
38
1176
1177
1178
1179
1180
1181
1182
1183
1184
*x 85
ix86
£187
1188
1189
1190
1191
1192
**93
**94
**95
06856
06893
06930
06967
07004
N.
x 200
1201
1202
1203
1204
1205
07918
07954
07990
08027
08063
08099
07041
07078
071*5
07151
07188
07225
07262
07298
07335
07372
07408
07445
07482
075**
07555
38
37
38
38
37
38
37
38
37
38
37
38
37
37
38
37
37
37
37
38
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
37
36
37
37
37
36
37
37
36
37
37
1206
1207
1208
1209
12X0
I 21 2
Log.
08135
08171
08207
08243
08279
08314
08350
1213 08386
1214 08422
I 215 08458
I2i6 08493
08 C29
08565
08600
08636
1217
1218
1219
1220
1221
1222
1223
12 24
1225
08672
08707
08743
08778
08814
122608849
1227 08884
1228
1229
*230
08920
08955
0899
836
37
36
0759* 2>7
0762837
07664
07700
07737
1196
1197
1198
1x99
1200
07773
07809
07846
07882
07918
1231
1232
1233
1234
1235
09026
09061
09096
09*32
09167
*236
1237
1238
1239
1240
09202
09237
09272
09307
09342
1241
1242
1243
1244
*245
1246
*247
1248
*249
1250
1251
1252
*253
36
36
35
36
36
35
36
35
36
35
35
36
35
36
35
35
35
36
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
09377^-
09412 35
09447
09482
095*7
N.
1260
1261
1262
1263
1264
1265
1266
1267
1268
1269
1270
1271
1272
*273
Log.
10037
10072
10106
10140
10175
10209
10243
10278
10312
10346
10380
10415
*0449
10483
127410517
127510551
127610585
1277
1278
1279
1280
1281
1282
*283
1284
1285'
1256
1257
*258
1259
1260
09552
09587
09621
0965635
0969135
35
34
35
35
34
35
35
34
09726
09760
09795
125409830
1255 09864
09899
09934
09968
10003
*0037
1286
1287
1288
1289
1290
10619
10653
10687
10721
*0755
10789
10823
10857
10890
10924
10958
10992
11025
11059
D.
35
34
34
35
34
34
35
34
34
34
35
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
34
33
34
34
1320
*321
1522
*323
*324
1325
N.
326
1327
328
1329
1330
Log.
1).
12057
12090
12123
12156
12189
12222
12254
12287
12320
*2352
*2385
1291
1292
*293
1294
*295
11093
11126
11160
11193
11227
1296
1297
1298
1299
*300
1301
*302
*303
*304
1305
1306
*307
*308
1309
1310
1311
*3*4
*3*5
11261
ii 294
11327
11361
**394
11428
11461
11494
11528
11561
12581
12613
2646 33
126788
12710
*34*
*342
*343
*344
*345
**594
11628
11661
11694
11727
11760
13*211793
1313 11826
11860
**893
1316
*3*7
*3*8
*3*9
1320
11926
11959
11992
12024
12057
34
33
34
34
33
34
33
34
34
33
33
34
33
34
33
33
34
33
33
34
33
33
33
33
33
33
34
33
33
33
33
32
33
1346
*347
*348
*349
*350
*35*
1352
*353
*354
33
33
33
33
33
32
33
33
32
33
33
32
33
633
32
33
32
*2743
*2775
12808
1284c 82
1287282
33
N.
158c
*381
1382
*383
*384
H85
1586
*387
*388
*389
*390
*39*
*392
*393
*394
*395
12905
*2937
12969
13001
*3033
13066
13098
*3*3°
13162
*355 *3*94
*356
*357
*358
*359
*360
*361
362
*363
*364
*365
1366
1367
*368
*369
1370
*37*
*373
*374
*375
1376
*377
1378
*379
1380
13226
*3258
13290
13322
*3354
13386
*34*8
13450
*3481
*35*3
*3545
*3577
13609
*3640
13672
13704
*372*3735
13767
*3799
13830
13862
*3893
13925
*395
139888^
*396
*397
*398
Log.
13988
140x9
14051
14082
*4**4
*4*45
*4*76
14208
14239
14270
14301
*4333
14364
*4395
14426
*4457
14489
14520
*455*
399 *4582
140c 14613
1401
1402
*403
1404
1405
0
32
32
32
33
32
22
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
32
3*
32
32
32
32
3*
32
32
3*
32
32
3*
32
3*
32
631
1406
1407
1408
*409
1410
1411
1412
ID.
3*
3*
32f
3*
3*
3*
32
3*
3*
3*
3*
S2
3*
3*
3*
3*
3*
3*
14644
1467551
14706 0
*4737
14768
*4799
14829
14860
14891
14922
*4953
*4983
*4*3150*4
1414
*4*5
1416
*4*7
1418
*4*9
1420
1421
1422
1423
1424
1425
1426
1428
1429
*43°
*43*
*432
*433
*434
*435
15*06
*5*37
15*68
*5*98
15229
*436
*437
1438
*439
1440
3*
3*
3*
3°
3*
3*
3*
3*
3°
3*
*5045,3j
*5076^0
3*
3*
30
3*
30
3*
30
3*
30
3*
30
3*
3°
3*
30
30
3*
30
3°
30
3*
3°
3°
3°^
15259
15290
15320
*535*
15381
*54*2
1427 *5442
*5473
*5503
*5534
*5564
*5594
15625
15655
15685
*57*5
*5746
15776
15806
*5836
88
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
i144°
|I44I
1442
M43
Log. ID,
15866
15897
1444 15957
1445
1446
1447
1448
1449
1450
I451
r452
I453
r454
1455
!456
r457
458
!459
460
461
1462
463
464
465
16017
16047
16077
16107
16157
466
467
468
469
1470
5987
N.
16167
16197
16227
16256
16286
16316
16346
16376
6406
1643 s
3°
31
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
3°
29
33
3°
3°
1500
1501
1502
l5°3
I5°4
15°5
Log.
D,
17609
17638
17667
17696
I7725
17754
1406
i5°7
i co8
lS°9
1510
ii11
1512
15*3
I5M
179.6
7955
7984
18013
16465
16495
16524
!6554
16584
16613
16643
16673
16702
16732
1471
1472
1473
H74
1475
1476
r477
1478
1479
1480
16761
16791
16820
16850
16879
3°
3
29
3°
3°
29
3°
3°
29
3°
3°
29
3°
29
30
i5!518041
i cx6
lSl7
151818127
1519 18156
1520
1521
1522
1523
‘524
I525
1,6909
16938
16967
16997
17026
1426
I527
1428
!529
1481
1482
1483
1484
1485
1486
1487
1488
1489
1490
17056
1708 4
17114
i7r43
I7I73
17202
i7231
17260
17289
17319
29
3°
29
3°
29
9
30
29
3°
29
29
29
3°
29
29
I53I
‘532
1533
1534
1535
1491
1492
r493
1494
H95
1496
x497
1498
1499
1500
l7348
I7377
17406
r7435
17464
17493
17522
,755I
17580
17609
!536
1537
‘539
I54°
‘541
x542
1543
1544
1545
7782
7811
7840
7869
7898
N.
8070
8099
1560
1561
1562
‘563
x564
i565
Log.
19312
19340
19368
19396
19424
19451
D.
18184
18213
8241
8270
8298
i8,V7
x8355
18384
18412
18441
18469
1566
x567
1568
x569
I57°
19479
I95°7
I9535
10:62
19590
18498
18 ,-26
i8554
18583
18611
18639
18667
18696
18752
29
29
29
28
29
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
28
29
28
28
28
29
28
1571
1572
1573
1574
1575
!576
x577
1578
1579
1580
!58i
1582
1583
1584
x585
N.
1620
Log.
20952
1621 20978
1622
1623
1624
1625
19618
x9645
x9673
I97°
I9728 9g
‘975627
19783 28
19811
*9838 2}
!986627
28
19°93
19921
I9948
19976
20003
x586
x587
r588
x589
I59°
18780
18808
18837
18865
!8893
!546
r547
1548
1549
I55
18921
18949
18977
19005
l9°33
‘591
1592
1593
x594
20030
20058
20085
20112
20140
20167
20194
20222
20249
1595 20276
1551
1552
1553
1554
1555
1556
1557
1558
r559
1560
19061
19089
«9II7
I9I45
19201
192 29
19257
19285
19312
28
28
29',
28
28
28
28'
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
27
1596
1597
1598
1599
1600
1601
1602
16
1604
1605
2^3°3
2033
20358
20385
20412
20439
20466
3 20493
20520
20548
1626
1627
1628
1629
1630
21005
21032
21059
2108 c,
21112
21139
21165
21192
N.
1680
1681
1682
!683
1684
1685
1631
163 2
l^33
1634
1635
27
mil 26
Log.
22531
22557
22583
22608
22634
22660
22686
22712
21245
21272
21299
21325
21352
1636
1637
1638
1639
1640
1606I20575
1607 20602
1608
1609
1610
1611
1612
1613
1614
161
20629
206 s6
683
20710
20737
20763
20790
20817
1616 20844
1617
1619
1620
20871
1618 20898
20925
20952
27
27
27
27
28
27
27
28
27
27
28
27
27!
27
27
28!
27
27'
27
27
27
27
28
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
27!
27!
27
27
1641
1642
1643
1644
21378
21405
21431
21458
21484
21511
21537
21564
2159°
1645 21617
1646
1647
1648
1649
1650
21643
21669
21696
21722
21748
1651
1652
1653
1654
1655
1656
1657
1658
1659
1660
21775
21801
21827
218 54
21880
21906
21932
21958
21985
22011
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
26
26
1686
1687
1688
689 22763^
22737^
D.
N.
1690122789
169
1692
1693
1694
1695
1696
1697
1698
1699
22943
22968
22994
23019
1700 23045
1701
1702
i7°3
I7°4
23070
23096
23121
23147
170523172
1706
1707
1708
1709
1710
1661
1662
1663
1664
1665
22037
22063
22089
22115
22141
1666
1667
1668
1669
1670
1671
1672
!673
1674
1675
22167
22194
22220
22246
2HBI26
261
26
26
26
26
27
26
26
26
1711
1740
1741
1742
1743
1744
1745
22814
22840
22866
22891
^21126
1746
Log.
24055
24080
24105
24130
24155
24180
24204
1747 24229
1748
1749
24254
24279
175024304
23198
23223
23249
23274
23300
23325
171223350
1713 23376
171423401
1715 23426
25
26
25
26
25
26
25,
26
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
1751
1752
1753
1754
1755
1756
1757
1758
1759
1760
1761
1762
1763
24329
24353
24378
24403
24428
24452
24477
24502
24527
24551
24576
24601
24625
D.
25
25
25
25
25
24
25
25
25
25
25
24
25
25
25
24
25
25
25
24
25
25
N.
180c
1801
1802
j8o3
1804
1805
25527
25551
25575
25600
25624
25648
11806
1807
1808
18
1810
25672
25696
25720
9 25744
25768
1814
1764 24650
1765I24674
1766
1767
1768
1769
1770
1716
1717
1718
1719
23452
23477
23502
23528
j 17 2° 23553
1721
1722
723
1724
1725
22298
22324
22350
22376
22401
1676
1677
1678
1679
1680
22427
22453
22479
223°5 26
22531
23578
23603
23629
23654
23679
1726
1727
1728
1729
i73°
23704
23729
23754
23779
23805
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
25
25
1771
I??2
1773
1774
1775
1776
1777
1778
1779
1780
1731U3830
173223855
26!>733 2388o
1734:23905
173512393°
26!
26
26
26
26
1736
1737
1738
1739
1740
23955
23980
24005
24030
24055
1781
1782
1783
24699
24724
24748
24773
24797
24822
24846
24871
24895
24920
24944
24969
24993
25018
25042
25066
25091
25115
78425139
1785
1786
i?8?
1788
25164
25188
2521
25237
1816
1817
24
25
24
25
25
24
25
24
25
24
25
24
25
24
25
24
25
1821
1822
1823
1824
Log.
D.
24
24
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
1811
1812
813 25840
25864
1815 25888
N.
1860
1861
1862
1863
1864
1865
1866
1867
1868
1869
1870
26951 24
26975 23
26998 23
27021 *
27045 ,3
27068
' 23
25912
25935
1818 25959
181925983
1820 26007
26031
26055
26079
26102
1825 26126
1826
1827
1828
1829
1830
2O150
26174
26198
26221
26245
1831
1832
1833
1834
1835
1836
1837
1838
1839
1840
1841
1842
1843
1844
1789 2526
179025285
1791
1792
1793
1794
i79s
25310
25334
25358
25382
25406
1796
1797
1798
2 r [ 1799
26 1800
24
24
24
24
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
23
24
24
24
1871
1872
1873
Log. D.
27°91 20
27114 0
2?If 23
27161 0
27184^
24
27207
27231
27254
23
1874 27277
1875
26269
26293
26316
26340
26364
26387
26411
26435
26458
26482
26505
26529
26553 2,
26576 23
1876
1877
1878
27300
23
23
27323
27346^3
27370
24
879 27393
1880
1881
1882
1883
1884
1885
1886
1887
1888
1889
1890
27416 23
27439 23
27462 J
2748522
27508 3
27531 2j
1891
1892
1893
1894
1895
1845 26600
1846
1847
1848
2~i 1849 26694
24!
25
24
24
24
25431
25455
25479
255°3
25527
26623
26647
26670
1850
26717
1851
1852
1853,
11854
2674I
26764
26788
268ll
i8j)
1857
1859
1860
24
24
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
26834^
23
24
23
23
1896
1897
1898
1899
1900
27554 22
2757722
27600 0
2762323
27646 ^3
27669 2
27692
277i52o
27738 3
27761
1901
1902
1903
1904
27898
27921
27944
27967
1905 27989
1906
1907
1908
i9°9
191
1911
6 26858
26881
1858 26905
26928
26951
23
23
27784 20
27807 20
27830 ^3
22,
27852 23
2787523
23
23
23
22
23
23
23
23;
22!
23
23
22
23
23
23
22
23
22
23
28012
28035
28058
28081
28103
S8126
1912 28149
1913 28171
1914 28194
1915 28217
1916 28240
1917 28262
1918 28285
191928307
I92O 28330
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
89
1920
1921
1922
1923
1924
192
926
1927
928
1929
1930
N.
Loir.
2833°
28353
28375
28398
2842I
528443
1931
1932
28466
28488
28511
28533
28 <; i;6
28578
28601
933 28623
28646
28668
r934
T935
936
1937
1938
1939
1940
1941
1942
r943
1944
194 ^ 28892
1946
1947
1948
1949
19^0
I951
r952
1953
1954
i956
r957
i958
r959
2869
28713
2873
28758
28780
28803
28825
28847
28870
D.
23
22
23
23
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
23
22
22
23
22
23
22
22
23
22
N. Loir.
1980
1981
1982
*983
1984
29667
29688
29710
29732
29754
1985 29776
D.
28914
28937
28959
28981
29003
29026
29048
29070
29092
19552911?
29137
29159
29181
29203
i960 29226
1961
1962
1963
1964
!965
1966
i96?
1968
^69
1970
1971
1972
1973
T974
r97 ^
1976
1977
1978
1979
1980
1986
1987
1988
1989
1990
1991
1992
1993
1994
1997
1998
1999
2000
29798
29820
29842
29863
29885
29907
29929
29951
29973
199529094
1996 30016
3o°38
30060
30081
30103
N.
2040
204)
2042
2043
2044
Loir.
30963
30984
3 I 006
31027
3io48
204 53io69
20463109
2047
31112
2001
2002
2003
2004
200 5
3CI25
30146
30168
30190
3021 T
29248
2927O
29292
293I4
29336
29358
29380
29403
29425
29447
29469
29491
29513
29535
29557
29579
29601
29623
29645
29667
2006
2007
2008
2009
2010
3°23.-
3° 255
30276
30298
30320
2011
2012
39341
3°3^3
201330384
2014 30406
2015 30428
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
2024
2026
2027
2028
2029
2030
2031
2032
2033
2034
2035 3
2048 31133
3XI54
3117 5
2049
2050
2051
2052
2053
2054
3i,97
3i2i8
31239
31260
2055 31281
205631302
2057
205831345
2059
206
206 5
30449
30471
30492
305I4
3053 5
30557
30578
30600
30621
2025 30643
30664
30685
30707
30728
30750
30771
30792
30814
30835
856
2036
2037
2038
2039
2040
30878
30899
3092
30942
30963
2066
2067
2068
2070
2071
2072
2073
N.
3I323
3,3<56
3i387
2061 31408
2062 31429
2063 31450
206431471
3I492
3l5I3
3I534
3I555
2069 31576
31597
31618
3i639
21660
2100
2101
2102
2103
2104
210 5
32222
32243
32263
32284
32305
32325
2106 32346
2107 32366
2108
2109
2111
32449
32469
3 32490
2114 32510
211532531
21
2074 3x681
207 c31702
2076 31723
2077
2078 31765
3i785|
31806
2079
2080
208131827
2082 31848
2083 31869
2084 31890
2085 319x1
2090
2091
2092
2093
2094
209 v
2096
2097
2098
2099
2X00
31744
2086 31931
208731952
208831973
208931994
32015
32035
32056
32077
32098
321X
32I39
32160
32181
32201
32222
2X21
2X22
2X2
2124
2126
2127
2128
2129
2130
213
2132
I33
2134
2135
Log.
1)
32387
32468
32428
211632552
2117 32572
211832593
211932613
2x20 32634
N.
32654
32675
32695
.327*5
2125 32736
32756
32777
32797
32818
32838
32858
32879
32899
329x9
32940
216c
2161
2162
2163
2164
2165
Log.
D.
33445
33465
33486
33506
33526
3 2 <46
2166
2167
2168
2169
2170
33566
33586
83606
33626
33646
2136
2137
2138
2139
2140
2141
2142
2143
2144
2143
2146
2147
2x48
2149
21 ijo
2151
2152
2153
2154
2155
2156
2157
21 c8
2159
2160
3 2900
32980
33001
33021
33041
2171
2x72
2173
2174
2175
2176
2177
2178
2179
218
218
2182
33666
33686
337°6
33726
33746
33766
33786
33806
33826
33846
33866
33885
218333905
33062
33082
33102
33122
33’43
33^3
33283
33203
33224
33244
33264
33284
33304
33325
33345
33365
33385
33405
33425
33445
2184
218 if
2186
2187
2188
2189
2190
2191
2192
2x93
2194
219
2196
2197
2198
2199
2200
2201
2202
2203
2204
2207
2208
2209
22X0
33925
3394'
33965
33985
3400 !
34025
34044
34064
34084
34io4
34124
34x43
34165
34183
34203
34223
34242
34262
34282
34301
3432i
220334341
22063436
3438o
344oo
34420
34439
N.
2220
2221
2222
2223
2224
222 5
34635
34655
34674
34694
347‘3
34733
2226
2227
2228
2229
2230
34753
34772
34792
34811
34830
2231
2232
2 23 5
2234
34850
34869
34889
349
2235 34928
2236
2237
2238
2239
224c
34947
34967
34986
35005
35025
34459
34479
34498
34518
221534537
2211
2212
2213
2214
22X6
22X7
22X8
2219
2220
^4557
34577
34596
34616
34635
2241
2242
2243 35083
2244
2245
224635141
2247
2248
2249
2250
2251
2252
2253
2254
2256
2257
2258
2259
2260
2261
2262
2263
2264
226 5
2266
2267
2268
2269
2270
2271
2272
2273
2274
2275
Log.
D.
35044
35064
35102
35122
35i6o
35i8o
3S199
35218
35238
35257
35276
35295
2255 3 53L5
35334
35353
35372
35392
3 54i 1
3543°
35449
35468
35488
35507
35526
35545
35564
35583
3 5604
N.
228c
2281
2282
2283
2284
228 5
35793
35813
35832
35851
35870
3 5889
2286
2287
2288
2289
229c
35908
35927
35946
35965
35984
2291
2292
2293
2294
2296
2297
2298
2299
2300
4 5622
35641
35660
35679
35698
2276
227
2278
2279
2280
35717
35736
35755
35774
35793
2301
2302
2303
2304
2305
og.
D.
36003
36021
36040
36059
2295 36078
36o97 io
36116 j ^
36135 T"
36154
36173
36192
36211
36229
36248
36267
N.
2306
2307
2308
2309
2310
36286
36305
36324
36342
36361
2311
2312
231336418 ,1
!3I4 36436
231536455
231636474
231736493
231836511
231936530
2320 36549
2321
2322
2323
2324
2325
2326
2328
2329
233 c
2331
2332
2333
2334
2335
36380
36399
234c
2341
2342
2343
2344
2345
36922
36940
36959
36911
36006
37014
2346
2347
2348
2349
235 c
8 2351
2352
2353
2354
2355
2356
2357
2358
2359
2360
2361
2362
Log.
D.
37033
37051
37070
37088
37107
37125
37144
37162
37181
37199
37218
37236
37254
37273
37291
37310
37328
2363 37346
2364 37365
2365 37383
36568
36586
36605
36624
36642
36661
2327 36680
36698
361l1
36736
36754
36773
36791
36810
368
233636847
2337
2338
2339
2340
36866
36884
36903
36922
2366
2367
2368
2369
2370
3740i
37420
37438
37457
37475
2371
237237511
2373
2374
2375
2376
2377
2378
2379
238
2381
2382
2383
2384
2385
2386
2387
2388
2390
2391
2392
2393
2394
37493
3753°
37548
37566
37585
37603
37621
37639
37658
37676
37694
377‘2
3773
37749
37767
37785
37803
238937822
37840
37858
37876
37894
37912
2395 37931
239637949
2397
2398
2399
2400
3796/
37985
38003
38021
18
19
18
19
18
19
18
J9
18
!9
18
19
18
!9
18
19
18
18
19
18
19
18
18
x9
18
18
!9
18
19
18
18
18
19
18
18
19
18
18
18
19
18
18
18
19
18
18
18
18
19
18
18
18
t8
18
iq
18
18
18
18
18
Vol, XII. Tart 1.
M
9°
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
24O
24OI
240238057
2403138075
2404'38093
24O 5 (38112
N. I Lost.
D
38021
38o39
240638130
2407 38148
240838166
240938184
2410(38202
N.
2460
2461
2462
2463
rnl 246439164
Jj 2465139^82
241138220
241238238
241338256
241438274
241 (; 38292
2416 383 10
241738328
2418 38346
2419 38364
2420 38382
2421
2422
2423
2424
24253847
2426
2427
242838525
38543
38361
Log. ID.
39°94
39m
39129
39I46
,! 2466
'246,
2468
2469
2470
38399
38417
38435
38453
38489
3 8 5° 7
2429
2430
2431
2432
38578
38596
2434
243 3
2436
2437
2438
2439
2440
2441
2471
2472
N.
i8 2524
39x99
39217
39235
39252
39270
39287
39305
2473 39322
2476
8 2477
2478
2479
2480
243338614
58632
386 50
38668
38686
38703
38721
38739
38757
2442 38775
^8792
38810
38828
2443
2444
2445
2446
2447
2448
38846
38863
38881
2449 38899
2430 38917
2451
2452
2453
2454
2453
2456
245
2458
2459
2460
38934
38952
38970
38987
39003
i
18
18
i
18
18
T7
1
iS
18
i8j
18]
181
18
18
18
17
18
18
18
18
18
18
1
18
18
18
18
18
18
18
17
181
18
18
*7
18
2474
475
39340
393 38
2520
2521
2522
39375
39393
39410
39428
39445
2481
2482
2483
484
2485
2486
39463
39480
39498
39515
39533
39550
87 39568
2488
2489
2490
2491
492
2493
2494
2495
2496
2497
2498
*7
18
18
18
J7
181
‘7
18
18
x7
18
'1
18
*7
18
*7
18
Dog.
40140
4OI57
4OI75
2523 40192
40209
2325 40226
2526
2527
2528
2529
2530
39585
39602
39620
09637
39655
39672
30690
39707
D.
40243
40261
40278
40295
40312
2531
2533
2534
2535
2536
2537
40329
253240346
40364
40381
40398
40415
40432
2539
2540
2541
2542
39724
39742
39759
2499 39777
2500 39794
2501
2502
2503
2504
2505
2 306
2507
08
39023
39041
39058
39076
39094
39811
39829
39846
39863
39881
39898
399r5
39933
2509 39950
2510
2511
18 25‘2
2513
2514
2315
39967
39985
40002
40019
40037
4005 4
2516
25‘7
25x9
2520
40071
40088
*7
18
18
ll
17
18
x7
18
•7
18
27
27
18
27
18
27
27
18
‘7
‘7
18
27
27
18
27
7
18
27
27
18
27
27
N.
253840449
40466
40483
4050
40528
254340535
2544
40552
254540569
254640586
2547
2548
2549
2530
255‘
2552
2554
40603
40620
40637
40654
40671
40688
2553 40705
4072
235340739
255640756
2557
2558 . 6.
255940807
40773
40790
2360
2361
2562
2563
2564
256540909
40824
40841
408 58
40875
4089
>7
18
>7
x7
17
17
18
*7
l7
17
7
‘7
18
•7
27
27
27
27
27
27
17
18
‘7
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
‘7
27
27
27
27
27
27
27
>7
27
2380
2581
2583
2584
2585
Log.
41162
4‘ 279
D.
2582 41196
41212
41229
41246
258641263
2587
2588 41296
25894'3‘3
2590
2592
2592
2593
2594
2595
41280
41330
N. | Log.
42347
42363
41380
42397
42414
2596 4243°
2597
42447
259842464
41481
42497
2599
2600
2601
2602
2603
2604
2605
42524
42 53‘
42547
42564
4X58>
27
17
16
17
27
27
17
16
17
27
27
16
27
27
27
16
27
27
27
16
27
27!
16
2640
42160
264142177
2642
2643
42193
42210
264442226
2645
2646
2647
2648
2649
2630
2651
42243
42259
42275
42292
42308
42325
42341
N.
270c
2701
2702
2703
2704
2705
2706
2708
Log.
D.
43136
43152
43i69
43185
43201
43217
43233
270743249
43265
270943281
43297
265242357
2653
2654
42374
42390
2655 42406
265642423
2657
2658
2659
2660
260641597
2607 41614
2608 41631
260941647
2610 41664
2518 40106
40123
40140
17
17
17
i?
17
17
40943 17
4096016
40976
40994
2571
2611
2612
2613
2614
2615
256640926
2567
2568
2569
2 >7°
2661
2662
2663
2664
42439
42455
42472
42488
2711
2712
2713
42504
42521
42537
42553
£1266542570
41681
41697
41714
41731
41747
2616
2617
41764
4178
2618 41797
261941814
2620 4183c
41010
257241027
2573 41054
257441061
257>41078
2621 41847
2622 41863
2623 41880
2624 41896
262541913
17
17
16
17
17
16
17
7
16
17
16
17
17
16
17
16
7
16
7
16
26(16
2667
2668
42586
42602
42619
2626 419 29
2627 41946
2628 41963
2629 41979
12630
17
41996
2579
2580
2576 41095
8j2577 41111
257841128
4ii45
41162
2633
42012
42029
42045
2636
2637
2638
266942635
267
2671
2672
2673
2674
42651
42667
42684
4270
42716
43313
43329
43345
2724 4336i
271543377
271643393
2717
2718
2719
272c
43409
43425
43441
43457
2721
2722
2723
27
267542732
2676 42749
267742765
2678 42781
267942797
2680
42813
2681
2682
2683
2684
268 1;
2686
2687
> 2688
:^89
16 2<S90
42830
42846
4286
42878 I0
42894 17
43473
43489
43505
443521
2725 43537
272643553
272743569
2728
43584
262943600
273043616
2731
2732
2733
2734
43632
43648
43664
43680
273543696
273643712
2737
2738
2739
274c
42911
42927
42943
42959
42975
2634 42062
263542078
42095
421 ix
42127
17
2698
263942144 j£ 2699
1 2700
2691
i62®92
,,12693
,6^94
7 2695
2741
2742
2743
43727
43743
43759
43775
43791
43807
4382
16
17
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
16
16
16
16
16
2760
2761
2762
2763
2764
2765
2766
2767
2768
2769
2770
Log.
D,
44091
44107
44122
44138
44154
44170
44185
44201
44217
44232
44248
N.
2771
2772
2773
2774
44264
44279
44295
44311
2775 44326
277644342
2777
2778
2779
2780
2781
2782
278344451
2784
2785
74443838
274,43854
42991
43008
43024
43040
43056
2786
2787
2788
2789
2790
,6
16 2?97
264O
42160
43072
43088
43104
43120
43!36
16
16
16
16
16
17
16
16*
16
16
16
16
16
16
27464387°
43886
43902
43917
44933
2747
2748
2749
2750
2751
2752
2753
2754
275 <
43949
43965
4398i
43 996
44012
2756
2757
2758
2759
2760
44028
44044
44059
44075
44091
44358
44373
44389
44404
44420
44436
44467
44483
2791
44498
445M
44529
44545
44560
44576
279244592
16
15
16
16
16
15
16
16
15
16
16
i5!
16
16
15
16
16
15
16
15
16
16
1
16
16
15
16
15
16
15
16
16
2820
2821
2822
2823
2824
2825
2826
2828
2829
Log.
D.
45025
45040
45056
45071
45086
45102
45117
282745133
45M8
45163
283045179
2831
2832
2833
2834
;2835
45194
45209
45225
45240
45255
2836
2837
2838
2839
2840
2793 4
2794
2795
607
44623
44638
796
2797
279s
2799
280
44654
44669
44685
447oo
44716
2801
2802
2805
2804
2805
44731
44747
44762
14778
44"93
2806
2807
2808
2809
2810
2811
281;
2813
28x4
2841
2842
2843
2844
15
16
15
15
16
!5
16
15
15
16
15
15
16
15
15
16
45271jr
45286^
45301
45317 j r
45532^
15
4 5347
45362 g
45378 ^
..45393 1,
284545408 /5
2846
284
2848
284945469
45423 l6
45439
45454
28 50
+4809
44824
4484c
44855
44871
16
15
16
15
16
‘5
16
15
16
15
16
15
ifc
28 5 1
2852
2853
2854
45484
15
44886
44902
4i9i7
44932|I6
2856
2857
2858
2859
2860
45500
455!5
4553°
45545
2855 45561
45576 !,
455911r
45606 j
45621
45637
286145652
2862
2863
2864
286;
45667
45682
2815 44948
2816 44963
2817 44979
44994
4 (OIO
45025
2818
2819
2820
2866
2867
2868
2869
287
2871
2872
2873
2874
2876
2877
2878
2879
288c
15
15
45697 ^
45712 ^
15
15
15
15
15
15
16
15
15
15
15
15
15
15
45728
45743
45758
45773
45788
45803
45818
45834
45849
287545864
45879
45894
45909
45924
45939
N.
2880
2881
2882
2883
2884
288546015
2886
2887
2888
2889
2890
2891
2892
2893
2894
2895
45939
45954
45969
459^
46000
2896
2897
2898
2899
2900
2901
2902
2903
2904
Log.
46030
46045
46060
46075
46090
46105
46120
46135
46150
46165
46180
46195
4621c
46225
46240
D
N.
46255
46270
46285
46300
290546315
2906 4633°
2907
2908
46345
46359
2909 46374
291046389
2911
291246419
2913 46434
291446449
291546464
2916
2921
2922
2923
2924
2926
2927
2928
293'
46404
46479
291746494
2918 46509
291946523
2920 46538
46553
46568
46583
46598
2925 46613
46627
466 j. 2
46657
292946672
46687
2931
2932
2933
2934
2935
46702
467x6
46731
46746
46761
2936
2937
2938
2940
46776
46790
46805
293946820
46835
x5
J5
•5
16
15
l5
l5
l5
lS
l5
J5
lS
l5
*5
lS
l5
l5
lS
15
l5
lS
l5
l5
l5
r5
15
lS
14
15
l5
15
15
l5
lS
15
lS
15
x4
!5
15
[5
l5
l5
15
'4
x5
15
15
>5
15
14
r5
15
15
!5
>4
15
L5
lS
2940
2941
2942
2943
46835
46850
46864
46879
294446894
294546909
2951
2953
2954
2955
2956
2957
2958
2959
2960
Log.
D
294646923
294746938
294846953
294946967
295046982
46997
295247012
47026
47°4I
47056
47070
47085
47100
471x4
47129
2961
2962
2963
2964
2965
47x44
47J59
47I73
47188
47202
2966
2967
2968
2969
29701
47217
47232
47246
47261
47276
2971
2972
2973
2974
2975
47290
47305
473*9
47334
47349
2976
2977
2978
2979
2980
2981
2982
2983
2986
2987
2988
2989
299
2991
2992
2993
2995
2996
2997
2998
2999
47363
47378
47392
47407
47422
47436
4745*
47465
29844748
298547494
47509
47524
47538
47553
47567
47582
47596
47611
299447625
47640
47654
47669
47683
47698
300047712
15
I4;
r5
lS
*5
*4
x5
J5‘
M:
I5I
*5
r5
l5
15
M
lS
15
r4
*5
15
LS
H
15
14
15
r5
M
*5
lS
*4
15
*4
*5
15
>4
!5
*4
*5
*5
r5
*4
M
l4
LS
‘5
x4
*5
*4
*5
14
*5
*4
r5
r4|
15
M
*5
14
13000
3001
3002
3003
3004
3006
3°
3008
3009
3010
N.
300 5 47784
3011
3012
3013
3014
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
W
Log.
D.
47712
47727
47741
47756
47770
47799
747813
47828
47842
47857
47871
47885
47900
47914
301547929
3016
3017
3018
3019
3020
47943
47958
47972
47986
48001
48015
48029
48044
48058
302548073
3021
3022
3023
3024
3026
3027
3028
3029
3030
3031 48159
303248173
303348187
303448202
3035 48216
3036
3037
3038
3039
3040
5041
3042
3043
3044
3046
3047
3048
3049
3050
3051
3052
3053
3054
3055
3056
3057
3058
3059
3060
48087
48101
48116
4813c
48144
48230
48244
48259
48273
48287
48302
483*6
48330
48344
3045 48359
48373
48387
48401
48416
48430
48444
48458
48473
48487
48501
485*5
4853o
48544
48558
48572
3060
3061
3062
3°63
3064
306548643
3066
48572
48586,
48601
48615
48629
48657
3067 48671
3068
48686
306948700
307c 48714
3°7*
3072
3073
3074
3075
48728
48742
48756
48770
4878 5
3076
3077
3078
48799
48813
48827
307948841
3080
48855
3081
3082
3083
3084
3085
3087
3088
3091
3097
3098
3099
3*0°
3101
3*02
3103
3104
3106
Log.
D
48869
48883
48897
48911
48926
308648940
48954
48968
308948982
309048996
49010
3092 49024
309349038
309449°52
309549066
309649080
49094
49108
49122
49136
4915°
49x64
49178
49x9
5 IO5 49206
4922C
3IO749234
SIOS
3*09
3110
311*
3112
3113
3114
3116
S11?
3119
3120
49248
49262
4927^
49290
49304
493*8
19332
311549346
4936o
49374
1311849388
49402
49415
N.
3*20
3*21
3*22
3*23
3*24
3*25
494*5
49429
49443
49457
49471
49485
3126
3*27
3*28
49499
495*3
49527
3*294954*
3*3°
49554
3*3*
3*32
3*33
3*34
3*35
49568
49582
49596
49610
49624
3*36
3*37
3*38
3*39
3*4°
49638
49651
49665
49679
49693
3*4*
3*42
3*43
3*44
3*45
3146
3*47
3*
3*49
3*50
3*5*
3*52
3*53
3*54
3*55
3*56
3*57
3*5S
3*59
3160
3*6*
3*62
L
og.
D.
49707
49721
49734
49748
49762
49776
4979°
49803
498x7
49831
49845
49859
49872
49886
49900
49914
49927
49941
49955
49969
49982
49996
316350010
3*64
^ 16;
50024
50037
3166
3*67
3*68
4|3i69
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*4
*3
50° 5*
50065
50079
50092
50106
50120
3*7
3*72 50*33
3*73
3*74
3*75
3*76
3*77
3*78
3*79
3180
50*47
50161
50174
50188
50202
50215
50229
50243
*4
*4
*4
*4
'4|
*4,
*4
*4'
*4
*3:
*4;
*4
14!
*4
*4
I4s
*3!
*4'
*4
*4
*4,
*4
*3
*4
*4
*4
*4
*3
*4
*4
*4
141
*3
*4
*4
*4
*3
14|
*4
*4
*3
*4
*4
*4
‘3
*4
*4
*4
*3
*4
*4
*3
14
*4
*3
*4
14
*3
*4
*4
13*8o
3181
3*82
3*83
13*84
3i85
13186
3*87
3188
3189
3 * 9° 50379
3*9*
3192
3*93
3*94
3*95
N.
Log.
50243
50256
50270
50284
50297
503**
50325
50338
50352
50365
50393
50406
50420
50433
50447
3*96
*97
3*98
3*99
3200
3201
3202
3203
3204
5205
3206
3207
3208
3209
3210
32* *
3212
32*4
3216
3219
3220
3221
3222
3223
3224
3226
3227
3228
3229
50461
50474
50488
5050*
505*5
50529
50542
50556
50569
5058
50596
5061c
50623
50637
50651
50664
50678
3213 50691
50705
321550718
50732
|32*7 50745
321850759
50772
50786
50799
50813
50826
50840
322550853
50866
50880
50893
50907
D.
3230 50920
3231
3232
3233
3234
3235
3236
3237
5°934
50947
50961
50974
50987
51001
51014
323851028
3239
3240
5104*
5*055
32405*055
3241
3242
3243
3244
3245
3246 51135
3247
3248
3249
3250
325*
3252
325351228
3254
3255
3256
3257
325851295
3259
3260 51322
326251348
N.
51068
5*081
5*095
1108
51121
5**48
5*162
5**75
51188
51202
5*215
3261
3263
32645*37.
3265
327*
3272
3273
3274
3277
3279
3280
3281
3282
3285
1329*
329
3293
3294
3295
Log.
51242
5*255
51268
51282
5*308
5*335
51362
S138!
32665140
32675*4*5
326851428
326951441
3270 51455
51468
51481
5*495
5*508
32755*52
327651534
5*548
32785*56*
5*574
5*587
51601
51614
328351627
32845164
51654
3286 51667
3287 51680
328851693
3289 51706
329c51720
D.
N.
33°° 5*85*
3301
5 * 865
330251878
3303 5*89*
33c4 5I90zl
3305
33o65*93c
3307 5*943
330851957
3309
5*97°
33**
33*25
5*996
009
331352022
133*4
52035
331552048
13316 C2c6i
133*7 52075
33*«
52088
331952101
5*733
5*746
5*759
51772
51786
1329651799
3297
3298
3299
3300
51812
51825
5*838
5*851
33 20
? 2114
3321 52127
1^33*05*983
3322
5214c
3323 52153
3324
3325
52166
52*79
332652192
332752205
332852218
3329
333°
333*
3332
3333
3334
3335
3336
3337
3338
3339
3340
3346
3347
334.8
3349
3350
335*
3352
3353
3354
3555
3356
3357
3358 5
3359
3360
L
og.
D.
<*9*7
<52231
52244
52257
52270
52284
52297
5 2 51 c
52323
52336
52349
2362
52375
334* 52388
334252401
334352414
3344 52427
3345 52440
52453
52466
52479
52492
52504
52517
52530
2543
52556
52569
52582
52595
2608
^2621
52634
M 2
92
logarithms of numbers.
N.
336°
336j
33^2 -
3363 5^73
^ 20 06
52699
3366 52?11
336752724
336852737
33695275°
337052763
3371 52776
337252789
337352802
3374 52815
3375 ^2827
337652840
3377 52853
337852866
3379 52879
3380 52892
3388
N. Log.
534°3
534I5
! 53428
S53441
153453
53466
53479
53491
!535°4
•535I7
>53529
53542
53555
53567
34345358
I 2
343< 53593 ,2 Mil54345
3496 54357
338* 52905
338252917
33835293°
338452943
338> 52956
338652969
33875^,
52994
3389 53007
'33905302:
>53605 ..
'53618 J8
> 53631
>53643,
>53656!^
Log.)
54^8i2
54i7°
54i83
54I95
3480
3481
3482
3483 ^
348454208
3485 54220
54233
54245
54258
> 5427°
>54283
54295
■543°7
54320
l54332
354°
3541
3542
3543
3544
3 545
Log.jD.i N. Log. ID- N- Log. P.|
3444 53719
53732
53744
;53757
>53769
53782
12
5437°
3498 5438
3499 54394
350054407
339153°33
339253046
3393 53°58
3394 53°7I
3395 53°84
3396 53°97
339753110
3398 53I22
12
3451
3452
3453
3454
53794
53807
5382:
3832
34065322.
34°7 53237
3408 53250
340953263
3410 5327 5
341153288
341253301
34L3 533t4
3414 53326
■34L5 53339]
34l653352
3477 53364
,34I853377
> 34r95339°
3420 53403
12
549°° j
54923 ,
54925 ,
54937
54949
54962
54974
54986
54998
55011
55023
3552 55°35
355255°47
3455 5384 5
3456
3457
3458 j,
3459 53895 ^
3460 539°8
5392°
53933
53945
53958
5397°
3466
3467
3468
3469
347°
53983
5399'
54008
54020
54°33
3471 54045
3472
3473
3474
54°58
54°7°
54°83
12
13475 >4Q95
3476
3477
3478
3479
3480
544‘9
54432
54444
54456
 54469
3 506 54481
35°754494
350854506
35°954518
3510 54531
352> 54543
352 2 54555
3523 54568
352454580
352 5 54^93
352654605
352754617
3528 5463°
352954642
3520 54654
54667
54679
3 54691
547°4
 54716
] 3526
3527
3528
3529
3 53°
3532
3532
3533
12 i
36005563° _
3601 55642 ]
3602 55654 ^
360355666j
3604 55678
3605 $5691
3606 55703
36=7 55725
360855727
360955739
361055751
3621 55763
36x255775
362355787
361455799
36»5 558ii
I3616 55823
3627 55835
3618 55847
36«9 55859
3620 53871
55883
55895
55907
5592 9
55932
56348
56360;
56372
56384
56396
56407
56429
56432
56443
3666
3667
3668
366956455
3676
3677
3678
3679
3680
56467,
56478]
: 56490 ]
156502,
^65‘4
; 56526'
56538
56549
56561
56573
56585
'56597
> 56608
;56620
I56632
556644
3 / j /
373957276 ^    .
3740 57287 380057978
57749
5776*
-57772
157784
157795
 157807
37^6 57818
3787
3788
3789
379°, 
57875
15,7887
157898
157910
157921
'57933
57944
!57955
>57967
11
12
12
1357* 5^279
357255291
55303
55325
55328
12
13576
13577
5534°
55352
13578 55364
357955376
I3580 15388
3626
3627
3628
3629
363°
363*
3632
3633
3634
3635
13636
13637
3638
3639
3640
55943
55955
55967
55979
55992
12
•56656
>C6667
56679
156691
 > 56703
I3691I56724
369256726
3693
3694
3695
56738
16750
56761
56062
56074
56086
56098
1611c
5479° ,
54802 i
^^54824,
;3| 3534 54827,
i 3 53 5 54839,
'54851 ■
54864
54876
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13i 2 <4.0 54900
3581 554OO
358255413
3583 55425
3584 55437|i2
35855544912
13586 55461
!3587 55473
13588 55485
13589 55497
359055509
359155522
3592.55534
3593
3594
3595  ,
3596I55582
>3597 55594
1359855606
|3599 556i8
'360055630
3641
3642
3643
3644
3645
12
57299
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157322
157334
57345
56:82
56194
56205
,56217
<6229
12
56832
.56844
56855
56867
56879
3651
3652
56241
56253
i3 7°6
3707
3708
37°9
3710
56891
<6902
56914
<6926
56937
11
13766
13767
57415
•57426
;57438
57449
;5746*
57473
,57484
157496
157507
57519
5753°
57542
.57553
•57565
57576
11
3801
3802
3803
380458024
380558035
57588
57600
5799°
58001
58013
3806
3807
5»°47
58058
3808 58070
3809
3810
5808
58092
381158104
?8i2 c8ii<
381358127
5814 <8138
381558149
3816 5&161
381758172
3818 58184
381958195
3820 58206:
12
!3653 56265
',365456277
I365 <156289
56949
> 56961
13713 56972
3714 56984
(3768 57611
376957623
3770 57634
3771 .
3772.
3773
3774
371556996^13775 57692
382158218
3822 58229
3823
3824
3825
,3656
3657
3658
3659
3660
56301
56312
56324
56336
56348
57008
. 57019
37l857032
372957043
372057054
13776
[3777
|3778
'3779
3780
57703
57715
57726
57738
57749
3826 ^
3827 58286
3828 58297
3829
3830
S^S1
3832
3833
3834
3835
12
11
3838
3839
3840
11
12
IX
11
11
12
11
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
93
3840
384j
3842
3843
3844
384558490
3846
3847
3848
3849
383°
385
3852
3853
3854
38.95
3856
3857
3858
3859
3860 58659
K
Las'. D- N
58433
58444
58456
58467
58478
58501
58512
58524
58535
58546
12
12
3900
3901
39°3
39°4
3 9° 5
Log. |D.
591
59IlS
390259129
59I4°
59I5I
59162
58557
58569
58580
58591
58602
3906
3 9° 7
3908
39°9
3910
58614
58625
58636
58647
12
11
59'73
59184
59'95
59207
59218
3911
3912
3861
3 86 2
3863
3864
386 c
58670
58681
58694
58702
58715
3866 58726
3867
3868
3869
3870
58737
58749
58760
5877'
3871
3872
3873
3874
3875
58782
5879-i
58805
58816
58827
11
12
39I4
59229
59240
39I3 59251
59262
3915 59273
3916
3917
3918
39i9593i8
3920
59329
3921
3922
3923
3924
3926
3927
3928
3929
3930
387658838
3877
3878
3879
388
58850
58861
58872
58883
3881
3882
3883
3884
58894
589
589*7
58928
3886
3887
3888
3889
38905899^
12
11
12
11
388558939
5895°
58961
58973
58984
389*
3892
3893
3894
59006
59017
59028
59°40
389559°5
5934°
5935'
59362
59373
393*
3932
3933
3934
N.
59284
59295
593c6
3925 59384
59395
59406
594*7
59428
?9439
59450
5946i
59472
59483
3935 59494
3936
3937
3938
3939
3940
59506
595'* 7
59528
59539
5955
394*
3942
3943
3944
12
389659062
3897
3898
3899
3900
59073
59084
59°95
59106
12
11
3946
3947
3948
3949
3950
3951
3952
5956i
59572
59583
59594
394559605
596*6
59627
59638
59649
^9660
59671
59682
3953 59693
3954
395 <
59704
597f'
3956
3957
3958
3959
3960
59726
59737
59748
[59759
59770
12
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
11
I j
II
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
12
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
11
5960
396*
3962
3963
3964
3965
5977°
5978o
5979*
C9802
598*3
59824
3966
3967
3968
3969
397°
397*
3972
3973
3974
3975
3976
3977
3978
3979
3080
Log.
D.
59835
59846
59857
59868
59879
10
11
4020
4021
4022
4023
4024
4025
59890
5990*
599*2
59923
59934
3981
3982
3983
3984
398 5
59945
59956
59966
59977
59988
59999
60010
600 21
60032
60043
3986
3987
3988
3989
399°
399*
3993
3994
3995
60054
60065
60076
60086
60097
60108
399260119
60130
60141
60152
399660163
60173
60184
60193
60206
3997
3998
3999
4000
4001
4002
4003
4004
400 q 60260
4006160271
4007 60282
4008 60293
400960304
401060314
60217
60228
60239
60249
N. Log. D.
60423
60433
60444
60455
60466
60477
4026
60487
402760498
4028
402960520
403060531
403160541
403260552
403360563
403460574
403560584
4037 60606
4038,60617
403960627
4040160658
10
60509
10
11
11
11
N. Log.
4036
60595
4080
4081
4082
4083 61098
408461109
4085 61119
4086 6
4087
4088
4089
4090
4041
4042
4°43
4044
4045
60649
60660
60670
60681
60692
404660703
404760713
4048 60724
404960735
4050 60746
4051
4052
4053
4054
11
4011160325
401260336
401360347
4014 603 58
401560369
4016 60379
60390
60401
60412
60423
4017
4018
4019
4020
10
4056
4057
4058
4° 5 9
4060
60756
60767
60778
60788
40^560799
11
10
10
6081c
60821
60831
60842
60853
4061
I4062
4063
4064
6086
60874
60885
60895
(4065 60906
,4066
4067
60917
60927
I406860938
406960949
[407060959
4071
4072
4073
407.
4078
4080
60970
60981
60991
407461002
4075 61013
4076 61023
61034
61045
407961055
61066
1).
61066
61077
61087
1130
61140
**5*
1162
61172
4091
409
40936
4°94
40956
4096
4097
4098
4°99
4100
4101
4102 6
4*03
4*
4*
4106
4107 6
4108 6
4*
4**
11
10
10
11
11
N.
261
61183
*94
1204
61215
1225
ic
61236
61247
61257
61268
61278
61289
1300
04 6
056
61310
'*321
11331
096
4111
4112
4**3
4* *
41 *
4116
61342
*352
*363
*374
61384
6*395
61405
61416
461426
561437
61448
4**761458
4118 61469
4119 61479
412061490
4121
4122
4*
4*
412
4126
4*27
4128
412
4130
61500
61511
1521
*53
1 542
23615
24 6
56
6*553
61563
6i574
•961584
6i595
61606
261616
61627
61637
4*3*
4*3
4*33
4*34
4135 61648
4136161658
4I37|6*669
4138,61679
413961690
4140 61700
4140
4141
4*42
4*43
4*44
4*45
61700
61711
61721
61731
61742
6*752
4*46
4*47
61763
6i773
4149
4*5°
4*5*
4*53
4*54
10
4*56
4**57
4*58
Log. |1).| N. | Log.
4148 61784
6*794
61805
61815
415261826
61836
61847
415561857
61868
61878
61838
4*5961899
416c
61909
4101
416
61920
61930
41636194*
4*64
6195*
416561962
4166
4*67
4168
4*69
4*70
ic
11
10
10
4*7*
4*72
4*73
4*74
4175 62066
4176
4*77
4*78
10
10
4200
4201
4202
42036
4204
42056237
4206
4207
4208
61972
61982
61993
62003
62014
62024
62034
62045
62055
62076
62086
62097
4179 62107
418c
62118
4181
4182
4*83
62128
62138
62149
418462159
4185 62170
4186 62180
4187 62190
4188
4190
4*9*
4*92
4*93
4*94
4*96
4*97
4*98
4*99
4200
10
10
62201
4189 62211
62221
62232
62242
62252
62263
419562273
62284
62294
62304
62315
62325
62325
62335
62346
356
62366
4211
4212
42*4
62387
62397
62408
420962418
4210 62428
62439
62449
421362459
62469
4215 62480
4216
4217
4218
42*9
422c
62490
6250c
62511
62521
6253*
4221
4222
4223
4224
422662593
422762603
4228 6261
4229 62624
423062634
62542
62552
62562
62572
4225 62583
423*
4232
4233
4234
62644
62655
62665
62675
423^62685
4236 62696
4237 62706
423862716
4239
4240
62726
62737
4241
4242
4243
10
10
10
10
10
424462778
424562788
4246162798
4247 62808
4248
4249
4250
62747
62757
62767
62818
62829
62839
425*
4252
4253
4254
4255
62849
62859
62870
62880
62890
425662900
4257
4258
62910
62921
425962931
426062941
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
10
11.
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
ic
ic
11
10
10
10
11
IC
10
11
10
10
10
11
10
10
10
11
IC
10
10
11
IC
10
1C
10
11
1C
IC
10
11
10
IC
10
10
II
IC
IC
4260
4261
4262
4263
4264
4265 62992
4266 63002
4267
4268
4269
4270
Log.
62941
62951
62961
62972
62982
63012
63022
63033
63043
4271
4272
4273
63053
63063
63073
427463083
427563094
4276
63104
427763**4
4278
4280
428]
4282
4283
4284
4285
4286
4287
4288
289
4290
63124
427963*34
63*44
D
63*55
63*65
63*75
63*85
65195
63205
63215
63225
63236
63246
4291
4292
4293
63256
63266
63276
[4296
4297 ~
142986
4299
4300
429463286
4295 63296
63306
633*7
3327
63337
63347
430*
14302
|4303
|4304
'4305
63357
63367
63377
63387
63397
4306
4307
4308
309
43io
43**
43*2
63407
634*7
65428
63438
63448
3458
63468
43*363478
4314 63488
43*563498
43*663508
4317635*8
43*863528
43*963538
432063548
10
10
11
10
ic
10
10
10
11
10
10
10
IC
IC
11
IC
IC
IC
10
10
11
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
11
10
10
IC
10
10
IC
10
11
IC
10
10
10
10
10
10
10
IC
10
[ 1
IC
10
TO
to
IC
IC
10
10
10
10
10
IC
94
LOGARITHMS
N.
Los*.
43 20
43 21
4322
4323
43 24
43 2 ^
4326
4327
43 28
43 29
433°
63548
63 558
63568
^3S79
63589
63 <99
4331
4332
4333
4334
4335
63609
63619
63629
63639
63649
D.
63659
63669
63679
63689
63699
N.
LoU.
4380 64147
438164157
4382 64167
438364t77
438464l87
4384
433663709
4337 637i9
433863729
4339 63739
4340 63749
434163759
434263769
434363779
4344 63789
4345 63799
4385
4387
4388
4389
439°
4346 63809
434763819
4348 63829
4349 63839
435063849
435163859
435263869
435363879
435463889
435563899
435663909
4357 639i9
4358 63929
435963939
436063949
436163959
4362 63969
4363 63979
4364 63988
436563998
4366 64008
4367 64018
4368 64028
4369
4370
64038
64048
4371
4372
4373
4374
437 5
640 58
64068
64078
64088
64098
4376
4377
4378
4379
4380
4391
4392
4393
4394
439 5
64r97
D.
64207
64217
64227
64237
64246
64256
64266
64276
64286
64296
N.
Log.
D.
4396
4397
4398
64306
64316
64326
439964335
440064345
440 x
4402
4403
4404
440 5
4406
4407
4408
440964434
441064444
64355
64365
64375
64385
6439 <
64404
64414
64424
444°
4441
4442
4443
4444
4445.
64738
64748
64758
64768
64777
64787
444664797
4447
4448
444964826
445064836
1.4451
4452
4453
4456
4457
4458
4459
4460
4461
4462
4463
4411
4412
44x3
4414
4415
4416
4417
4418
44x9
4420
64454
64464
64473
64483
64493
64807
64816
64846
64856
64865
445464875
445564885
64895
64904
64914
64924
6493
64943
649 5.:
64963
10
44646497
4465
6498 2
64503
645 *3
64523
64532
64542
4421
4422
4423
64552
64 56 2
64572
64108
64118
64128
64I37
64147
10
4426
4427
4428
4429
443°
442464582
442564591
4466
4467
4468
4469
4470
4471
4472
4473
447465070
4476
4477
4478
4479
64601
64611
64621
64631
64640
4431
4432
4433
4434
443 3
64650
64660
64670
64680
64689
4436
4437
4438
4440
447 3
64992
65002
65011
65021
65031
65040
65050
65060
65079
65089
65099
65108
65118
448065128
4481
4482
4483
4484
448 c
65i37
65i47
65i57
65167
6.5176
N.
4500
4501
4502
4503
6532'
65331
65341
65350
4505
4506
4507
4508
Log.
45046536c
65369
65379
65389
65398
D.
450965408
451065418
4511
4512
45J3
45J4
4515
45*6
45J7
45l8
45*965504
452065514
65427
65437
65447
65456
65466
65475
65485
65495
452*
4522
4523
452.5
4486 65186
4526
4527
65523
65533
65543
452465552
65562
65571
65581
452865591
65600
65610
4529
4530
4531
4532
4533
4536
4537
453865686
453965696
4487
65196
448865205
64699
64709
64719
443964729
4489
449
64738
4491
4492
4493
4494
4495
65215
65225
65234
65244
65254
65263
65273
4496
4497
4498
4499
4500
65283
65292
65302
653*2
65321
4540
OF NUMBERS.
n:
N
4560
4561
4562
4563
4564
4565
Log. D.
65896
65906
6 5916
65925
65935
6.5944
4566
4567
4568
4569
457°
65954
65963
65973
65982
65992
4571
4572
4573
4574
4575
66001
66011
66020
66030
66039
4576
66049
457766058
4578
65619
65629
65639
453465648
453565658
65667
65677
65706
454*
4542
4543
4544
4 545
657*5
65725
65734
65744
65753
4546
4547
4548
4549
45^0
455*
4552
4553
4554
4555
65763
65772
65782
65792
65801
65811
65820
65830
65839
65849
457966077
4580
458*
4582
4583
4584
4585
4586
4587
4588
4589
459°
66068
66087
66096
66106
66115
66i 24
66134
4620
4621
4622
4623
4624
4625
66143
66153
66162
66172
66181
459*
4592
4593
4594
4595
66191
66200
66210
66219
66229
4597
4598
4599
4600
4556
4557
,4558
14559
456o
65858
65868
65877
65887
65896
4601
4602
66464
66474
66483
66492
66502
66511
462666521
462766530
462866539
462966549
4630
463*
4632
4635
4636
4638
4640
Log.
66558
66567
66577
463366586
463466596
66605
66614
463766624
66633
D.
463966642
N.
4680
4681
4682
4683
4684
Log.
67025
67034
67043
67052
67062
4685 67071
4686167080
4687 67089
4688.67099
4689167108
4690167117
4691
4692
4693
4694
4695
66652
4641
4642
4643
4644
4645
459666238
66247
66257
66266
66276
66285
66295
460366304
4604
4601;
66314
663 23
464666708
4647 66717
464866727
464966736
4650 66745
465166755
46 5266764
465366773
465466783
4655 66792
460666332
4607
4608
4609
4610
66342
6635*
66361
66370
4611
4612
4613
4614
46*5
4616
4618
4619
4620
6638
66389
66398
66408
66417
66427
461766436
66445
66455
66464
66661
66671
66680
66689
66699
4656 66801
4657 6681
4658 66820
465966829
466:66839
4661 66848
4662 66857
4663 66867
466466876
4665 66885
4666 66894
4667 669
466866913
466966922
46706693
46716694
4672 6695
4673 6696
4674 66969
467 5 66978
467666987
467766997
4678 67006
46796701
468067025
4696
4697
4698
4699
4700
67127
67136
67*45
67*54
67164
67*73
67182
67191
67201
67210
4701
4702
4703
4704
4705
4706
4707
4709
47*o
I).
67219
67228
67237
67247
67256
67265
67274
470867284
67293
67302
474067578
474* 67587
474267596
4743|676o5
4744,67614
474567624
N. | Log.
I).
4746:67633
4747167642
4748167651
474967660
4750^7669
475*!67679
475267688
4753|67697
475467706
4755I67715
47**
47*2
47*3
47*4
47*5
67311
67321
67330
67339
67348
47*6
47*7
47*8
47*9
4720
67357
67367
67376
67385
67394
4721
4722
4723
4724
4725
4726
4727
4728
4729
473°
473
4732
4733
4734
4735
67403
674*3
67422
67431
67440
67449
67459
67468
67477
67486
67495
67504
675*4
67523
6753
47366754
4737
4738
6755
67560
4740
473967569
67578
4756.67724
4757,67733
475867742
4759i67752
4760J67761
476ij6777o
4762
4763
476467797
476567806
67779
67788
476067815
4767
4768
67825
67834
9
o
9
9
9
9
o
9
9
9
9
10
9!
9
9
9
o
9
9
9
9
9
10
9
9
9
9
10
477*
4772
4774
4775
476967843
477067852
67861
67870
477367879
67888
67897
4776
4777
4778
4780
4781
67906
67916
67925
477967934
67943
47826796
4783
4784
4785
4786
4787
4788
6795
6797c
67979
67988
4791
479
4793
67997
68006
6801
478968024
479068034
68043
6805
6806
479468070
4795
68079
68088
,68097
68106
4796
4797
479 8
4799t68n
480068124
10
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
4800
4801
4802
4803
4804
4805
480668178
' 68187
68196
4807
4808
4809
4810
4811
481268233
4813 68242
4814
4815
481668269
4817 68278
481868287
481968296
482068305
482168314
482268323
482368332
48246834
482568350
482668359
4827 68368
482868377
4829 68386
483068395
68124
68133
68142
68151
68160
68169
JLoif. D.
N.
6820 5
68215
68224
6825 r
68260
483168404
483268413
4833 68422
48346843
483568440
483668449
483768458
4838 68467
4839 68476
4840 68485
4860
4861
4862
4863
14864 68699
4865)68708
4841 68494
4842 68502
4843685n
4844 68520
484? 68529
4846 68538
4847 68547
484868556
484968565
4850 68574
4851 68583
485268592
4853 68601
4854 6861c
4855 68619
4856 68628
4857 68637
4858 68646
4859 68655
486068664
4866168717
4867^68726
4868
4869
4870
.Log-. L>.
68664
68673
68681
6869
4871
68735
68744
68753
68762
487268771
9 4873 68780
9 4874 68789
9 4875)68797
4876 68806
9 4877)68815
9 4878)68824
9 4879 68833
4880)68842
48811688 51
9 488268860
9 4883
q 4884
9 4885
9 ^
9
9
4887
4888
9 4889
4890
68869
68878
68886
4886 68895
68904
68913
68922
68931
68940
68949
68958
68966
4895168975
9
9 4891
9 4892
34893
^ 4894
9
9
9
9
9
9
8
896
4897
4898
4899
4900
4901
4902
49°3
49 °4
49° <
4906
4907
4908
49°9
4910
4911
4912
68984
68993
69002
69011
69020
69028
69037
69046
69055
69068
69073
69082
6909
69099
69108
69117
69126
49I369I35
491469144
491569152
491669161
4917 69170
4918 69179
491969188
4920 69197
JN.
49 20
4921
4922
4923
49 24
69197
69205
69214
69223
69232
492569241
492669249
4927 69258
4928
4929
4930
69267
69276
69285
69294
69302
69311
69320
493569329
493«
4932
4933
4934
4936
4937
4939
4940
4941
494
4943
4944
4945
4946
4947
4948
494969452
495069461
4951
4952
5953
69338
69346
493869355
69364
69373
D.
69381
60300
69399
69408
69417
69425
69434
69443
69469
69478
69487
495469496
49 55 69504
495^695l3
495769522
495869531
4959
4960
69S39
69548
4961
4962
4963
4964
4965
4966
4967
4968
4969
497°
69557
69566
69574
69583
69592
4971
4972
4973
4974
4976
4977
3978
4980
696
69609
69618
69627
69636
69644
69653
69662
69671
497569679
69688
69697
69705
497969714
69723
4980
4981
14982
14983
4984
N.
69723
69732
6974c
69749
69758
498569767
4986
4987
4988
4989
4990
69775
69784
69793
69801
69810
4991
4992
3993
4994
4995
69819
69827
69836
69845
69854
4996
4997
4998
4999
5000
69862
69871
69880
69888
69897
5001
5002
5003
5C°4
5005
5006
5007
5008
500969975
501069984
5011
5012
5013
5014
3020
5021
5022
5023
5024
3025
5026
5027
5028
5029
.Log.
69906
69914
69923
69932
6994c
69949
69958
69966
69992
70001
70010
70018
3°13 70027
5016 70036
5017 70044
501870053
5019 70062
70070
70079
70088
70096
7OI°5
70114
70122
7OI31
70140
70148
5030 7Q»57
5031
5032
5°33
5°34
503 3 70200
5036
5°37
5038
5039
504°
70163
70174
70183
7019l
70209
70217
70226
7°234
70243
D. N. Log.
5040
5041
5042
5043
5044
5°4
9
8
9
9
9
8
9
9
8
9
9
§5051
5052
5053
5054
5055
70243
70252
70260
70269
70278
570286
5061
3062
^ 5063
5064
5065
5046
5°47
3048
5049
5050
70295
70303
70312
70321
70329
70338
70346
70355
70364
70372
5056
5057
5058
5059
5060
70381
70389
70398
70406
70415
5066
5067
5068
5069
5070
5071
5072
5073
5074
5075
5076
5077
5078
5079
5080
5081
5082
5083
5085
5°86
5087
5088
5089
5090
Dj IN. Log.
70424
70432
70441
70449
70458
70467
70475
70484
70492
70501
70509
70518
70526
70535
70544
70552
70561
70569
70578
70586
70595
70603
70612
5084 70621
70629
70638
70646
706 55
70663
70672
5°91
5092
5093
5094
5095
70680
70689
70697
70706
70714
5096
5097
5098
5099
5Io°
7°723
70731
70740
70749
70757
! 5
15
I5106
I5107
5ro8
51
5110
5J11
5112
5113
5114
511
5100
5101
102
5 io3
5I04
10
70757
70766
70774
70783
70791
5 70800
70808
70817
70825
970834
70842
70851
70859
70868
70876
570885
<ri *6
51 J7
5118
5119
si 20
70893
70902
70910
70919
70927
5121
5122
5123
5x24
5125
70935
70944
70952
70961
70969
5126
5127
5128
51
5I3°
297
5131
5!32
5J33
5!34
5L'
35 7
5136
5137
! 51 *
5139
387
5I41
5x42
5M3
5I447
5J45
487
51
5J49
5r5c
515
5!52
5I53
5J54
5I5.1
51
51S1
51
5159
5x607
70978
70986
70995
1003
71012
71020
71029
71037
71046
1054
71063
71071
1079
71088
514071096
7I105
7IIJ3
71122
”3
71139
514671147
71][55
1164
71172
71181
7^189
7x198
71206
71214
57x223
567
58 7
1231
71240
1248
7I257
1265
D. N. Log.
517I
5J72
5!73
5!74
l5175
85I77
5182 7x450
51837x458
5184 71466
1518571475
516c 71265
516171273
51627128 2
5163 71290
516471299
5165 71307
5i66 71315
51677x324
516871332
51697134'
517071349
7!357
71366
71374
71383
71391
517671399
71408
5x7871416
517971425
518071433
5181
5186 71483
518771492
518871500
5189 71508
0I519071517
5191
519271533
5!93
5194
5195
519671567
5197
5199
5200
5201
5202
5203
5204
5211
52‘3
5214
5216
5219
5220
7i44i
71525
71542
71550
71559
71575
519871584
71592
71600
71609
71617
71625
71634
520571642
5206 71650
520771659
5208 71667
5209
521c
71675
71684
71692
521271700
71709
717*7
521571725
71734
521771742
521871750
71759
71767
D. IN.
5226
5227
C228 7
5229
8^3£
5220
5221
S 2 2 2
5223
5224
52
71817
7x825
1834
7x842
71850
5231 7
5232
5233
5234
5235 7
1858
71867
71875
71883
1892
52367
5237 7
52387
5239
52407
5241
5242
5243
5244
5245
71941
71950
71958
71966
571975
52467
5247 7
52487
5249
5250
5251
5252
5253
5254
i5255
5256
5257
5258
5259
5260
5261
5262
52637
52647
52657
[2667
52677
5268
52697
5270
527‘
5272
5273
5274
5276
5277
5278
5279
528c
Log.
7*767
71775
71784
71792
71800
71809
1900
1908
1917
71925
933
1983
1991
1999
72008
72016
72024
72032
72041
72049
72057'
72066
72074
72082
72090
72099
72107
72115
2123
2132
2140
2148
2156
72165
2173
72181
72189
72198
72206
72214
1527572222
72230
72239
72247
72255
72263
D.
95
96
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
72263
72272
72280
72288
528472296
5285I72304
5 286 '
5287 1
5288
5289
529°
72354
72362
7237°
72378
 72387
5296
5297
5298
5299
5300
N. Lo-f.
72754
72762
72770
72779
72787
72795
540°
5401
5402
73239
73247
,73255.
5353
5354
5355
5301
53° 2
53c3
53°4
53°5
53°6
53°7
53°8
53°9
53IQ
72436
72444
72452
72460
72469
72477
72485
72493
72501
72509
8
72843
.72852
,72860
72868
72876
54°373263
540473272
540517328:
173288
’ 73296
* 733°4
)73312
373320
>_733 28
273336
373344
4 73352
q 73360
5463
ID. IN. .Log.
73719
73727
73735
73743
§ 5464|7375
83465i73759
74663
74671
174679
i74687
574695
5 747°2
JN.
5640
5641
5642
5643
56.44
15 64 5
! 54-66
5467
5468
15469
i 547
73767
73775
73783
7379
73799
5526
5527
5528
5529
553°
74241
74249
742.5
742C
74273
5586
5587
5588
; 5589
( 5s9c
74710
747l8
74726
74733
74741
IjOIJ.
5356
5357
5358
5359
5360
72884
72892
72900
72908
72916
536>
5362
5363
5364
5365
72925
72933
72941
72949
729 >7
54^
541.
5418
54*9
5420
547
5472
5473
15474
i 5475
73807
738*5
73823
73830
73838
73368
73376
73384
73392
73400
15476
5477
542
5422
5423
5424
5425
73846
73854
74280
74288
74296
743°4
743*2
547873862
73870
73878
5479
i 548o
73408
73416
73424
73432
73440
S48*
5482
5483
5484
! 5485
553k
5537
5538
5539
554°
74320
74327
74335
74343
4351
5591
5592
5593
5594
5595
5596
5597
5598
5599
74749
74757
74764
74772
74780
74788
74796
74803
74811
73886
73894
73902
739IC
739*8
536672965
5367 72973
5368
5369
537°
72981
72989
72997
I 5426
I 5427
15428
, 5429
15430
73448
73456
73464
73472
73480
537*
15372
|5373
15374
5375
5431
5432
5433
54S4
5435
73488
73496
735°4
735*2
735 2°
53i6|72558
53*7 72567
53*8 72575
53*9 72583
5320)7 2591
5321
5322
5323
5324
3325
5326
5327
5328
72599
72607
726x4
72624
72632
,73046
' 73°44
i73062
)73070
3 7 5078
5381
5382
5383
5384
5385
73086
730-94
73102
73***
73* ’9
73528
73.536
73544
73552
73 56o
8
53297266'
5330)72673
5386
5387
5388
5389
539°
73*27
73135!
73*43
73*51
7 5*59
533*
5332
5333
5334
533 5
72681
72689
72697
727°5
727*3
1539*
5392
15393
15394
539 5
73568
73576
73584
73592
736
15486
15487
I 5488
5489
I 549°
73926
73933
7394*
73949
73957
> (554* 74359
554274367
5543 74374
5544 74382
5545 7439c
5546 74398
5547 74406
5548744*4
5549 7442*
5550 74429
549*
5492
5493
5494
5495
73965
73973
7398i
73989
74997
555* 74437
555274445
5553 74453
5554 7446*
155^574468
,74005
174013
^ 74020
)74028
374036
5446
5447
5448
5449
5450
7360.8
73616
73624
73632
73640
55o6|74o84
73*67
73*75
73*83
73*9I
73*99
5336
5337
5338
5339
534°
72722
72730
72738
72746
72754
5396
5397
5398
5399
5400
73207
732*5
73223
73231
73239
8
545*
5452
5453
5454
545 S
73648
73656
73664
73672
73679
74044
74052
74060
74068
74076
55°7
5508
5509
55*o
5456
5457
5458
5459
5460
73687
73695
737°3
737*1
737*9
74092
74099
74*07
74**5
74*23
74*3*
74*39
155*474*47
55*5|74*55
[.56001748
5601
5602
5603
, 5604
2 5605
56.4
5652
5653
5654
5655
5656
5657
5658
5659'
5660
57°7
57081
57c91
l57*o
57**'
57*2'
57*3'
{57*4
157*5
57*6'
57*7
57*8
57*9
5720
5556 74476
555774484
5558 74492
5559 74500
,-56074507
556174515
5562 745*3
55637453*
5564 74539
556574547
74827
74834
74842
74850
74858
,74865
74873
1 74881
!74889
,74896
749O4
’749*2
;74920
j74927
74931
>74943
17495°
174958
)74966
>74974.
74981
,74989
5 74997
n5oo5
5750*2
5661
5662
5663
5664
5665
75289
75297
753°5
753*2
75320
5666
5667
5668
5669
5670
75328
75335
75343
7535*
75358
75366
75374
7538’
75389
75397
5676
5677
5678
5679
5680
75404
754*2
75420
75427
75435
5681
5682
5683
5684
5685
556974554
556774562
55687457-
5'569 74578
557074586
557*
5572
5573
5574
5575
74593
74601
74609
746*7
74624
75059
71:066
75°74
75082
75089
74162
74*7o
74178
74x86
74194
5576
5577
5578
5579
5580
74632
74640
74648
74656
74663
563*
5632
5633
5634
5635
5636
5637
5638.. ,
563975*20
564075128
75442
7545°
75458
75465
75473
75481
75488
75496
75504
75511
569
5692
5693
5694
569 S
5736
5737
5738
5739
574°
574*
5742'
5743
5744
5745
755*9
75526
75534
75542
75549
•75937
'75944
*75952
)75959
75967
75974
>75982
5 75989
175997
^ 76005
5696
5697
5698
5699
5700
75557
75565
75572
7558o
75587
N. I Log.
5761
5762
5763
5764
^766176087
5767|76o95
768,76103
69 76110
5770 76x18
5771
5772
773
5774
5775
5776
5777
5778
5779
5780
5781
5782
5783
5784
5785
60J76042
76030
76057
7606 c
,76072
65 76080
I).
N. | Log.
D.
70125
76133
76140
76148
76i55
5786
5787
5788
5789
5790
5820 76492
582176500
5822 76507
582376515
582476522
58 25
7653°
76163
76170
76178
76185
76193
76200
76208
76215
76223
76230
76238
76245
76253
76260
76268
5826
5827
5828
5829
583°
5791
5792
5793
5794
5795
76275
76283
76290
76298
76305
5796
5797
5798
5799
5800
763i3
76320
76328
76335
76343
5801
5802
5803
5804
5805
5806
5807
5808
7635
76358
7636
76373
76380
76537
76545
76552
76559
76567
5831
5832
5833
5834
5835
5836
5837
5838
5839
5840
5841
5842
5843
5844
5845
76574
76582
76589
76597
76604
N. I Log. D.
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
Log
97
588076938
5881
,5882
'5883
I5884
5885
76612
766x9
76626
76634
76641
76649
76656
76664
76671
76678
5846 76686
5847
5848
5849
5850
5851
5852
5853
5854
5855
76388
76395
76403
5809 76410
5810
76418
5811
5812
5813
5814
5815
5816
5817
5818
5819
5820
76425
76433,
76440
76448
76455
76693
76701
76708
76716
5856
5857
5858
5859
5860
5861
76723
76730
76738
76745
76753
76760
76768
76775
76782
76790
76797
5862 76805
5863
76812
5864 76819
5865
76827
76462
76470
76477
76485
76492
5866
5867
5868
5869
5870
76834
7684
76849
76856
76864
5871
5872
5873
5874
5875
7687
76879
76886
76893
7690
5876
5877
5878
Vol. XU. Lart 1.
76908
7691
76923
58797693
588076938
5886
5887
5888
15889
589°
76945
76953
76960
76967
76975
76982
76989
76997
77004
77012
5891
5892
!5893
5894
i5895
77019
77026
77°34
7704
77048
5896
5897
5898
5899
5900
5901
5902
59°3
59°4
59°5
5906
59° 7
5908
59°9
5910
77056
77063
77070
77078
77085
77°93
77100
77I07
771 T5
77122
N.
77x29
77*37
77144
77*5*
77*59
59**
59*2
59*3
59*4
59*5
77166
77*73
77181
77188
77*95
59*6
59*7
59*
59*9
5920
592*
5922
5923
5924
5925
77203
77210
77217
77225
77232
594°
594*
5942
5943
5944
5945
5946
5947
77422
7743°
77437
594977444
595°77452
5948
595* 77459
595277466
5953 77474
5954 7748*
5955 77488
5956 77495
5957 775°3
5958775*G
5959 775*7
596077525
77240
77247
77254
77262
77269
5926
5927
5928
5929
593°
77276
77283
77291
77298
773°5
593*
5932
5933
5934
5935
5936
5937
'5938
5939
594°
773*3
77520
77327
77335
7734
77349
77357
77364
7737*
77379
77379
77386
77393
77401
77408
774*5
596177532
596277539
5963 77546
596477554
59657756
C966 77 568
5967 77576
596877583
596977590
597° 77597
597* 776°5
59727761
5973 776*,
597477627
597577634
5976 7764
597777648
597877656
597977663
59807767
598177677
5982 7768 5
59837769
5984 77699
598577706
5986 777
5987 777
5988 77728
598977735
5990 77743
5991 77750
599277757
599377764
5994 777
5995 77779
599677786
5997 77793
5998778
5999
6000
77808
778
6000
6001
6002
6003
6004
6005
N.
Log.
778*5
77822
77830
77837
77844
7785*
6006
6007
6008
6009
6010
D.
77859
77866
77873
7788c
77887
6011
6012
6013
6014
6015
77895
77902
77909
779*6
77924
6016
6o*7
6018
6019
6020
7793*
77938
77945
77952
77960
602177967
6022 77974
6023 77981
6024 77988
602577996
6026 78003
6027 78010
6028 78017
6029 78025
6030 78032
603178039
6032 78046
603378053
6034 7806
6035 78068
60417811
6042 7811
6043 7812
60447813
6045 78140
603678075
6037 78082
6038 78089
603978097
6040 78104
6046 78147
604778154
6048 7816
6049 78168
6050 78176
605178183
6052
6053
6054
6055
78190
78197
78204
7821
6056
6057
6058
6060
N.
606c
6061
6062
6063
6064
6065
6066
6067
6068
6069
6070
Log.
D.
78247
78254
78262
78269
78276
78283
78290
78297
78305
78312
783*9
6071
6072
6073
6074
6075
6076
6077
6078
607978383
6080 78390
608178398
608278405
6083 78412
6084 78419
6085 78426
78219
78226
78233
605978240
78247
78326
78333
78340
78347
78355
N.
6120
6121
6122
6123
6124
6125
Log. ID.
78675
78682
78689
78696
78704
78711
78362
78369
78376
608678433
6087 78440
6088 78447
608978455
6090 78462
609178469
6092 78476
6093 78483
6094 78490
609578497
16126
6127
6128
6129
I6 * 3°
78718
78725
78732
78739
78746
6131
6132
6*33
6*34
6*35
6096 7*8504
6097 78512
6098 78519
6099 78526
6100 78533
6101 78540
6102 78547
6*03 78554
6104 78561
610578569
6106 78576
6*0778583
6108 78590
610978597
6110 78604
6m 7861
6112 7861
6113 78625
611478633
6115 78640
N.
78753
78760
78767
78774
78781
6180
6181
6136
6137
6138
78789
78796
78803
613978810
6140
6116 78647
6117 78654
6118 78661
6119 78668
6120
78675
8
6141
6142
6*43
6*44
6*45
78817
78824
78831
78838
78845
78852
6146
6*47
6148
6*49
6150
6151
6152
6*53
6*54
6*55
6156
6*57
6158
6*59
6160
78859
78866
78873
8880
78888
78895
78902
78909
78916
78923
6161
6162
6163
6164
6165
78930
78937
78944
7895
78958
78965
7897
78979
78986
78993
6166
6167
6168
6169
6170
79000
79007
79014
7902
79029
6171
6172
6*73
6*74
6*75
6176
6*77
6178
6*79
6180
N
79036
79043
79050
79°57
79064
Log. ID.
79099
79106
6182 79113
6183 79120
618479127
6*8579*34
6191
618679141
6187 79148
618879155
6189 79162
6190 79169
79*76
^619279183
'16103
93 79*9°
6*9479*97
619579204
6196
6197
6198
6*99
7921
79218
79225
7923
6201
6202
6203
6200 79239
79246
79253
79260
6204 79267
620579274
6206
6207
6208
6209
6210
79281
79288
79295
79302
79309
6211
6212
6213
6214
6215
6216
6217
6218
6219
6220
6221
6222
6223
6224
6225
79°7
79078
79085
79092
79099
79316
79323
7933°
79337
79344
7935*
79358
79365
79372
79379
79386
79393
79400
79407
794*4
6226
6227
6228
6229
6230
7942
79428
79435
79442
79449
6231
6232
6233
6234
6235
6236
6237
6238
6239
6240
79456
79463
79470
79477
79484
7949
79498
79505
795*
795*
logarithms of numbers.
6240 7951k
6241
6242
6243
6244
6241;
6246
Lop\
D.
79525
79552
79539
79546
79553
7956°
6247 79567
6248
6249
79574
795Sl
N.
630c
6301
6302
63°S
-16304
^6305
IToj^rTOjjN.
79935
79941
79948
79955
79962
79969
6250 79588
62 ;i
6252
6253
6254
79595
79602
79609
79616
I6306
6307
6308
79975
7998
79989
7 i6311
' 6212
6255 79623
6256 79630
625779637
6238 79644
62597965°
6260 79657
6261
6262
6263
6264
6265
6266
6267
79664
7967
79678
79685
79692
79699
79706
79720
79727
6268 79713
6269
6270
627 i
6272
6273
6274
6275
79734
79741
79748
79754
7976
I63C979996
[6310 80003
6360
6361
6362
6363
6364
IjOh.
D
80346
8°353
80359
80366
80373
l 636580380
6366
6367
-16368
(6369
/I6370
80010
16312 80017
j6313 80024
16314 80030
6315 80037
631680044
7 7 80051
7 631880058
0'6319 80065
80387
80393
80400
80407
80414
63711804:
7 '
21
16372180428
Vj 637380434
I637480441
7 6^,5:8.448
7
6 3 20
80072
6321
6322
6323
6324
6325
6276
6277
6278
6279
6280
79768
79775
79782
79789
79796
6281
6282
6283
6284
79803
79810
79817
79824
6286
6287
6288
628 5 798 31
6327
6328
N.
642c
6421
6422
6423
7 6424
7 6425
*7 642880808
1 6429
2 643
6376;8o455
6377J80462
^ 6378,80468
6379l8o475
6380180482
80079
80085
80092
80099
80106
632680113
80120
80127
632980134
6330 80140
633180147
16332 80154
6333 80161
6334 80168
6335801
6336 80182
6337 80188
6338 80195
16339 80202
1634080209
79^37
79844
7985
6289 79858
.6290I7986 5
6291
6292
6293
6294
6295
6296
6297
6298
6299
79872
79879
79886
79893
79900
70906
79913
9920
79927
630079934
56341 80216
6342 80223
16343 80229
6344 80236
7 634s80243
6381580489
6382580496
6383I80502
638480509
6385:80516
638680523
6387
6388
6389
6390
6391
6392
6393
6394
6395 80584
80530
80536
8054*
80550
6426
6427
643
643
Log.
D.
80754
80760
80767
80774
80781
80787
80794
80801
80814
80821
6433 8084
6434 80848
643580835
8082a
80835
- 6436
I 6437
, 6438
l 6439
6440 8
6441
6442
- 6443
7,6444
80862
80868
80875
80882
889
N.
648c 81x58
648181164
648281171
6483 81178
6484 81184
648581191
Log.
D.
648681198
6487 81 204
6488 81 211
6489 81218
649c 81 224
649181231
649281238
649381245
l 64948x251
7 649581258
6
7
7
N.
Log.
D
654061558
6 341 81564
654281571
6543 8i578
654481584
6 345 81391
6546 81398
6547 81604
6548 81611
654981617
65 30 81624
6445 80922
80557
80564
80 570
80577
6306
6397
6398
- 63998
7 6400
80591
80598
80604
611
80618
6401
7 64048:645
7 6403 *
6346 80250
6347 802 37
634880264
6349 80271
7 633080277
^6351 80284
716352 80291
7 6353 80298
7:635480305
7 635580312
6356 0318
633780325
635880332
6359
6360
80339
80346
6403
?!
I 6446
7 6447
6448
; 6449
7 6450
7
7
6
7
80895
8*0902
80909
80916
6451
80929
80936
80943
80949
80956
7 641:5 8099
80625
6402 80632
80638
80632
6453
6454
6406 80639
6407 80665
6408 80672
6409 80679
6410 80686
6411 80693
6412 80699
7 6413 80706
’641480713
’16413 80720
6416 80726
6417 8-'733
641880740
641980747
6420
80754
649681265
6497 81271
6498 81278
649981285
30081291
? 6
80963
645280969
80976
80983
6456 80996
645781003
6458 81010
645981017
6460
6461
81023
81030
6467
6468
6462 81037
646381043
6464 81050
6463 810:7
6466 81064
81070
81077
’ 6469 81084
647c
81090
6471
647;
1P473 8
6474 8
81097
81104
(6476
Sin
1x7
1647 381124
81.31
650181298
650281305
6503 81311
650481318
6305181325
’ 6
7
6
7
7
7
650681331
650781338
650881345
650981351
51081338
6311 81365
651281371
65I38l378
651481385
63i58l39l
6516,81398
1 631781405
7 6518,81411
6519J81418
6 520181425
7S6
7
6
7
7
6
7
71
6
7
7
6
7
7
6.
1
7
6
7
7
6
6521
6522
6523
6524
8I431
81438
8'445
8145
7 652581458
6526 81465
6527 81471
7 652881478
652981485
6530 8149
^64778*137
7;64788ri44
" 647981151
'6480 81158
J655181631
55281637
6553 81644
165548165
655581657
6556 81664
655781671
6558 81677
6559 81684
6 560 81690
N.
6600
6601
6602
6603
6604
6605
660681994
6607
6608
Lou.
81954
81961
81968
81974
81981
81987
82000
82007
6609 8^014
6610
6611
6612
82020
82027
82033
6613 82040
6614 82046
I661582053
656
6 562
6563
6564
656 5
81697
81704
81710
1717
81723
6566
6567
656881743
656981750
657081757
81730
8i737
657181763
657281770
’ 6 573 81776
"657481783
!6575 8{79°
6576 81796
6577 81803
6578 81809
657981816
658081823
658181829
’ 658281836
6583 81842
6584 81849
6585 81856
653181498
65328i5°5
653381511
-,6534 815*8
’165^ 58152c
65368158'
653781538
6538,81544
653981551
654081558
658681862
6587 81869
658881875
6589 81882
90 81889
659181895
659281902
6 593 81908
65948191
659581921
6 596 81928
6597|8i935
6598,81941
’ 6 599 81948
’ :66oo 81954
>6616
6617 82066
6618 82073
661982079
6620
82060
6621
6622
6623
6624
82086
82092
82099
82105
8211
i6625 82119
662082125
1662782132
16628 82138
'I662982145
663082151
16631 82158
” 663282164
1663382171
663482178
516635 82184
6660
6661
6662
6663
6664
6665 82380
JSi.
82347
82354
82360
82367
82373
6666
6667
6668
6669
667c
0671
Log.
I).
82387
82393
82400
82406
82413
82419
667282426
667382432
6674
6675
82439
82445
’ 668c
6676
82452
6678
6677 82458
82465
667982471
82478
6681 82484
668282491
6683
6684
663682191
663782197
663882204
663982210
I664082217
82497
82504
6685«25io
0686
6687
668882530
668982536
669:
82517
82523
82543
6691
6692
6694
6695
6697
664182223
’6642 8223
6643 82236
664482243
664582249
6646822 50
6647 82263
6648 82269
664982276
2 665082282
665182289
665282295
6653 82502
665482308
[665582315
6 i
82549
82556
6699
669382562
82569
82575
669682582
82588
669882595
82601
670c 82607
;6701
6702
6703
^704
82614
82620
82627
82633
[6705 82640
6706
i6 7 .
6708
6709
671
665682321
[665782328
[665882334
1,66598234
0 6660 82347
67
6712
671
671682711
8 2646
7 82653
82659
82666
82672
82679
8 2685
6713 82692
671482698
82705
6717
6718
82718
82724
, 671982730
|6720|82737
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
99
N.
6720
6721
722
6723
6724
6725
6726
6727
6728
672982795
673082802
6731
6732
6733
673482827
673S
82840
82847
673882853
6736
6737
6739
6740
6741
6742
6743
6744
6745
6746
L0£.
82737
82743
82750
827 56
82763
82769
D.
82776
82782
82789
82808
82814
82821
82834
82860
82866
82872
82879
82885
82892
82898
82905
6747 82911
6748
6749
6750
82918
82924
82930
6751
6752
6753
6754
6755
82937
82943
82950
82956
82963
6756
6757
6758
6759
676
6761
6762
6763
6764
6765
6766
6767
6768
6769
6770
677
6772
6773
6774
677
6776
6777
6778
6779
82969
82975
82982
82988
82995
8300
83008
83oi4
83020
83027
83033
8304c
83046
8305
83059
83065
8307
83078
83085
8309
83097
83i°4
8311
8311
678083123
N.
6780
678
6782
6783
6784
6785
%3l23
83129
83*36
83142
83*49
83*55
6786
J6787
’|6<7f
6789
679
6791
6792
6793
6794
679 c
Log. |D.
83*61
83168
83*74
83*81
83*87
83*93
83200
83206
83213
83219
6796
6797
6798
83225
83232
83238
679983245
680083251
6801
6802
6803
6804
6805
83257
83264
83270
83276
8328
6806
6807
6808
6809
6810
83289
83296
83302
83308
833*5
6811
6812
6813
6814
6815
6816
6817
6818
681
6820
6821
6822
6823
6824
6825
6826
6827
6828
6829
6830
6831
6832
6833
683483467
6840
6841
6842
6843
6844
6845
684683544
6847
6S48
6849
685
85*
6852
6853
6854
68 5!,
6856
6857
6858
6859 83626
686083632
6861
6862
686
6864 83658
83321
83327
83334
83340
83347
83353
8.3359
83366
8337
83378
83385
83391
83398
8340,
8^41
834*7
83423
83429
83436
83442
83443
83455
83461
6835
6836
6837
6838
6839
6840
83474
83480
83487
83493
83499
83506
N.
Log.
D.
83506
835*2
83518
83525
8353*
83537
83550
83556
83563
83569
83575
83582
83588
83594
83601
83607
83613
8362c
83639
83645
8365*
6865
83664
6866
6867
6868
83670
83677
83683
687c
6871
6872
6873
6874
6875
6869 83689
83696
83702
83708
837*5
83721
83727
6876
6877
6878
6879
6880
6881
6882
6883
6884
688 s
6886
6S87
6888
6889
6890
6891
6892
6893
6894
6895
6896
6897
6898
6899
690
^3734
83740
83746
83753
83759
8376
8377
8377s
83784
83790
83797
8380
83809
83816
83822
83828
83835
83841
83847
83853
83860
83866
83872
83879
83885
N.
6900
6901
6902
6903
6904
6905
6906
6907
6908
6909
6910
Log.
83885
83891
83897
83904
8391c
83916
83923
83929
83935
83942
83948
6911
6912
69*3
69*4
69*5
83954
83960
83967
83973
83979
6916
6917
6918
6919
6920
6921
6922
6923
D.
83985
83992
83998
84004
84011
84017
84023
84029
6924 84036
6925
84042
6926
6927
6928
6929
6930
84048
84055
84061
84067
84073
693*
6932
6933
6934
6935
6936
6937
6938
6939
694
694*
6942
6943
6944
6945
6946
6947
6948
6949
6950
695*
695
6953
6954
84080
84086
84092
84098
84105
84111
84117
84*23
84130
84136
84142
84148
84*55
84161
84167
84*73
8418
84186
84192
84198
84205
84211
84217
84223
695584230
6956184256
695784242
6958:84248
6959j84255
6960184261
6960
6961
6962
6963
6964
6965
6966
6967
6968
6969
6970
N.
697*
6972
6973
6974
6975
Log.
84261
84267
84273
84280
84286
84292
84298
84305
84311
843*7
84323
84330
84336
84342
84348
84354
6976
6977
6978
6979
6980
84361
84367
84373
84379
84386
6981
6982
6983
6984
6985
6986
6987
6988
6989
6990
84392
84398
84404
84410
844*7
84423
84429
84435
84442
84448
6991
6992
6993
6994
6995
6996
6997
6998
6999
7000
7001
7002
7003
70
7005
7006
7007
7008
7009
7010
7011
7012
7°*3
7014
70*5
7016
7017
7018
7019
7020
84454
8446c
84466
84473
84479
8448
84491
8449
84504
84510
84516
84522
84528
8453
8454
84547
84553
84559
84566
8457
84578
84584
84590
84597
84603
84609
8461
8462
84628
84634
N.
7020
7021
7022
7023
7024
7025
7026
7027
7028
7029
7030
Log.
84634
8464c
84646
84652
84658
84665
84671
84677
84683
84689
84696
703*
7032
7033
7C34
7035
7036
7037
7038
7039
7040
704*
7042
7°43
7044
7045
7046
7047
7048
7049
7050
705*
7052
7053
7054
7055
84702
84708
847*4
84720
84726
84733
84739
84745
8475*
84757
D.
84763
8477c
84776
84782
84788
84794
84800
84807
84813
84819
84825
84831
84837
84844
84850
7056
7057
7058
7059
7060
7061
7062
7063
7064
7065
7066
7067
7068
7069
7070
7071
7072
7073
7074
7075
7076
7°77
7078
7079
7080
84856
84862
84868
84874
84880
84887
84893
84899
84905
84911
84917
84924
84930
84939
84942
84948
84954
84960
84967
84973
84979
84985
84991
84997
85003
N.
7080
7081
7082
7083
7084
7085
85003
8 5009
85016
85022
85028
85034
7086
7087
7088
7089
709c
85040
85046
85052
85058
85065
7091
7092
7093
7°94
7095
8 5071
85077
85083
85089
85095
7096
7097
7098
7099
7100
85101
85107
85*14
85120
85126
7101
7102
7*03
7*04
7*05
85*32
85*38
85*44
85150
85*56
7106
7*07
7108
7*09
7110
7111
7112
7**3
7**4
7**5
7116
7**7
7118
7**9
7120
7121
7122
7*23
7124
712
7126
127
7128
7*29
7130
7*3*
7*3
7*33
7*34
7*35
Log.
D.
85163
85169
85*75
85181
85*87
85193
85*99
85205
85211
85217
8 C224
85230
85236
85242
85248
85254
85260
85266
8 5272
85278
85285
8529
85297
85303
85309
853*5
8532
85327
85333
85339
7136
7*37
7*38
7*39
7*4°
85345
8535
85358
85364
85370
N.
7*40
7*4*
7*42
7*43
7*44
*45
7*46
7*47
7*48
7*49
7150
7*5*
7*52
7*53
7*54
7*55
Log.
85370
85376
85382
85388
85394
85400
D
8 5406
854*2
85418
85425
8543*
85437
85443
85449
85455
85461
7*56
7*57
7158
7*59
7160
85467
85473
85479
85485
85491
7161
7.162
7*63
7*64
7165
7*7i
7172
7*73
7*74
7*75
7176
7*77
7178
7*79
7180
7166
7*67
7168
7169
7*70
85497
85503
85509
855*6
85522
815528
85534
85540
85546
85552
85558
85564
85570
85576
85582
85588
85594
85600
85606
85612
7181
7182
7*83
7*84
7‘85
7186
7*87
7188
85618
85625
8563*
85637
85643
85649
85655
85661
718985667
719085673
7*91
17192
!7*93
(7*94
17*95
85679
85685
8 5691
85697
85703
17*96
7*97
17*98
I7
200
85709
8 s 7 * 5
85721
719985727
85733
ICO
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N. | Log.
7200
7201
7202
7203
85733
85739
85745
85751
N. Log. |D.|| N. Log. D,
720485757
I720585763
720685769
7207
7208
7209
7210
85775
85781
85788
85794
7211
7212
7213
7214
7215
I7216
7217
7218
721
7220
85800
85806
85812
85818
85824
85830
85836
85842
985848
85854
7221
7222
7223
7224
7225
J7226
7227
7228
8586c
85866
85872
85878
85884
85890
85896
8590
722985908
723085914
723J
7232
j7233
7234
7235
7236
7237
85920
85926
8593
85938
85944
8595^
85956
72388596
7239 85968
724085974
,>7260 86094
J726186100
7262 86106
7263 86112
7264 86x18
7265 86124
7266 86130
7267 86136
7268 S614
7269 86147
727086153
7271 86159
7272 86165
7273 86171
7274 86177
727 586x83
7276 86189
7277 86195
7278 86201
7279 86207
728c 8621
7281 86219
7282 86225
7283 8623
7284 86237
728586243
7286 86249
7287 86255
7288 8626
7289 86267
7290 86273
729186279
7292 86285
7293 8629
7294 86297
7295 8630
7241
7242
85980
85986
724385992
I724485998
7245 86004
7246
7247
17248
86010
86016
86022
724986028
17250 86034
7296 86308
7297 8631
7298 86320
7299 86326
86451
86457
! 86463
5 86469
[86475
5 86481
186487
86493
732886499
7329
733°
7331
7332
7333
7334
7335
N.
7380
7381
7382
7383
7336
7337
7338
7339
734°
86 504
86510
865I6
86522
86528
86534
86540
86546
86552
86558
86564
86 570
86570
8658]
86587
86593
86599
7385
Log.
D.
86806
86812
86817
86823
738486829
86835
7386
7387
7346
7347
7348
7349
735°
73°°
73°I
7302
73°3
73°4
73° 5
86332
86338
86344
8635°
86356
86362
7306
73°7
7308
73°9
73to
7251
7252
7253
7254
[7255
86040
86046
86052
86058
86064
7256
;7257
7258
7259
7260
86368
86374
86380
86386
86392
86070
86076
86082
86088
86094
7311
7312
73x3
73x4
7315
7316
73x7
7318
7319
7320
86398
86404
86410
8641
86421
86427
86433
86439
86445
8645
86605
8661
8661
86623
866 29
86635
86641
86646
866'5'
86658
86664
8667c
86676
8668:
86688
86841
86847
7388 86853
738986859
739c 86864
739186870
7392 86876
7393 86882
739486888
739586894
7396 86900
7397 86906
7398 8691
739986917
740086923
7401 86929
740286935
7403 8694
7404 86947
740586953
N.
744°
7441
7442
7443
7444
7445
7447
7448
7449
Log.
87x57
87163
87169
87I75
87181
87186
D
7446 87192
87198
87204
87210
745087216
745x87221
745287227
7453 87233
7454 87239
745.^ 87245
745687251
745787256
7458 87262
7459 87268
7460 87274
7406 86958
7407 86964
7408 86970
7409 86976
7410 86982
7411 86988
7412 86994
74x386999
741487005
7415 87011
7361
7362
7363
86694
86700
86705
736486711
736586717
7 366
7367
7368
86723
86729
86735
7416 87017
7417 8702c
7418 87029
741987035
7420 87040
746187280
7462 87286
7463 87291
746487297
746587303
7421 87046
742287052
742387058
7424
7425
87064
87070
736986741
186747
86753
86759
_86764
737486770
737586776
7426
7427
7428
7429
1743°
87°75
87081
87087
87093
87099
617431
7432
7433
7376 86782
7377
7378
7379
7380
86788
86794
86800
86806
87x05
87111
87116
N.
7500
7501
7502
7503
7504
7505
Log.
D.
87 506
87512
87518
87523
87529
87535
7506
7507
7508
7509
75x°
87541
87547
87552
87558
87564
746687309
7467 873x5
7468 87320
746987326
747c 87332
747187338
747287344
7473 87349
7474 87355
747587361
7511
7512
75x3
75x4
7 515
87570
87576
87581
87587
87593
75l6
751?
75l8
75x9
7520
7521
7522
7523
7524
7525
747687367
7477 87373
7478 87379
747987384
7480 87390
748187396
7482 87402
7483 87408
748487413'
7481; 87419
87599
87604
87610
7616
87622
7526
7527
7528
7529
753°
753
7532
7533
7534
7535
87628
7633,
87639
87645
87651
N.
7560
7561
7562
7563
7564
7565
87852
87858
87864
87869
87875
87881
7566
7567
7568
7569
757°
87656
87662
87668
87674
87679
7571
7572
7573
7574
7575
7577
7578
7579
7580
87685
87691
87697
87703
87708
7536
7537
7538
7539
754°
7486
7487
7488
7489
749°
743487122
743587128
6
6
6
6
6
617493
87425
87431
87437
87442
87448
7491
7492
7436:87134
743787140
,7438 87146
!743987i5i
744087157
7494
7495
87454
8746c
87466
87471
87477
7496
7497
7498
7499
7500
87483
87489
87495
87500
87506
7541
7542
|7543
7544
7545
6
Log.
D.
87887
87892
87898
87904
87910
879x5
87921
87927
87933
87938
757687944
87950
87955
7961
87967
7581
7582
7583
7584
7585
87973
87978
87984
87990
87996
7586
7587
7588
7589
59c
759
7592
7593
7594
595
87714
8772c!
87726
87731
87737
87743
87749
87754
87760
87766
7546
7547
7548
7549
17556
7596
7597
7598
7599
7600
87772
87777
87783
87789
87795
7551
7552
7553
7554
87800
87806
87812
87818
755587823
755687829
7557
7558
7559
7560
87835
87841
87846
87852J
N.
88001
88007
88013
88018
88024
88030
88036
88041
88047
88053
7620
7621
7622
7623
7624
7625
88195
88201
88207
88213
88218
88224
7626
7627
7628
7629
7630
88058
88064
88070
88076
88081
7631
7632
7633
7634
7635
L°g.
D.f
88230
88235
88241
88247
88252
88258
88264
88270
88275
88281
7636
7637
7638
7639
7640
7641
7642
7643
7644
7645
7601
7602
7603
7604
7605
88087
88093
88098
88104
88110
88287
88292
88298
88304
88309
88315
88321
88326
88332
88338
764688343
764788349
764888355
7649 88360
76 50 88366
76518837
765288377
765388383
765488389
7655 88395
7656 88400
7657 88406
7658 88412
765988417
766088423
6
6
6
•5
6j
6
•5
6
6
•5
T
6
6
5
6
6
■5
6
6
5
6
6
4
6
6
4
6
6
4
6
6
4
6
6
6
4
6
6
7606
7607
7608
7609
7610
88116
88121
88127
88134
88138
7611
7612
7613
7614
76^5
88144
88150
88156
88161
88167
766188429
7662 88434
7663 88440
766488446
7665 88451
7666 88457
7667 88463
766888468
7669
7670
88474
88480
7616
7617
7618
7619
7620
88173
88178
88184
88190
88195
7671
7672
7673
7674
7675
88485
88491
88497
8850
88508
7676 885
7677
7678
7679
768c
8851
88525
8853
88536
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
7680
^Sx
7682
7683 88553
768488559
7685
7686
7687
7688
7689 88587
7690
7691
7692
7693
7694
7695
7696
7697
7698
7699
7700
7701
7702
77°3
77°4
77°5
7706
77°7
7708
77°9
7710
Log.
88536
88542
88547
88564
88570
88576
8858
D.
88593
88598
88604
88610
88615
8862
88627
88632
88638
88642
88649
88655
88660
88666
88672
88677
7711
7712
7713
77M
7M
7716
7717
7718
7719
7720
88683
88689
88694
88700
88705
88711
88717
88722
88728
88734
88739
88745
88750
88756
88762
7721
7722
7723
7724
7725
7726
7727
7728
7729
773°
7731
7732
7733
7734
7735
7736
7737
7738
7739
7740
N. I
D.
774c 88874
88880
88885
88891
88897
88902
774J
7742
7743
7744
7745
7746
7747
7748
7749
775°
7751
7752
7753
7754
7755
7756
7757
7758
7759
7760
88908
88913
88919
88925
88930
88936
88941
88947
88953
88958
88964
88969
88975
88981
88986
7761
7762
7763
7764
7765
7766
7767
7768
88992
88997
89003:
89009
89014
89020
89025
89031
776989037
7770 89042
7771
7772
7773
7774
7775
89048
89°53
89059
89064
8907c
88767
88773
88779
88784
88790
7776
7777
7778
7779
7780
88795
88801
88807
88812
88818
88824
88829
88835
88840
88846
88852
88857
88863
88868
88874
7781
7782
7783
7784
7785
89076
80081
89087
89092
89098
7786
7787
7788
7789
7790
7791
7792
7793
7794
7791'
89104
89109
89115
89120
89126
89131
89i37
89!43
89148
89i54
7800
7801
7802
7803
7804
7805
N.
Loir.
89209
89215
8922I
89226
89232
89237
7807
7808
7809
781G
89*59
89165
89170
89176
89182
779689187
7797
7798
7799
7800
7811
7812
7813
7814
7815
780689243
89248
89254
89260
89265
D
89271
89276
89282
89287
89293
7816 89298
7817 89304
781889310
78i9893i5
7820 8932
782189326
782289332
782389337
782489343
782589348
89*93
89198
89204
89209
7826 893 54
7827 89360
7828 89365
78298937
783089376
783189382
783289387
783389393
783489398
783589404
783689409
783789415
783889421
783989426
784089432
784189437
784289443
784389448
784489454
784589459
7846 89465
784789470
7848 89476
784989481
785089487
785189492
785289498
785389504
785489509
7855895x5
7856 89520
785789526
785889531
785989537
7860 89542
N.
7860
7861
7862
7863
7864
7865
89542
89548
89553
89559
89564
8957c
7866
7867
7868
7869
7870
7871
7872
Lo<
D.
89575
89581
89586
89592
89597
89603
89609
787389614
7874 89620
787589625
7876
7877
7878
89631
89636
89642
787989647
788089653
7881
7882 89664
7883
7884
7885
7886
7887
7888
7889
789c
89658
89669
89675
89680
89686
89691
89697
89702
89708
7891
789:
7893
7894
789
7896
7897
7898
7899
790c
7901
7902
79°3
7904
79°5
7906
7907
897*3
89719
89724
8973°
89735
8974*
89746
89752
89757
89763
89768
89774
89779
89785
8979c
89796
89801
7908 89807
89812
8981
79°9
7910
7911
912
79*3
79*4
79*5
79*6
79*7
79*8
79*9
7920
89823
89829
89834
89840
89845
89851
89856
89862
89867
89873
JN.
7920
7921
7922
7923
7924
7925
Log.
U
89873
89878
89883
89889
89894
8990c
792689905
7927
7928
7929
793°
89911
89916
89922
89927
793*
7932
7933
7934
7935
89933
89938
89944
89949
89955
7936
7937
7938
794189988
794289993
7943 89998
7944 900°4
7945 90009
89960
89966
89971
793989977
7940 89982
794690015
7947 90020
7948 90026
79499003
795090037
7951 90042
795290048
7953 90053
7954 90059
7955 90°64
7956 90069
7957 90075
7958 90080
7959 90086
7960 90091
7961 90097
796290102
7963 90108
796490113
7965 90119
7966 90124
7967 90129
796890135
7969 90140
797090146
797*90151
797290*57
797390*62
797490168
7975 9°* 73
797690179
797790184
7978 90189
797990*95
7980 90200
7980
7981
7982
7983
7984
7985
N.
7986
7987
Log.
90200
90206
90211
9021 7
90222
90227
90233
90238
798890244
7989 90249
7990 90255
7991
7992
7993
7994
7995
9026c
90266
90271
90276
9028
7996 90287
90293
90298
90304
9°3°9
7997
7998
7999
8000
8001
8002
8003
8004
8005
8006
8007
8008
8009
8010
8011
8012
8013
8014
8015
8016
8017
8018
8019
8020
9°3*4
90320
90325
9°33*
90336
90342
9°347
9°352
90358
90363
90369
90374
90380
90385
90390
90396
90401
90407
90412
90417
8021
8022
8023
8024
8025
90423
90428
90434
90439
90445
8026
8027
8028
8029
8030
8031
8032
8033
803490493
803590499
8036
8337
8038
8039
8040
90450
90455
90461
90466
90472
90477
90482
90488
90504
90509
905*5
9.9520
90526
804c
8041
8042
8043
8044
8045
90 526
9053*
90536
90542
90547
9°553
8046
8047
8048
8049
8050
8051
8052
8053
8054
8055
8056
8057
8058
8059
6
Log.
D
90558
90563
90569
90574
9058c
90585
9059c
90596
90601
90607
90612
90617
90623
90628
90634
8061
8062
8063
8064
8065
90639
90644
90650
90655
90660
8066
8067
8068
8069
8070
90666
9067
90677
90682
90687
8071
8072
8073
8074
8075
8076
8077
8078
8079
8080
8081
8082
8083
8084
8085
8086
8087
8088
8089
809
8091
8092
8093
8094
8095
8096
8097
8098
8099
8100
90693
90698
90703
90709
907*4
90720
90725
90730
90736
90741
90747
90752
90757
90763
90768
90773
90779
90784
90^789
90795
90800
90806
90811
90816
90822
90827
90832
90838
90843
90849
JN. Log. L>.
8lOC 90849
8101 90854
8102 90859
8103 90865
8104 90870
810390875
a106 90881
8107 90886
8108 90891
8109 90897
8110 90902
811190907
8112 90913
8113 90918
8114 90924
811590929
811690934
8117 90940
811890945
811990950
8120 90956
8121 90961
812290966
8123 90972
812490977
8125 90982
8126 90988
812790993
8128 90998
8129 91004
8130 91009
8131 91014
8132 91020
813391025
813491030
8<359*°36
813691041
8137 91046
8138 91052
8*399*057
8140 91062
8141 91068
814291073
8143 91078
8144 91084
8145 91089
8146 91094
8147 91100
814.8 91105
814991110
815091116
8151 91121
815291126
8i53 9**32
, 8i549**37
8155 9**42
: 815691148
; 81579**53
. 8158911 $8
; 81599**64
816091169 0
In p-~n On Q\t^ Oi CMn On ON In CMn OMn Cr, OMn In ON In In OMn In ONOi In Q\^ Oi Q\ ^ Qv, ^r, Lr, CMn On—C' ’^r' .^0
102
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N.
3160
3161
8165
8166
8167
8168
91201
91206
91212
816991217
8170 91222
817191228
817291233
8i739I238
817491243
817591249
817691254
817791259
817891265
817991270
818091275
8181
8182
Log.
D.
91169
91x74
816291180
816391185
816491190
91196
8220
9i487
^8221 91492
N.
8222
8223
^ 8
8186
8187
8188
Log. |D.
9x498
9I5°3
8224 91508
8225
822691519
822791524
8228 91529
822991535
230 9154c
9I5I4
N.
8231 91545
5 82329x551
5 823391556
^ 823491561
8235
8236
8237
91566
9I572
9X577
91281
91286
8183 91291
818491297
8185 91302
91307
9I312
91318
818991323
819091328
8191
8193
8194
8195
91334
824691624
8247 91630
824891635
824991640
8250 91645
819291339
9r344
9I35°
9I855
8196 91360
81979x365
81989x371
819991376
820091381
820191387
820291392
820391397'
820491403
8 20 5)91408
820691413
8207 91418
8208 91424
8209
8210
8211
8212
91429
91434
91440
91445
8213 91450
821491455
8215 9146
8216 91466
8217 91471
8218 91477
8219 91482
822091487
823891582
823991587
824091593
824191598
8242 91603
8243 91609
824491614
8245 91619
825
8252
8253
8254
9i65
91656
91661
91666
825591672
8296 91887
5 8297 91892
r 8298 91897
829991903
8300 91908
Log. L).
828091803
8281 91808
8282 91814
8283 91819
828491824
8285 91829
8280 91834
8287 91840
828891845
828991850
829091855
8291 91861
8292 91866
8293 91871
8294
8295
N.
91876
91882
8256 91677
8257 91682
8258 91687
825991693
8260 91698
Log.
D.
834° 92i17
8341 92122
’834292127
8343 92132
834492137
|8345 92143
8346
8347
8348
92148
92I53
92158
834992i63
835092169
835192174
835292179
8353 92184
8354 92189
8355 92I95
830191913
830291918
83°3 9i924
8504 01929
83059i934
8306 01040
83°79,944
83°89i950
83°99,955
83 lo 91960
8311
83x2
9i965
9x9
8261 91703
826291709
826391714
826491719
8264 91724
8266I91730
826791735
826891740
826991745
82709175x1
9I756
91761
91766
91772
8271
8272
8273
8274
827^91777
8276
8277
8278
8279
8280
91782
91787
9L793
91798
91803
831391976
83i491981
831591986
831691991
83i79'997
8318 92002
831992007
832092012
8321
8322
8323
8324
92018
92023
92028
92033
832592038
8326
8327
18328
92044
92049
92054
8330
8331
8332
N. | Log.
D.
8356 92200
835792205
8358 92210
835992215
836092221
840c 92428
8401
8402
8403
8404
8405
8406
8407
92433
92438
92443
92449
92454
8460
8461
92459
92464
836192226
836292231
836392236
836492241
836592247
8306 92252
836792257
8368 92262
8369
92267
837092273
8371
8372
92278
92283
; 8374
5J8375
832992O59
92065
9207
92075
833392080
833492085
833592C91
8336
8337
8338
92096
92101
92106
8339 92111
834092117
8376
8377
840892469
840992474
841092480
841192485
841292490
84!392495
8414 92500
841592505
837392288
92293
92298
92304
92309
8378923x4
8379
8380
92319
92324
8381
8382
8383
8384
8385
92330
92335
92340
92345
92350
838692355
8387 92361
8388 92366
%3%99*3V
839092376
N.
8462 92747
92752
92758
92163
8466
8467
8468 92778
8416 92511
841792516
8418 92521
8419 92526
842092531
842192536
8422 92542
842392547
842492552
842592557
8426 92562
842792567
8428 92572
8429 92578
843092583
8469
8470
5
5
a! 8463
J 8464
^8465
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
6
5
5
5
5
5
Log.
92737
92742
92768
92773
8471
8472
8473
8474
8475
92783
92788
92793
92799
92804
92809
92814
8476
8477
8478
92819
92824
92829
847992834
8431
8432
8433
8434
8435
8436
8437
839192381
839292387
8393
839492397
92392
8395
8396
8397
8398
92402
8438 92624
92588
92593
92598
92603
92609
8480
8481
8482
8483
8484
8485
92840
8520
8521
8522
8523
8524
8525
5r 853c93095
92845
92850
92855
92860
92865
92614
92619
848692870
8487 92875
84889288
8489
8490
92886
92891
8491
8492
8493
8439
8440
92629
92634
S441
8442
8443
8444
92639
92645
02650
92655
8445 92660
8446
8447
8448
8449
92407
92412
92418
839992423
8400
92428
92665
92670
92675
9268
8450 92686
845*
92691
845292696
8453
92701
845492706
8455
8456927x6
8457
8458
8459
8460
92896
92901
92906
849492911
8495 92916
8496
8497
8498
8499
8500
>50J
92921
92927
92932
92937
92942
N.
8526
8528
8529
Log.
93044
93049
93054
93059
93064
93069
93075
85279308c
93c85
93090
8531
8532
8583
03100
93I05
93110
8536
8537
853493ii5
8535
93120
93125
93I3I
853893*36
853993*4i
854093146
854*
8542
8543
8544
8545
9315I
93*56
93161
03166
93171
3546
8547
8548
8551
8552
8553
8554
92947
850292952
8503
8504
92957
92962
92711
92722
92727
92732
92737
j(8 506
8507
850592967 £
855593222
93*76
93x81
93*86
. 854993*92
, 855093197
93 202
93207
93212
932*7
855693227
855793232
855893237
855993242
856093247
92973
92978
8508 92983
8509
8510
8511
851293003
85*393008
92988
92993
92998
856193252
856293258
856393263
856493268
8565I93273
I 856693278
8567
5 8568
'"856993293
85*4
85*5
930*3
930*8
85*6
85*7
85*9
8520
93024
93029
85*893034
93039
93044
93283
93288
N.
8580
8581
8582
93349
93354
93359
8584
8585
8586
8587
858893389
5 8589
r 8590
Log.
D.
858393364
93369
93374
93379
93384
93394
93399
. 859*
3 8592
3 S8593
3 |85949342o
318595 93425
93404
93409
934*4
8596
8597
8598
8599
860c
9343°
93435
93440
93445
9345°
8601
8602
8603
I8604
93455
03460
93465
9347°
318605 93475
860693480
860793485
860893490
860993495
8610
935oo
8611
8612
8613
8614
93505
935*o
935*5
93520
861593526
861693531
861793536
8618 93541
3 861993546
862093551
8626
857093298
857*93303
857293308
r 8573
3 8574
857593323
933*3
933*8
862193556
862293561
8623 93566
862493571
862593576
9358i
8627 93 586
862893591
857693328
8577
8578
8579
8580
93334
93339
93344
93349
8629
8630
8631
8632
93596
93601
93606
936*1
8633 93616
863493621
863593626
8636
8637
8638
8639
9363*
93636
9364*
93646
6 86409365
LOGARITHMS OF NUMBERS.
N. Log.
864c
8641
8642
8643
864
8645
93651
93661
93666
493671
93676
864
8647
8648
8649
‘865
18651
18652
!8653
8654
8655
^8656
1865
D.
693682
93687
93692
93697
93702
937°7
93712
9371?
93722
93727
93732
93737
86589374^
8659
93747
866093752
8661
8662
8663
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98834
98838
98843
98847
973998851
9740 98856
98860
9886 5
98869
974498874
974598878
98883
98887
98892
974998896
98900
N.
975°
9751
9752
9753
975
975
98900
98905
98909
989x4
18
598923
975
9757
975
975
9760
698927
98932
898936
99894
98945
9761
9762
9763
9764
9765
98949
98954
98958
98963
98967
976
9767
9768
976
9770
69897.
98976
98981
998985
98989
9771
9772
9773
977
9775
977
9777
9778
9779
97809
978
97829
9783
9784
9785
9786
9787
9788
9789
9790
Log.
D. N. Lo<f.
98994
98998
99003
499007
99012
699016
99021
99025
99029
9°34
99038
9°43
99047
99052
99056
99061
99-65
99069
99074
99078
99083
99087
99092
99096
979*
9792
9793
9794
979599100
979699105
979
9798
979.
9800
799109
99114
999118
99I23
980c
9801
98029913
9803
9804 9914c
980599145
99123
99127
99136
9806
9807
9808
9809
9810
9811
9812
9813
9814
9815
9816
9817
19
9820
982
9822
9823
9824
9825
D.
99*49
99*54
99*58
99162
99167
99*71
99176
99180
99*85
99*89
99*93
99*98
981899202
99207
99211
9826
9827
9828
9829
9830
983*
9832
9833
9834
9835
99216
99220
99224
99229
99233
99238
99242
99247
99251
99255
99260
99264
99269
99273
99277
9836
9837
9838
9839
9840
9841
9842
9843
9844
9845
9846
9847
9850
99282
99286
9929*
99295
99300
99304
99308
993*3
993*7
99322
99326
9933°
984899335
984999339
99344
N.
9850
985*
9852
9853
9854
9856
9857
9858
9859
9860
Log.
99344
99348
99352
99357
99361
985599366
D.l N.
9937c
99374
99379
99383
993 88
9861 99392
986299396
9863 99401
986499405
9865 9941c
986699414
986799419
9868 99425
986999427
987099432
9871 994-, 6
98729944*
9873 99445
987499449
9875 99454
987699458
987799463
987899467
987999471
988099476
988199480
9882 99484
988399489
988499493
988599498
988699502
988799506
98889951i
988999515
989099520
989*99524
989299528
9893 99533
989499537
989599542
989699546
989799550
989899555
989999559
990099564
9900
9901
99029
9903
99°4
9905
99564
99568
9572
99577
9958*
99585
9906
9907
jy9°8
9909
9910
99590
99594
99599
99603
99607
9911
99*2
99*3
9914
99*5
99612
99616
99621
99625
99629
99*6
99*7
99*
99*9
992c
99634
99638
642
99647
99651
9921
9922
9923
9924
9925
992
9927
9928
9929
9930
993*
9932
9933
9934
9935
9936
9937
9938
9939
9940
994*
9942
9943
9944
9945
99489
994
9950
Log. | U.
99656
9966
99664
99669
99673
699677
9968
99686
99691
99695
99699
99704
99708
997*2
997*7
9972
99726
99730
99734
99739
99743
99747
99752
99756
99760
994699765
994
799769
.9774
999778
99782
N.
9950
995*
9952
9953
9954
9955
99782
99787
99791
99795
9980c
99804
9956
9957
9958
9959
9960
99808
99813
99817
99822
99826
9961
9962
9963
9964
9965
19966
9967
9968
9969
9970
99830
99835
99839
99843
99848
9971
9972
9973
9974
9975
9976
9977
9978
9979
9980
9981
9982
9983
9984
9985
9986
998
998
69989
419990
4
5
4
4
5
4
5
4
4
999
999 2
9993
9994
9995
Log.
99852
99856
99-861
99865
99870
99874
99878
99883
99887
99891
99896
99900
99904
99909
999l3
99917
99922
99926j
99930
99935
99939
99944
99948
99952
99957
99961
99965
99970
99974
99978
9996 99983
999799987
99989999*
999999996
toooc 00000
1).
Vol. XII. Part I.
t)
logarithmic sines and tangents.
o Degrees.
bin.
Dit.
o Inf. neg.
16.46373
26.76476
3 6.94085
47.06579
1; 7.16270
Tantr.
67.24188
-7 7.30882
8 7.36682
9 74I797
10 7-46373
11 7.50512
I27-54291
137.57767
147.60985
15 7-63982
167.66784
177.69417
187.71900
197.74248
207.76475
36 8.02002
7 8.03192
388.04350
39 8.05478
40 8.06578
7-78594
7.80615
7-82545
7-84393
7.86166
30103
17609
12494
9691
7918
6694
5800
5XI5
4576
4X39
3779
3476
3218
2997
2802
2633
2483
2348
2227
2119
Inf. neg
6.46373
6.76476
6.94085
7.06579
7.16270
Dit.
3cio3
17609
12494
7.24188
7.30882
7.36682
7 4X797
746373
Cot.
Inf.posit.
i3-53^27
13.23524
I3-°59I5
0601 12,93421
969 -12.83730
12.75812
7918
^q94 12.69118
3800 12.63318
311 ^12.58203
12.53627
7.87870
7.89509
7.91088
7.92612
7.94084
7.95508
7.9688
7.98223
7.99520
8.00779
7-50512
7.54291
7-57767
7.60986
7.63982
2021
1930
1848
x773
1704
1639
I579
1524
1472
x424
1.379
1336
!297
I259
1223
1190
H58
1128
I tool
1072
1046
1022
7.66785
7.69418
7 7I9OO
7.74248
7-76476
7-78595
7.80615
7.82546
7-84394
7.86167
7.8787
7.8951°
7.91089
7.92613
7.94086
7-95510
7.96889
7.98225
7.99522
8.00781
8.02004
8.03194
8-04353
S.o^S
8.0658
8.07653
8.08700
. 8.09722
999 8.10720
9^ 8.11696
954
934
9*4
896
877
860
843
827
812
8.1265
8.13585
8.14 coo
8.15395
8.16273
56 8.21189
578.21958
588.22713
598.23456
6018.24186
8.17133
8.17976
8.18804
8.19616
782 8-2°4i3
769
755
743
73°
Cos.
8.21195
8.21964
8.22720
8.23462
8.24192
Cot.
4576
413912.49488
8’779 j 2.4^709
3476 12.42233
32I212.39014
12.33215
24821 ^'3^58 2
4 ^I2.28iOO
2228 12*2575 2
211912'233 —
2020 I2,2I4?519,99999
1072
Cos.
i Degree.
,0.00000 60
59
58
57
56
55
,0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
I0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000 52
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
0.00000
2.00000
0.00000
0.00000
9.99999
9.9999942
9-9999941
99999940
12.19385
1931 12 174 <4
163012-12129
Tf^O 12,10490
3^9 12.08911
1324 12.07387
1473
4/0 12.0C9I4
1424
12.0449°
133612,03111
1207 I2-OI775
9' 12.00478
i2;g 4/
11.99219
1223 —4
 39
9-9999938
9.99999
9.99999
9.99999
^5
9.99999
9.99999
9-99999 _
9.9999831
9.99998
”9o;i:^89c6
95647
! I 02 1 U94 519
11-934I9
9.99998
9.99998
9.99998
9.99998
9.99998
9.99998
9.99997
9.99997
9.99997
9.99997
II-92347
I°4'711.91300
1022 ^ ^ Q
998"’i 2
w61,.88304
955 4
oa. 1 x-87349
9f ,1.86415
L5.11.8550°
9.99997
9.99997
9.99997
9.99996
9.99996
9.99996
9.99996
9.99996
9.99996
9-99995
843 "i2867
11.82024
828 ii.8i196
70? 11,80383
797 II.79587
^ II.78805
756 11,78036
742
73°
9-99995
9-99995
9-99995
9-99995
9.99994
11.77280
11.76538
11.75808
Tang.
9.99994
9.99994
9.99994
9.99994
9-99993
Sin.
Sin.
89 Degrees.
Dit.
oj8.24186
tesg
3!8.26304 93
48.26988
518.27661
6:8.28324
7i8-28977
8I8.29621
98*30255
8'3°879^^
608
599
59°
684
673
663
653
644
634
624
Tang.
8.24192
8.2491c
8.25616
8.2631 2
Dit.
718
706
696
684
8.2,6996 673
8.27669
8.28332
8.28986
8.29629
8.30263
^S.34450
17 8.3 5018
>88.35578
198.36131
120 8.36678
8-3i495
I128.32103
|i3 8-32702
/48-33292 rL
|158.33875 773j
568
560
553
547
539
533
526
5 20
5X4
508
502
496
491
485
480
474
470
121 8.37217
228-3775°
23 8.38276
248.38796
25 8.39310
268.39818
27 8.40320
28 8.40816
298.41307
3° 8.41792
31 8.42272
328.42746
33 8.432i6
|34 8.43680
35 8.44139
8.30888 ^ ^
663
654
643
634
625
11.75808
11.7 5090
1 x-74383
11.73688
1 i-730O4
II.72331
11.71668
11.71014
11.70371
n.69737
11.69112
8.34461
8-35029
8-35590
8.36143
8.36689
368.44594
37 8.45044
388.45489
398.45930
408.46366
141 8.46799
428.47226
43 8.47650
44 8.48069
458.48485
46 8.48896
47 8-49304
48 8.49708
I49 8.50108
508.50504
8.37229
8.37762
8.38289
8.38809
8.39323
464
459
455
45°
445
441
436
433
427
424
4X9
416
411
408
404
400
396
393
39°
386
382
P-S
8.33886
568
561
553
546
54°
533
527
520
5*4
5°9
502
496
491
486
480
475
470
464
460
455
450
446
441
437
432
428
8.39832
8"40334
8.40830
8.41321
8.41807
8.42287
8.42762
8.43232
8.43696
8.44t56
8.44611
8.45061
8-45507
8.45948
8.4638 i;
Cot.
Cos
9-99993
9-99993
9-99993
999993
9.99992
9.99992
9.99992
9.99992
9.99992
9.99991
9-99991
60
59
58
57
56
33
54
53
52
51
5°
11.68495
9.99991
11.67888 9.99990
11.67289 9-9999047
11.66698
11.66114
9.99990
9 9999°
ii-65539 9*9998944
11.64971 9.9998943
11.6441c 9.9998942
11-63857 9-99989 41
11.63311 9.9998840
11.62771 9.99988 39
11.62238 9.99988 38
11.617x1:9.9998737
11.61191 9-99987 36
11.60677‘9.99987 35
11.6016819.99986 34
11.59666 9.99986 33
11.59170 9.99986 32
11.5867919.99985 31
11.58193 9-99985 3°
8.46817
8.47245
8.47669
8.48089
8.48505
8.48917
8.49325
8.49729
8.50130
8.50527
1518.50897
52 8.51287
538.51673
548.52055
558.524343^
373
369
367
363
56 8.52810
57 8.^3183
588.53552
59 8.53919
|6o 8.54282
Cos.
8.30920
8.51310
8.51696
,8.C2079
8.52459
8.52835
8.53208
|8.53578
8.53945
8.54308
424
420
416
412
408
404
401
397
393
39°
386
383
380
376
373
37o
367
363
11.49473
11.46792
11.46422
11.46055
11.45692
Cot.
88 Degrees.
Tang
11-57713 i9-99985 29
II-57238|9-99984 28
11.56768 9.99984 27
11.56304 9.99984 26
1.55844 9.99983 25
11.55389 9 99983 24
11.54939 9-99983 23
11.54493 9.9998222
11.54052 9.99982 21
11-53615 9-99982 20
ii-53i83 9-9998i 19
11.52755 9-9998i 18
II-52331 9-9998i 17
11.51911 9.99980 16
n.51495 9.99980 15
11.51083 9-99979
11.50675 9 99979
11.50271 9-99979
11.4987019 9997
8
9.99978
11.49080 9.99977
11.48690 9-99977
11.48304 9-99977
11.47921 9.99976
11 47541 9.99976
11.47165 9 99975
9-99975
9.99974
9.99974
9-99974
Sin.
I3
12
11
10
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
IO
12
8.54282
8.54642
28.54999
3 8-55354
8-55705
5^56054
8.56400
7 8-56743
8 8.57084
98.57421
8-57757
Sin. Dit.
8.58089
8-584I93l8
360
357
355
351
349
346
343
341
337
336
332
33°
3 8-58747
48.59072
5 8-59395
6 8.59715
78.60033
8 8.60349
8.60662
8.60973
8.61282
8.61589
8.61894
8.62196
8.62497
26 8.62795
27 8.63001
' 8.63385
8.63678
8.63968
325
323
320
3^
316
3l3
311
3°9
3°7
3°5
3°2
301
298
296
294
293
290
288
287
284
283
36 8.65670
37 8 65947
38 8.66223
8.66497
8.66769
48
8.64256
8.64543
8.64827 _
8-651 10 2g t
8-6539I 2?9
277
276
274
272
27O
269
267
266
263
263
260
259
258
256
254
253
252
2 CO
249
247
246
244
243
242
8.67030
8.67308
8.67575
8.6784I
8.68104
8.68367
8.68627
8.68886
49 8.69144
8.69400
8.69654
8.69907
538.70159
548.70409
558.70658
568.70905
57 ‘
8.71151
588.71395
8.71638
8.71880
Cos.
2 Degrees.
Tang.
8.54308
8.54669
8-55027
8-55382
8-55734
8.56083
8.56429
8-56773
8-57ii4
8.57452
8.57788
8.58121
8.58451
8 58779
8"59io5
8.59428
8-59749
8.60068
8.60384
8.60698
8.61009
8.61319
8.61626
8 61931
8 62234
8.62535
8.62834
8.63131
8.63426
8.63718
8.64009
8.64298
8.64585
8.6487c
8.65154
8-65435
8-65715
8.65993
8.66269
8.66543
8.66816
8.67087
8.67356
8 67890
8 68154
Dif.
361
358
355
352
349
346
344
341
338
336
333
33°
328
326
323
321
3T9
316
3r4
311
310
3°7
3°5
303
301
299
297
295
292
291
289
287
285
284
281
280
278
276
274
273
271
269
268
8.68417
8.68678
8.68938
8.69196
8.69453
8.69708
8.69962
8.70214
8.70465
8.70714
8.70962
8.71208
8-7I453
8.71697
8.71940
264
263
261
260
258
257
255
254
252
251
249
248
246
245
244
243
Cot.
Cot. 1 Cos.
H.4C692
II-4533I
II-44973
11.44618
11.44266
11.43917
II*4357I
11.43227
11.42886
11.42548
11.42212
11.41879
11-4I549
11.41221
11.40895
11.40572
11.40251
II-39932
11.39616
11‘393°2
11.38991
11.38681
ri.38374
11.38069
11.37766
11-37465
11.37166
11.36869
ii-36574
11.36282
11-35991
11.35702
1 I*354I5
11"35I30
11.34846
11.34565
11.34285
11.34007
II"3373I
11*33457
n.33184
11.32913
11.32644
n.32376
11.3 2110
11.31846
1 i.3i583
11.31322
11.31062
11.30804
11-30547
9.9997460
9*99973
9-99973
9 99972
9.99972
9.99971
9.99971
9.99970
9-99970 5
9.99969 5
9.99969
9.99968
9.99968
9.99967
9.99967
9.99967
9.99966
9.99966
9.99965
9.99964 4
9.99964
9.99963
9.99963
9.99962
9.99962
9.99961
9.99961
9.99960
9.99960
9-99959
9-99959
9.99958
9.99958
9-99957
9.99956
9.99956
9-99955
9-99955
9-99954
9-99954
9-99953
11.30292
11.30038
11.29786
29535
11.29286
11.29038
11.28792
11.28547
11.28303
11.28060
I Tang.
9-99952
9-99952
9*99951
9-99951
9.99950
9.99949
9.99949
9.99948
9.99948
9-99947
9.99946
9.99946
9-99945
9.99944
9-99944
9-99943
9.99942
9.99942
9-99941
9-9994°
Sin.
87 Decrees.
168.75575
8-75795
8.76015
8.76234
8.76451
3 Degrees.
' Sin. Dif.
8.71880
8.72120
8.72359
8.72597
8.72834
5 8.73069
6 8.73303
7 8.73535
88.73767
8-73997
8.74226
8-74454
8.74680
8-74906
8-75i3o
8-75353
8.76667
8.76883
8.77097
8.77310
8.77522
268.77733
8-77943
8.78152
8.78360
8.78568
8.78774
8.78979
8.79183
8.79386
8.79588
8.79789
8.79990
38 8.80189
398.80388
8.80585
8.80782
8.80978
8.81173
8.81367
8.81560
8.81752
8.81944
48 8.82134
8.823 24
8.82513
51 8.82701
528.82888
538.83075
548.83261
55
56 8.83630
578.83813
58
59
60
8.83996
8.84177
8.843 58
240
239
238
237
235
234
232
232
230
229
228
226
226
224
223
222
220
220
219
217
216
216
214
213
212
211
210
209
208
208
206
20 5
204
203
202
201
201
199
199
197
197
196
l9S
194
’93
192
192
190
190
189
188
187
187
186
185
184
183
183
181
181
Cos.
8.71940
8.72181
8.72420
8.72659
8.72896
8.73i32
8.73366
8.73600
8.73832
8.74063
8.74292
8.74521
8.74748
8.74974
8-75i99
8-75423
8-75645
8.75867
8.76087
8.76306
8.76525
8.76742
8.76958
8-77I73
8.77387
8.77600
Tang. Dif.
8.77811
8.78022
8.78232
8.78441
8.78649
8.78855
8.79061
8.79266
8.79470
8.79673
8.79875
8.80076
8.80277
8.80476
8.80674
8.80872
8.81068
8.81264
8.81459
8.81653
8.81846
8.82038
8.82230
8.82420
8.82610
8.82799
8.82987
8.83175
8.8336
8.83547
8.83732
8.83916
8.84100
8.84282
8.84464
241
239
239
237
236
234
234
232
231
229
229
227
226
225
224
222
222
220
219
219
2I7
216
215
214
213
211
211
210
209
208
206
206
205
204
203
202
201
201
199
198
198
196
196
>95
194
l93
192
192
i9°
190
189
188
188
186
186
,85
184
184
182
182
Cot.
11-25479
11.25252
11.25026 9
11.24801
11.24577 9.9993045
Cot.
11.2806c
11.27819
11.27580 9
11.27341
11.27104
11.26868 I9
11.26634 9
11.26400 9
11.26168 9
ll-25931
n.25708 9
n-24355
11.24133
n.239i3
11.23694 9
11-23475
:76s 9
11.21145
11.20939
11.20734
11.20530
1 r. 203 27
11.20125 9.99914
11.19924
11.19723
11.19524
11.19326
11.19128
11.18932
11.18736
11.18541
11.18347
11.18154
11.17962
11.17770
11.17580
11.17390
Cos.
9.999406c
9.99940
99939
9.99938
9.99938
99937
99936
.99936
99935
9-99934
99934
9-99933 49
9/99932 48
9993247
9-99931
46
9.9992944
9.9992943
9.9992842
99927
9.99926
38
11.23258 9.9992639
11.23042
1 r.22827 9
11.22613 9
11.22400
9.99925
9992437
9992336
9.99923
35
33
11.22189 9.9992234
11.2197"
11.21
n.21559
11-21351
8 J9.99921
9992032
9.09020 31
9.99919
3°
29
9.99918
9 999:7 28
9.99917
9.99916
9-99915
9-99913
9-999 r3
9-99912
9.99911
9.9991c
9.99909
9.99909
9.99908
9.99907
9.99906
9.99905
9.99904
9.99904
9.99903
11.17 201
11.17013
11.16825
11.16639
11.16453
11.16268
11.16084
11.15900
11.1C718
1 f-1553.6
Tang.
9.99902
9.99901
9.9990C
9.99899
9.99898
9.99898
9.99897
9.99896
9.99895
9.99894
Sin.
86 Degrees.
02
107
ioB
logarithmic sines and tangents
4 Degrees.
bin.
8.84358
8.84539
8.84718
_ 8.84897
48.85075
5 8.8^252
6 8.85429
7 8.85605
8 8.85780
,8.85955
o 8.86128
l 2
8.86301
8.86474
13 8.86641;
148.86816
T c 8.86987
Dih
181
179
179
78
177
177
176
75
175
^73
i73
I73
171
171
171
169
169
168.87156
17 8-87325|i6q
18 8.87494|i6^
198.87661 --
20 8.87829
8.87995
8.88161
8.88326
8.88490
21; 8.88654
268.88817
27 8.88980
‘ 8.89142
8 89304
8.89464
168
166
166
l^5
164
164
163
163
162
162
160
161
8.89625
8.89784
8.89943
8.90102
8.90260
Tang.
8.84464
8.84646
8.84826
8.85006
8.85185
8-85363
8.85540
8.85717
8.85893
8.86069
8.86243
8.86417
8.86591
8.86763
8.86935
8.87 106
8.87277
8.87447
8.87616
8.87785
8-87953
8.881 20
8.88287
8.88453
8.88618
8.88783
878 8948
8.89111
8.89274
8.89437
8.89598
068.99147
37 8.90574
:38 8.90730
8.90885
8 9104c
4
w
,43
lS9
l59
lS9
158
*57
l5l
£56
£55
•55
£55
£54
I53
l53
J52
£52
I51
I51
I5°
15°
149
149
148
r47
147
I147
■ T IA6
57 8-93594 x46
''88^937404
98.93885145
8.94O3O
8.89760
8.8992O
8.9O080
8.9O24O
8.90399
8.91195
: 8.91349
8.91 502
I44 8.9x655
‘45 8.91807
46 8^97959
47 8.92110
48 8.9226
498.92411
508.9256
51
,52
53
f54
155
8.92710
8.92859
8.93007
8.93154
8.93301
8.90557
8.90715
8.90872
8.91029
8.91185
8.91340
8.91495
8.91650
8.91803
8.9£957
8.92110
8.92262
8 92414
8.92565
8 9 27 K-A^o
8928661.
8.93016
8.93165
8-93313
8.93462
8-93609
8-93756 I47
8*939°3 i46
8.94049 546
8.941951
5 Degrees.
Tang.
8.94195
8.94340
8.94485
8.94630
8.94773
8-949I7
8.95060
8.95202
8-95344
8.95486
8.95627
8.95767
8.95908
8.96047
8.96187
8-96325
8.96464
8.96602
8.96739
8.96877
8-97OI3
Dif. I Cot.
8.9715c
8.97285
8.97421
8.97556
18.9769
8.97825
8.97959
I8.98092
18.98225
18.98358
|8.98490
l8.98622
8- 98753
8.98884
18.99015
j8-99I45
8.99275
8.99405
8 99534
8.99662
8.99791
8.99919
9.00046
9.00174
9.003c 1
9.00427
9- 00553
9.00679
9.00805
,9-00930
i45
M5
£45
143
144
M3
142
142
142
141
140
141
139
140
58
l39
MS
*37
MS
136
‘37
135
136
I35
M5
M4
M4
!33
M3
‘33
132
132
M1
I3I
I3I
130
130
130
129
128
129
128
127
128
127
126
126
126
126
1*5
125
11.05805
11.05660
11-05515
11.05370
11.05227
11.05083
Cos.
11.04940
11.04798
11.04656
11.04514
11.04373
9.99834
9-99833
9.99832
9.99831
9.99830
9-9982955
9.9982854
9-99827 53
9.9982552
9.99824
9.99823
11.04233
11.04092
11-03953
11.03675
I1-03536
11.03398
11.03261
11.03123
11.02987
60I
59!
58
-57|
56'
9.9982249
9.9982
48
9.9982047
11.03813 9.99819
9.99817
9.9981644
9.99815
9.99814
9.99813
9 99812
11.02850
11.02715
11.02579
11.02444
11.02309
11.02175
11.02041
11.0x908
11.01642
9.9981c
9.99809
9.99808
9.99807 _
9.9980635
11.01510
11.01378
11.01247
9.99804
9.99803
9.99802
II-OI775 9.9980131
9.99800 30
9.99798
9.99797
9.99796
11.0111619.99795
11.0098519.99793
|9-oio55
I9.01179
|9.oi303
9.01427
19.01550
9.01673
9.01796
9.01918
9.02040
2162
124
124
124
123
123
123
122
122
122
11.0085519.99792 24
11.00725
11.00595
11.00466
11.00338
11.00209
11.00081
ic.99954
10.99826
10.99699
9.99791 23
9.9979022
9.99788 21
9.99787,20
9.99786119
9.9978518
9.9978317
9.99782
9.99781
10.99447
10.99321
10.99195
10.99070
10.98945
10.98821
10.98697
10.98573 9.99769
IO.9845O nn*7^8
10-99573 9-99780
9.99778
9-99777
9.99776
9-99775
9-99773
9.99772
999771
10.98327
10.98204
10.98082
10.97960
10.97838
I9.99768
9.99767
9.99765
9.99764
|9-99763
9.99761
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
6 Decrees.
' Sin. Dit.
09.01923
1 9.02043
2 9.O2163
3 9.02283
4 9.O2402
5 9.02520
69.02639
7 9*02757
89.02874
9 9.02992
10 9.03109
11 9.03 226
i29-°3342
13 9-03458
14 9-°3574
15 9-°3^90
169.03805
179.0392°
189.04034
199.04149
20 9.04262
21 9.04376
229-04490;
239.04603
24 9-04715
259.04828
269.04940
27 9.05052
289.05164
299.05275
3° 9-°5386
31 9-°5497
329.05607
33 9-°57I7
349.05827
35 9-°5937
;52
120
120
120
119
118
09
118
ri7
118
117
M7
116
116
116
116
rI5
ri5
114
115
fI3
114
”4
fI3
112
113
112
36 9.06046
37 9-°6i55
58 9.06264
399.06372
409.06481
I41 9-o6589
,42 906696
|43 9-o68o4
1449.06911
1459.0701
469.07124
479.07231
48 9-°7337
49 9*07442
1509.07548
9-07^53
9.07758
153 9.07863
154
55
9.07968
8072
569.08176
57
9.08280
589.08383
599.08486
609085891 8
Cos.
9.02162
9.02283
9.02404
9.02525
9.02645
9.02766
112
II 2
III
111
111
no
110
110
110
109
109
109
108
109
108
107
108
107
8 10l
I06
107
I06
!05
106
I05
io5
l^5
i°5
104
104
104
I03
103
Tang. JDii.
9.0288 5
9.03005
9.03124
9.03242
9.03361
9*°3479
9-°3597
9-°37I4
9.03832
9.03948
9.04065
9.04181
9.04297
9-044I3
9.04528
9.04643
9.04758
9.04873
9.04987
9.05101
9.05214
0.05328
9*°544I
9-05553
9.0 5666
9.05778
9 o5890
9.06002
9.06113
9.06224
9-®6335
9.06445
9.06556
9.06666
9 o6775
19.06885
9.06994
9.07103
9.07211
9.07320
9.07428
9.07536
9.07643
9.07751
9.07858
9.07964
9.08071
9.08177
9.08283
19.08389
;9-o8495
19.08600
|9-o87°5
I9.08810
'9.08914
Cot.
121
121
121
I 20
121
H9
120
II9
Il8
tl9
Il8
Il8
117
118
116
117
116
116
116
115
lI5
Ir5
IJ5
IX4
1x4
IX3
114
X13
112
xx3
112
112
112
in
in
in
110
in
110
109
110
109
109
108
109
108
108
107
108
107
106
107
106
106
106
106
105
i°5
I05
104
Cot.
10.9783b
10.97717
10.97596
10.97475
•0-97355
10.97234
10.97115
10.96995
10.96876
10.96758 9.99749
10.96639
10.96521
10.96403
10.96286
10.96168
10.96052
IO-95935
10.9 5819
IO-957°3
io-95587
10.95472
•0-95357
10.95242
10.95127
10.95013
10.94899
10.94786
10.94672
‘0-94559
10.94447
•0-94334
Cos.
9.99761 60
9.9976c 59
9-99759 58
9-99757 57
9.9975656
9-99755 55
9-99753
9-9975 2
9-99751
9-99748
9.9974749
9-99745
9.99744
9-99742
9-99741
9.99740
9-99738
9-99737 42
9.9973641
9.9973440
9-99733
9-9973 •
9-9973037
9.99728
9.99727
10.94222
10.94110
10.93998
10.93887
10.93776
10.93665
10.93555
10.93444
•0.93334
10.93225
10.93H5
10.93006
10.92897
10.92789
10.92680
36
35
9.9972634
9.9972433
9-99723 32
9.99721 31
9.9972030
9.99718 29
9.9971728
9-997X6 27
9.9971426
9-99713 25
9.99711
9.99710
9.99708
9.99707
9-99705
10.92572
10.92464
•0.92357
10.92249
10.92142
10.92036
10.91929
9.99704 19
9.99702 18
9.99701
9.99699
9.9969s
9.99696
9.99695
9.99693
9.99692
9.99690
9.99689
9.99687
10.9182319.99686
10.91717
10.91611
10.91505
10.91400
10.91295
10 91190
10.9108619.99675
Tang.
9.99684
9.99683
9.99681
9.99680
999678
9.99677
Sin.
83 Degrees.
7 Degrees.
10
Sin. Dit’
9-o8589
9.08692
9.08795
9.08897
9.08999
9.09101
9.09202
9-09304!;
9-09405:,
99-095°6|
103
103
102
102
102
101
102
9.09606J
9.09707;
9.09807
9.09907
9.10006
15 9.10106
169.10205
•79-I03O4
9.10402
9.10501
9-10599
20
9.10697
9.10795
9-ic893
9.10990
9.11087
269.11184
279.11281
289-ii377
299.11474
309.11570
31 9.11666
329.11761
33 9-1 i857
9-1,952
9.12047
369.12142
37
389-i233i
9.12423
9-r25I9
5i
9.12236
9.12612
9.12706
9.12799
9.12892
9.12985
41
42
43
44
45
469-13°78
9-I3I7I
9.13263
499-I3355
5° 9-l3447
9-‘3539
529.13630
53 9-I3722
549-i38l3
55
9-I39°4
56 9-• 3994
57
9.14085
589.14175
9.14266
9-14356
100
101
100
100
99
100
99
99
98
99
98
98
98
98
97
97
97
97
96
97
96
96
95
96
95
95
95
94
95
94
94
93
94
93
93
93
93
93
92
92
92
92
91
92
91
9i
90
91
90
91
90
Cos.
Tang. Dif.
9.08914
9.09019
9.09 • 23
9.09227
9.0933c
9.09434
9-09537
9.09640
9.09742
9.09845
9.09947
10049
910150
9.10252
9-I0353
9.10454
9-I0555
9.10656
9-I°756
9.10856
9.10956
9.11056
9-III55
9. n 254
9-1 x353
9.11452
• ‘551
9.11649
11747
9.H845
9.11943
9.12040
9.12138
9.12235
9-•2332
9.12428
9.12525
9.12621
9.12717
9-I28i3
9.12909
9.13004
9.13099
9-I3I94
9-‘3289
9-i3384
9-i3478
9*‘3573
9.13667
9.13761
9-i3854
9.13948
9.14041
9-I4‘ 34
9.14227
9.14320
9.14412
9.14564
9-I4597
9.14688
9.14780
>05
104
104
103
104
•03
•03
102
•03
102
102
101
102
101
101
101
101
100
100
100
100
99
99
99
99
99
98
98
98
98
97
98
97
97
96
97
96
96
96
96
95
95
95
95
95
94
95
94
94
93
94
93
93
93
93
92
92
93
91
92
Cot.
Cot.
10.91086
10.90981
10.90877
10.90773
10.90670
10.90566
10.90463
10.90360
10.90258
10.90155
10.90053
10.89951
10.89850
to.89748
i°-89344
10.89244
10.89144
10.89044
10.88944
10.88845
10.88746
10.88647
10.88548
10.88449
10.88351
10.88253
10.88155
10.88057
10.89647 9 99653
Cos.
9'99675
9.99674
9.99672
9.99670
19.99669 5
I9-99667
9 99666
9.99664
9-99663 5
9.99661
9-99659 5
9.9965
9.99656
9-99655
8 49
10.89546
9.99651
10.89445 9.9965c
10.87960 9
10.87862
10.87765
10.87668
10.87572
10.87475
io-87379
10.87283
10.87187
10.87091
10.86996
10.86901
10.86806
10.86711
10.86616
10.86522
10.86427
10.86333
10.86239
10.86146
10.86052
10.8 eg 36
10.85866
10.85773
10.85680
10.85588
10.85496
10.85403
10.85312
10.85220
9.99648
9.996474
9.99645
999643
9.99642
9.996403
9,99638
9.99637
9 996353
999633
9.99632
9.996303
9.996293
9.99627
.99625
9.99624
9.99622
9.99620
9.9961“
9.9961
9.99615
9.99613
9.99612
9.99610
9.99608
9 99607
9.99605
9.99603
9.99601
9.99600
9-99598
9.99596
9-99595
9-99593
Tam
9-99591
9.99589
9.99588
9.99586
9.99584
8 25
724
9.99582
9 99581
9-99579
9-99577
9-99575
Sin.
82 Degrees.
IO9
I 10
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
ob-MSi6 go
1 9*I4445 qo
29-l4535 80
39.14624
4 9,I47I4 go
59.14803 ^
69.14891 89
7 9.14980
8 9-15069 sg
99-I5I57 88
° 2^5245 88
I29-I542i87
14 9,i5596 87
15 9-i5683 -7
69->n708,
7 9-IJ8i7 8,
189.15944
g.'fosogg
9.I6I l6
9->«2°3 86
9.16289 g
9-'^86
9.1646^ g^
25 ^16545 g6
269.1663I
27
9.I4780
9.I4872
9.I4963
9.15034
9-I5I45
9^5236
9-I5327
9-I54I7,
9.15508
9-I5598;
9.15688
9-I5777
9-i5867,
, I5956,
9.16046
9-i6i35
9.16716!
28 9.16801
29 9.16886
30 9.16970L
3i9-i7°5584
329.171398^
33 9-I7223 gT
34 84
35 9^739183
36 9-i7474 84
37 9-i7558 g4
38 9.17641 gO
39 9.17724 gO
40 9.17807 g-^
41
42
43
44
45
9.17890 g
9-17973 82
9.18055 8
9’i8i37 S3
9.18220 ^
W-'83«8i
47 9-i8383 g'
48 9.18465 g^
499-i8547 81
509.18628 gT
51 9.18709 gi
529.1879081
539.18871 8|
54 9.18952 gi
55 9-I9°33
569.19113
57
9.19193
58 9.19273,
9-193 53
9-19433
Cos.
9.1839
r9-l8475
9.18560
9.18644
9.18728
9.18812
9.18896
9.18979
19063
9.19146
9.19229^"
0.19312 *^
9-I9395
9.19478
9-19561
9-19643
9-l9l2S 82
9.198078,
9.i9889g,
9.19971
81 Degrees
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS
10
Dean
O 9.23967
1 9.24039
2 9.24I10
3 9.24181 7^
49*24253
5 9*24324
Sin. D.
6 9*24395
7 9.24466
89.24536
9 9.24607
109.24677
11 9.24748
12 9.248x8
13 9.24888
I49-24958
159.25028
16 9.25098
179.25168
189.25237
I99*25307
20 9*25376
21
9*25445
229.25514
9*25583
9.25652
259.25721
269.25790
279.25858
289.21:927
9*2599?
9.26063
56
•57
58
9.26131
9.26x99
9.26267
9*26335
9.26403
9.26470
9.26538
389.26605
9.26672
9.26739
9.26806
9.26873
9.26940
9.27007
9.27073
9.27140
9.27206
9.27273
9*27339
9.27405
9.2747!
9*27537
9.27602
9.27663
9*27734
9.27799
9.27864
9.27930
599.27995
609.28060
Cos.
Tang. ID. Cot.
72
71
71
71
70
1
70
71
70
70
7P
70
70
70
69
7^
69
69
69
69
69
69
69
68
69
68
68
68
68
68
68
68
67
68
67
67
67
67
67
67
67
66
67
66
67
66
66
66
66
65
66
66
65
65
66
65
65
9.24632
9.24706
9.24779
9*24853
9.24926
9.25000
9*25°73
9.25146
9.25219
Q.2 C2Q2
9-25365
9*25437
9.255x0
9.25582
9*25655
9.25727
9*25799
9.25871
9*25943
9.26015
9.26086
9.26158
9.26229
9.26301
9.26372
9.26443
9.26514
9.26585
9.26655
9.26726
9.26797
9.26867
9.26937
9.27008
9.27078
9.27148
9.27218
9.27288
9*27357
9.27427
9.27496
9.27 366
9*27635
9.27704
9*27773
9.2784?
9.27911
9.27980
9.28049
9.281x7
9.28186
9.28254
9.28323
0.28301
9.28459
928527
9.28595
9.28662
9.28730
9.28798
9.28865
Cot.
10.
74|xo.
73 jo
74
73
74
73
73
73
73
72
72
73
72
73
72
72
72
72
72
7X
72
71
72
71
71
71
71
70
71
71
70
70
71
70
70
70
70
69
70
69
70
69
69
10
10.
10.
10
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
10.
xo.
10.
10.
75368,9
75294
7 ?22 I
75M7
75°74
7500°
Cos.
99335
9*99333
9*99331
9.99328
9.99326
9.99324
74927*9.99322
74854
74781
74708
74635
74563
74490
744x8
74345
74273
74201
74x29
74057
73985
73914
73842
73771
73699
73628
73557
73486
734I5
73345
73274
73203
73*33
73063
72992
72922
"72852
72782
72712
72643
72573
72504
72434
72365
72296
72227
72158
72089
72020
7195I
71883
71814
71746
7x677
71609
7I54I
7M73
71405
7*338
71270
71202
7**35
Tang.
9*993*9
9*993*7 5
9*993*5 5
9*993*3
9.99310
9.9930
9.99306
9.99304
9.99301
9.99299
9.99297
9.99294
9.99292
9.99290
9.99288
9.99285
9.99283
9.99281
9.99278
54
53
2
1
49
848
47
46
45
9.992763
9.99274
9.99271
9.99269 3
9.99267
9.99264
9.99262
9.99260
9*99257
9*992 ?5
9.99252
9.99250
9.99248
9*99245
9*99243
9.99241
9.99238
9.99236
9*99233
9.99231
9.99229
9.99226
9.99224
9.99221
9.99219
9.99217
9.99214
9.99212
9.99209
9.99207
9.99204
9.99202
9.99200
9.99197
9*99*95
Sin.
79 Degrees.
II Degrees.
Sin. I),
9.28060
9.28125
9.28190
3 9.28254
49.28319
59.28384
69.28448
9.28512
89.28577
9.28641
9 28705
9.28769
9.28833
3 9.28896
9.28960
9.29024
9.29403
9.29466
9.295295
9.2959*
9.29654
9.29716
9.29779
89.29841
9.29903
9.29966
569
57
589
59
60 9
9.29087
9.29150
9.29214
9.29277
9.29340
9.30028
2 9*3009°6
3 9*3°*5*
9*3°2i3 5
9*3°275
9*3°336
9-30398
9-30459
9.30521
9.30582
9*3o643
9*307046
9*30765
9.30826
9.30887
69.30947
9.31008
9.31068
9*3**296
9.31*89°
9.31250
9*3*310
9*3*370 6
9*3*430
59.31490
3*5496
9.3*609
•3*669
9.3*728
31788
Cos.
63
62
Tang.
9.28865
9*28933
9.29000,
9.29067
9.29134
9-29201
9.29601
9.29668
9.29734
9.29800
9.29866
9.29932
9.29998
9.30064
9*30*306
9*30*95
9.29268
9*29335
9.29402
9.29468
9*29535
9.30261
9.30326
9-3039*
9-30457
9.30522
9*30587
9.30652
9.30717
9.30782
9.30846
9.30911
9-30975
9.31040
9.31*04
9.31168
9*3*233
9.31297
9.31361
9*3*425
9.31489
9*3*552
9.31616
9.31679
9*3*743
9.31806
9.3*870
9*3*933
9.3*996
9*32°596
9.32122
9.32185
9.32248
9*323**6
9*32373
9*32436
9.32498
9.32561
9.32623
9.32685
9.32747
Cot.
Cot. i
*0.71*35
10.71067
10.71000
10.70933
10.70866
10.70799
*0.70732
10.70665
10.70598
*0.70532
10.70465
*0.70399
10.70332
10.70266
10.70200
10.70134
10.70068
10.70002
10.69936
10.69870
10.69805
10.69739
10.69674
10.69609
*0.69543
10.69478
*0.69413
10.69348
10.69283
10.69218
10.69154
10.69089
10.69025
10.6896c
10.68896
10.68832
10.68767
10.68703
10.68639
*0.68575
x 0.68511
10.68448
10.68384
10.68321
10.68257
10.68194
10.68130
10.68067
10.68004
10.67941
10.67878
10.67815
10.67752
10.67689
10.67627
10.67564
10.67502
10.67439
10.67377
10.67315
10.67253
Tang.
9.99180
9.99177
9*99*75
9.991725
9.99170
Cos.
560
9.9919
9.99192
9.99190
9.99187
9.99185
9.991825
9.99167
9.99165
9.99162
9.99160
9*99*57
9*99*55
9.99152
9.99*50
9.99147
9*99*45
9.99*42
9.99140
9*99*37
9*99*35
9.99132
9.99130
9.99127
9.99124
9.99122
9.99*19
9.99117
9.9911
9.99112
9.99109
9.99106
9.99104
9.99101
9.99099
9.99096
9.99093
9.99091
9.99088
9.99086
9.99083
9.99080
9.99078
9-99075
9.99072
9.99070
9.99067
9.99064
9.99062
9.99059
9.99056
9.99054
9.9905*
9*99048
9.99046
9.99043
9.99040
Sin.
78 Deg
29
4 28
27
26
25
rees.
HI
I I 2
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS*
12 Degrees.
j Sin. D.
0.31788
9.3 1 847
9.31907
9^.31966
49.32025
9.32084
9*32i43
9.32202
9.32261
99'32319
9.32378
59
60
59
59
59
59
59
59
58
59
9-3 2437
9-32495
9-32553
9.32612
159.32670
16
Tang.
D.
9.32728
9.32786
9.32844
199.32902
9.32960
59
58
58
59
58
58
58
58
58
58
58
0.33180
9.33242
9'33303
9-33365
9-33426
9-33487
9-33548 6 j
9-336°96i
9-33670r,i
Cot.
9-32747
9.3281c
9.32872
9-32933
9-32995
9-33057^
9-33ij96
10.67253
10.67190
xo.67128
10.67067
10.67005
10.66943
Cos.
9.99040
9.99038
9-99°35
9.99032
9.99030
9.99027
10.66881
10.66820
10.66758
10.66697
10.66635
9-33oi8|,7
9 33075 "rg
9-33I33
,9-3319°
25 9-33248
26
9-33305
9-33362
9-33420
299-33477
309-33534
9-33591
9-33647
9-33704
9-3376i
9.33818
9-33731
9-33792
9-33853
9-33913
9-33974
10.66574
10.66513
10.66452
10.66391
10.66330
57
57
58
57
57
57
56
57
57
57
9-3403461
9-34095 60
9-34r55 60
9-342156i
9-342766o
9-343366o
9-343966o
9-3445660
9-34516 60
9-34576
9-33874
, 33931
9-33987
399.34043
40
9-34’
45
9-34!56
0.34212
9.34268
449-34324
9-3438o
46 9-34436
47 9-34491
48 9-34547
499.34602
509.34658
56
57
56
56
57
56
56
56
56
56
56
9-34635
34695
9-34755
, '348i4
9-34874
51 9-347I3
529.34769
53 9-34824
54 9-34879
559-34934
,569.34989
57 9-35044
19-35°99
k599-35I54
509.35209
9.99024
9.99022
9.99019
9.99016
9-99013
10.66269
10.66208
10.66147
10.66087
10.66026
9.99011
9.99008
9.99005
9.99002
9.9900045
44
9.98997
9.98994
9.98991
9.989894
9.98986
10 65966
io 6590 ^
10.65845
10.65785
10.65724
10.65664
10.65604
10.65544
10.65484
10.65424
9-34933
9.34992
9-35051
9-351H
9.35170
9-35229
9.35288
9-35347
9-35405
9-35464
55
56
55
56
55
56
55
55
55
9-35523
9-3558
9-35640
9-35698
9-35757
9-358i5
9-35873
9-3593
9-35989
9.36047
9-98983
9.98980 38
9.9897837
9-98975
9.98972
59
59
59
60
59
59
59
59
58
59
10.65365
10.65305
10.65245
10.65186
10.65126
10.65067
10.65008
10.64949
10.64889
10.64830
9.98969
9.98967
9.9896432
98961
9.98958
9-98955
9-98953
9.98950
9.98947
9.98944
9.98941
9.98938
9.98936
9-98933
9.98930
10.64771
10.64712
10.64653
10.64595
10.64536
Cos.
9.36105
9.36163
9.36221
9.36279
9-36336
58
58
58
58
57
10.64477
10.64419
10.64360
10.64302
10.64243
9.98927
9.98924
9.98921
9.98919
9.98916
9.989i3
9.98910
9.98907
9.98904
9.98901
10.64185
10.64127
10.64069
10.64011
10.63953
Cot.
10.63895
10.63837
10.63779
10.63721
10.63664
3i
3£
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
l6
£5
14
13
12
11
10
9.98898
9.98896
998893
9.98890
9.98887
9.98884
9.98881
9.98878
9,98875
9.98872
Tang.
Sin.
Sin.
D.
9-352°9
9-35263
9-35318
9-35373
9-35427
9-35481
9-3553(>
9-35590
9-35644
9 35698
9-35752
9.35806
9.35860
9-35914
9.35968
9.36022
54
55
55
54
54
55
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
54
9-36336
9-36394
9-36452
9-36509
9.36566
9-36624
1 3 Degrees.
Tang
9.36681
9-36738
9-36795
9.36852
9-36909
169.36075
9.36129
9.36182
9.36236'
9-36289
9.36966
9-37023
9.37080
9-37137
9-37193
9-37250
9-37306
9-37363
9-37419
9-37476
Cot.
10.63664'
10.63606!
10.63548:
10.6349I;
10.63434;
10.63376
10.63319
IO.6326 2
IO.63205
IO.63I48
IO.63O9I
9.36342
9-36395'
9.36449
9.365c2-
9-36555'
9'37538»5o
9-37588 *6
9-37644
9-3770°
9-37756
26 9.36608
9.36660
9.367I3
9.36766
9-36819'
369-37133 rg 9'38368
37
9-37i85
389-37237
9.37289
9-3 7 341
9-37393
42 9-37445
9-37497
9-37549
9-376oo
45
77 Degrees.
9.36871
9.36924
9.36976
9.37028
9-37o81
Cos.
9.98872
9.98869
9.98867
9.98864
9.98861
9.98858
56
57
56
57
56
57
56
56
10.63034
10.62977
10.62920
10.62863
10.62807
9.98855
9.98852
9.98849
9.98846
9-98843
10.62750
10.62694
10.62637
10.62581
10.62524
9.98840
9.98837
9.98834
9.98831
9.98828
54
53
52
5£|
49
48
47
46
45
0.98825
9.98822
9.98819
9.98816
9-988i3
10.62468
10.62412
10.62356
10.62300
10.62244
9.37812
9.37868
9.37924
9.37980
9-38o35
Q.38091
9.38147
9.38202
9-38257 •S5
9-38313
I0.62l88
IO.62132
IO.62076
10.62020
IO.61965
IO.619O9
9.9881O
9.98807
9.98804
9.98801
9.98798
9-98795
9.98792
9.98789
9.98786
9-98783
9.98780
469.37652
9-37703
. 9-37755
499.37806
509.37858
9-38423 r6
9-38479 rr
9-38534 r'r
9-38589 5rr
9-38644 '
9-38699 y;
9-3875433
9.38808«
9.3886355
9-38918 ..
9-38972
.39027
9.37909
9.37960
9.38011
9-39082 33
9-39136 y
55
9.39190
9-39245
9.39299
549.38062 9.39353
^Q.38113 3 I9-394Q7
10.618 5319.98777
10.61798 9.98774
10.61743 9-98771
10.61687 9.98768
10.61632I9.98765
10.61577 9.98762
10.61521
10.61466
10.61411
55
9-98759
9.98756
9-98753
569.38164-
579-38215'
1:89.38266 -
9 38317
9.38368
9.39461
9-39515
9-39569
l9-396z3
9-39677
54
54
54
54
54
Cot.
39
S8
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
29
28
27
26
25
10.61356 9.98750
10.61301 9.98746
10.61246 9.98743
10.61192 9.98740
10.61137 9-98737
10.61082 9.98734
10.61028 9.98731
10.60973 9.98728
10.60918 9.98725
10.60864 9*98722
10.60323
19
18
17
16
£5
14
13
12
11
10
10.60810 9.98719
10.60755 9.98715
10.60701 9.98712
10.60647 9-98709
10.60593 9.98706
10.60539 9-98703
10.60485 9.98700
10.60431 9.98697
10.60377 9.98694
Tang.
9.98690
Sin.
76 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
I Sin.
09.38368
9.38418
9.38469
9,3^5I9
9*38570
9.386 20
69.38670
9.38721
9.38771
9.38821
9.38871
9.38921
9.38971
9.39021
9.39071
9.39121
169.3917°
9.39220
9.39270
9*393I9
9*39369
14 .Degrees.
9*39418
9*39467
9*395I7
9*39566
9*396i5
269.39664
9*397I3
9.39762
9.39811
9.39860
9.39909
9-39958
9.40006
9.40055
9-40I03
369.40152
9.40200
9.40249
9.40297
9.40346
9.40394
9*40442
9.40490
9*4°538
9.40586
D.
5°
51
5°
5°
5°
51
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
5°
49
5°
5°
49
5°
49
49
5°
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
49
48
49
48
49
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49
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48
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Lang.
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9.39677
9*39731
9*39785
9*39838
9.39892
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9.40052
9.40106
9.40159
9.40212
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9.4031
9.40372
9.40425
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9.40778
9.40824
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9.42041
9*42093
9.42144
9*42I95
9.42246
9.42297
9.42348
9*42399
9.42450
9.42 coi
9*42552
Cos.
9.42603
9*42653
9.42704
9*42755
9.42805
54
54
53
54
53
54
53
54
53
53
54
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10.60323
10.60269
10.60215
10.60162
10.60108
10.60055
10.60001
10.59948
10.59844
10.59841
10.59788
IO*59734
10.59681
10.59628
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10.59522
Cot.
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9.9869c
9.98687
9.98684
9.98681
9.98678
9.98675
10.59469
10.59416
10.59364
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10.59258
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10.58995
10.58943
10.58891
10.58839
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10.58682
10.58630
10.58578
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10.58422
10.58371
10.58319
10.58267
10.58216
10.58164
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10.58061
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10.57601
IO*5755°
10.57499
10.57448
1 °*57397
IO*57347
10.57296
1 °*5 7 245
10.57194
Tang.
75 Degrees
Cos.
9.98656
9.98652
9.98649
9.98646
9.98643
9,98640
9.98636
9*98633
9.98630
9.98627
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9*4399° 44
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9.42805
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9.43007
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9.98488
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9*45654
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10.54441
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Tang.
74 Degrees.
9.98370
9.98366
9*98359
9-98356
9 98352
9.98349
9*98345
9.98342
9*98338
9*98334
9*98331
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9.98306
9.98302
9.98299
9.98295
9.98291
9 98288
9.98284
Sin.
ir
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LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGEN1S.
16 Degrees.
Sin. l>. Tang. jD.
9*44°34
9.44078
29.44122
3 9-44i66
4 9.44210
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69.44297
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189.44819
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9.44948
9.44992
9-45°35.
9-45°77
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Cot.
269.45
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289.45249',
29
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9.45292 42
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Cos.
9.98284 60
9.98281
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45
44
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10.52103
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9.48307
9-48353
9.48398
K*fV
9.48534
9.98113
9.98110
9.98106
9.98102
9.98098
10.51693
17 Degrees.
9.98094
9.98090
9.98087
9,98083
Q-98o79
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Cot.
10.51647! 9.98075
10.51602’! 9.98071
10-51557, A
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10.31466 9.98060
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II Sin.
Sin.
D.
09.46594
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2 9.46676
39.46717
49.46758
3 9.46800
6 9.46841
7 9.46882
89.46923
99.46964
109.47005
11 9-47°45
129.47086
139.47127
149.47168
159.47209
169.47249
179.4729°
9-4733°
9-47371
209.47411
9-47452
9.47492
9-47533
249-47573
25
Tang.
9-48534
9-48579
9.48624
4 9.48669
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9-48759
9.48804
9.48849
9.48894
9-48939
9.48984
9.47613
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9.47694
9-47734
9-47774
41
42
42
41
41
41
41
4°
41
43
41
41
40
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41
40
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9.49029
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45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
45
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9.49252
9.49296
9-49341
9-49385
9-4943°
Cot.
10.51466
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9.98060
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47 9-48490
489.48529
499.48568
509.48607
9.50136
9.50180
9.50223
9-5°267
9-5°3i
73 Degrees.
44 10.49908 9.97922
44   —‘ '
9-5°355
9-5°398
9-5°442
9.50485'
9-5°529
9-9795°32
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9. C0876
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Tang.
Sin.
72 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
18 Degrees.
' Sin. D. Tang. fD. Cot
. o
9.48998
9*49°37
9.49076
9*49II5
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38
37
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9 5II54
9-5II9I
9-5i227
9.51264
37
37,
36i
37
37
37
37
36
37
,9-53327
j9-53368
:9-534°9
9-5345°
9-53492
Cos.
(9-53533
,9-53574
(9-536x5
9-53656
i9-53697
43
43
42
43
43
43
3
42
43
43
42
43
43
42
43
42
4
43
42
34
42
42
42
43
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
42
41
42
42
42
42
41
42
41
42
42
41
42
41
41
42
41
42
41
41
41
42
41
41
41
41
41
10.48822
i°-48779
■48736J
10.48694
10.48651
10.48608
10.48565
10.48522
10.48480
10.48437
10-48394
10.48352
10.48309 9.97771
9.97821
9.97817
9.97812
9.97808
9.97804
9.97800
10.48266
10.48224
10.48181
10.4813919.97754
10.48097
10.48054
10.48012
10.47969
1047927
10.47885
10.47843
10.47800
10.47758
Cos. D
9.97796
9.97792
9.97788
9.97784
9-97779
9-97775
9.97767
9-97763
9-97759
10.47716
10.47674
10.47632
10.47590
10.47548
9-9775°
9-97746 ]
9.977424
9-97738 T
10.47506
10.47464
10.47422
10.47380
xo-47339
9-97713 .
9.97708 5
9.97704
9.97700
9.97696 2
10.47297
X 0-47 25 5
10.47213
10.47171
10.47130
10,47088
10.47047
10.47005
10.46963
10.46922
9-97734
9.97729
9-97725
9.97721
9-977X7
9.97691
9,976874
9.976834
9.976794
9-97674-!
9.9767c
9.97666 4
9.97662
9-9765-7 .
9-97653 T
10.46880
10.46839
10.46798
10.46756
10.46715
Cot.
10.46673
10.46632
10.46591
10.4655c
10.46508
997649,
9-97645;
9.97640
9.97636
9.97632
9.97628
(9-97623
9.97619
9.97615
9.97610
9.97606
9.97602
9-97597
9-97593
9-97589
10.4646/
10 46426
10.4638 c
10.46344
xo.463°3
Tan if.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
5°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
2
*9
18
‘7
16
M
M
I
12
II
10
9-97584.
9-9758o^
9-97576
9-97571
9-97567
Sin.
71 Degrees.
19 Degrees.
9.51264
9-5X301
9-5X338
9-5x374
9-5X4XX
5 9-5X447
69-5x484
9-5x520
89-5x557
9-5X593
9.51629
22
9.52027
9.52063
23 9.52099
249-52I35
259.52171
Sin.
D.
7
8
9
10
9.51666
129.51702
I3 9-5X738
I49-5X774
159.5x811
169.51847
179.51883
189.51919
I99-5I955
209.51991
37
37
S6
37
S6
37
36
37
36
36
37
36
S6
36
37
36
6
6
S6
S6
36
36
S6
S6
S6
Tang.
9-53697
9-53738
9-53779
9.53820
9.53861
9-53902
Q. C2207
9.52242
289.52278
9-523X4
9 52350
S6
35
S6
S6
S6
35
36
35
36
35
— .36
369-52563
9-52598 4,
9-52634
9. C2669
9-52705
9-52385
9.52421
952456
9.52492
9-52527
46
37
38
39
45
41 9.52740
429-52775
9.52811
9.52846
459.52881
9.52916
47 9-52951
48
9-53943
9.53984
9-54025
9.54065
9.54106
9-54X47
9-54X87 ,.
9.54228^
9.54269
9-54309
9-5435°
9-54390
9-54431
9-54471
9-545x2
9-54552
9-54593
9-54633
9-54673
547x4
9-54754
9-54794
9-54835
9-54875
549x5
9.52986
499-5302!
509-53056
9-53092
9-53X2
9-53x6i
9-53X96
9-5323I
5*
52
53
54
55
569-53
57
S6
35
36
35
35
S6
35
35
35
35
35
35
35
36
35
166
9-54955
9-54995
9-55035
9-55075
9-55XI5
9-55X55
9-55X95
9-55235
9-55275
9-553X5
9-55355
9-55395
9-55434
9-554
9-555X4
9-53554
9-55593
9-55633
9-55673
9-557X2
Cot.
Cos.
10.46303 9-97567
10.46262 9.97563
10.46057
D.
10.46221
10.46180
10.46139
10.4609819.97545I
9-97558
9-97554i
9-9755°
19-97 541
10.46016 9-97536(‘!
xo-45975 9-975321’T
io-45935t9-97528‘+
10.4589419.97523
10.4585319.97519
9-55752
9-55791
9-5583x
9.55870
9-559X0
^TSS01 ,,
589-53336^
9-5337°
9-53405
Cos.
35
9-55949
9-55989
9.56028
9. C6067
9.56107
41
4°.
41
4°
41
40
41
40
40
41
40
40
41
4°
40
40
40
4°
4°
4°
4°
4°
4°
40
4c
4°
4°
39
4°
4°
40
39
40
40
39
4°
39
4°
39
40
39
4°
39
39
4
10.45813
io-45772
x 0-45731
to.45691
x0.45650 9.97497
10.4 5610
10.45569
xo.45529
10.45488
10.45448 9.97475
X 0.45407
10.45367
10.45327
10.45286
Cot.
10.45246
10.45206
10.45x65
10.45125
10.45085
X 0.45045
10.45005
10-44965
10.44925
10.44885
x 0.44845
10.44805
10.44765
10.44725
10.44685
9-975x5
9.97510
9.97506
9.97501
9.97492
9.97488
9.97484
9.97479
9.9747c
9.97466
9.97461
9-97457
9-97453
9.97448
9.97444
9-97439
9-97435
9.97430
9.97426
9-97421
9.97417
9.97412
10.44645
10.44605
10.44566
10.44526
10.44486
10.44446
10.44407
10.44367
10.44327
10.44288
9.97408
9-97403
9-97399
9-97394
9-97390
10.44248
10.44209
10.44169
10.44130
10.44090
9-97385
9.97381
9.97376
9-97372
9.97367
9-97S63
9-97359
9-97353
9-97349
9-97344
9-97340
9-97335
9-97331
9.97326
9.97322
10.44051
10.44011
10.43972
xo-43933
io-43893
Tang.
9-973X7
9.973x2
9.97308
9-97303
9.97299
Sin.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
1°
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
56
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
21
20
X9
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
1
4
3;
2
1
o
70 Degrees.
T 2
n6
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
20 JDegS'ees.
Sin. D.! Tanir. Cot.
9-53403
9-53440
9-53475
3 9-53509
. 9-53544
5 9-5357**
6j9-536l3
7 9-53647
89.53682
9-5371
9-53751
9-56l°7L
9.561461^9
9.56x8509
y 0 s Jh9
9.562240^
55| 9.56264
.19-56303
11 9-53785
129.53819
3 9-53^54
49.53888
I5 9-53922
10.43893
10.43854
10.43815
10.43776
10.43736
10.43697
9-56537
9-56576
9.56615
9-56654
9-56693
9-56732
9-56771
16 9-53957
17 9-53991
8 9.54025 ^ 9-56810
i99-54059^ 9-56849^
20 9.54093 o*,'j 9.56887 0
Cos. Id.]
10.43658
10.43619
10.43580 9.97262
9-97257
9-9725
10.43541
10.43502
10.43463
10.43424
9.97299
9.97294
9.97289
9.97285
9.97280
9.97276 ■!
5
4
5
5
4
5
9.97271
9.97266
9.97248
9-97 24 3
1 o-433^5! 9-97 23^
10.43346
10.43307
9.54127
9.C4161
9-54J95
9.54229
259.54263
^^9.56926
0^ 9,59965
10,43268
10.43229
10.43190
10.43151
10.43x13
26
9-57004'
|9'-57042'
9,57081
9-54297
27 9-54331
289.5436584
9-54399
9-54433
34
9.54466
329.54500
33 9-54534
349.54567
35 9-546oi
369-54635
37
9.54668
389.54702
9-54735
9-54769
449.54903
45 9-54936 ^
46 9-54969 ^
47 9-55o°3
48  
499.55069
5°
9.54802
9-54836
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
34
33
34
33
34
33
34
9-57120'
9-57I58
9-57197
9-57235
9-57 274
9-57312
9-57351
9-57389
9.57428
9.57466
9-97234
9-97229
9.97224
9.97220
9.97215
9.97210
9.97206
10.43074
10,43035
10.42996
10.42958
10.42919
10.42880
10,42842
10.42803
9.97201
9.97196
9.97192
9-97l87
9.97182
9.97x78
9-97I73
9.97168
9-97154
•10.4264919.97149
9-97I45
10.4257219.97140
Io-42534l9-97I35
9-57504'
9-57543
9-5758J
9.57619
9-57658
10.42496,9.97130
9.57696
9-57734
9-54869^19.57772
34
9-55036^!.9-57963
9-55I02
51
. 9-55j36
529.55169
9.55202
9-55235
9.55268
57
569-55301
9-55334
589-55367
9.55400
9-5 5433
Cos.
9.5781c
9-57849
9.57887 ■
9-57925
^0,424571
10.42419
tO.42381
10.42342
9.97126
9.97 I 21
9.97116
9-97111
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9.97x07
10.42266,9.97102
10.42228! 9.97097
' 1642190; 9.97092
!ii‘o.42i5i
9.97087
9-58001
9-58039
40.42113
5x 0420 7 5
12042037
1041999
J1041961
|9-58o77'
9-58115
9-58i53
9.58191
9.58229
16.4192.3
10.4188519.97054
1041847,9.97049
io.4i8o9;9.97044
; 1041771 9.97039
9.58267'
9-58304'
9-58342:
9.58380;
9-58418
1°-4I733
10.41696 9.97030
10.41658 9.97025
10416209.97020
10411;82! 9.97915
Cot.
Tantr.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
5
51
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
4c
39
38
37
36
35
1042765! 9.97163
10427 26’9.97159^
16,4268s 9.97154 ^
4
5
,5
5
4
5
5
5
4
5
5
5
9.97083
9.97078
9-97073
9.97068
9.97063
9.97059
9-97035
Sin.
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
•27
26
51
24
23
22
21
20
69 Degrees.
21 Degrees.
Sin.
09-55433
19.55466
29-55499
3 9*55532
49-55564
5 9-55597
D.
33
33
33
32
133
69-55630
7 9-55663
9-55695
99-55728
9-5576i
Tung.
33
33
S2
33
33
3 ^
9-55793 „
9-55826,33
!3 9-55858:
9-55891
15 9-55923
16 9-55956
17 9-55988
189.56021
9.58418
9-58455
9-58493
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9*58569
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D.
9-58757 ^
9’58794 qS
9-56053
9.56085
9.56118
9.56150
9.56182
9.56215
9.56247
9.56279
9.56311
9-56343
29 9-56375
309.56408
9.56440
9.56472
9-56504
9-56536
9.56568
369.56599
9.56631
9. C6663
9.56695
9.56727
9-56759
9,56790
9.56822
9-56854
9.56886
Cot.
1041582
Cos. jD.
9-97OI5
9.58644
9.58681
9-5871938
" rfi"r"37
io-4i545;9-97oio|p
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1041469 9.97001 ^
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10.41394
38
9-58832 7
9.588693'
9.58907 3
9-58944
9.58981
9.59019
9.59056
9.59094
9-59i3i „
9-59i68^
9-59205 3s
9-59245
9,59280
9-59317
9-59354
[41
42
43
44
45
469.56917
9’56949
9.56980
9.57012
9.57044
9‘57075
9.57107
9-57I38
549.57169
55 9.5720.1
569-57252
9.57264
9-57295
599-57526
609.57358
32
33
32
32
32
32
32
31
32
32
32
32
32
31
32
32
32
'31
32
S'2
32
32
3J
S2
3*
3‘i
32
31
32
31
31
9-59391
9-59429
9.59466
9-5950337
9*5954037
9-59577 37
9-596i4
9-59651
9.59688
9-59725
37
37
37
a 37
9-5976237
9-59799 36
9*59835
9.59872
9.59909
1041356,
10.41319 , , , _
10.41281,9.96976P
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9.9699 IjO
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10.41093i 9.9695
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10.41019
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9-96942
10.40981
10.40944
10.4090619.96927
10.40869
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10.40795
10.40757
10.40720
10.40683
x 0.40646
10.40609
10.40571
10.40534
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9-96937
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9-96917
9.96912
9.96907
9.96903
9.96898
9.96893
9 96888
9.96883
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9.96873
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10.40423
10.40386
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10.40312
10.40275
9.60019
9.60056
9,60093
37
37
9.59946
9*59983 36
37
37
37
36
37
37
36
37
36
37
36
37
S6
37
36
37
36
10.40238
10.40201
10.40x65
10.40128
10.40091
9.6013©
9.60166
9.60203
9.60240
9.60276
Cos.
9.60313
9.60349
9.60386
9.60422
9.60459
9.60495
9.60532
9.60568
9.60605
j 9.60641
Cot.
10.40054
10.40017
10.39981
10.39944
10.39907
10.39870
10.39834
10.39797
10.3976c
IO-39724
10.
39687
10.3965.:
10.39614
io.39578
10.39541
io-395°5
10.39468
10.39432
10.39395
10-39359
Tang.
9.96863
9.96858
9-96853
9.96848
9.96843
9.96838
9-96833
9.96828
9.96823
9.96818
9.96813
9.96808
9.96803
9.96798
9.96793
9.96788
9.96783
9.96778 g
9.96772
9.96767
9.96762
9.96757
9.96752
9.96747
9.96742
9 96737
9.96732
9.96727
9.96722
9.96717
Sin.
60
59
i8
.57
56
55
54l
53|
32'j
511
5£
49
48
47
46
11
44
43
42
41
4c
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
S2
31
32
29
28
68 Degrees.
LOGAEITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
117
22 Degrees.
Sin.
JI>
9-5735^
9-60714
3,9-60750
^9.60786
9.60823
9.57420
.. 9-5745*
49.57482
5i9-575I4
6,9-57545
7(9-57576
8;9-576o7
9j9-57638
10:9.57669
21
22
23
24
25
9.57700
9-57731
9-57762
57793
57824
*69.57855
I7 9-57885
*8 9-57916
9-57947
9-57978
9.58008
9-58039
9.58070
9. c8ioi
9-58i3i
37
39
■40
469.58769
47
48 9.58829
9.58859
9,58889
49
•50
269.58162
279.58192
28:9.58223
9-58253
9.58284
9-5831
9-58345
9-58375
9.C8406
9.58436
369.58467
9-58497
j 9.60641
9.60859
9.60895
9.60931
9.60967
9.61004
389.58527
9-58557
9.58588
9.58618
9.58648
9.58678
449.58709
459-58739
9.58799
9.61040
9.61076
9.6m 2
9.61148
9.61184
Tang.
9.61220
9.61256
9.61292
961328
9.61364
9.61400
9.61436
9.61472
9.615
9.61544
l)
9.61579
9.61615
9.61651
9.6x687
9.61722
9.61758
9.61794
961830
961865
961901
961936
9.61972
9.62008
9.62043
9.62079
9.62114
962150
9.62256
9.62292
962327
9.62362
962398
9-62433
962185 3^x0.37815
9.62221!^ 10.37779
10.37708
oj 10.37673
10.37638
10.37602
10.37567
9-589'9(30
9-590O93O
9-590393-.
9-59069 2()
9.59098' ^
30
9-59128l-
9-59I58|30
9,59188
Cos.
10.39141
10.39105
10.39069
*0.39033
10,38996
9.62468
962504
9-62539
9*62574
9.62609
9/62645
962680
9.62715
962750
96278 ?
Cot.
Cot.
IO-39359
IO-39323
10.39286
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09.59188
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9.59277
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69.59566
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9.60931
Cos.
D. I Tang.
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9.6278 5
9.62820
9.62855
9.62890
9.62926
9.62961
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118
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
24 Degrees.
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9.60941
0.60960
9.60988
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65 Degrees.
19.64080
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64 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
26 Degrees.
10
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9.64184
9.6421c
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3 9.64262
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9.68818
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10.2978 c
xo.29753
10.29722
10.29691
10.29659
10.29628
10.29596
10.29565
10.29534
10.29502
10.29471
10 29440
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9-95110
9-95103 6
Cot.
10.29408
10.29377
9-9 5*9° 6
9-9 5° 84 6
9.95078
9-95°7i 6
9-95°656
9-95°59
9-95°52
9.95046
9-95°39
9-95033
9.95027
9-95020,4
10.29315
10.29283
Tang.
9.95°14
9-95O07^
10.2934619.950016
9-94995
9.94988
Sin.
6c
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
44
43
42
4i
4£
39
38
37
36
85
34
33
32
31
30
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
l6
15
14
12
63 Degrees.
12
9.65976
9.66001
139.66025
14 9.66050
59.66075
16 9.66099
179.66124
18 9.66148
199.66173
209.66197
27 Degrees.
9-657°5
9.65729
9-65754
3 9-65779
4 9.6 5804
59.65828
Sin.
9-65853
79.65878
8 9.65902
9.65927
9-65952
9.66221
9.66246
9.66270
9.66295
9.66319
9-66343
9.66368
289.66392
29 9.66416
309.66441
9.66465
9.66489
__ 9-66513
349.66537
359.66562
40
369.66586
9.66610
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9.66682
D.
9-7°7I7
9.70748
9.70779
9.70810
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9.70873
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9.71028
9.71059
9.71090
9.71121
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9.71308
9-7I339
9.66706
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9.66779
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9.66827
9.66851
489.66875
9.66899
9.669
9.66946
9.6697c
9.66994
9.67018
9.67042
569.67066
9.67090
9-67113
9.67x37
9.67161
Cos.
24
24
24
24
24
25
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
2.3
24
24
Tang.
D
9.7^370
9.71401
9-7I43I 21
9.714628
9-7I493^J
31
9.71524
9-7,555 ,T
9-7i5868J
9.71617
9.71648
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9.71S63
9.71894
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9-71955
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9.72048
9.72078
9.72109
9.72140
9.7217c
9.72201
9.72231
9.72262
9.72293
9-72323
9-72354
9.72384
9.72415
9-72445 j
9.72476 8
9.72506°
9-72537
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Cot.
Cot.
10.29283
xo.29252
10.29221
10.29190
10.29159
10.29127
10.29096
10.29065
10.29034
10.29005
10.28972
10.28941
10.28910
10.28879
10.28847
10.28816
10.28785
10.28754
10.28723
10.28692
ro.28661
10.28630
10.28599
10.28569
10.28538
10.28507
10.28476
10.28445
10.28414
9.94988 6
9.94982
9 94975
9.94969
9.94962
9.94956
9.94949
9-94943 7
P-94936 g
9.94930
9.94923
9.94917
9.94911
9-94904 5
9.94898
9.94891
10.28352
10.28321
ro.28291
10.28260
10.28229
10.28198
10.28167
10.28137
10.28106
10.28075
10.28045
Cos.
D,
9.94885
9.94878
9.94871
9.94865
9.94858
9.94852
9-94845 a
9-94839
9.94832
9.94826
9.94819
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10.28383 9-94799 5
10.28014
10.27983
10.27952
10.27922
10.27891
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10.27769
10.27738
10.27707
10.27677
10.27646
10.27616
10.27585
10.27555
10.27524
10.27494
10.27463
10.27433
9-94793
9.94786
9.94780
9-94773
9.94767
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9-94753
9.94747
9.94740
9-94734
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9.94714
9.94707
9.94700
9.94694
9.94687
9.94680 /
9-94674^
9-94667 '
9.94660/
Tang.
9-94654
9.94647
9.94640
9.94634
9.94627
9.94620
9.94614
9.94607
9.94600
994593
Sin.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3£
29
28
27
26
15
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
i?
16
15
I4
13
12
11
10
~9
8
7
6
_5
4
3
2
1
c
62 Degrees.
XI9
I 20
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
Sin.
D.
o 9.67161
1 9.67185
2 9.67208
3 9 67232
49.67256
5 9.67 280
69.67303
79.67327
89.67350
99-67374
109.97398
11 9.67421
129.67445
139.67468
149.67492
I5 9-675i5
169.67539
17 9.67562
189.67586
19 9.67609
20 9.67633
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j22 9.67680
123 9.67703
249.67726
9-67750
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269.67773
279.67796
28 9.67820
299.67843
309.67866
31 9.67'8'90
329.67912
339-67936
34 9.67959
359.67982
24
23
24
24
24
23
24
23
24
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
24
23
23
24
23
23
9.72567
9.72598
9.72628
9.72659
9.72689
9.72720
Tang.
28 Degrees.
d7
9.7275c
9.72780
9.7281 j
9.72841
9.72872
9.72902
9.72932
9.72963
9-72993
9-73023
9-73054
9.73084
9-73II4
9-73I44
9-73I75
9-73205
9-73235
9-73265
9-73295
9.73326
369.68006
379.68029
389.68052
399,68075
4c 9.68098
41 9.68121
429.68144
439.68167
44 9.68190
5 9.68213
469.68237
47 9.68260
9.68283
9.68305
9.68328
24
23
23
24
23
23
23
23
24
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
23
•24
23
9-73356
9-73386
9-7341
9-73446
9-73476
31
30
31
30
31
3°
3°
31
30
31
3C
3°
31
30
3°
IO-27433
10.27402
10.27372
10.27341
10.27311
10.27280
xo.27250
10.27220
10.27189
10.27159
10.27128
31
.30
3°
30
3‘
30
30
30
30
31
30
30
Cot.
9-94593 6
9-9458/ 7
9.9458c/
9-94573 ^
9-94567 7
9.94560 /
10.27098
10.27068
10.27037
10.27007
10.26946
10.26916
10.26886
Cos.
D.
9*94553
9-94546A
9-94540
9-94533 7
9.94526 /
,9-94519 6
9-94513
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9.94499 /
10.2697719.94492 ^
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9.94479
9.94472
10.26856 9.944657
10.2682519.94458
10.26795
10.26765
10.26735
10.26705
10.26674
6 3°
30
9-73507
9-73537
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9-73597
9.73627
9-73657
9.73687
9-73717
9-73747
9-7377
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9.68351
9.68374
9.68397
9.68420
9.68443
56 9.68466
579.68489
9.6851-2
99.68534
6c 9.68557
Cos.
9.73807
9-73837
9.73867
9-73897
9-73927
3°
31
30
3°
3°
3°
30
3°
3°
3°
30
30
30
30
30
10.26644
10.26614
10.26584
10.26554
10.26524
9.94451
9-94445
9-94438|'
9-94431
9.94424
10.26493
10.26463
10.26433
10.26403
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9.94410
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9-94397
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9-94383 7
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9-94369;
9-94362 7
9-94355
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9.74017
9-74047
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19.74107
9.74137
9.74166
2J9 74I96
23 i9-74226
23
23
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3°
30 i 
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10.25983
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9.74286
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9-94349 7
9-94342;
,9-94335 ;
9-943 28 Z
9-94321;
7
30
30
30
3°
30
29
30
3°
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30
6 3°
29
3°
Cos.
10.25893
10.25863
10.25834
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9-94314
9.943077
9-943oo;
9.94293 7
9.94286 7
 7
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
4
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
32
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
9-942796
9.94273
9.94266
9.94259
9.94252
9-94245
9.94238
9.94231
9.94224
10.25774 9-94217
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10.25714
10.25684
10.25655
10.25625
lansr.
9.94210
9.94203
9.94196
9.94189
9.94182 '
Sin.
61 Degrees.
29 Degrees.
Sin.
Bl
09.68557! 9-74375
I 9*68580 n.'i/t/in r
29.68603!^!
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369.69368
379.69390
389.69412
399-69434
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D.
9 94182
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30
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29
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Cos.
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9-93905
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9-93884
9.93876
10.24324 9.93869
10.2429519.93862
10.24265
10.24236
10.24207
9-93855 g
9-93:847
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10.24178,9.93833
10.24148
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Cot.
10.24119
10.24090
10.24061
10.24031
10.24002
10.23973
10.23944
10.23914
10.23885,9.9376
10.23856 9 93753
Tang.
9.938 *9
9.93811
9.93804
9-93797 g
9-93789 ?
7
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5*
55
49
48
47
46
45
441
43
42
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4°
39
38
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34
33
3 2
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3£
29
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Sin.
*9
18
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16
15
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*3
12
11
IG
9
8
b-
i
6
60 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
30 -Degrees.
bin.
D.
o 9.69897
19.69919
2 9.69941
3 9.69963
49.69984
5 9.70006
6 9.70028
7 9*7005°
8 9.70072
99.70093
109.70115
11 9.70:137
129.70159
139.70180
149.70202
159.70224
16 9.70245
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18 9.70288
199.70310
209.70332
21 9,7C)353
229-7°375
23 9*7°396
249.70418
25 9-7°439
26 9.70461
27 9.70482
289.70504
299.70525
309.70547
31 9.70568
329.70590
33 9.706! 1
349.70633
359.70654
22
22
22
21
22
22
22
22
21
22
22
22
21
22
22
21
22
21
22
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
22
21
Tang.
D.
9.76144
9.76173
9.76202
9.76231 „
9.76261
9.76290
Cot.
10.23856
10.23827
10.23798
9.76319
9.76348
9-76377
9.76406
9-76435
9.76464
9-76493
9.765:22
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9.76580
9.76609
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37 9.70697
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9.71036
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9.71079
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9-7ii63
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Cos.
9-76754
9.76783
9.76812
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9.76870
9.76899
9.76928
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9.76986
9.77015
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9-77505
9-77533
9.77562
9-77591
21
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9.77619
9.77648
9.77677
9.77706
9-77734
9.77763
9.77791
9.77820
9.77849
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Cot.
10.23101
10.23072
10.23043
10.23014
10.22956
10.22927
10.22899
10.22870
10.22841
10.22812
10.22783
10.22754
10.22726
10.22697
10.22668
10.22939
10.22610
10.22582
IO-22553
10.22524
10.22495
10.22467
10.22438
10.22409
Cos.
D
9-93636 8
9-93628 7
993591
9-93 584
9-93577
9-93569
993562 8
9-93554
9-93547
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10.22381
10.22352
10.22323
10.22294
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to.22237
10.22209
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10.22151
10.22123
Tang.
9-93525 3
9-9351?
9-93510 g
9-93502
9-93495
9-93487 7
9.93480^
9-93472 7
9-93465 8
9-93457
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9.93442
9-93435
9-93427
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9-934°5
9-93397
9-9339°
9-93382
9-93375
9-93367
9.93360
9-93352
9-93344
9-93337
9-93329
9-93322 8
9-93314
9-933°7
Sin.
59 Degrees.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
32
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
^9
18
‘7
16
25
J3
12
ro
31 Degrees.
c 9.71184
9.7x205
9.71226
9.7x247
4 9.71268
9.71289
6 9.71310
7 9-7I331
8 9-7I35
9-7r373
9-7I393
9-71414
9-7I435
13 9-7i456
14 9-7I477
159.71498
169.71519
17 9-7 *539
189.71560
9.71581
9.71602
4°
51
Sin. D.
9.71622
9.71643
9.71664
9.7168 t
9.71705
9.7x726
9.7x747
9.71767
9.71788
9.71809
31 9.71829
22 9.718 CO
339.7x87°
349.7189I
35 9-71911
9.71932
9.7x952
9-7J973
399-7I994
9.72014
9.72034
9-72055
9.72075
9.72096
9.72116
9-72I37
9.72157
9.72177
499.72198
9.72218
9.72238
529.72259
9.72279
9.72299
55 9-72320
569.72340
9.72360
9.72381
9.72401
9.72421
Cos.
Tang.
D.
9.77877
9.77906
9-77935
9-77963
9.77992
9.78020
9-78049
9.78077
9.78106
9-78i35
9.78163
9.78192
9.78220
9.78249
9.78277
9.78306
9.78476
9-78505
9-78533
9.78562
9.78590
9-78334
9-78363
9.78391
9.78419
9.78448
9.78618
9.78647
9.78675
9.78704
9.78732
9.78760
9.78789
9.78817
9.78845
9.78874
29
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
28
29
28
29
28
29
28
28
29
28
29
28
28
29
28
28
29
28
10.22123
10.22094
10.22065
10.22037
10.22008
10.21980
9.78902 2g
9.78930
9-78959
9.78987
9.79015
9.79043
9.79072
9.79100
9.79128
9.79156
9.79x85
9.79213
9.79241
9.79269
9.79297
9.79326
9-79354
9.79382
9.79410
9-79438
9.79466
9-79495
9-79523
9-79551
9-79579
Cot.
Cot.
9-93307 3
9-93299 8
9.93291
284 g
9-93276
9-93 269 s
9.93261 g
9-93253 7
9-932463
9-93238 g
 9-9323° 7
io.2i8o8|9.93223 g
10.21780 9.93215 n
10.21751 9.93207
10.2172319.9320c
10.21694J9.93192
10.21951
10.21923
10.21894
10.21865
10.21837
8
 8
10.21666 9.93184
10.21637 9-93177 3
10.21609'9.93169 g
10.21581 9.93161
10.21552 9-93i54
10.21524
10.21495 
10.2146719.93131
10.21438
10.21410
10.21382
xo.21353
10.21325
10.21296
10.21268
10.21240
10.21211
10-21155
10.21126
10.2x098
10.21070
10.21041
10.21013
10.20985
10.20957
10.20928
x 0.20900
10.20872
10.20844
10.20815
10.20787
ro.20759
10.20731
10.20703
10.20674
10.20646
Cos.
D.
9-93I46 g
9-931S8 7
8
8
9-93123
9-93II5
9-93io8g
9.93100 g
9-93092 8
9.93084
9-93077
9-93 -698
9.93061 g
10.21183 9-930537
9.93046 g
9-93038 8
9-93030 8
9.9302,28
9.930147
9.93007
9.92999
9.92991
9.92983
£1.92976
9.92968
9.92960
9.92952
9-9 2944 _
9.929367
9.92929
9.92921
9.92913
9.92905
10.2061819.92897 g
10.20590 9.92889 g
10.2056219.92881
10.20534
10.20505
10.20477
10.20449
10.20421
Tang.
9.92874
9.92866
9.92858
9.92850
9.92842
Sin.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5°
49
48
47
46
ii
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
ii
34
33
32
3
3^
29
28
27
26
£5
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
!7
16
11
r4
r3
12
58 Degrees.
Vol. XU. Part i.
Q
I 2t
122
logarithmic sines and tangents.
32 Degrees.
Sin. lD.ll Tang.
9.72421
|20
29.72461
39.72482, _ _
49.72502
5 g:72522[^ 9.79719
9-79579
9.79607
9-79^35
9.79663
D.
11
12
Cot.
10.20421
10.20393
10.20365
10.20337
10.20309
10.20281
Cos.
9.92842 g
9.928343
9.92826 n
9.92818 g
9.92810
9.92803 7
69-72J4i 20 9-79747
7 9-72564P |9-79776 J
89-7258^ 9-798°428
99.72602^19-7983 2
9.72622 20 9.79860
9.72643!* |!9.79888
-9.72663 a9-799l6
139.72683 2° 9.79944
i4 9.727°3!^lj9-79972
z'!9.80000
15
9-72723l
69-72743|3!9^002^
179.72763 1,9.80056
'8 9-72783 ^ 9-80084 ^
99.72803 9-80112
20
20
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
IO.20253
10.20224
IO.2OI96
I0.20l68
IO.2OI4O
I).
10.20112
10.20084
IO.2OO56
10.20028
10.20000
9.92795 8
9.927873
9-92779 8
9.92771 8
9-92763 g
9-92755 8
|9-92747 8
i9-92739 g
I9-92731 8
'9-92723 R
9.72823
20
 -—(10
21 9.72843] o
229.72863
23 9-72883
249.72902! ^
25 9.72922
'9.80140
20)
269.72942 lo
27 9-72962|2oi
9.72982
9-73002
20
!9.80168
9.80195
9.80223
9.80251
9.80279
9.80307
j9-8°335
19-80363
!9-8°39
9/73022r ;9280419
9-73° :i 2oi9‘o°447
9-73°6iL0,9-80474
9.73081 2 9.80502
31. ..
329.73061
33
34 9-73101
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9-73 Mo.
9.73160 2
9-73 i8or®
399.73200
9-73219 Lo
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9-73239
9-73259
19.80586
9.80614
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9:73278 19 !9-8o7'8
" 20'9.80808
I9.80725
9-80753
10.199729.927153
10.19944! 9-92707 8
10.19916 9.92699 g
10.19888
10.19860
27
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
28
27
28
28
28
28
28
10.19832
10.19805
10.19777
ro.19749
10.19721
9.92691
9-92683
10.19693
10.19665
10.19637
10.19609
10.19581
io.i9553
10.19526
9.92675
9.92667
9.92659
9.92651
9.92643
9-92635
9.92627
9.92619
9.92611
9.92603
10.19470
10.19442
449.73298
45 9-73318   
469-73337 20I|9-8o864
479-73357Lo
489-73377 IQ
|4.9 9-73396Lo
50 9.734161
51 9-73435
52
20
28
27
28
28
28
18
27
28
28
28
10.19414
10.19386
10.19358
10.19331
,9‘8o892 2>7
9-80919 28
;ssh
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
50
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
4i
1°
39
38
37
S6
35
34
9-92595 8
9.925873
10.19498 9.925798
9.92571 3
9-925638
io-i93031
|9-92555
9.92546 3
9-92538 8
9-92530 8
9-92522,3
j-9-734551iq
.53 9-73474 ,0
9-73494 "
9-73513 y
56 9-73533
57 9-73552
,589-7357
599-73591
60 9.73611
9.81058
9.81086
9.81II3
C,OS.
9.81 I4I
19-81169
,9.81 >96 '
19.81224
9.81252
10.19275 9.92514U
10.19247 9.92506J3
10.19219:9.92498 g
10.1919219.92490 3
10.19164119.92482 ^
10.19136,19.924733
10.1910819.924653
10.19081 9.924573
10.19053 9.924493
10.1902519^92441 g
10.18997!9.92433 8
10.18970 9.92425
io.i8942!9.924i6!^
10.18914 9.92408 3
10.18887 9.92400 g
10.18859 9-92392 8
Cot.
28
33
S2
31
3£
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
l8
17
l6
11
M
13
12
11
ic
10.18831
10.18804
10.18776
9.923848
9'92376
9-92367|8
10.18748 9.92359
Tang. | Sin.
Sin.
D.
09.73611
1 9-7363c
29.73650
39.73669
49.73689
5 9-737°8
Tang.
33 Degrees.
69.73727
7 9-73747
89.73766
99-73785
109.73805
11 9.73824
129-73843
139-73863
149-73882
15 9-73901
169-73921
179-7394°
189.73959 1Q
99-73978 9
19i
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19
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19
19
20
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19
20
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9.81252
9.81279
9.81307
9-81335
9.81362
9-8139°
10.18748
27 10.18721
10.18693
10.18665
10.18638
10.18610
i 9.81418
9-8M45*7
9.81473 28
'i 9.81 wo
9.81528
9>8i556
9-81583 27jio.i84i7!9.9226o^
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9.81611
9.81638
9.81666
20
9-73997
9.74228
,-9-74227
33 9-74246
349.74265
35 9-74284
57 Degrees.
9-74°I7
9-74°36
9-74°55
9-74°74
9-74°93
269.74113
9-74I32
9-74I51
299.7417°
30 9-74in
369-743°3
379-74322
38 9-74341
396.74360
4°!9’74379
(]os.
D,
9-92359 8
9-92351 8
9-92343 8
i9-92335 Q
I9.9 23 26 y
8
1^92318
41!
42
43
44
45
469.74493
48 9-74531
9-74549
9.74568
19
20
19
19
20
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x9
19
19
19
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!9
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r9
19
19
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0.81693
9.81721
9.81748
9.81776
9.81803
9.81831
9.81858
9 81886
9.81913
9.81941
9.81968
9.81996
9.82023
9.82051
9-82078 27
10.18582:9.923102
9-923°2
9-92293^
9.922853
9-92277 8
10.18555
10.18527
27,10.18500
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28
27
28
27
28
27
28
27
28
27
28
27
9.92269
10.18362
10.18334
10.18307
10.18279
10.18252
10.18224
10.18197
9.92244
9-92235%
10.18169
10.18142
10.18114
. 10.18087
28 10.18059
9.922273
9.922i98
9.92211
9.92202^
9-92194 g
9 82106
!9-82i33
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59.82188
9.82215
9.82243
9.82270
9.82298
9.82325
9.82352
9.82380
28
27
28
27
27
28
27
28
27
27
28
10.18032
10.18004
10.17977
10.17949
10.17922
9.92186
9.92177^
9.92169
9.92161
9.92152
10.17894
10.17867
10.17839
10.17812
10-17785
9.92144
9.92136
9.921271
9.921193
9,92111
9.921023
19.92094
9.92086
19.92077 g
9.92069
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
—|
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
S6
35
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
9
8
9.92052 8
9.920449
„ — 3
10.17620
9*74417]1q 9-82407 Jio.17593
9.7443619
9-74455
9.74474
51 9-74587
529.746^6
539.74625
549.74644
5519-74662
56I9.7468
57 9.74700
5819-74719
'9-74737
9.74756
29
l9
19
19
l9
19
18
*9
19
l9
19
x8
19
J9
19
18
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9-82435,
9.82462 ^7
9.82489
10.17565
10.17538
10.17511
9.82517
9-82544 _
!9-82571Ug
19.82599
!9.8262627
y  - 27
io-i7757!9-92°6o
10.17730
10.17702
10.17675 9.92035
10.17648 {9.92027 ^
9.92018 8
0.02010 Q
19.920029
|9-92993 8
,9.919859
10.17483
10.17456
10.17429
10.17401
10.17374
9.826531 310.1734719-9’934 9
9-8268i|2
9.827c8z7
9-82735
jg.82762
. 110.17292 9.9i9I79
27 10.17265 9.919083
2/li 0.17 23819.91900
Cos.
9.82790
9.82817
9.82844
9.82871
9.82899
Cot.
19.919763
9.91968
|9-91959 8
i9-91951
9 9X942
10.17319 '19-9I925 8
10.17210I9.91891 g
10.17183 9.918830
10.17156 9.91874 g
10.17129 9.91866
10.1710119.91857
Tang. 11 Sin.
27
26
35
24
23
22
21
20
*9
18
ii|
M
13
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
J
4
3
2
1
o
56 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
12
Sin.
9-74756
9-1411S
9.74794
9.74812
9.74831
59.7485°
69.74868
7 9.74887
89.74906
9.74924
10 9-74943
ii|9.7496i
1219.74980
I3,9-74999
r4|9-75OI7
1 5i9-75036
169.75054
I79-75°73
189.75091
I9;9-75IIC
20!9-75128
9*75,47
9*75i65
9.75i84
g.75202
9.75221
269
27
28 9,
29.
3
09
369
37.
389
39
40
46
47
489,
49
50
. 75239
9-75258
.75276
9-75294
753I3
9-75331
9-75350
9-75368
9.75386
9-754°5
75423
9-75441
75459
9-75478
9-75496
9-755I4
9-75533
9-75551
9-75569
9-75587
9-756o5
9.75624
75642
9.7 c66o
9.75678
51 9.75696
529-75714
9-75733
9-75751
9-75769
569.75787
9.75805
9-75823
9.75841
•75859
609
Cos.
D.
9.83198
9.83225
8 9-83252
9 83280
9-83307
9-83334
9.83361
I9,9-83388
i8!9-834I5
j9-83442
!9
x8
34 Degrees
Tang.
9.82899
9.82926
9-82953
9.82980
9.83008
9-83035
9.83062
9.83089
9.83117
9.83144
9.83171
,8 9'8347o
'9-83497
9-83524
9-83551
9-83578
9.83605
9.83632
9-83659
9.83686
9-837i3
9.83740
9.83768
9'83795
9.83822
9.83849
9.83876
9-839°3
9-83930
9-83957
9.83984
9.84011
9.84038
9.84065
; 8 9-84092
9.84119
9.84x46
9.84173
9.84200
9.84227
t«! 9-84254
x8 9-84280
9.84307
9-84334
9.84361
9.84388
18
9.84415
,8 i9-84442
18 9 84469
9-84496
9-84523
Cot.
D.
Cot.
10.17101
10.17074
10.17047
10.17020
10.16992
10.16965
jo.16938
10.16911
10.16883
10.16856
10.16829
10.16802
10.16775
10.16748
10.16720
10.16693
10.16666
10.16639
10.16612
10.16585
10.16558
10.16530
10.16503
10.16476
10.16449
10.16422
10.16395
10.16368
10.16341
10.16314
10.16287
10.16260
10.16232
10.16205
10.16178
10.16151
10.16124
r 0.16097
10.16070
10.16043
10.16016
10.15989
10.15962
10,1593 5
10.15908
10.15881
10.15854
10.15827
10.15800
IO-I5773
10.15746
10.15720
10.15693
10.15666
10.15639
10.15612
10.15585
10.15558
IO-I5531
10.15504
10.15477
Tang.
Cos. D. '
9-9i857 g
9.91849
9.91840
9.91832
9.918
9-9i8l5
9.91806 g
9.91798
9-9i789
9.91781
9-9!772
9
. 9
9-91763 8
9-9r755
9.91746 J
9.91738
9-9I729
9.91720
9.91712
9.91703
9-9i695
9.91686
9.916773
9.91669
9.91660
9.91651
9-9i643
9-9i634w
9-9i625 8
9.91617
9.91608
9-9T599
9.91591
o.gi <;82
9-91573
9-9!565
9-9i556
9
9
8
9
9
9-91547 o
9-91538 8
9-9153°
9-9I52i
9-91512
9.91504
9-91495
9.91486
9-91477 8
9.914699
9
9
9
9.91460
9.91451
9.91442
9-9!433 8
9-91425 p
9
9
9
9.91416
9.91407
9.91398
9-91389 8
9,91381
9.91372
9-9I3^3
9-91354
9-9I345
9-91336
Sin.
55
35 Degrees.
9-75859
9-75877
29.75895
9-75913
9-75931
9-75949
69-75967
>19'159%S
89.76003
99.76021
09.76039
9.76057
29.7607 5
39.76093
49.76111
59 76129
79.76164
8 9.76182
99.76200
9.76218
3°
469
609
Sin.
9.76236
9-762'53
9.76271
9.76289
9.76307
69.76324
9.76342
9.76360
99.76378
9-76395
9.76413
9.76431
9.76448
9.76466
9.76484
69.76501
9.76519
9-76537
9-76554
9.76572
9.7659c
9.76607
9.76625
9.76642
9.76660
76677
9.76695
9.76712
9.76730
9.76747
9.76765
9.76782
9.76800
9.76817
9-76835
9.76852
9.76870
8 9.76887
9.76904
.76922
Cos
D.
9-84523
9-84550
9.84576
9.84603
; 39.84630
T ft 9-84657
g 9.84684
18 9q47Io
9.84738
9.84764
9.84791
9.84818
;a9-84845
18i9'84872
18 9-84899
9-84925
9.84952
,8 9.84979
l8 9.85006
9-85033
9-85059
9.85086
9.85113
lb 9-85i4o
l8 9.85166
9-85193
*7
17
Tang.
17
18 9.85220
18 9-85247
18 9-85273
9.85300
Is 9-85327
18
9-85354
9.85380
18 9-85407
!8 9-85434
9.85460
9.85487
I8 9-85514
9-85540
9-85567
18 9.85594
A 9.85620
18 9-85647
9.85674
9.8 3700
9.85727
9-85754
9.85780
9.85807
9.85834
9.85860
9.85887
18 9-859'3
9.85940
9.85967
9-85993
17
18
Is 9-“02°
9.86046
A 9-86073
9-86i
io'9.86i 26
Cot.
D.
27
26
27
27
27
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
26
27
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
27
26
27
26
27
27
26
27
26
27
27
26
Cot.
IO-I5477
10.15450
10.13424
IO-I5397
10.15370
10.15343
10.15310
io.i 5289
10.15262
ic.15236
10.15209
io.i 5182
IO-I5I55
10.15128
10.15101
10.15075
10.1504a
10.15021
10.14994
10.14967
10.14941
10.14914
10.14887
10.14860
10.14834
10.14807
10.14780
10.14753
10.14727
10.14700
10.14673
10.14646
10.14620
io.i4593
10.14566
10.14540
10.14513
10.14486
10.14460
io.i4433
10.14406
ic.14380
io.i4353
10.14326
10.14300
10.14273
10.14246
10.14220
10.14193
10.14166
10.14140
10.14113
10.14087
10.1406c
(0.14033
10.14007
10.13980
io.i3954
10.13927
10.13900
10.13874
Tang.
54 Degrees.
Cos. D. '
9-91336
9.91328
9.91319
9.91310
9-9130I
9.91292
9.9x283
9.91274
9.91266
9-9I257
9 91248
9.91239
9.91230
9.91221
19.91212
19.91203
9.91194
9.9H85
9.91176
9.91167
9-91158
9.91149
9-9ii4i
9.9H32
0.91123
9-9III4
9.91105
9.91096
9.91087
9.91078
9.91069
9.9106c
9.91051
9.91042
9-9I033
9.91023
9.91014
9.91005
9.90996
9.90987
9.90978
9.90969
9.90960
9.90951
9.90942
9-90933
9.90924
9-9°9I5
9.90906
9.90896
9.90887
9.90878
9.90869
9.90860
9.90851
9.90842
9.90832
990823
9.90814
9.90805
9.90796
Sin,
60
0 59
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
11
44
43
42
41
+°
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
3i
30
29
28,
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
£5
14
13
12
124
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS,
36 Degrees.
Sin.
C 9.76922
I 9-76939
29-76957
39.76974
49.76991
3 9.77009
6 9.77026
9'77°43
8 9.77061
99.77078
9-77°95
9-77112
29.7713°
139.77147
149.77164
^ 9.77181
169.77199
79.772!
18 9-77233
99.7725°
9.77268
^77285
9.77302
9*773i9
9-77336
9 9-77353
D.
17
18
*7
J7
18
!7
x7
18
17
*7
17
x8
x7
17
18
J7
!7
18
9.86126
9.86153
9.86179
9.86206
9.86232
9.86259
Tang.
D.
9.86285
9.86312
9.86338
9.86365
9.86392
10.13874
10.13847
10.13821
10.13794
10.13768
10.13741
9-7737°
9-77387
89-774°5
9.77422
9-77439
9.86418
9.86445
9.86471
9.86498
9.86524
9.86551
9.86577
9.86603
9.86630
9,86656
9.86683
9.86709
9.86736
9.86762
9.86789
Cot.
Cos. |D.
9.90796
9.90787
9.90777
9.90768
9-9°759
9-9075°
9-77456
9-77473
9.77490
9-775°7
5 9-77524
9-77541
9-77558
389-77575
9-77592
409-77609
9.86815
9.86842
9 86868
9.86894
9.86921
9.77626
9-77643
9.77660
9.77677
59 77694
9.86947
9.86974
9.87000
9.87027
9-87°53
469.77711
47
9.87079
9.87106
i9-87158
9.87185
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
26
27
26
27
26
27
26
26
27
26
26
27
26
10.13715! 9.90741
10.13688 9.90731
10.13662:9.90722
i°-i3635 9-9°7I3
10.13608,9.90704
10.13582 9.90694
io.i3555119-9°685
IO*I3529i 9-9c676
10.13502 9.90667
10.13476 9.90657
10.13449 9.90648
10.1342319.90639
IO-13397j9-9o630
10.13370 9.90620
I°-I3344
10.13317
10.13291
10.13264
9.90611
9.90602
9-9°592
9-9°583
10.13238 9.90574
10.13211 9.90565
9-8721 1 21
9'87238 26
9-87 264 26
9.87290^
9^7317 26
9-77728Lg
489-77744 I7
499-7776’
509-77778
9-77795
9.77812
539-77829
549.77846
55^77862
569.77879
S19-n^96
58 9-779’3
599 77930
60I9.77946
Cos.
9-87343 26
,9 87369L
9-87396U6
9.87448
10
10.1318519-90555
10.1315819.90546
10.13132 9.90537
10.13106 9.90527
10.13079 9 9051 j
10.13053 9.90509
10.130261 9.90499
10.13000 9.90490
10.12973 9.90480
10.12947 9.90471
10.12921 9.90462
10.12894 9.90452
10.12868 9.90443
10.12842 9.90434
10.12815 9.90424
10
10
10.12789 9.90415
10.12762 9.90405
10.12736
10.12710
9.90396
9.90386
10.12683 9.90377
9-87475
9.8750!
9.87527
9-87554
9.8758
10.12657
10.12631
10.12604’
10.12578
9.87606
9 87633
9.87659
9.87685
9.87711
10.12552 9 90330
9.90368
9-90358
9.90349
9-90339
? 56
55
54
53
52|
51
—
9 48
9 47
9 46
44
43
4 2
41
40
39
38
n37
9 S6
35
34
33
3 2
31
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
19
i8|
i'
16I
—
14
13
12
Cot.
10.12525
10.12499
10.12473
10.12446 9 90292
10.12420
10.12394
10.12367
10.123 41
10 12315
10.12289
Tang.
9.9032,0
9,903 n
9-9°301
9.90282
9-90273
9 90263
9.90254
9.90244
9-9°235
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
9
10
Sin.
37 Degrees.
io
9
8
7
61
5
4
3
2
53 'Degrees.
Sin. iD.
9-77946;1,
9-77963 T;
9.77980
^ 9-77997
4 9.78013
59^8030
l ang.
D.
69.78047
79.78063
8 9.78080
99.78097
109.78113
11 9.78130
129.78147
139.78163
149.78180
159.78197
16978213
i7 9-7823°
189.78246
199.78263
20 9.78280
!7
x7
16
17
’7
16
x7
’7
16
J7
^7
16
’7
’7
16
9.87711
9.87738
9.87764
9.87790
9.87817
9.87843
9.78296
9-783i3
9-78329
.9-78346
259^362
9-78379
. 9-78395
289.78412
29
3°
9.78428
9-78445
Cot.
9.87869
9.87895
9 87922
9.87948
9-87974
9 88000
9.88027
9.88053
9.88079
9.88105
31 9.7846:
9.78478
9.78494
9.78510
9.78527
9.88131
7 9.88158
* 9.88184
9.88210
9.88236
10.12289
10.12262
10.12236
10.12210
10.12183
10.12157
Cos.
D.
9-9°235
9.90225
9.90216
9.90206
j9-9OI97
I9.90-187
10.12131
10.12105
10.12078
10.12052
10.12026
9-78543
9.78 560
9.78576
_ 9.78592
40 9.78609
9.78625
9.78642
9.78658
9.78674
9.78691
469.78707
9.78723
9-78739
9.78756
9-78772
9.78788
„ 9-788o5
539.78821
9.78837
9-78853
9.78869
9 78886
9.78902
9.78918
609.78934
:6
’7
’7
16
’7
16
17
16
’7
16
x7
16
*7
16
’7
16
16
17
16
’7
16
16
’7
16
!7
16
16
1
16
16
16
r7
16
16
I7I
16|
16
161
16
x7
16
16
16
9.88262
9.88289
9.88315
9.88341
9-88367
10.12000
10.11973
10.11947
10.11921
10.11895
9-88393
9.88420
9.88446
'9.88472
Q.88498
9.88 524
9.8855O
9.88577
9.88603
9.88629
27
26
26
26
26
27
26
26
26
26
27
26
26
26
26
26
IO.H869
IO.H842
IO.Il8l6
9.9OI78
9.9OI68
9-9OI59
9.90149
9.90139
10
9-90130
9.90120
9.90111
9.90101
9.90091
9.90082
9.90072
9-90°63
10.117909.90053
10.1176419.90043
10.11 738 9.90034
10.11711
10.11685
10.11659
10.11633
10.11607
10.11580
10.11554
10.11528
10.11502
9.886 55
9.88681
9.88707
9-88733
9-88759
9.88786
9.88812
9.88838
9.88864
9.88890
9.90024
9.90014
9.90005
9.89995
9.89985
9.89976
9.89966
9.89656
9.89947
9.8891,6
9.88942
9.88968
9.88994
19.89020
Cos.
9.89046
9-89073
9.89099
9.89125
9-89i51
9.89177
9.89203
9.89229
9.89255
9.89281
27
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
27
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
10.11476
10.11450
10.11423
10.11397
10.11371
10.11345
10.11319
10.11293
10.11267
10.11241
9-89937
9.89927
9.89918
9.89908
9.89898
10.11214
10.11188
10.11162
10.11136
10.11110
9.89888
9.89879
9.89869
9.89859
9.89849
9.89840
9.89830
9.89820
9.8981
9.8980
10.11084
10.11058
10.11032
10.11006
10.11980
Cot.
9.8979
9.8978
9.8977
9.8976
9.89752
10.11954
10.11927
10.11901
9.89742
9.89732
9.89722
60
9 58
9 56
55
54
53
52
51
1?
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
45
39
:38
o37
9 S6
35
34
10.11875 9.8971
10.1184919.89702
10.11823 9.89693
10.11797 9.89683
10.11771 9.89673
10.11745 9.89663
IQ.1 I719 9.89653
Tang.
10
Sin.
33
3 2
31
35
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
5
14
»3
12
52 Degrees.
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
125
38 Degrees.
09.78934
19.7895°
2 9.78967
3 9.78983
49.78999
5 9-790,5
69.79031
79.79047
89.79063
99.79079
109.79095
11 9.79111
129.79128
r3 9-79I44
x4 9.79160
159.79176
46 9.79668
9.79684
9.79699
9-797I5
9-79731
Sin. |D.
169.79192
i7 9.79’2o8
189.79224
199.7924°
20 9.79256
ai 9.79272
229.79288
23 9-793°4
24 9-793I9
25 9-79333
26 9-79351
27 9-79367
28 9*79383
299*79399
309*79415
31 9*79431
329.79447
33 9*79463
349.79478
35 9*79494
369*7951°
37 9*79526
389.79542
39 9*79558
40 9-79573
9*79589
9.79605
9.79621
9.79636
9.79652
9.79746
9.79762
53 9*79778
9*79793
9.79809
9.79825
9 79840
9.79856
9.79872
9.79887
16
17
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
x7
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
*5
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
16
15
16
16
16
16
16
l6
16
16
*5
t6
16
16
15
16
16
15
16
16
15
16
16
!5
16
16
9.89281
9.89307
9*89333
9*89359
9*89385
9.89411
9*89437
9.89463
9.89489
9*895i5
9.89541
9.89567
9*89593
19.89619
9.89645
9.89671
i'ang.
9.89697
9.89723
9.89749
9*89775
9.89801
9,89827
9*89853
9*89879 26
9.89905 26
9.89931
D.
Cot.
10.10719
10.10693
10.10667
10.10641
10.10615
10.10589
10.10563
10.10537
10.10511
10.10485
J 0.10459
10.10433
10.10407
10.10381
10.10355
10.10329
10.10303
10.10277
10.10*51
10.10225
10.10199
9.89957
9.89983
9.90009
9*90035
9.90061
9.90086
9.90112
9.90138
9.90164
9.90190
Cos.
26
26
26
26
26
25
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
26
25
26
26
26
26
9*9°475 26
9.90501
9.90527
9*9°553
9.90578
9.90216
9.90242
9.90268
9.90294
9.90320
990346
9.90371
9*93397
9.904 23
9.90449
10.10173
10.10147
10.10121
10.10095
10.10069
10.10043
10.10017
10.09991
10.09965
10.09939
10.09914
10.09888
10.09862
10.09836
10.09810
9 90604
9*9063°
9.90656
9.90682
9.90708
9-9°734
9-90759
9*90785 26
9.90811
9.90837
26
Cot.
9*89653
9.89643
9*89633
9.89624
9.89614
9.89604
9.89594
9.89584
9*89574
9.89564
9*89554
Cos.
D.
9.89544
9*89534
9.89524
9.89514
9.89504
9.89495
9.89485
9.89475
9.89465
9*89455
9.89445
9*89435
9.89425
9.89415
9.89405
9*89395
9*89385
9*89375
9 89364
9*89354
10.09784
10.09758
I°*o9732
10.09706
10.09780
10.09654
10.09629
10.09603
10.09577
10.09551
10.09525
10.09499
10.09473
10.09447
10.09422
10.09396
10.09370
10.09344
10.09318
10.09292
9.89344
9*89334
9.89324
9.89314
9.89304
9.89294
9.89284
9.89274
9.89264
9.89254
9.89244
9 89233
9.89223
9.89213
9.89203
9*89i93
9.89183
9.89173
9.89162
9.89152
10.09266
10.09241
10.0921519.8907
10.09189
10.09163
Tang.
9.89142
9.89132
9 89122
9 89112
9.89101
9.89091
9.8908
9.89060
19.89050
1 Sin.
IO
10
10
10
10
10
51 Degrees.
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5?
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
34
33
32
31
3^
29
28
27
26
25
24
23
22
21
20
l9
18
‘7
16
15
M
*3
12
11
10
o 9.79887
1 9.79903
29.79918
3 9*79934
49*79950
5 9*79965
69.79981
79.79996
8 9.80012
9 9.80027
10 9.80043
21 9.80213
229.80228
23 9.80244
249.80259
25
269.80290
279.80305
28 9.80320
9.80336
9.80351
369.80443
37
Sin.
D.
16
9*90837
9.90865
‘3 9.90889
9.90914
9.90940
9.90966
11 9.800 58
129.80074
13 9.80089
14 9.80105
15 9.80120
169.80136
17 9.80151
18 9.80166
9 9.80182
20 9.80197
9.80274
9.80366
9.80382
9.80397
9.80412
9.80428
9.80458
389.80473
39
4°
9.80489
9.80504
9.80519
9*80534
9.80550
9.80565
9.80580
9*83595
9.80610
9.80625
9.80641
9.80656
9.80671
9.80686
9.80701
9.80716 t3
9.8073
569.80746
57 9.80762
589.80777
>9.80792
19.80807
Tang.
39 Degrees.
16
*5
16
r5
16
15
16
15
16
15
16
J5
16
lS
15
16
5
16
'5
16
*5
!5
16
15
r5
16
r5
15
16
J5
r5
16
r5
15
r5
16
x5
r5
15
16
!5
15
‘5
15
15
16
15
l5
lS
15
9.90992
9.91018
9.91043
9.91069
9*9lo95
9.91121
9.91147
9.91172
9.91198
9.91224
9.91250
9.91276
9.91301
9*9I327
9*9I353
9*9I379
9.91404 _
9*9I43® 26
9*9i456
9.91482
9*9I5°7
9*91533
9*9I559
9*9i585
9.91610
Cot.
10.09163
10.09137
10.09111
10.09086
10.09060
10.09034
10.09008
10.08982
10.08957
10.08931
10.08905
10.08879
10.08S 53
10.08828
10.08802
16.08776
10.08750
10.08724
10.08699
10.08673
10.08647
9*9l636
9.91662
9.91688
9*9I7I3
9*91739
9.91765
9.91791
9.91816
9.91842
9.91868
9.91893
9.91919
9*9I945
9-9I971
9.91996
9.92022
9.92048
9.9207
9.92099
9.92125
9*92! 5°
9.92176
9.92202
9.92227
9*92253
Cos.
9.92,279
9.92304
9.92330
j9*92356
!9*9238
Cot.
10.08621
10.08596
10.08 57c
10.08544
10.08518
10.08493
10.08467
10.08441
10.08415
10.0839c
10.08364
10.08338
10.08312
10.08287
10.08261
26
25
3 26
26
25
26
26
25
26
9.89050
9.89040
9.89030
9.89020
9.89009
9.88999
Cos.
D
9.88989
9.88978
9.88968
9.889 58
9.88948
9.88937
9.88927
9.88917
9.88906
9.88896
10.08235
10.08209
10.08184
10.08158
10.08132
10.08107
10.08081
10.08055
10.08029
10.08004
9.88886
9.88875
9.88865
9.88855
9.88844
9.88834
9.88824
9.88813
9.88803
9.88793
10.07978
i°-°7952
10.07927
10.07901
10.07875
9.88782
9.88772
9.88761
9.88751
9.88741
9.88730
9.88720
9.88709
9.88699
9.88688
9.88678
9.88667
9.88657
9.88647
9.88636
9.88626
9.88615
9.88605
9.88594
9.88584
10.07850
10.07824
10.07798
10.07773
10.07747
9*88573
9.88563
9*88552
9.88542
9*8853i
9.88521
9.88510
9.88499
9.88489
9.88478
10.07721
10.07696
10.07670
10.07644
10.076199.88425
Tang.
9.88468
9*88457
9*88447
9.88436
Sin.
10
10
10
II
10
10
11
10
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
10
11
10
II
10
10
II
10
11
10
11
10
10
11
10
II
10
II
10
11
10
II
10
11
10
11
10
11
11
IC
11
10
II
10
II
II
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
40
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
3?
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
l7
16
IS
lA
l3
12
11
10
9
8
7
6
_5
4
3
2
1
i;q Degrees.
126
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
41 Degrees.
Sin.
>9.81694
9,81709
19.81723
39.81738
49.81752
Si9-8l767
69.81781
79.81796
89.81810
99.81825
109.81839
9.81854
19.8186s
13I9.81882
149.81897
169.81926
179.81940
189.81955
199.81969
209.81983
21 9.81998
229.82012
23 9.82026
249.8204
2j 9.82055
26 9.82069
27 9.82084
289.82098
299.82XI2
JO 9.82x26
D.
lS
r4
'5
H
lS
!5
14
x4
15
M
x4
l5
9.939x6
9-93942
9.93967
9-93993
9.94018
9.94044
Tang.
D.
9.94069
9.94095
9.94120
9.94146
9.94171
9.82141
J29.82155
: 9.82169
349.82184
159.82198
369.822x2
_; 9.82226
38 9.82240
399.82255
40 9.82269
9.82283
429.82297
439.823x1
449.823 26
459.8234°
469.82354
47 9.82368
489.82382
499.82396
509.8241c
x4
lS
x4
l5
14
14
15
14
!4
15
14
14
15
M
14
x5
I4
M
x5
9.94197
9.94222
9.94248
9-94273
9.94299
9.94324
9-9435°
9-94375
9.94401
994426
Cot.
9-9445 2
9.94477
9-945°3
9.94528
9-94554
9 94579
9.94604
9.9463c
994655
9.94681
51 9.82424
529 82439
53 9 82453
549.82467
55 9.82481
56 9-8 2495
579.82509
589.82523
599-825'37
609.82551
14
14
14
x4
15
x4
J4
14
*4
x5
x4
x4
M
r4
14
x4
14
x5
r4
9.94706
9-94732
9-94757
i9-94783
9.94808
9-94824
9.94859
9.94884
9.94910
9-94935
9.9496
9.94986
9.95012
9-95°37
9.95062
o.g 5088
9-951 x3
9-95138
9.95164
9.9 519°
9-952I5
9.95240
0.95266
9.95291
9-9531?
9-95342
9-95368
9-95393
9.95418
9.95444
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
26
25
10.06084
10.06058
10.06033
10.06007
10.05982
10.059561
10.05931
ro.05905
10.05880
10,05854
10.05829
10.05803
10.05778
10.057 ^ 2
10.05727
10.0570X
10.05676
10.05650
10.05625
10.05599
io-05574
Cos.
D.
9.87778
9.87767
9.87756
9-87745
9-87734
9-87723
9.87712
9.87701
9.87690
9.87679
9.87668
9.87657
9.87646
9-87635
9.87624
9.87613
9.87601
9.87590
9-87579
9.87568
9-87557
10.05548
10.05523
10.05497
ic.05472
10.05446
9.87546
9-87535
9.87524
9-875i3
9.87501
10.05421
10.05396
10.05370
10.05345
10.05294
10.05268
10.05243
10.05217
10.05192
10.05166
10.05141
10.05116 9-87356
10.05090
10.05065
10.05039
10.05014
10.04988
9.87490
9.87479
9.87468
9-87457
10.05319 9.87446
9-87434
9.87423
9.87412
9.87401
9.87390
987378
9.87367
10.04632
10.04607
10.04556
11
I x
II
12
ii
11
11
11
IX
12
II
XI
11
11
12
IX
9-87345
9-87334
9.87322
9.873II
9.87^0°
IO.04963 9.87288
IO.O4938 9.87277
IO.O49I 2| 9.87266
IO.O4887 9.87255
IO.O4861 9-87243
IO.O4836 9 87232
10.0481c 9.87221
60
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
5i
P
49
48
47
46
45
44
43
42
41
39
38
37
36
35
34
33
32
31
32
29
28
27
26
24
23
22
I21
120
>9
18
*7
16
£5
*4
r3
12
ii
12
12
11
10.04785 9.87209
10.04760 9.87198
10.04734 9.87187
10.04709 9.87175
10.04683 9.87164
10.04658 9 87153
9.87141
9-87i30
12
11
11
12
11
11
12
11
11
12
10.04582 9.87119
9.87107
12
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
127
42 Degrees.
Sin. I).
9.82551
9.8256;
9.82579
3 9-82593
9.82607
5 9.82621
619.82635
7 9.82649
9.82663
9.82677
10 9.8269!
9.82705
9.82719
9-82733
9.82747
159.82761
169.82775
17 9.82788
18 9.82802
9.82816^
9.82830
9.82844
9.82858
9.82872
9.82885
9.82899
9.82913
9.82927
9.82941
9.82955
9.82968
9.82982
9-82996
9.83010
9.83023
9-83037
369-8305
379.83065
389.83078
9.83092
9.83106
9.83120
9-83133
9-83i47
9.83161
45 9-83I74
46 9.83188
47 9-83'202
489.83215
9.83229
9.83242
9.83256
9.83270
9.83283
9.83297
9-833 *0
9-83324
9-83338
9-8335
9-83365
9-83378
Cos.
Tang. D
9-95444
9.95469
9-95495
9 95520
9-95545
9-95571
9-95596
9.95622
9-95647
9.95672
9.95698
9-95723
9.95748
9-95774
9-95799
9-95825
9*9585°
9-95875
9.95901
9.95926
9-95952
9-95977
9.96002
9.96028
9-96053
9.96078
9.96104
9.96129
9-96i55
9.96180
9.96205
9.96231
9.96256
9.96281
9.96307
9.96332
9-96357
9-96383
9.96408
9-96433
9.96459
9.96484
9.96 ;io
9-96535
9.96560
9.96586
9.96738
9.96763
9.96788
9.96814
9.96839'
9.96611
9.96636
9.9666
9.96687
9.96712
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
9.96864!,;
9*96890
9-96915j2r
9.969401^
9.96966]
Cot.
Cot.
10.04556
10.04531
10.04505
10.04480
10.04455
10.04429
9.87107
9.87096
9.87085
9.87073
9.87062
9.87050
10.04404
10.04378
10-043 53
10.04328
10.04202
9.87039
9.87028
9.87016
9.87005
9.86993
10.04277
10.04252
10.04226
10.04 201
10.04175
10.04150
10.04125
10.04099
10.04074
10.04048
10.04023
10.03998
ro.03972
10.03947
10.03922
10.03896
10.03871
10.03845
10.0382c
10.03795
10.03769
10.03744
10.03719
10.03693
xo.03668
10.03643
10.0361
10.03592
10.03567
10.03541
10.03516
10.03490
10.03465
10.03440
10.03414
10.03389
10.03364
10.03338
10.03313
10.03288
10.03262
10.03237
I0.'032I
10.33186
10.03161
10.03136 9.86460
10.03110 9.86448
10.03085 9.86436
10.0306c 9.86425
10.03034 9.86413
Cos. D.
9.86982
9.86970
9.86959
9.86947
9.86936
9.86924
9.869i3
9.86902
9.86890
9.86879
9.86867
9.86855
9.86844
9.86832
9.86821
9.86809
9.86798
9.86786
9-86755
9.86763
9.86752
9.86740
9.86728
9.86717
9.86705
9.86694
7 9.86682
9.86670
9.86659
9.86647
9.86635
9.866
9.86612
9.8660c
9.86589
9.86577
9.86565
9-86554
9.86542
9.86530
9.86518
9.86507
9.86495
9.864S3
9.86472
Tang.
Sin.
47 Degrees.
43 Degrees.
9-83378
9-83392
9*83405
3 9-834I9
4 9-83432
59.83446
69-83359
79-83473
89.83486
99.83500
9-835i3
9-83527
9-83540
3 9-83554
9-83567
59.83581
69-83594
7 9.83608
8 9.83621
99-83634
9.83648
Sin.
9.83661
9.83674
9.83688
9.83701
9-837'5
69.83728
9.83741
9-83755
9.83768
9.83781
D. Tang.
9-83795
9.83808
9.83821
.9-83834
59.83848
69.83861
9.83874
9.83887
9.83901
9.83914
9.83927
9.83940
9-83954
9.83967
9.8398
469 83993
9.84006
9.84020
9-84033
9.84046
9.84059
9.84072
9.84085
9.84098
9.84112
51
52
53
54
55
C69.84125
579.84138
589.84151
599.84164
609.84177
9.96966
9.96991
9.97016
9.97042
9.97067
9.97092
9.97118
9-97143
9.97168
9-97193
9.97219
9.97244
9.97269
9-97295
997320
9-97345
9-97371
9.97396
9.97421
9.97447
9.97472
9.97497
9-97523
9-97548
9-97573
9-97598
9.97624
997649
9.97674
9.97700
9-97725
9-97750
9.97776
9.97801
9.97826
9.97851
9.97877
9.97902
9.97927
9-97953
9.97978
9.98003
9.98029
9.98054
9.98079
9.98104
9.98130
9-98i55
9.98180
9.98206
019.98231
9.98256
9.98281
9-98307
9-98332
998357
Cos.
9-98383
9.98408
9-98433
9.98458
9-98484
D.
Cot.
10.03034
10.03009
10.02984
10.02958
10.02933
10 02908
10.02882
10.02857
10.02832
10.02807
10.02781
9.86413
9.86401
9.86389
9.86377
9.86366
9-86354
9.86342
9.86330
9.86318
9.86306
9.86295
10.02756
10.02731'
10.02705
10.02680 9.86247
10.02655
9.86235
10.02629!
10.02604!
10.02579!
10.02553)
10.02528
10.02503
10.02477
10.02452
10.02427
jio.02402
10.02376
10.02351
10.02326
10.02300
10.0227 5
10.02250
10.02224
10.02199
10.02174
10.02149
10.02123
10.02098
10.02073,
10.020471
10.02022
10.01997
10.01971
io.oi;
10.01921
10.01896
10.01870
10.01845
10.01820
10.01794
10.01769
10.01744
10.01719
10.01693
10.01668
10.01643
Cot.
10.01617
10.01592
10.01567
10.01542
10.01 i;i6
Tang.
46 Degrees.
Cos
D.
9.86283
9.86271
9.86259
9.86223
9.86211
9.86200
9.86188
9.86176
9.86164
9.86152
9.86140
9.86128
9.86116
9 S6104
9.86092
9.86080
9.86068
9.86056
9.86044
9.86032
9.86020
9.86008
9.85996
9.85984
9.85972
9.85960
9.85948
9-85936
9.85924
,9.85912
94619.85900
19.85888
9.85876
9 85864
9.85851
9-85839
9.85827
9.85815
9.85803
9.85791
9-85779
9.8 066
9.85754
9.85742
9-85730
9.85718
9.8 5706
9-85693
Sin.
12
12
12
11
12
12
12
12
12
11
12
1 2
12
12
12
12
12
r 1
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
12
*3
12
12
12
12
12
12
*3
12
12
12
12
12
13
128
LOGARITHMIC SINES AND TANGENTS.
44 Degrees.
Sin. D.l Tang.
9-
9'
9'
39
49
59
84177
,84190
,84203
.84216
.84229
.84242
D.
69
79
89
84255
,84269
,84282
.84295
.84308
119
129
l3$
i4,9
I5i9
9.98484
9.98509
9-98534
q.q8 ?6o
9-98585
9.986x0
9-98635
9.98661
9.98686
9.98711
9-98737
6j9
i8i9'
I9j9
20,9
,84321
'84334l
•84347 L3
•8436oL5
'84373 T3
9.98762
9*98787
9.98812
9.98838
9.98863
84385L 2
■84398 3
.84411 3
.84424
•84437
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
26
Cot.
10.01516
10.01491
10.0x466
10.01440
10.01415
10.01390
Cos. D. '
9.98888
9.989x3
9.98939
9.98964
19.98989
21I9.
229.
239
249
259
84450
84463
.84476
.84489
.84502
26'9-
27,9.
289.
299
3° 9
84515
84528
,84540
•84553
•84566
Cos.
9.990x5
9.99040
9.99065
9-9909°
9.99116
9.99141
9.99166
9-99I9I
! 9-992^7
1 9-99242
25
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
10.01365
10.0x339
10.01314
10.01289
10.01263
10.01238
10.01213
IO.OI 188
10.01162
10.0x137
•85693
.85681
.85669
.85657
'.85645
'•85632
,85620
85608
•85596
•85583
•85571
10.OII12
IO.OI087
I0.0I06l
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10.00985
10.00960
10.00935
10.00910
10.00884
Cot.
10.00859
10.00834
10.00809
10.00783
10.00758
85559
•85547
■85534
•85522
85510
12
12
12
12
r3
12
12
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I;
12
12
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•85497
.85485
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.85460
■85448
•85436
.85423
1.85411
'•85399
I.85386
6
59
58
57
56
55
54
53
52
51
5£
49
48
47
46
45
Tang.
•85374
•85361
•85349
'•8533-7
'•85324
Sin.
S8
37
S6
35
34
33
S2
31
3°
44 Degrees.
Sin.
0.84566
9-84579
9.84592
9.84605
9.84618
9.84630
369.84643
379.84656
389.84669
1399.84682
40 9.84694
44 9.84707
429.84720
43 9-84733
449.84745
459.84758
Lang.
D. Cot.
9.99242
9.99267
9.99293
9.99318
9-99343
9.99368
469.84771
479.84784
489.84796
499.84809
509.84822
5i
45 Degrees.
9-84835
9.84847
9.84860
9.84873
9.84885
56 9.84898
9.8491
9.84923
9.84936
9-84949
Cos.
9-99394
9.994x9
9-99444
9.99469
9-99495
9.99520
9-99545
9 9957°
9.99596
9.99621
10.007 58
2 c 'J
J 10.00733
10.00707
10.00682
10.00657
^ 10.00632
jxo.00606
23 10.00581
23 10.00556
23ji0.o°53i
J10.00505
Cos. D. '
9-85324
9-85312
9.85299
9.85287
9.85274
9.85262
I9.99646
19-99672
9.99697
9.99722
9-99747
12
9-99773
9.99798
9.99823
9.99848
9.99874
25
25
26
25
25
26
25
25
25
26
25
10.00480
10.00455
10.00430
;xo.00404
10.00379
9.8 5250
9-85237
9.8 5225
9.85212
9.8520c
9.85187
9-85175
9.85162
9.85150
9-85137
10.00354
10.00328
10.00303
10.00278
10.00253
9-85125
9.85112
9.85100
9.8 5087
9.85074
23 1
25
10.00227
10.00 202
0.00177
I9.99899
19.99924
19.99949
9-99975
i 0.00000
10.00152
10.00126
Cot.
IO.OOIOI
10.00076
10.00051
10.00025
10.00000
9.85062
9.85049
9-85037
9.85024
9.85012
Tang.
9.84999
9.84986
9.84974
9.84961
,9.84949
13
12
13
12,
13
12
13
1 2
13
12
r3
12
13
13
12
13
12
13
12
13
13
12
13
12
3°
29
28
27
26
53
24
23
22
21
20
19
18
17
16
15
14
13
12
11
10
Sin.
45 Degrees.
LLsgarith-
wic curve.
Plate
ecxcvn.
3*
LOG
LOGARITHMIC curve. If on the line AN
both ways indefinitely extended, be taken AC, CE,
EG, GI, IL, on the left hand j and also A^-, gE,
See’ on the right, all equal to one another *, and if at
the points Vg, A, C, E, G, I, L, be erected to the
right line AN, the perpendiculars ES, .g- d, A±5, TJJ,
EE, GH, IK, LM, which let be continually propor¬
tional, and represent numbers, viz. AB, 1} CD, 10 j
EE, 100, &c. then shall we have two progressions of
line’s, arithmetical and geometrical: for the lines AC,
AE AG, &C. are in arithmetical progression, or as 1,
2 3 4 5, &c. and so represent the logarithms to which
the geometrical lines AB, CD, EE, &c. do correspond.
For since AG is triple of the first line AC, the number
GH shall be in the third place from unity, if CD be
in the first: so likewise shall LM be in the fifth place,
»ince AL=5 AC. If the extremities of the propor¬
tionals S, d, B, D, F, &c. be joined by right lines,
the figures SBML will become a polygon, consisting
of more or less sides, according as there are more or less
terms in the progression. 1 • .i
If the parts AC, CE, EG, &c. be bisected in the
points c, c, g, i, A and there be again raised the per¬
pendiculars, c d, ef, gh, ik, Im, which are mean pro¬
portionals between AB, CD, CD, El, &c. then there
LOG
will arise a new series of proportionals, whose terms, Logwiti-
beginning from that which immediately follows unity, niic ceyre
are double of those in the first series, and the difference 'T—1
of the terms is become less, and approaches nearer to a
ratio of equality than before. Likewise, in this new
series, the right lines, AL, A c, express the distance#
of the terms LM c d, from unity, viz. since AL is ten
times greater than A c, LM shall be the tenth term of
the series from unity -, and because A e is three times
greater than A c, e f will be the third term of the series
if c d be the first, and there shall be two mean propor¬
tionals between AB and^/j and between AB and LM
there will be nine mean proportionals. And if the ex¬
tremities of the lines B d, D/, F ^ be joined by
right lines, there will be a new polygon made, consist¬
ing of more but shorter sides than the last.
If, in this manner, mean proportionals be continual¬
ly placed between every two terms, the number oi
terms at last will be made so great, as also the number
of the sides of the polygon, as to be greater than any
given number, or to be infinite ; and every side of the
polygon so lessened, as to besome less than any given
right line j and consequently the polygon will be chan¬
ged into a curve-lined figure ; for any curve-lined fi¬
gure may be conceived as a polygon, whose sides are
infinitely
LOG [i
ILogarith- infinitely small and infinite in number. A curve describ-
wic Curve, after this manner is called logarithmical.
iinic^Lines. It manifest from this description of the logarith-
—v—> mic curve, that all numbers at equal distances arc con¬
tinually proportional. It is also plain, that if there
be four numbers, AB, CD, IK, LM, such that the
distance between the first and second be equal to the
distance between the third and the fourth, let the di¬
stance from the second to the third be what it will, these
numbers will be proportional. For because the distances
AC, IL, are equal, AB shall be to the increment D s,
as IK is to the increment MT. 'Wherefore, by com¬
position, AB : DC :: IK : ML. And, contrariwise,
if four numbers be proportional, the distance between
the first and second shall be equal to the distance be¬
tween the third and fourth.
The distance between any two numbers is called the
logarithm of the ratio of those numbers ; and, indeed,
doth not measure the ratio itself, but the number of
terms in a given series of geometrical proportionals,
proceeding from one number to another, and defines the
number of equal ratios by the composition whereof the
ratios of number is known.
Logarithmic Lines. For many mechanical purposes
it is convenient to have the logarithms of numbers laid
down on scales, as well as the logarithmic sines and
tangents ; by which means computations may be car¬
ried on by mere mensuration with compasses. Lines
of this kind are always put on the common Gunter’s
scale j but as these instruments must be extended to a
very great length, in order to contain any considerable
quantity of numbers, it becomes an object of import¬
ance to shorten them. Such an improvement has been
made by Mr William Nicholson, and published in the
77th volume of the Philosophical Transactions. The
principles on which the construction of his instruments
depends are as follpw :
1. If two geometrical series of numbers, having the
same common ratio, be placed in order with the terms
opposite to each other, the ratio between any term in
one series and its opposite in the other will be constant:
Thus,
2 6 18 54 162, &c.
3 9 27 81 243, &c. Then,
1 3 6 9 18 27 54 81 162 243, &c.
where it is evident, that each of the terms in the upper
series is exactly two-thirds of the corresponding one in
the lower.
2. The ratio of any two terms in one series will be
the same with that between those which have an equal
distance in the other.
3. In all such geometrical series as have the same ra¬
tio, the property above mentioned takes place, though
we compare the terms of any series with those of ano¬
ther : Thus,
2 4 8 16 32 64, &c.
3 6 12 24 48 96, &c.
4 8 16 32 64 128, &.c.
5 10 20 40 80 160, &c. $ where it is
plain that 2, 4, 3, 6 5 also 2, 4, 4, 8, and 2, 4, 5,10, &c.
have the same ratio with that of each series.
4. If the differences of the logarithms of the num¬
bers be laid in order upon equidistant parallel right
lines, in such a manner that a right line drawn across
the whole shall intersect it at divisions denoting num-
Vol. XII. Part I.
29 j LOG
bers in geometrical progression j then, from the condi- jL0fraritli-
tion of the arrangement, and the property of this lo- mic Linen,
garithmic line, it follows, 1st, That every right line so —"■*
drawn will, by its intersections, indicate a geometrical
series of numbers ; 2dly, That such series as are indi¬
cated by these right lines will have the same common
ratio ; and, 3dly, That the series thus indicated by two
parallel right lines, supposed to move laterally, without
changing either their mutual distance or parallelism to
themselves, will have each the same ratio and in all
scries indicated by such two lines, the ratio between an
antecedeilt and consequent; the former ta.ken upon one
line, and the latter upon another, will be also the same.
The 1st of these propositions is proved in the fol- Plate
lowing manner. Let the lines AB, CD, EF, repre- CCXCVH.
sent parts of the logarithmic line arranged according IIe
to the proportion already mentioned j and let GH be
a right line passing through the points c, c, c, denoting
numbers in geometrical progression; then will any
other line IK, drawn across the arrangement, likewise
pass through three points f df b, in geometrical progres¬
sion. From qne of the points of intersection^' in the
last-mentioned line IK, draw the line f g parallel to
GH, and intersecting the arrangements in the points
i, h; and the ratios of the numbers e,f c i, will be equal,
as well as of a h ; because the intervals on the loga¬
rithmic line, or-differences of the logarithms of those
numbers, are equal. Again, the point f the line idy
and the line h b, are in arithmetical progression denot¬
ing the differences between the logarithms of the num¬
bers themselves j whence the quotients of the numbers
are in geometrical progression.
The 2d proposition is proved in a similar manner.
For as it was shown that the line/g-, parallel to GII,
passes through points of division denoting numbers in
the same continued ratio as those indicated by the line
GH j it may also be shown, that the line LM parallel
to any other line IK, will pass through a series of
points denoting numbers which have the same continued
ratio with those indicated by the line IK, to which it is
parallel.
The 3d proposition arises from the parallelism of the
lines to their former situation 5 by which means they
indicate numbers in a geometrical series, having the
same common ratio as before : their distance on the lo¬
garithmic line also remains unchanged: whence the dif¬
ferences between the logarithms of the opposite num¬
bers, and of consequence their ratios, will always be
constant.
5. Supposing now an antecedent and consequent to
be given in any geometrical series, it will always be
possible to find them, provided the line be of unlimited
length. Drawing two parallel lines, then, through each
of the numbers, and supposing the lines to move with¬
out changing their direction or parallel situation, they
will continually describe new antecedents and conse¬
quents in the same geometrical series as before.
6. Though the logarithmic line contain no greater
range of numbers than from 1 to 10, it will not be
found necessary for the purposes of computation to re¬
peat it. The only thing requisite is to have a slider
or beam tvith two fixed points at the distance of the
interval betwixt I and 10, and a moveable point made
to range betwixt them always to indicate the antece¬
dent j then, if the consequent fixed point fall with- . '
f out
log
[ 130 ]
LOG
out the rule, the other fixed ^
the division on which it would have fallen had th
rule been prolonged ; and this contrivance may easily
he adapted to any arrangement of parallel lines who¬
ever. PThe arrangement of right lines, however, ought
always to be disposed in such a manner as to occupy a
right-angled parallelogram, or the cross line already
mentioned ought always to be at right angles to
leiFig °7 ^is a^ruler consisting of ten parallel lines.—
Fio- 8. a beam compass for measuring the intervals.
B "A C, are the parts which apply to the surface ot
the ruler *, the middle one, A, being moveable side-
wfse in a groove in the piece DE so as always to pre
serve its parallelism to the external pieces DC, which
are fixed at a distance equal to the length of the ruler,
and have their edges placed in such a manner as to
form with the parallel lines which they intersect a ratio,
ivhich bv composition is T*o j "'Inch in the present case
reouireTthem to be at right angles to the length, l ie
piece DE is applied to the edge EG of the ruler. The
edges or borders H, I, K, L, are ^ore convemendy
made of transparent horn, or tortoise-shell, than of any
°F iTusing this ruler, apply the edge o{
C to the consequent, and slide tne piece A
tecedent; observing the difference between the num¬
bers on the pieces denoting the any other
on • then applying the same edge of A to any oti er
antecedent^1 the^other piece B or C will intersect a con¬
sequent in the same ratio upon that line, fiavmg
same situation with regard to ^ ^ecedent that the
line of the former consequent had ^ itsantexedcnt
But if B be the consequent piece, and fall withou
rider the piece C will show the consequent one line
loweror if C, in like manner, fall wthout tte ruler,
then B will show the consequent one line higher.
“ It might be convenient (says Mr Nicholson) tor the
purpose Of computation, to make -““"““Ve
kind with one hundred or more lines . but in the pr
sent instrument, the numbers on the pieces will answer
the same purpose ; for if a consequent fall upon a line
at any given number of intervals without the nder, 1
will be found on that line of the arrangement which
occupies the same number of intervals reckoned inwards
from the opposite edge of the ruler. punter’s
Fie Q. is an instrument on the plan of a C£mter 8
scalV^ inches long invented^ Mr
non. There is a moveable piece AB in the slider
GH across which is drawn a fine line : the slider ha-
v5 also lines CD, EF, drawn acro^ it al drstences
from each other equal to the length of the roler AB^
In using the instrument, the line CD or E
placed at the consequent, and the line in A a
antecedent: then, if the piece AB be placed at any Logarith,
other antecedent, the same line CD or El will indicate rmcW
its consequent in the same ratio taken the same way .
that is, if the antecedent and consequent lie on the
same side of the slider, all other antecedents and conse¬
quents in that ratio will be in the same manner 5 and
the contrary if they do not. But if the consequent line
fall without the ruler, the other fixed line on the slider
will show the consequent, but on the contrary side ot
the slider to that where it would else have been seen by
means of the first consequent line. ,
Fie: 10. is a circular instrument equivalent to the
former : consisting of three concentric circles engraved
and graduated upon a plate of an inch and a half dia-
meter. Two legs A and B proceed from the centre,
having right-lined edges in the direction of radii and
are moveable either singly or together. In using the
instrument, place one of the edges at the antecedent
and the other at the consequent, and fix them at the
angle. Move the two legs then together j and baV1^
placed the antecedent leg at any other number the
other will give the consequent one in the like po-
sition on the lines. If the line CD happen to he be¬
tween the legs, and B be the consequent leg, the mnn-
her sought will be found one line farther from the cen
tre than it would otherwise have been } and on the co
transit will be found one line nearer in the like case,
51' be the consequent leg. “ This instrument (says
Mr Nicholson) differing from that represented hg. ?•
only in its circular form, and the advantages resulting
from that form, the lines must be taken to succeed ^
other in the same manner laterally so that numfier
which fall either within or without the arrangement ot
circles will be found on such lines of the arrangemei
as would have occupied the vacant places it the succes¬
sion of lines had been indefinitely repeated flde^se-
“ I approve of this construction as superior to every
other which has yet occurred to me, not on y m pomt
of convenience, but likewise in the probability ot be
imr better executed; because small arcs may be gra¬
dated with very great accuracy, by divisions transfer¬
red from a larger original. The instrument, g- 7- y
be contained conveniently in a circle of about tour
inches and a half diameter. „ ,
“ The circular instrument is a combination ot tne
Gunter’s line and the sector, with the improvements
here pointed out. The property ot the sector may be
useful in magnifying the d.fferences tbe logarithn^
in the upper parts of the line of sines, the middle ot the
taneents, and the beginning of the versed sines. It rs
even possible, as mathematicians will easily conceive, to
draw spirals, on which graduations of parts, everywhere
equal to each other, will show the ratios of those lines
by moveable radii, similar to those in this instrument.
LOGIC.
r OGIC is the art of thinking and reasoning justly,
L or it may be defined the science or history ol the
mman mind, inasmuch as it traces the progress of our
knowledge from our first and most simple conception
through all tbeix different combinations, and a.l
numerous deductions that result from variously com¬
paring them one with another. . , .
1 The precise business of logic therefore is, 10 explain
the nature of the human mind, and t ie proper
of conducting its several powers, m order to the attain-
Part I. L °
ment of truth and knowledge. It lays open those errors
l :;rception. and mistakes we are apt, through inattention, to run
-—into; and teaches us how to distinguish between truth,
and what only carries the appearance of it. By these
means we grow acquainted with the nature and force
of the understanding *, see what things lie within its
G I C. ' I3£
reach j where we may attain certainty and demonstra- Ot
tion ; and when we must be contented with probability. Perception.
This science is generally divided into four parts,
viz. Perception, Judgment, Reasoning, and Method.
This division comprehends the whole history of the sen¬
sations and operations of the human mind.
PART I. OF PERCEPTION.
WE find ourselves surrounded with a variety of ob¬
jects, which acting differently upon our senses, con¬
vey distinct impressions into the mind, and thereby
rouse the attention and notice of the understanding.
By reflecting too on what passes within us, we become
sensible of the operations of our own minds, and at¬
tend to them as a new set of impressions. But in all
this there is only bare consciousness. The mind, with¬
out proceeding any farther, takes notice of the im¬
pressions that are made upon it, and views things in
order, as they present themselves one after another.
This attention of the understanding to the object act¬
ing upon it, whereby it becomes sensible of the im¬
pressions they make, is called by logicians perception ;
and the notices themselves, as they exist in the mind,
and are there treasured up to be the materials of think¬
ing and knowledge, are distinguished by the name of
ideas. In the article Metaphysics it shall be shown
at large, how the mind, being furnished with ideas,
contrives to diversify and enlarge its stock: we have
here chiefly to consider the means of making known our
thoughts to others j that we may not only understand
how knowledge is acquired, but also in what manner
it may be communicated with the greatest certainty and
advantage.
Chap. I. Of Words, considered as the signs of our Ideas.
.Vords fur- I. Our ideas, though manifold and various, are ne-
aish the vertheless all within our own breasts, invisible to o-
ueans of fliers, nor can of themselves be made appear. But
urown^ God, designing us for society, and to have fellowship
houghts; with those of our kind, has provided us with organs
fitted to frame articulate sounds, and given us also a
capacity of using those sounds as signs of internal con¬
ceptions. Hence spring words and language: for,
having once pitched upon any sound to stand as the
mark of an idea in the mind, custom by degrees esta¬
blishes such a connection between them, that the ap¬
pearance of the idea in the understanding always brings
to our remembrance the sound or name by which it
is expressed •, as in like manner the hearing of the
sound never fails to excite the idea for which it is made
to stand. And thus it is easy to conceive how a man
may record his own thoughts, and bring them again
into view in any succeeding period of life. For this
connection being once settled, as the same sounds will
always serve to excite the same ideas; if he ean but
contrive to register his words in the order and dispo-
. sition in which the present train of his thoughts pre¬
sent themselves to his imagination, it is evident he will
be able to recal these thoughts at pleasure, and that too
in the very manner of their first appearance. Ac¬
cordingly we find, that the inventions of writing and
printing, by enabling us to fix and perpetuate such
perishable things as sounds, have also furnished us with
the means of giving a kind of permanency to the trans¬
actions of the mind, insomuch that they may be in the
same manner subjected to our review as any other ob¬
jects of nature. z
II. But besides the ability of recording our own and of the
thoughts, there is this farther advantage in the use
external signs, that they enable us to communicate our catjon
thoughts to others, and also to receive information of knowledge
what passes in their breasts. For any number of men, from one
having agreed to establish the same sounds as signs ot
the same ideas, it is apparent, that the repetition ofauo
these sounds must excite the like perceptions in each,
and create a perfect correspondence of thoughts.
When, for instance, any train of ideas succeed one
another in my mind, if the names by which I am
wont to express them have been annexed by those
with whom I converse to the very same set ot ideas,
nothing is more evident, than that, by repeating those
names according to the tenor of my present concep¬
tions, I shall raise in their minds the same course ot
thought as has taken possession of my own. For by
barely attending to what passes within themselves
upon hearing the sounds which I repeat, they will al¬
so become acquainted with the ideas in my under¬
standing, and have them in a manner laid before their
view. So that we here clearly perceive how a man
may communicate his sentiments, knowledge, and dis¬
coveries to others, if the language in which he con¬
verses be extensive enough to mark all the ideas and
transactions of his mind. But as this is not always
the case, and men are often obliged to invent terms
of their own to express new views and conceptions
of things ; it may be asked, how in these circum¬
stances we can become acquainted w'ith the thoughts
of another, when he makes use of words, to which
we have never annexed any ideas, and that of course
can raise no perceptions in our minds ? In order to un¬
veil this mystery, and give some little insight into the
foundation, growth, and improvement of language, the
following observations will be found of considerable mo¬
ment. 3
III. First, That no word can be to any man the Simple
sign of an idea, till that idea comes to have a real ex- ideas can -
istence in his mind. For names, being only so far in-”"11^'™"
telligible as they denote known internal conceptions } ^emi^ *
where they have none such to answer them, there j,y WOrds
they are plainly sounds without signification, and ofor a de¬
course convey no instruction or knowledge. But noscnpuo*.
sooner are the ideas to which they belong raised in the
understanding, than, finding it easy to connect them
with the established names, we can join in any agree¬
ment of this kind made by others, and thereby enjoy the
II 2 benefit
i 32 h o
Of benefit of their discoveries. The first thing therefore to
Perception. be consideretl iS) how these ideas may be conveyed in-
* v to the mind ; that being there, we may learn to con¬
nect them with their appropriated sounds, and so be¬
come capable of understanding others when they make
use of these sounds in laying open and communicating
their thoughts. Now, to comprehend this distinctly,
it will be necessary to attend to the division of our
ideas into simple and complex, (see Metaphysics).
And fi rst, as for our simple ideas ; they can find no
admission into the mind, but by the two original
fountains of knowledge, sensation and reflection. If
i therefore any of these have as yet no being in the un¬
derstanding, it is impossible by words or a description
to excite them there. A man who had never felt the
< sensation of heat, could not be brought to comprehend
V. that sensation by any thing we might say to explain
' it. If we would really produce the idea in him, it
must be by applying the proper object to his senses,
and bringing him within the influence of a hot body.
When this is done, and experience has taught him
the perception to which men have annexed the name
heat, it then becomes to him the sign of that idea,
and he thenceforth understands the meaning of the
term, which, before, all the words in this world would
not have been sufficient to convey into his mind. The
case is the same in respect of light and colours. A man
born blind, and thereby deprived of the only con¬
veyance for the ideas of this class, can never be brought
to understand the names by which they are expressed.
The reason is plain : they stand for ideas that have no
existence in his mind •, and as the organ appropriated
to their reception is Avanting, all other contrivances
are vain, nor can they by any force or description be
raised in his imagination. But it is quite otherwise
in our complex notions. For these being no more
than certain combinations of simple ideas, put toge¬
ther in various forms } if the original ideas out of which
the collections are made have already got admission
into the understanding, and the names serving to ex¬
press them arc known } it will be easy, by enumerating
the several ideas concerned in the composition, and
marking the order and manner in which they are unit¬
ed, to raise any complex conception in the mind. Thus
the idea answering to the word rainbow may be readily
excited in the imagination of another who has never
seen the appearance itself, by barely describing the
figure, largeness, position, and order ot colours j it we
suppose these several simple ideas, with their names,
sufficiently known to him.
I be names 1V- ^ntl th‘s leads to a sec01ul observation upon this
of complex subject, namely, That words standing for complex
ideas defin-],Jeas are all definable, but those by which we denote
abk; those simp|e ideas are not j for simple ideas being secondary
v 'idSrtt. perceptions, which have no other entrance into the
U mind than by sensation or reflection, can only be got
bv experience, from the several objects of nature, pro¬
per to1 produce those perceptions in us. Words indeed
may very well serve to remind us of them, if they have
already found admission into the understanding, and
their connexion with the established names is known ;
but they can never give them their original being and
existence there. And hence it is, that when any one
asks: the meaning of a word denoting a simple idea,
we pretend not tt> explain it to him by a dehnitioi).
GIG. Part I,
well knowing that to he impossible 5 but, supposing of
him already acquainted with the idea, and only igno- Perception.
rant of the name by which it is called, we either men- 1 ^ J !
tion it to him by some other name with which we pre¬
sume he knows its connexion, or appeal to the object
where the idea itself is found. 1 litis, were any one
to ask the meaning of the work white, we should tell
him it stood for the same idea as albus in Latin, or
blanc in French 5 or, if we thought him a stranger to
these languages, we might appeal to an object produ¬
cing the idea, by saying it denoted the colour we ob¬
serve in snow or milk. But this is by no means a de¬
finition of the word, exciting a new idea in his under¬
standing *, but merely a contrivance to remind him. of a
known idea, and teach him its connexion with the esta¬
blished name. For if the ideas after which he inquires
have never yet been raised in his mind} as suppose
one who had seen no other colours than black and. white,
should ask the meaning of the word scarlet ; it is easy
to perceive, that it would he no more possible to make
him comprehend it by words, or a definition, than to.
introduce the same perception into the imagination ot
a man born blind. Tlife only method in this case is,
to present some object, by looking at which the percep¬
tion itself may he excited 5 and thus he will learn both
the name and the idea together. 5
V. But how comes it to pass that men agree in the Experience
names of their simple ideas, seeing they cannot view
the perceptions in one another’s minds, nor make know.n an
these perceptions by words to others? The effect is agreement
produced by experience and observation. 1 bus find- in the
ing, for instance, that the name of heat is annexed toaa^o.
that sensation which men feel when they approach the^^
fire, I make it also the sign of the sensation excited in
me by such an approach, nor have any doubt hut it
denotes the same perception in my mind as in thciis.
For we are naturally led to imagine, that the same ob¬
jects operate alike upon the organs ot the human bo¬
dy, and produce an uniformity of sensations. No man
fancies, that the idea raised in him by the taste of su¬
gar, and which he calls sweetness, differs from that ex¬
cited in another by the like means ; or that worm¬
wood, to whose relish he has given the epithet bitter, .
produces in another the sensation which he denotes by
the word sweet. Presuming therefore upon this con¬
formity of perceptions, when they arise from the same
objects, we easily agree as to the names of our simple
ideas : and if at any time, by a more narrow scrutiny
into things, new ideas of this class come in our wray,
which we choose to express by terms of our own inven¬
tion •, these names are explained, not by a definition,
hut by reiernng to the objects whence the ideas them¬
selves may be obtained. ^
VI. Being in this manner furnished with simple The
ideas, and the names by which they are expressed 5 the CQ^1piex
meaning ot terms that stand for complex ideas is ea-d*
sily got, because the ideas themselves answering to fimtions, a
these terms may be conveyed into the mind by defi- vise contr
nitions. For our complex notions are only certain
combinations of simple ideas. When therefore these
are enumerated, and the manner in which they are
united into one conception explained, nothing more
is wantiiig to raise that conception in the understand¬
ing and thus the term denoting it comes of course to
he" understood. And here it is worth while to reflect
jpaft I. ^ ^
Of a little upon the wise contrivance of nature, in thus
Perception, furnishing us with the very aptest means ot commu-
•—v—' nicating our thoughts. For were it not so ordered,
that we could tints convey our complex ideas from
one to another hy definitions, it would in many cases
be impossible to make them known at all. This is
apparent in those ideas which are the proper work of
the mind. For as they exist only in the understand¬
ing, and have no real objects in nature in conformity
to which they are framed j if we cOuld not make them
known by description, they must lie for ever hid with¬
in our own breasts, and be confined to the narrow
acquaintance ot a single mind. All the fine scenes
that arise from time to time in the poet’s fancy, and
by his lively painting give such entertainment to his
readers, were he destitute ot this faculty ot laying
them open to the view of others hy words and de¬
scription, could not extend their influence beyond his
own imagination, or give joy to any but the original
inventor.
VII. There is this farther advantage in the ability
rreat avail we enjoy of communicating our complex notions by
owards the definitions ; that as these make by far the largest class
mpiove- 0jt- our j,leaSj antl most frequently occur in the progress
[nowledffc. antl improvement of knowledge, so they are hy these
b ' means imparted with the greatest readiness, than
which nothing would tend more to the increase and
spreading of science : for a definition is Soon perused 5
and if the terms of it are well understood, the idea
itself finds an easy admission into the mind. W hereas,
in simple perceptions, where we are referred to the
objects producing them, if these cannot be come at, as
is sometimes the case, the names by which they are
expressed must remain empty sounds. Rut new ideas
of this class occurring very rarely in the sciences, they
seldom create any great obstruction. It is otherwise
with our complex notions ^ for every step we take
leading us into new combinations and views ot things,
it becomes necessary to explain these to others, before
they can be made acquainted with our discoveries:
and as the manner of definitions is easy, requiring no
apparatus but that of words, which are always ready,
and at hand; hence we can with less difficulty re¬
move such obstacles as might arise from terms of our
own invention, when they are made to stand for new
complex ideas suggested to the mind by some present
train of thinking. And thus at last we are let into
the mystery hinted at in the beginning of this chapter,
viz. how we may become acquainted with the thoughts
of another, when he makes use of words to which we
have as yet joined no ideas. The answer is obvious
from what has been already said. If the terms denote
simple perceptions, he must refer us to these objects ot
nature whence the perceptions themselves are to be
obtained ; but, if they stand for complex ideas, their
meaning may be explained by a definition.
definition
‘C fined.
Chap. II. Of Definition,
I. A definition is the unfolding of some conception
of the mind, answering to the word or term made use of
as the sign of it. Now as, in exhibiting any idea to ano¬
ther, it is necessary that the description be sucli as may
excite that precise idea in his mind ; hence it is plain
that definitions, properly.speaking, are not arbitrary, but
G I C. *33
confined to the representing of certain determinate Of
settled notions, such namely as are annexed by the Perception.
speaker or writer to the words he uses. As never¬
theless it is universally allowed that the signification ot
words is perfectly voluntary, and not the effect of any
natural and necessary connection between them and
the ideas for which they stand ; some may perhaps
wonder why definitions are not so too. In order
therefore to unravel this difficulty, and show distinctly
what is and what is not arbitrary in speech, we must
carefully distinguish between the connection ol our
words and ideas, and the unfolding of the ideas them¬
selves. # 9-
II. First, as to the connexion of our words and ideas; The con-
this, it is plain, is a purely arbitrary institution. When, be*
for instance, we have in our minds the idea of any wol.ds an(i
particular species of metals, the calling it by*.the name ideas, a per-
gold is an effect of the voluntary choice of men speak-fectly vo-
ing the same language, and not of any peculiar aptness^ayy e-
in that sound to express that idea. Other nations we ]licnt
find make use of different sounds, and with the same
effect. Thus aurum denotes that idea in Latin, and
or in French; and even the word gold itself would
have as well served to express the idea ol that metal
which we call silver, had custom in the beginning esta¬
blished it. __ 10
III. Rut although we are thus entirely at liberty inThede-
connectimr any idea with any sound, yet it is quite scripti°n of
otherwise in unfolding the ideas themselves, lor ev^1 y^t bound-
idea having a precise appearance ol its own, by which e(i to the
it is distinguished from every other idea; it is mani-representa-
fest, that in laying it open to others, we must study t^011 .°f that
such a description as shall exhibit that peculiar aP* p^rance^by
pearauce. When we have formed to ourselves the ^ich they
idea of a figure hounded by four equal sides, joined are distin-
together at right angles, we are at liberty to express guished a-
that idea by any sound, and call it either a square or a thenfselvca.
triangle. Rut whichever of these names we use, so.
long as the idea is the same, the description by which
we would signify it to another must he so too. Let it
be called square or triangle, it is still a figure having
four equal sides, and all its angles right ones. Hence
we dearly see what is and what is not arbitrary in the
use of words. The establishing any sound as the mark
of some determinate idea in the mind, is the effect ot
free choice, and a voluntary combination among men :
and as different nations make use of different sounds
to denote the same ideas, hence proceed all that va¬
riety of languages which we meet with in the world.
But when a connexion between our ideas and words
is once settled, the unfolding of the idea answering tp
any word, which properly constitutes a definition, is
by no means an arbitrary thing : for here we are bound
to exhibit that jirecise conception which either the use
of language, or our own particular choice, hath an*
nexed to the term we use. 11 ■
IV. And thus it appears, that definitions, considered Causes of
as descriptions of ideas in the mind, are steady and in-
variable, being hounded to the representation ol these j1it.jie^t0 ***
precise ideas. But then, in the application ol defini-peip]exe(j
tions to particular names, we are altogether left to our the theory,
own free choice. Because as the connecting of anyof •
idea with any sound is a perfectly arbitrary insUtu-t*0l,i:-
tion, the applying the description of that idea to that
sound must be so too. When therefore logicians tell
us
L O
134
Of us that the definition of the name is arbitrary, they
Perception, mean no more than this ; that as difierent i eas may
i ,..-v J ^ connected with any term, according to the good
■pleasure of him that uses it 5 in like manner may dit-
ferent descriptions be applied to the term, suitable to
the ideas so connected. But this connexion being
settled, and the term considered as the sign ot some
fixed idea in the understanding, we are no longer lett
to arbitrary explications, but must study such a descrip¬
tion as corresponds with that precise idea. Now this
alone, according to what has been before laid down,
ought to be accounted a definition. What seems to
have occasioned no small confusion in this matter is,
that many explanations of words, where no idea is
unfolded, but merely the connexion between some
word and idea asserted, have yet been dignified with
the name of definitions. Thus, when we say that
a clock is an instrument by which we measure time ;
that is by some called a definition ; and yet it is plain
that we are beforehand supposed to have an idea ot
this instrument, and only taught that the word cbck
serves in common language to denote that idea. IJy
this rule all explications of words in our dictionaries
will be definitions, nay, the names of even simple ideas
may be thus defined. White, we may say, is the co¬
lour we observe in snow or milk j heat the sensation
produced by approaching the fire ; and so m innumera¬
ble other instances. But these, and all others of the
like kind, are by no means definitions, exciting new
ideas in the understanding, but merely contrivances to
remind us of known ideas, and teach their connexion
12 with the established names.
Complex v. But now in definitions properly so called, we
ideas alone firgt consider the term we use, as the sign of some in-
forward conception, either annexed jt H or
G I C. Part t
complex, it is obvious to remark, that definitions can- Of
not have place, but where we make use of terms stand- Perception.
ing for such complex ideas. But our complex ideas be¬
ing, as we have said, nothing more than different com¬
binations of simple ideas j we then know and compre¬
hend them perfectly, when we know the several simple
ideas of which thev consist, and can so put them toge¬
ther in our minds as may be necessary towards the
framing of that peculiar connexion which gives every
idea its distinct and proper appearance. 13
VII. Two things are therefore required in every Two thing*
definition : first, That all the original ideas out “
which the complex one is formed, be d.st.nctly enn-^
, -1 il rri _ a. a 1- ~ y... j-1 .. »• nnrl
by the
name of a
definition.
description' our own freJ choice: and then the business of the de-
which goes finition is to unfold and explicate that idea.
fore the whole art lies in giving just and true copies
of our ideas •, a definition is then said to be made per¬
fect when it serves distinctly to excite the idea de¬
scribed in the mind of another, even supposing him
before wholly unacquainted with it. This point set¬
tled, let us next inquire what those ideas are which
are capable of being thus unfolded ? and m the first
place it is evident, that all our simple ideas are neces¬
sarily excluded. We have seen already that expe¬
rience alone is to be consulted here, insomuch that 1
either the objects whence they are derived come not
in our way, or the avenues appointed by natiire tor
their reception are wanting, no description is suthcient
to conyey them into the mind. But where the un¬
derstanding is already supplied with these original and
primitive conceptions, as they may be united together
in an infinity of different forms •, so may all their seve¬
ral combinations be distinctly laid open, by enumera¬
ting the simple ideas concerned m the various collec¬
tions and tracing the order and manner in which they
are linked one to another. Now these combinations of
simple notices constitute what we call our complex no¬
tions, whence it is evident, that complex ideas, and those
aione, admit of that kind of description which goes by
the name of a definition. _
VI. Definitions, then, are pictures or representa¬
tions of our ideas j and as these representations are
then only possible when the ideas themselves aie
"• 3
; —      * to enume
merated ^ and, secondly. That the order and manner rate the
of combining them into one conception be clearly ex-idtus and
nlained Where a definition has these requisites, no-explain tie
thing is wanting to its perfection *, because every one —o<
who reads it and understands the terms, seeing at onee binations>
what ideas he is to join together, and also in what
manner, can at pleasure form in his own mind the
complex conception answering to the term dtline .
Let us, for instance,^suppose the word square 1o stand
for that idea by which we represent to ourselves a
figure whose sides subtend quadrants of a circumscribed
circle. The parts of this idea are the sides bounding
the figure. These must be four in number, and all
equal among themselves, because they are each to sub¬
tend a fourth part of the same circle. But, besides
these component parts, we must also take notice ot
the manner of putting them together, il we would ex¬
hibit the precise idea for which the word square here
stands. For four equal right lines, anyhow joined,
will not subtend quadrants of a circumscribed circle.
A figure with this property must have its sides stand¬
ing also at right angles. Taking in therefore this last
consideration respecting the manner of combining the
parts, the idea is fully described, and the definition
thereby rendered complete. For a figure bounded by
four equal sides, joined together at right angles, has
the property required ; and is moreover the only ngi-
lined figure to which that property belongs. rwte
VIII. It will now be obvious to every one, in what How c
manner we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at just ceed to ar
and adequate definitions. First, We are to take an rivc at jus.
exact view of the idea to be described, trace it to its and ade-
ordinal principles, and mark the several simple
ceptions that enter into the composition of it. Second¬
ly We are to consider the particular manner in which
these elementary ideas are combined, in order to the
forming of that precise conception for which the term
we make use of stands. When this is done, and the
idea wholly unravelled, we have nothing more to do
than fairly transcribe the appearance it makes to our
own minds. Such a description, by distinctly exhibit¬
ing the order and number of our primitive conceptions,
cannot fail to excite at the same time in the mind oi
every one that reads it, the complex idea resulting frona
them j and therefore attains the true and proper end ot
a definition.
Chap III. Of the Composition and Resolutions of our
Ideas, and the Rules of Definition thence arising.
I. The rule laid down -in the foregoing chapter is
general, extending to all possible cases j and is indeed
Part I. LOG
Of that to which alone we can'have recourse, where any
Perception, doubt or difficulty arises. It is not, however, necessary
J——v that we should practise it in every particular instance.
15 Many of our ideas are extremely complicated, inso-
In ndTnff 1111:1011 that t0 enumerate all the simple perceptions out
our ideas, of which they are formed, would he a very trouble-
we proceed some and tedious work. I or this reason logicians
by a succes- jjave established certain compendious rules of defining,
sive grada- ^ Jt may not be am;ss here to give some ac¬
count. But in order to the better understanding of
what follows, it will be necessary to observe, that
there is a certain gradation in the composition of our
ideas. The mind of man is very limited in its views,
and cannot take in a great number of objects at once.
We are therefore fain to proceed by steps, and make
our first advances subservient to those which follow.
Thus, in forming our complex notions, we begin at
first with but a few simple ideas, such as we can ma¬
nage with ease, and unite them together into one con¬
ception. When we are provided with a sufficient
stock of these, and have by habit and use rendered
them familiar to our minds, they become the compo¬
nent parts of other ideas still more complicated, and
form what we may call a second order of compound
notions. This process, as is evident, may be continued
to any degree of composition we please, mounting from
one stage to another, and enlarging the number of com¬
binations.
II. But now in a series of this kind, whoever would
acquaint himself perfectly with the last and highest
order of ideas, finds it much the most expedient me¬
thod to proceed gradually through all the interme¬
diate steps. For, were he to take any very compound
idea to pieces, and, without regard to the several
through all classes of simple perceptions that have already been
the several formed into distinct combinations, break it at once in-
orders. |0 Jts original principles, the number would be so great
as perfectly to confound the imagination, and over¬
come the utmost reach and capacity of the mind.
When we see a prodigious multitude of men jumbled
together in crowds, without order or any regular posi¬
tion, we find it impossible to arrive at an exact know¬
ledge of their number. But if they are formed into
separate battalions, and so stationed as to fall within
the leisure survey of the eye •, by viewing them succes¬
sively and in order, we come to an easy and pertain de¬
termination. It is the same in our complex ideas.
When the original perceptions, out of which they are
framed, are very numerous, it is not enough that we
take a view of them in loose and scattered bodies; we
must form them into distinct classes, and unite these
classes in a just and orderly manner, before we can ar¬
rive at a true knowledge of the compound notices re-
17 suiting from them.
Our defini. jjj. This gi*adual progress of the mind to its com-
keep pace^*Poun<1 n°tions, through a variety of intermediate steps,
with our plainly points out the manner of conducting the defi-
ideas, and nitions by which these notions are conveyed into the
observe a minds of others. For as the series begins with simple
tionglada aml easy coraf)lnations, and advances through a suc¬
cession of different orders, rising one above another in
the degree of composition, it is evident, that, in a train
of definitions expressing these ideas, a like gradation
is to be observed. Thus the complex ideas of the
lowest order can no otherwise be described than by
16
Hence
ideas of this
class best
compre¬
hended,
when we
advance
gradually
I c.
135
enumerating the simple ideas out ol which they aje Of
made, and explaining the manner of their union. But Perception.
then in the second, or any other succeeding order, as
they are formed out of those gradual combinations, and
constitute the inferior classes, it is not necessary, in de¬
scribing them, to mention one by one all the simple
ideas of which they consist. I hey may he more distinct¬
ly and briefly unfolded, by enumerating the compound
ideas of a lower order, from whose union they resuit,
and which are all supposed to be already known in con¬
sequence of previous definitions. Here then it is that
the logical method of defining takes place; which, that
it may be the better understood, we shall explain some¬
what more particularly the several steps and gradations
of the mind in compounding its ideas, and thence de¬
duce that peculiar form of a definition which logicians
have thought fit to establish.
IV. All the ideas we receive from the several ob-The steps
jects of nature that surround us, represent distinct in-
dividuals. These individuals, when compared toge-proceeds
ther, are found in certain particulars to resemble each froIU parti-
other; Hence, by collecting the resembling particulars culai toge-
into one conception, we form the notion of a species. n'lii ltt>n
And here let it be observed, that this last idea is less
complicated than that by which we represent any of
the particular objects contained under it. lor the idea
of the species excludes the peculiarities of the several
individuals, and retains only such properties as are
common to them all. Again, By comparing several
species together, and observing their resemblance, we 4
form the idea of a genus ; where, in the same manner
as before, the composition is lessened, because we
leave out what is peculiar to the several species com¬
pared, and retain only the particulars wherein they
agree. It is easy to conceive the mind proceeding
thus from one step to another, and advancing through
its several classes or general notions, until at last it
comes to the highest genus of all, denoted by the word
being, where the bare idea ol existence is only con¬
cerned. . 19
V. In this procedure we see the mind unravelling a The con-
complex idea, and tracing it in the ascending scale,
from greater or less degrees of composition, until it c0mp0Un(i.
terminates in one simple perception. If now w^e take jng jts
the series the contraiy way, and, beginning with the ideas, as it
last or highest genus, carry our view downwards, advances
through all the inferior genera and species, quite to
the individuals, we shall thereby arrive at a distinct ent orcjcrs ~
apprehension of the conduct of the understanding in 0f percep-
compounding its ideas. For, in the several classes qltion.
our perceptions, the highest in the scale is for the
most part made up of but a few simple ideas, such as
the mind can take in and survey with ease. This first
general notion, when branched out into the different
subdivisions contained under it, has in every one of
them something peculiar, by which they are distin¬
guished among themselves j insomuch that, in de¬
scending from the genus to the species, we always
superadd some new idea, and thereby increase the
degree of composition. Thus the idea denoted by the
word^f^wre is of a very general nature, and compo¬
sed of but few simple perceptions, as implying no
more than space everywhere bounded. But if we
descend farther, and consider the boundaries of this
space, as that they may be either lines or surface, we
136 LOG
Of fall into tlie several species of figure. For where the
Perception, space is bounded by one or more surfaces, we give it the
' 1 v name of a solid figure ; but where the boundaries are
lines, it is called a plain figure (a)
The idea of VI. In this view of things it is evident, that the
the species species is formed by superadding a new idea to the
found by genus. Here, for instance, the genus is circumscrib-
superad- e(j Space- jf now t0 this we supcradd the idea of a
specificCdif- circumscription by lines, we frame the notion of that
ference to species of figures which are called plain ; but if we
the genus, conceive the circumscription to be by surfaces, we
I c.
Part I
have the species of solid figures. This superadded of
idea is called the specific difference, not only as it serves Perceptiot
to divide the species from the genus, but because,' ■'
being different in all the several subdivisions, we there¬
by also distinguish the species one from another. And
as it is likewise that conception, which, by being
joined to the general idea, completes the notion of
the species : hence it is plain, that the genus and spe¬
cific difference are to be considered as the proper and
constituent parts of the species. If we trace the pro¬
gress of the mind still farther, and observe it advancing
through
(a) This account of the composition and resolution of our ideas is agreeable to the common doctrine of lo¬
gicians on the subject. Into the truth of the doctrine itself we shall inquire afterwards under the article
Metaphysics : but to prevent mistakes, it may be proper to observe here, that though every writer of logic
•has treated largely of general and specific ideas, there is in reality nothing general in the matter but the terms oj
language. When we utter, for instance, the word triangle, that general term does not, as has been often said,
suggest to the mind the general idea of a triangle, which is neither oblique nor rectangle, neither equilateral nor
scalenon, &c. for suck a triangle, as it cannot exist in nature, cannot be conceived m idea. In like manner, the
>general termVirtuc does not excite a general idea of virtue, which is neither prudence, nor temperance, nor fortitude,
nor justice, not charity, &c. for that which is distinct from all these is not virtue. W hat then is the import of
snch general terms? The answer is obvious: they denote classes of objects ; and are never used without some
word of limitation, but when something has no dependence upon the particular qualities, which distinguish
the individuals from each other, is affirmed or denied of the whole class. Thus we may affirm, that the thiee
angles of a plain triangle are equal to two right angles: and this proportion is demonstrably true, not of a triangle,
which is neither oblique nor rectangle, neither equilateral nor scalenon, for such a triangle never was conceived ;
but of all these triangles equally, as the truth of the proposition and the progress of the demonstration has no
dependence upon the peculiarities which distinguish these triangles from one another. Again, VN hen we say
that a man of virtue will be rewarded by God, we do not mean by the word virtue a general idea making part
of each of the complex aud more particular ideas of prudence, fortitude, justice, &c. and at the same time dif¬
ferent from them all j but we affirm, that the man who practises any or all of these virtues, according as he has
opportunity, will be rewarded by God. . , . , „ , , , • , 1
The history of our ideas is shortly thus :—That act of the mind, if it may be called an act, which makes
known an external object, is termed perception. That act of the mind which makes known an internal ob¬
ject is termed consciousness. Objects once perceived mav be recalled to the mind by the power ol me¬
mory; and when they are so recalled, we have a perception of them in all respects similar to the original per¬
ception only less distinct *, we fancy ourselves in the same place, and the object perceived attended by the same
circumstances. This indistinct secondary perception of an object is termed an IDEA ; and therefore the precise
and accurate definition of an idea, in contradistinction to an original perception, is “ that perception oi a real ob¬
ject which is raised in the mind by the power of memory.” Now all our original perceptions being of par¬
ticular objects, it is obvious that our ideas, which are only those perceptions recalled, must be oi particular ob¬
jects likewise, and that no man can have an idea of a thing of which the real existence is contradictory am im¬
possible. But the general and specific ideas of logicians, are ideas of nothing which exist, or which can possibly
exist. They are acquired, we are told, by abstraction, in the follovying manner. Among a number of indivi¬
duals vtc perceive certain qualities the same in all, whilst in each individual there are other qualities which
‘have nothing similar to them in any other individual : now the mind, it is said, has a power of abstracting
the particular qualities of each individual from those which are common to the whole, and of these last forming a
general idea of the whole class. Thus all men have nearly the same form ; and they have each some stature
some colour, though there are not perhaps two individuals who hwe precisely the same stature and the same colour.
Now say the advocates for general ideas, if we abstract what is peculiar to each individual, and retain what is
common to the whole race, we have the general idea signified by the word man. That is, if we conceive a being
in human shape, which is oi stature and colour, but neither tall nor short, neither white nor black, nor red nor
brown nor any other colour which we ever saw, we have the genei'al idea of humanity, and understand the mean¬
ing of the word man ! Surely no person who is not the slave of prejudice will pretend that he can frame such an
idea as this—the idea of an object which cannot possibly exist in nature. _
By this we do not mean to affirm, that we cannot frame ideas of such objects as have no real existence *, lor it
is as easy to imagine a man with ten heads as with one, because there is nothing contradictory between ten heads
and one body. But figure, which is said to be space bounded neither by lines nor superficiesj colour, which is nei¬
ther red nor white, nor blue nor black, &c. j and animal, which is neither man, beast, bird, nor insect; are im¬
possible in nature, and inconceivable in idea. There is, however, no harm in still retaining the phrase general
idea provided he who uses it takes care to let it be known, that by these words he means-not abstract And
contradictory idea, but merely a class of real objects. The phrase may at times prevent much circumlocution $
for which reason we have retained the use of it in the text.
f>art L LOG
Of through the inferior species, we shall find its manner
inception, of proceeding to he always the same. For every lower
species is formed by superadding some new idea to the
species next above it; insomuch that in this descend¬
ing scale of our perceptions, the understanding passes
through different orders of complex notions, which
become more and more complicated at every step it
takes. Let us resume here, for instance, the species of
plain figures. They imply no more than space bounded
by lines. But if we take in an additional consideration
of the nature of these lines, as whether they are right
or curves^ we fall into the subdivisions of plain figure,
distinguished hy the names of rectilinear, curvilinear,
2I and mixtilinear.
din all VII. And here we are to observe, that though
e inferior plain figures, when considered as one of those branches
ecieshy t|iat
come under the notions of figure in general, take
the name of a species; yet compared with the classes
ecificdif- °f curvilinear, rectilinear, and mixtilinear, into which
ence to they themselves may be divided, they reallv become
e nearest a genus, of which the before-mentioned subdivisions
' constitute the several species. These species, in the
same manner as in the case of plane and solid figures,
consist of the genus and specific difference as their
constituent parts. For in the curvilinear kind, the
curvity of the lines bounding the figure makes what is
called the specific difference; to which if we join the
genus, which here is a plain figure or space circum¬
scribed by lines, we have all that is necessary towards
completing the notion of this species. We are only
to take notice, that this last subdivision, having two
genera above it, viz, plain figure, and figure in gene¬
ral ; the genus joined with the specific difference, in
order to constitute the species of curviliuears, is that
which lies nearest to the said species. It is the no¬
tion of plain figure, and not of figure in general, that,
joined with the idea of curvity, makes up the complex
conception of curve-lined figures. For in this de¬
scending scale of our ideas, figure in general, plain
figures, curve-lined figures, the two first are consider¬
ed as genera in respect of the third ; and the second
in order, or that which stands next to the third, is
called the nearest gams. But now as it is this second
idea, which, joined with the notion of curvity, forms
the species of curve-lined figures \ it is plain, that the
third or last idea in the series is made up of the near¬
est genus and specific difference. This rule holds in¬
variably, however far the series is continued } because,
in a train of ideas thus succeeding one another, all
that precede the last are considered as so many genera
in respect of that last and the last itself is always
formed by superadding the specific difference to the
genus next it.
e idea of VIII. Here then we have an universal description,
indm- applicable to all our ideas of whatever kind, from the
u coin- highest genus to the lowest species. For, taking them
lowest or^er ‘h'WHwards from the said general idea, they
cies and everywht)re consist of the genus proximum and dif-
Imeric ferentia specifica, as logicians love to express them-
ference. selves. But when we come to the lowest species of
all, comprehending under it only individuals, the su-
peradded idea, by which these individuals are distin¬
guished one from another, no longer takes the name
of the specific difference. For here it serves not to
denote distinct species, but merely a variety of indivi-
Vol. XII. Part T. J f
I c. 137
duals, each of which, having a particular existence of Of
its own, is therefore numerically different from every Perception,
other of the same kind. And hence it is, that in this ””
last case, logicians choose to call the superadded idea
by the name of the numerical difference; insomuch
that, as the idea of a species is made up of the nearest
genus and specific difference, so the idea of an indivi¬
dual consists of the lowest species and numeric differ¬
ence. Thus the circle is a species of curve-lined fi¬
gures, and what we call the lowest species, as compre¬
hending under it only individuals. Circles in parti¬
cular are distinguished from one another by the length
and position of their diameters. The length therefore
and position of the diameter of a circle form what logi¬
cians call the numerical difference; because, these being
given, the circle itself may be described, and an indi¬
vidual thereby constituted. 2-
IX. Thus the mind, in compounding its ideas, he-Definitions
gins, we see, with the most general notions, which,t0 f°l,ow
consisting of but a few simple notices, are easily com-?1K'a,.10^a!
bined and brought together into one conception. a]1j p!iSS
Thence it proceeds to the species comprehended under through the
this general idea ; and these are formed by joining samc SHC-
together the genus and specific difference. And as it
often happens, that these species may he still farther 0Ul. com_
subdivided, and run on in a long series of continued pound
gradations, producing various orders of compound ideas,
perceptions; so all these several orders are regularly
and successively formed by annexing in every step the
specific difference to the nearest genus. \\ hen by
this method of procedure we are come to the lowest or¬
der of all, by joining the species and numeric differ¬
ence, we frame the ideas of individuals. And here
the series necessarily terminates, because it is impos¬
sible any farther to bound or limit our conceptions.
This view of the composition of our ideas, represent¬
ing their constituent parts in every step of the pro¬
gression, naturally points out the true and genuine
form of a definition. For as definitions are no more
than descriptions of the ideas for which the terms de¬
fined stand: and as ideas are then described, when
we enumerate distinctly and in order the parts of
which they consist ; it is plain, that hy making our
definitions follow one another according to the natural
train of our conceptions, they will be subject to the
same rules, and keep pace with the ideas they de¬
scribe. 24
X. As therefore the first older of our compound The form
notions, or the ideas that constitute the highest ge-
nera in the different scales of perception, are formed byt]lc varjous'
uniting together a certain number of simple notices yorders of
so the terms expressing these genera ai-e defined conception.
enumerating the simple notices so combined. And as the
species comprehended under any genus, or the com¬
plex ideas of the second order, arise from superadding
the specific difference to the said general idea j so the
definition of the names of the species is absolved, in a
detail of the ideas of the specific difference, connected
with the term of the genus. For the genus having
been before defined, the term by which it is expres¬
sed stands for a known idea, and may therefore be
introduced into all subsequent definitions, in the same
manner as the names of simple perceptions. It will
now be sufficiently obvious, that the definitions of all
the succeeding orders of compound notions will every-
S where
138
LOGIC.
Part II.
Of where consist of the term of the nearest genus, joined
Judgment with an enumeration of the ideas that constitute the
  v 1 specific difference j and that the definition of indivi¬
duals unites the name of the lowest species with the
terms by which we express the ideas of the numeric
difference.
XI. Here then we have the true and proper form 0f
of a definition, in all the various orders of conception.
This is that method of defining which is commonly
called logical, and which we see is perfect in its kind,
inasmuch as it presents a full and adequate description
of the idea for which the term defined stands.
PART II. OF JUDGMENT.
Chap. I. Of the Grounds of Human Judgment.
Intuition THE mind being furnished with ideas, its next step
respects the in the way to knowledge is, the comparing these ideas
relations together, in order to judge ol their agreement or dis-
between agreement. In this joint view of our ideas, if the re-
Xnthev lation is such as to be immediately discoverable by the
are imme- bare inspection of the mind, the judgments thence ob-
diately per-tained are called intuitive, from a word that denotes to
ceivable. at . for [n this case, a mere attention to the ideas
compared suffices to let us see how far they are con¬
nected or disjointed. Thus, that the Whole is gtcatet
than any of ‘its Parts, is an intuitive judgment; no¬
thing more being required to convince us of its truth,
than an attention to the ideas of whole and part. And
this too is the reason why we call the act of the mind
forming these judgments intuition ; as it is indeed no
more than an immediate perception of the agreement
or disagreement of any two ideas.
Experience H. But here it is to be observed, that our know-
and testi- ledge of this kind respects only our ideas, and the re-
mony the lations between them *, and therefore can serve only
ground of ag a foundation to such reasonings as are employed in
iodE “ investigating those relations. Now it so happens, that
many of our judgments are conversant about facts, and
the real existence of things which cannot be traced
by the bare contemplation of our ideas. It does
not follow, because I have the idea of a circle in my
mind, that therefore a figure answering to that idea
has a real existence in nature. I can form to mysell
the notion of a centaur or golden mountain, but never
imagine on that account that either of them exists.
What then are the grounds of cur judgment m rela¬
tion to facts ? experience and testimony. By experience
we are informed of the existence of the several ob¬
jects which surround us, and operate upon our senses.
Testimony is of a wider extent, and reaches not on¬
ly to objects beyond the present sphere of our obser¬
vation, but also to facts and transactions, which being
now past, and having no longer any existence, could
not -without this conveyance have fallen under our cog-
‘7 Ilk Here we have three foundations of human
dations of judgment, from which the whole system of our know-
human ledce may with ease and advantage be derived. 1 nst,
judgment, intuition, which respects our ideas themselves, and
tuition * the their relations-, and is the foundation of that species
"round of of reasoning which we call demonstration. For what-
scientifical ever is deduced from our intuitive perceptions, y a
knowledge. c^ar aml connected series of proofs, is said to be
demonstrated, and produces absolute certainty m the
mind. Hence the knowledge obtained in tins man¬
ner is what we properly term science; because m every
step of the procedure it carries its own evidence along
28
with it, and leaves no room for doubt or hesitation.
And what is highly ivorthy of notice ; as the truths
of this class express the relations between our ideas,
and the same relations must ever and invariably subsist
between the same ideas, our deductions in the way of
science constitute what we call eternal, necessary, and
immutable truths. If it be true that the whole is equal
to all its parts, it must be so unchangeably j because
the relation of equality being attached to the ideas
themselves, must ever intervene where the same ideas ^
are compared. Of this nature are all the truths of na¬
tural religion, morality, and mathematics, and in ge¬
neral whatever may be gathered from the bare view
and consideration of our ideas. . 2 Experj.
IV. The second ground of human judgment is eX ence, the
perience ; from which we infer the existence of those groun(i 0f
objects that surround us, and fall under the immediate our know,
notice of one senses. When we see the sun, or cast ledge ^
our eyes towards a building, we not only have Pfr-and‘quaii.
ceptions of these objects within ourselves, but ascribe ties of bo.
to them a real existence out of the mind. It is also dies,
by the information of the senses that we judge of the
qualities of bodies as when we say that snow is white,
fire hot, or steel hard. For as we are wholly unac¬
quainted with the internal structure and constitution of
the bodies that produce these sensations in us, nay, and
are unable to trace any connexion between that struc¬
ture and the sensations themselves, it is evident, that
we build our judgments altogether upon observation,
ascribing to bodies such qualities as are answerable to
the perceptions they excite in us. Not that we ever
suppose the qualities of bodies to be things of the same
nature with our perceptions j for there is nothing in
fire similar to our sensation of heat, or in a sword simi¬
lar to pain: but that when different bodies excite m
our minds similar perceptions, we necessarily ascribe
to these bodies not only an existence independent of
us, but likewise similar qualities, of which it is the
nature to produce similar perceptions in the human
mind. But this is not the only advantage derived
from experience for to that too we are indebted for
all our knowledge regarding the co-existence of sen¬
sible qualities in objects, and the operations of bodies
one upon another. Ivory, for instance, is hard and
elastic : this we know by experience, and indeed by
that alone. For, being altogether strangers to the true
nature both of elasticity and hardness, we cannot by
the bare contemplation ot our ideas determine how
far the one necessarily implies the other, or whether
there mav not be a repugnance between them. But
when we observe them to exist both in the same ob¬
ject, we are then assured from experience that they
axe not incompatible j and when we also find, that a
stone is hard and not elastic, and that air though ela¬
stic
irt lit
Of stlc is not hard, ire
logic.
also conclude upon the same foun- our assent rests, and whereto we appeal when the high-
139
jdgment. dation, that the ideas are not necessarily conjoined,
but may exist separately in different objects. In like
manner, with regard to the operations of bodies one
upon another, it is evident, that our knowledge this
way is all derived from observation. Aqua regia dis¬
solves gold, as has been found by frequent trial, nor
is there any other way of arriving at the discovery.
Naturalists may tell us, if they please, that the parts
of aqua regia are of a texture apt to insinuate between
the corpuscles of gold, and thereby loosen and shake
them asunder. If this is a true account of the matter,
it will notwithstanding be allowed, that our conjecture
in regard to the conformation of these bodies is de¬
duced from the experiment, and not the experiment
from the conjecture. It was not from any previous
knowledge of the intimate structure of aqua regia and
(rold, and the aptness of their parts to act or to be act¬
ed upon, that w'e came by the conclusion above men¬
tioned. The internal constitution of bodies is Q
manner wholly unknown to us : and could we even
surmount this difficulty, yet as the separation ot the
parts of gold implies something like an active force in
the menstruum, and wre are unable to conceive how it
comes to be possessed of this activity, the effect must
be owned to be altogether beyond our comprehension.
But when repeated trials had once confirmed it, in¬
somuch that it was admitted as an established truth
in natural knowledge, it was then easy lor men to
spin out theories of their own invention, and con¬
trive such a structure of parts, botli for gold and aqua
regia, as would best serve to explain the phenomenon
upon the principles of that system of philosophy they
had adopted.
V. From what has been said it is evident, that as
intuition is the foundation of what we call scientijical
knowledge, so is experience of natural. lor this last
being wholly taken up with objects of sense, or those
bodies that constitute the natural world j and their
properties, as far as wTe can discover them, being to be
traced only by a long and painful series ol observations *,
it is apparent, that, in order to improve this branch ol
knowledge, wre must betake ourselves to the method of
trial and experiment.
VI. But though experience is w’hat we may term
the immediate foundation of natural knowledge, yet
with respect to particular persons its influence is very
narrow and confined. The bodies that surround us
are numerous, many of them lie at a great distance,
and some quite beyond our reach. Life is so short,
and so crow’ded with cares, that but little time is left
for any single man to employ himsell in unfolding the
mysteries of nature. Hence it is necessary to admit
many things upon the testimony of others, which by
this means becomes the foundation of a great part ol
our knowledge of body. No man doubts of the power
of aqua regia to dissolve gold, though perhaps he ne¬
ver himself made the experiment. In these therelore
and such like cases wre judge of the facts and opera¬
tions of nature upon the mere ground of testimony.
However, as we can always have recourse to expe¬
rience where any doubt or scruple arises, this is justly
considered as the true foundation of natural philoso¬
phy ; being indeed the ultimate support upon which
Of
est degree of evidence is required. Judgment.
VII. But there are many facts that will not allow ^ '
of an appeal to the senses ; and in this case testimony
is the true and only foundation of our judgments. All ny) tjie
human actions of whatever kind, when considered asgroundof
already past, are of the nature here described j because historical
having now no longer any existence, both the facts ^llow^c t'<!’
themselves, and the circumstances attending them, can
be known only from the relations of such as had suffi¬
cient opportunities of arriving at the truth. Testimony
therefore is justly accounted a third ground of human
judgment; and as from the other two we have deduced
scicntifical and natural knowledge, so we may from this
derive, historical; by which we mean, not merely a
knowledge of the civil transactions of states and king¬
doms, but of all facts whatsoever, where testimony is
the ultimate foundation of our belief.
in a Chap. II. Of Affirmative and Negative Propositions.
3°
I. While the comparing of our ideas is considered The subject
merely as an act of the mind, assembling them toee-'111^
ther, and joining or disjoining them according to the proposition
result of its perceptions, wre call it judgment ; but when explained,
our judgments are put into words, they then bear the
name oipropositions. A proposition therefore is a sen¬
tence expressing some judgment of the mind, whereby
two or more ideas are affirmed to agree or disagree.
Now, as our judgments include at least tw'o ideas, one
of which is affirmed or denied of the other, so must a
proposition have terms answering to these ideas. The
idea of which we affirm or deny, and of course the
term expressing that idea, is called the subject of the
proposition. The idea affirmed or denied, as also the
term answering it, is called the predicate. Thus in the
proposition, God is omnipotent: God is the subject, it be¬
ing of him that we affirm omnipotence ; and omnipotent
is the predicate, because we affirm the idea expressed
by that word to belong to God. 31
II. But as, in propositions, ideas are either joined The copu-
or disjoined •, it is not enough to have terms expres-^a’
sing those ideas, unless we have also some words to
denote their agreement or disagreement. That word
in a proposition, which connects two ideas together,
is called the copula ; and if a negative particle be an¬
nexed, wre thereby understand that the ideas are dis¬
joined. The substantive verb is commonly made use
of for the copula: as in the above mentioned proposi¬
tion, God is omnipotent; where is represents the co¬
pula, and signifies the agreement of the ideas of God
and omnipotence. But if we mean to separate two
ideas 5 then, besides the substantive verb, we must also
use some particle of negation, to express this repug¬
nance. The proposition, man is not perfect, may serve
as an example of this kind •, where the notion of per¬
fection being removed from the idea of man, the ne¬
gative particle not is inserted after the copula, to sig¬
nify the disagreement between the subject and predi¬
cate. 3 a
III. F.very proposition necessarily consists of these ^rol)os1'
three parts j but then it is not alike needful that they se°^lie"
be all severally expressed in words 5 because the copula pressc(i hy
is often included in the term of the predicate, as when a single
S 2 _ we word.
LOGIC.
Part II,
we say, he sits; which imports the same as he is sitting.
In the Latin language, a single word has often the
force of a whole sentence. Thus ambulat is the same
as illeest ambulans ; amo, as ego sum anions; and so in
innumerable other instances: by which it appears,
that we are not so much to regard the number of words
in a sentence, as the ideas they represent, and the man¬
ner in which they are put together. For wherever two
tence, to form one complex idea, of which the predicate Of
beloved of God is directly affirmed.
Chap III. Of Universal and Particular Propositions.
’ „ . . . 35
I The next considerable division of propositions is Division of
mduniversal ami rartiaUar. Oor ide«, WgJ-,
wwo univeisui t-- . p t tions into
EM, tlipv arp nut together Lor wherever two what has been already observed in ie ’ . universal
ideas”a^oiaec, o, ^
33 .
Affirmative
and nega¬
tive propo¬
sitions.
Ideas U1C   r ,
but a single word 5 it is evident that we have a subject,
predicate, and copula, and of consequence a complete
proposition.
IV. When the mind joins two ideas, we call it an
affirmative judgment 3 when it separates them, a nt
gative; and as any two ideas compared together must
necessarily either agree or not agree, it is evident that
1   -7 A
dividual objects. But as by abstraction we can render culal,
them universal, so as to comprehend a whole class of
things, and sometimes several classes at once 3 hence
the terms expressing these ideas must be 111 like man¬
ner universal. If, therefore, we suppose any general
term to become the subject of a proposition, it is evi¬
dent, that whatever is affirmed of the abstract idea
necessarily either agree or not agree, it is evident that dent, uw ~ ^ affimcd 0f all the in-
all our judgments fall under these two divisions. Bence belonging tint’idea extends. Thus, when we
likewise the propositions expressing these judgments div,duals to which that idea extent,
,, -.i ill     ;,7r> An nrnrmntive
34 ,
At hen the
negative
particle
serves to
disjoin
ideas.
are all either affirmative or negative. An affirmative
proposition connects the predicate with the subject, as
a stone is heavy ; a negative proposition separates them,
as God is not the author of .evil. Af innation therefore
is the same as joining two ideas together 3 and this is
done by means of the cupola. Negation, on the con¬
trary, marks the repugnance between the ideas com¬
pared 3 in which case a negative particle must be call¬
ed in, to show that the connexion included m the copu¬
la does not take place.
V. Hence w’e see the reason of the rule commonly
laid down by logicians, That in all negative proposi¬
tions the negation ought to affect the copula. I or as
the copula, when placed by itself, between the subject
and the predicate, manifestly binds them together 3 it
is evident, that in order to render a proposition ne¬
gative, the particles of negation must enter it in such
a manner as to destroy this union. In a word, then
only are two ideas disjoined in a proposition, when the
negative particle may be so referred to the copula, as
to break the affirmation included in it, and undo that
connexion it would otherwise establish. When ue
say, for instance, No man is perfect; take away the
negation and the cupola of itself, plainly unites the
ideas in the proposition. But as this is the very reverse
of what is intended, a negative mark is added, to show
that this union does not here take place. I he nega¬
tion, therefore, by destroying the effect of the cupola,
changes the very nature of the proposition, insomuch
that, instead of binding two ideas together, it denotes
their separation. On the contrary, in this sentence,
The man who departs not from an upright behaviour is
beloved of God, the predicate beloved of God is evident¬
ly affirmed of the subject an upright man ; so that, not-
withstanding the negative particle, the proposition is
still affirmative. The reason is plain: the negation
here affects not the copula 3 but, making properly a
part of the subject, serves, with other terms in the sen-
dividuals to which that idea extends. rI bus, when we
say, Men are mortal; we consider mortality, not as
confined to one or any number of particular men, but
as what may be affirmed without restriction of the
whole species. By this means the proposition becomes
as general as the idea which makes the subject of it 3
and indeed derives its universality entirely from that
idea, being more or less so according as this may be
extended to more or fewer individuals. But it is fur¬
ther to be observed of these general terms, that they
sometimes enter a proposition m their full latitude, as in
the example given above 3 and sometimes appear with
a mark of limitation. In this last case we are given to
understand, that the predicate agrees not to the who.e
universal idea, but only to a part of it 3 as in the pro¬
position, Some men are wise : For here wisdom is not
affirmed of every particular man, but restrained to a
few of the human species (b). 36
XX Now from this different appearance of the ge-Proposi-
neral" idea that constitutes the subject of any judge-u.nsnm-
ment, arises the division of propositions into ^”™/where t]ie
and particular. An universal proposition is that b hei e-subject is
in the subject is some general term taken m its full la-so without
titude ; insomuch that the predicate
individuals comprehended under it, it it denotes a
proper species 3 and to all the several species, and
them individuals, if it marks an idea of a higher order.
The words all, every, no, none, &c. are the proper
signs of this universality 3 and as they seldom fail to
accompany general truths, so they are the most obvi¬
ous criterion whereby to distinguish tiwxn. All ani¬
mals have a power of beginning motion. Ibis is an
universal proposition 3 as we know from the word a//
prefixed to the subject animals, which denotes that it
must be taken in its full extent. Hence the power 0
beginning motion may be affirmed or all the sexeial
species of animals. , . D 37:
III. A particular proposition has in like manner Piopos^
some general term for its subject 3 but with a mark of^^
° limitation someuni.
 vt'i'sal sub¬
ject ap-
(B) See the preceding note, where it is demonstrated that U«
but that part itself is not ascertained.
art II: / L O
Of limitation added, to denote, that the predicate agrees
| adgment only to some of the individuals comprehended under a
“"■v species, or to one or more of the species belonging to
any genus, and not to the whole universal idea. Thus,
Some sto/ics are heavier than iron ; Some men have an
uncommon share of prudence. In the last of these propo¬
sitions, the subject some men implies only a certain num¬
ber of individuals, comprehended under a single species.
In the former, where the subject is a genus that ex¬
tends to a great variety of distinct classes, some stones
may not only imply any number of particular stones,
but also several whole species of stones, inasmuch as
there may be not a fewr with the property there de¬
scribed. Hence we see, that a proposition does not
cease to be particular by the predicate’s agreeing to a
whole species, unless that species, singly and distinct¬
ly considered, makes also the subject of which w'e af¬
firm or deny.
„ IV. There is still one species of propositions that
ipositionsremains to be described, and which the more deserves
utained notice, as it is not yet agreed among logicians to
* -Idof16 °f tl16 tw0 classes mentioned above they ought
rticulars to be referred •, namely, singular propositions, or those
where the subject is an individual. Of this nature are
the following : Sir Isaac Sfewton was the inventor of
fluxions ; This book contains many useful truths. What
occasions some difficulty as to the proper rank of these
propositions is, that, the subject being taken according
to the whole of its extension, they sometimes have
the same effect in reasoning as universal*. But if it
be considered that they are in truth the most limited
kind of particular propositions, and that no proposition
can with jany propriety he called universal but where
the subject is some universal idea •, w'e shall not be long
in determining to which class they ought to he refer¬
red. When we say, Some books contain useful truths;
the proposition is particular, because the general term
appears with a mark of restriction. If therefore we
say, This book contains useful truths; it is evident that
the proposition must be still more particular, as the li¬
mitation implied in the word this, is of a more confined
nature than in the former case.
V. W7e see, therefore, that all propositions are either
rr  affirmative or negative; nor is it less evident, that in
m of cases fbey may be universal or particular. Hence
| 10ns arises that celebrated fourfold division of them into
universal affirmative and universal negative, particu¬
lar affirmative and particular negative., which compre¬
hends indeed all their varieties. ’Hie use of this
method of distinguishing them will appear more fully
afterwards, when we come to treat of reasoning and
syllogism.
Chap. IV. Of Absolute and Conditional Propositions.
itinotion ff'HK objects about which we are chiefly conver-
< qualities Sfint in this world, are all of a nature liable to change.
0 essen- What may he affirmed of them at one time, cannot
m and ae-often at another-, and it makes no small part of our
7 ^1 a ’ knowledge to distinguish rightly these variations, and
trace the reasons upon which they depend. For it is
observable, that amidst all the vicissitudes of nature,
some things remain constant and invariable j nor even
are the changes, to which we see others liable, effect¬
ed but in consequence of uniform and steady laws,
1 39
j-c four-
l 1 divi-
GIG. Hi
which, when known, are sufficient to direct us in our of
judgments about them. Hence philosophers, in di- Judgment.
stinguishing the objects of our perception into various *
classes, have been very careful to note, that some
properties belong essentially to the general idea, so as
not to be separable from it but by destroying its very
nature } while others are only accidental, and may be
affirmed or denied of it in different circumstances.
Thus solidity, a yellow colour, and great weight, are
considered as essential qualities of gold : but whether
it shall exist as an uniform conjoined mass, is not alike
necessary. W e see that by a proper menstruum it
may be reduced to a fine powder, and that an intense
heat will bring it into a state of fusion. 41
II. From this diversity in the several qualities ofHence a
things arises a considerable difference as to the man-
ner of our judging about them, l or all such proper-0Hl.
ties as are inseparable from objects when considerednianner 0f
as belonging to any genus or species, are affirmed ab-judging,
solutely and without reserve of that general idea.
Thus we say, Gold is very weighty ; A stone is hard;
Animals have a power of self-motion. But in the case
of mutual or accidental qualities, as they depend up¬
on some other consideration distinct from the general
idea ; that also must be taken into the account, in or¬
der to form an accurate judgment. Should we affirm,
for instance, of some stones, that they are very sus¬
ceptible of a rolling motion j the propositionj while it
remains in this general form, cannot with any advan¬
tage be introduced into our reasonings. An aptness
to receive that mode of motion flows from the figure
of the stone ; which, as it may vary infinitely, our
judgment then only becomes applicable and determi¬
nate, when the particular figure, of which volubility is
a consequence, is also taken into the account. Bet us
then bring in this other consideration, and the propo¬
sition will run as follows: Stones of a spherical form are
easily put into a rolling motion. Here we see the con¬
dition upon which the predicate is affirmed, and there¬
fore know in what particular cases the proposition may
be applied. . ^
III. This consideration of propositions respecting the which
manner in which the predicate is affirmed of the sub-gives rise
ject gives rise to the division of them into absolute andtp the divi-
conditional. Absolute propositions are those wherein
we affirm some property inseparable from the idea of to a|,sojute
the subject, and which therefore belongs to it in all and condi-
possible cases : as, God is infinitely wise; Virtue tendstional.
to the ultimate happiness of man. But where tlie pre¬
dicate is not necessarily connected with the idea of the
subject, unless upon some consideration distinct from
that idea, there the proposition is called conditional.
The reason of the name is taken from the supposition
annexed, which is of the nature of a condition, and may
be expressed as such, thus : If a stone is exposed to the
rays of the sun, it will contract some degree of heat; If
a river runs in a very declining channel, its rapidity
will constantly increase.
IV. There is not any thing of greater importance T]le4great
in philosophy than a due attention to this division of importance
propositions. If we are careful never to affirm things ot this divi-
absolutely but where the ideas are inseparably con-it
joined; and if in our other judgments we distinctly
mark the conditions which determine the predicate tatj0ns deter-
belong to the subject; we shall be the less liable tominate.
mistake
142
Of
Judgment.
44
And redu¬
ces them
from par¬
ticulars to
generals.
LOG
mistake in applying general truths to the particular
concerns of human life. It is owing to the exact ob¬
servance of this rule that mathematicians have been so
happy in their discoveries, and that what they demon¬
strate of magnitude in general may be applied tvith
ease in all obvious occurrences.
V. The truth of it is, particular propositions are
then known to he true, when we can trace their con¬
nexion with universals ; and it is accordingly the great
business of science to find out general truths that may
be applied with safety in all obvious instances. Now
the great advantage arising from determining with
care the conditions upon which one idea may be af¬
firmed or denied of another is this $ that thereby par¬
ticular propositions really become universal, may be
introduced with certainty into our reasonings, and
serve as standards to conduct and regulate our judge¬
ments. To illustrate this by a familiar instance . it we
say, Sortie water acts very forcibly; the proposition is
particular: and as the conditions on which this foi-
cible action depends are not mentioned, it is as yet un¬
certain in what cases it may be applied. Let us then
supply these conditions, and the proposition will run
thus : Water conveyed in sufficient quantity along a steep
descent acts very forcibly. Here we have an universal
judgment, inasmuch as the predicate forciole action
may be ascribed to all water under the circumstances
mentioned. Nor is it less evident that the proposition
in this new form is of easy application } and in fact we
find that men do apply it in instances where the forci¬
ble action of water is required; as in corn-mills and
many other works of art.
Chap V. Of Simple and Compound Propositions.
Division of I. Hitherto we have treated of propositions, where
proposi- only two ideas are compared together. These are in
lions into tjie general called simple; because, having but one sub-
simple and - j. anf| one predicate, they are the effect of a simple
compound. •udgment t}iat admits of no subdivision. But if it so
happens that several ideas oiler themselves to our
thoughts at once, whereby we are led to affirm the
same thing of different objects, or different things of
the same" object *, the propositions expressing these
judgments are called compound: because they may be
resolved into as many others as there are subjects or
predicates in the whole complex determination on the
mind. Thus, God is infinitely wise and infinitely po wer¬
ful. Here there are two predicates, infinite wisdom and
infinite power, both affirmed ol the same subject $ and
accordingly the proposition may be resolved into two
others •> affirming these predicates severally. In like
manner in the proposition, Neither kings nor people ai e
exempt from death; the predicate is denied of both sub¬
jects, and may therefore be separated from them in dis¬
tinct propositions. Nor is it less evident, that it a com¬
plex judgment consists of several subjects and predi¬
cates, it may be resolved into as many simple proposi¬
tions as are the number of different ideas compared
together. Riches and honours are apt to elate the mind,
and increase the number of our desires. In this judge¬
ment there are two subjects and two predicates, and it
is at the same time apparent that it may be resolved
into four distinct propositions. Riches are apt to date
i c. ^art n,
the mind. Riches are apt to increase the number of our 0f
desires. And so of honours. Judgment.
II. Logicians have divided these compound propo- v—^ |
sitions into a great many different classes; but, in our Th(, pi.opcr
opinion, not with a due regard to their proper deli-notjon ot a
nition. Thus, conditionals, can sals, relatives, &c. are compound
mentioned as so manv distinct species of this kind,proposition |
though in fact they are no more than simple propo-^ccrtain'
sitions. To give an instance of a conditional j Jj a
stone is exposed to the rays of the sun, it will contract
some degree of heat. Here we have but one subject
and one predicate for the complex expression, A
stone exposed to the rays of the sun, constitutes the pro¬
per subject of this proposition, and is no more than
one determined idea. The same thing happens in
causals. Rehoboam was unhappy because he follo wed evil
counsel. There is here an appearance of two propo¬
sitions arising from the complexity of the expression j
but when we come to consider the matter more neai-
Iv, it is evident that we have but a single subject and
predicate. The pursuit of evil counsel brought misery
upon Rehoboam. It is not enough, therefore, to render
a proposition compound, that the subject and predicate
are complex notions, requiring sometimes a whole sen¬
tence to express them : for in this case the comparison
is still confined to two ideas, aud constitute what we
call a simple judgment. But where there are several
subjects or predicates, or both, as the affirmation or
negation may be alike extended to them all, the pro¬
position expressing such a judgment is truly a collection
of as many simple ones as there are diflerent ideas com¬
pared. Confining ourselves, therefore, to this more
strict and just notion of compound propositions, they
are all reducible to two kinds, viz. copulatives and dis¬
junctives. , 47
III. A copulative proposition is, where the subjects Compound
and predicates are so linked together, that they maypropo^
be all severally affirmed or denied one of another..
this nature are the examples of compound propositions
given above. Riches and. honours are apt to elate the
mind, and increase the numbers of our desires. Neither
kings nor people are exempt from eleath. In the first of
these the two predicates may be affirmed severally of
each subject, whence we have four distinct propositions.
The other furnishes an example of the negative kind,
where the same predicate, being disjoined from both
subjects, may be also denied of them in separate propo¬
sitions. . . 48
IV. The other species of compound propositions are or disjune-
those called disjunctives; in which, comparing severaltiye.
predicates with the same subject, we affirm that one
of them necessarily belongs to it, but leave the pai ti-
cular predicate undetermined. If any one, for example,
says, This world either exists of itself, or is the work of
some all-wise and powerf ul cause, it is evident that one
of the two predicates must belong to the world ; but
as the proposition determines not which, it is therefore
of the kind we call disjunctive. Such too are the fol¬
lowing : The sun either moves round the earth, or is the
centre about which the earth revolves. Friendship finds
men equal, or makes them so. It is the nature of all pro¬
positions of this class, supposing them to be exact in
point of form, that upon determining the particular
predicate, the rest are of course to be removed : or if
all
1
’art IT. L O
Of all the predicates but one are removed, that one neces-
Vudgraent sarily takes place. Thus, in the example given above •,
jf we allow the world to be the work of some wise and
powerful cause, we of course deny it to be self-exist¬
ent $ or if we deny it to be self-existent, we must ne¬
cessarily admit that it was produced ^y some wise and
powerful cause. Now this particular manner of link¬
ing the predicates together, so that the establishing one
displaces all the rest; or the excluding all but one ne¬
cessarily establishes that one ; cannot otherwise be ef¬
fected than by means of disjunctive particles. And
hence, it is that propositions of this class take their
names from these particles which make so necessary a
part of them, and indeed constitute their very nature
considered as a distinct species.
Chap. VI. Of the Division of Propositions into Self-
evident and Demonstrable.
’roposi- I. When any proposition is offered to the view of
ions di- the mind, if the terms in which it is expressed be
ided into understood j upon comparing the ideas together, the
nd demon1 agreernent or disagreement asserted is either immedi-
irabk. ately perceived, or found to lie beyond the present
reach of the understanding. In the first case the pro¬
position is said to be self-evident, and admits not of
any proof, because a bare attention to the ideas them¬
selves produces full conviction and certainty 5 nor is
it possible to call in any thing more evident by way of
confirmation. But where the connexion or repug¬
nance comes not so readily under the inspection of the
mind, there we must have recouxse to reasoning j
and if by a clear series of proofs we can make out the
truth proposed, insomuch that self-evidence shall ac¬
company every step of the procedure, we are then
able to demonstrate what we assert, and the proposi¬
tion itself is said to be demonstrable. When we affirm,
for instance, that it is impossible for the same thing to be
and not to be; whoever understands the terms made
use of perceives at first glance the truth of what is as¬
serted, nor can he by any efforts bring himself to be¬
lieve the contrary. The proposition therefore is self-
evident, and such that it is impossible by reasoning to
make it plainer j because thei'e is no truth more ob¬
vious or better known, from which as a consequence
it may be deduced. But if we say, This world had a
beginning; the assertion is indeed equally true, but
shines not forth with the same degree of evidence.
We find great difficulty in conceiving how the world
could be made out of nothing : and are not brought
to a fi'ee and full consent, until by reasoning we ar¬
rive at a clear viexv of the absurdity involved in the
contrary supposition. Hence this proposition is of the
kind we call demonstrable, inasmuch as its truth is not
immediately perceived by the mind, but yet may be
made appear by means of others more known and
obvious, whence it follows as an unavoidable conse¬
quence.
II. From what has been said, it appears, that reason-
dent truths ing is employed only about demonstrable propositions,
irhicM an^ °ur ^n^udive an<l self-evident perceptions are
of reason*- ^ie ultimate foundation on which it rests,
ng. HI. Self-evident propositions furnish the first prin¬
ciples of reasoning 5 and it is certain, that if in our
5°
Self-evi-
G I C. 143
researches wc employ only such principles as have of
this character of self-evidence, and apply them accord- Judgment
ing to the rules to be afterwards explained, we shall —v—“'
be in no danger of error in advancing from one dis¬
covery to another. For this we may appeal to the
writings of the mathematicians, which being conduct¬
ed by the express model here mentioned, ai-e an incon¬
testable proof of the firmness and stability of human
knowledge, when built upon so sux’e a foundation. For
not only have the propositions of this science stood the
test of ages j but are found attended with that invinci¬
ble evidence, as foxces the assent of all who dulv con¬
sider the proofs upon which they are established. Since
the mathematicians are universally allowed to have hit
upon the right method of arriving at unknown truths,
since they have been the happiest in the choice as well
as the application of their pi'inciples, it may not be
amiss to explain here their method of stating self-evi¬
dent propositions, and applying them to the purposes of
demonstration. -j
IV. First then it is to be observed, that they have Definitions
been very careful in ascei’taining their ideas, and fix- a great
ing the signification of their tei'ms. For this purpose t0
they begin with definitions, in which the meaning ofanj evj_
their words is so distinctly explained, that they can-dencein
not fail to excite in the mind of an attentive reader knowledge,
the very same ideas as are annexed to them by the
writer. And indeed the clearness and irresistible evi¬
dence of mathematical knowledge is owing to nothing
so much as this cax-e in laying the foundation. Where
the relation between any two ideas is accurately and
justly traced, it will not be difficult for another to com¬
prehend that relation, if in setting himself to discover
it he brings the very same ideas into comparison. But
if, on the contrary, he affixes to his words ideas dif¬
ferent from those that were in the mind of him who
first advanced the demonstration : it is evident that as
the same ideas are not compared, the same relation
cannot subsist, insomuch that a proposition will be re¬
jected as false, which, had the terms been rightly un¬
derstood, must have appeared incontestably true. A
square, for instance, is a figure bounded by four equal
right lines, joined together at right angles. Here the
nature of the angles make no less a part of the idea
than the equality of the sides : and many px-operties
demonstrated of the square flow entirely from its being
a rectangular figure. If thei’efore we suppose a man,
who has formed a partial notion of a square, compre¬
hending only the equality of its sides, without regard
to the angles, reading some demonstration that implies
also this latter consideration •, it is plain he would re¬
ject it as not universally true, inasmuch as it could not
be applied where the sides were joined together at
equal angles. For this last figux-e, answering still to his
idea of a square, would he yet found without the pro¬
perty assigned to it in the proposition. But if he
comes afterwards to correct his notion, and render his
idea complete, he will then readily own the truth and
justness of the demonstration. ticiaxis by
V. We see, therefore, that nothing conti'ihutes so beginning
much to the impi'ovement and certainty of human with them
knowledge, as the having determinate ideas, andProcurea
keeping them steady and invariable in all our dis-rea<?7 re7
r s . J . . . , . . ception to
courses and reasonings about them. Ann on this ac- tjle truths
count it is, that mathematicians, as was before observed, they ad-
always vance.
5*
Mathema-
S3
The esta¬
blishing of
principles,
the second
step in ma
thematical
knowledge
54
Proposi¬
tions divid¬
ed into
speculative
and practi¬
cal.
55
Hence ma¬
thematical
principles
distinguish
ed into axi
oms and
postulates,
L O G
always besin by ckliumg tk-ir terms, ami distinctly
unfolding the notions they are intended to express.
Hence such as apply themselves to these stud.es have
exactly the same views of things; and, bringing a-
wavs the very same ideas into comparison, reat i y 1
cem the relations between them. It is ikewise of
importance, in every demonstration, to express the same
u/fa invariably by the same word. I rom tins practice
mathematicians never deviate ; and if it be necessary in
their demonstrations, where the reader’s comprehension
is aided by a diagram, it is much more so in *1 reason¬
ings about moral or intellectual truths where the ideas
cannot be represented by a diagram. The observation
of this rule may sometimes be productive ot ill-sound-
ing periods ; but when truth is the object, sound ought
to he despised. ,, . p ,
VI When the mathematicians have taken this lust
step, and made known the ideas whose relations they
intend to investigate, their next care is to lay down
some self-evident truths, which may serve as a founda¬
tion for their future reasonings. And here indeed
• thev proceed with remarkable circumspection, admi -
ting no principles but what flow immediately from
their definitions, and necessarily force themselves upon
a mind in any degree attentive to its ideas. Ihus
a circle is a figure formed by a right line moving round
some fixed point in the same plane. I he fixed point
round which the line is supposed to move, and wheie
one of its extremities terminates, is called the centre ot
the circle. The other extremity, winch is conceived
to be carried round until it returns to the point whence
it first set out, describes a curve running into itself, and
termed the circumference. All right lines drawn from
the centre to the circumference are called radii. _ i rom
these definitions compared, geometricians derive tins
self-evident truth ; that the radii of the same circle are
all equal to one another.
VII. We now observe, that in all propositions we
either affirm or deny some property of the idea that
constitutes the subject of our judgment, or we maintain
that something may he done or, eftected. The first sort
are called speculative propositions, as in the example
mentioned above, the radii f the same circle are all
equal one to another. The others are called practical for
a reason too obvious to be mentioned j thus, that a right
line may be drawn from one point to another is a practi¬
cal proposition •, inasmuch as it expressed that some¬
thing may be done. .
VIII. From this twofold consideration ol proposi¬
tions arises the twofold division of mathematical prin¬
ciples into axioms and postulates. By an they
understand any self-evident speculative truth j as, 1 hat
'the whole is greater than Us parts : That things equal
to one and the same thing are equal to one another. But
a self-evident practical proposition is what they call a
postulate. Such are those of Euclid j that a finite right
line may be continued directly forwards ; that a circle
. may be described about any centre with any distance.
And here we are to observe, that as m an axiom the
agreement or disagreement between the subject and pre-
I C. Part II.
dicate must come under the immediate inspection of the Of
mind ; so in a postulate, not only the possibility of the
thing asserted must he evident at first view, but also
the manner in which it may he effected. I or where
this manner is not of itself apparent, the proposition
comes under the notion of the demonstrable kind, and
is treated as such by geometrical writers. Ihus,
draw a right line from one point to another, is assum¬
ed by Euclid as a postulate, because the mannei ol do¬
ing it is so obvious, as to require no previous teaching.
But then it is not equally evident, how we are to con¬
struct an equilateral triangle. For this reason he ad¬
vances it as a demonstrable proposition, lays down rules
for the exact performance, and at the same time proves,
that if these rules are followed, the figure will he ju* >
described^ 1^ ^ ^ ^ tl^t as selfievidcmt
truths are distinguished into different kinds, a^ . j’ positions in-
as thev are speculative or practical J so is it also with to theorems
demonstrable propositions. A demonstrable specula- and pr«-
tive proposition is by mathematicians called a en, .
Such is the famous 47th proposition of the illjst b^
of the Elements, known by the name of the Pythago-
ric theorem, from its supposed inventor Pythagoias,
viz. “ that in every right-angled triangle, the squaie
described upon the side subtending the right angle is
equal to both the squares described upon the sides con¬
taining the right angle.” On the other hand a de¬
monstrable practical proposition is called z,problem, as
where Euclid teaches us to describe a square upon
SiX° ifmily not be amiss to a,Id, that, besides tk CoroiiL.
Four kinds of propositions already mentioned, mathe-™«
maticians have also a fifth, known by the name ot from lhe0_
corollaries. These are usually subjoined to theorems or or
problems, and differ from them only m this: that they problems.
How from what is there demonstrated in so obvious a
manner as to discover their dependence upon the pro¬
position whence they are deduced almost as soon as
proposed. Tims Euclid having demonstrated, that
in every right-lined triangle all the three angles U 'e
together are equal to two right angles-, adds by way
of corollary, “ that all the three angles of any one t 1-
angle taken together are equal to all the three angles
of any other triangle taken together: which is eviue it
at first sight because in all cases they are equal to two
right ones, and things equal to one and the same thing
are equal to one another. _ . . r r , f
XI The scholia of mathematicians are indilieiently sdio.ia
annexed to definitions, propositions, or corollaries ; and
answer the same purposes as annotations upon a classic
author. For in them occasion is taken to explain what- or a com_
ever may appear intricate and obscure in a train of rea-menU
soning; to ans.ver objections , to teach the application
and uses of propositions ; to lay open the original and
history of the several discoveries made m the science ,
and, in a word, to acquaint us with all such particular
as deserve to be known, whether considered as points of
curiosity or profit.
PART
L Q G I C.
:,art IH
Of
f.easoning
PART III. OF REASONING.
Of
Reasoning.
Chap. I. Of Reasoning in general, and the Paris of
which it consists.
IT often happens in comparing ideas together, that
their agreement or disagreement cannot be discerned
at first view, especially if they are of such a nature as
59 not to admit of an exact application one to another,
itkms diT* ^ hen, for instance, we compare two figures of a dif-
ov'ered by ferent make, in order to judge of their equality or in¬
leans of equality, it is plain, that by barely considering the fi-
itermc- gures themselves, we cannot arrive at an exact deter-
Biate ideas. rajnajion • because, by reason of their disagreeing forms,
it is impossible so to put them together, as that their
several parts shall mutually coincide. Here then it be¬
comes necessary to look out for some third idea that
will admit of such an application as the present case
requires ; wherein if we succeed, all difficulties vanish,
and the relation we are in quest of may be traced with
ease. Thus, right-lined figures are all reduced to
squares, by means of which we can measure their areas,
and determine exactly their agreement or disagreement
60 in point of magnitude.
■r of^ar" ^Llt ^10W can any third idea serve to discover a
re^ati°n between two others ? The answer is, By be-
ith term- i»g compared severally with these others •, for such a
rea- comparison enables us to see how far the ideas with
aiinS- which this third is compared are connected or disjoin¬
ed between themselves. In the example mentioned
above of two right-lined figures, if we compare each of
them with some square whose area is known, and find
the one exactly equal to it, and the other less by a
square inch, we immediately conclude that the area of
the first figure is a square inch greater than that of the
second. This manner of determining the relation be¬
tween any two ideas, by the intervention of some
third with which they may be compared, is that which
we call reasoning i and is indeed the chief instrument
by which we push on our discoveries, and enlarge our
knowledge. The great art lies in finding out such in¬
termediate ideas, as w'hen compared with the others in
the question, will furnish evident and known truths •,
because, as will afterwards appear, it is only by means
of them that we arrive at the knowledge of what is
6! hidden and remote.
lie parts III. Hence it appears, that every act of reasoning
^necessarily includes three distinct judgments; two
reason- "'herein the ideas whose relation we want to discover
k and a a)f,e severally compared with the middle idea, and a
ilogism. third wherein they are themselves connected or disjoin¬
ed, according to the result of that comparison. Now,
as in the second part of logic, our judgments, when put
into words, were called propositions, so here in the
third part the expressions of our reasonings are termed
syllogisms. And hence it follows, that as every act of
reasoning implies three several judgments, so every syl -
logism must include three distinct propositions. When
a reasoning is thus put into words, and appears in form
of a syllogism, the intermediate idea made use of, to
discover the agreement or disagreement we search for,
Vol. XII. Part I.
is called the middle term , and the two ideas themselves
with which this third is compared, go by the name of
the extremes. ct
IV. But as these things are best illustrated by ex-Instance,
araples ; let us, for instance, set ourselves to inquireman ani*
whether men are accountable for their actions. As the °aess
relation between the ideas of man and accountablcness,'
come not within the immediate view of the mind,
our first care piust be to find out some third idea that
will enable us the more easily to discover and trace it.
A very small measure of reflection is sufficient to in¬
form us, that no creature can be accountable for his
actions, unless we suppose him capable of distinguish¬
ing the good from the bad; that is, unless we suppose
him possessed of reason. Nor is this alone sufficient.
For what would it avail him to know good from bad
actions, if be had no freedom of choice, nor could
avoid the one and pursue the other ? hence it becomes
necessary to take in both considerations in the present
case. It is at the same time equally apparent, that
wherever there is ability of distinguishing good from
bad actions, and of pursuing the one and avoiding; the
other, there also a creature is accountable. We have
then got a third idea, with which account ableness is
inseparably connected, viz., reason and liberty ; which
are here to be considered as making up one complex
conception. Let us now take this middle idea, and
compare it with the other term in the question, viz.
i7ian, and we all know by experience that it may be
affirmed of him. Having thus by means of the inter¬
mediate idea formed two several judgments, viz. that
man is possessed of reason and liberty ; and that reason
and liberty imply accountableness; a third obviously and
necessarily follows, viz. that man is accountable for his
actions. Here then we have a complete act of reason¬
ing, in which, according to what has been already ob¬
served, there are three distinct judgments : two that
may he styled previous, inasmuch as they lead to the
other, and arise from comparing the middle idea with
the two ideas in the question: the third is a conse¬
quence of these previous acts, and flows from combin¬
ing the extreme ideas between themselves. If now
we put this reasoning into words, it exhibits what logi¬
cians term a syllogism; and, when proposed in due
form, runs thus :
“ Every creature possessed of reason and liberty is
“ accountable for his actions.
“ Man is a creature possessed of reason and liberty:
“ Therefore man is accountable for his actions.”
63
V. In this syllogism we may observe, that there are Premises,
three several propositions expressing the three judge-conclusion,
ments implied in the act of reasoning ; and so disposed,
as to represent distinctly what passes within the mind in t(,rm
tracing the more distant relations of its ideas. The two
first propositions answer the two previous judgments
in reasoning, and are called the premises, because they
are placed before the other. The third is termed the
conclusion, as being gained in consequence of what was
asserted in the premises. Me are also to remember,
f T that
146
LOG
Of that the terms expressing the twojtteM ^osejela-
of tnut tne terms — ,,
Reasoning, lions we inqnire after, as Here OTa» and oectwntoMr
■ v   ness, are in general called the extremes; and that the in¬
termediate idea, by means ot which the re at,on is tra-
ced, viz. a creature possessed of reason and hbei ty, takes
the name of the middle term. Hence it follows, that
by the premises of a syllogism we are always to under-,
stand the two propositions where the middle term is se¬
verally compared with the extremes; for these consti¬
tute the previous judgments, whence the truth we are 111
quest of is by reasoning deduced. The conclusion is
that other proposition, in which the extremes themselves
are ioined or separated agreeably to what appears upon
x. the above comparison. ,   
Majoi4and VI. The conclusion is made up of the extreme terms
minor term, 0f the syllogism : and the extreme, which serves as the
major and predicate of the conclusion, goes by the name oi the
minor pro- ^ • term . the other extreme, which makes the sub-
position. J ^ the same propoSition, is called the minor term.
From this distinction of the extremes arises also a di¬
stinction between the premises, where these extremes
are severally compared with the middle term. I hat
proposition'which compares the greater extreme, 01
the predicate of the conclusion, with the middle term,
is called the major proposition: the other, wherein the
same middle term is compared with the subject ot the
conclusion or lesser extreme, is called the minor proposi¬
tion. All this is obvious from the syllogism already
given, where the conclusion is, Man is accountable Jor
his actions. For here the predicate accountable jor /its
actions being connected with the middle term m the
first of the two premises, every creature possessed oj rea¬
son and liberty is accountable for his actions, gives what
we call the major proposition. In the second ot the
premises, man is a creature possessed of reason and
liberty, we find the lesser extreme, or subject ot the
conclusion, viz. man, connected with the same middle
term, whence it is known to be the minor proposition.
When a syllogism is proposed in due form, the major
proposition is always placed first, the minor next, and
6c the conclusion last. .
In a single VII. These things premised, we may m the gene-
act of rea- ra| ^fine reasoning to be an act or operation ot the
soiling the deducing some unknown proposition from other
mustbe5 in-previous ones that are evident and known. _ 'Ihese
tuitive previous propositions, in a simple act of reasoning, are
truths. oniy two in number j and it is always required that
they be of themselves apparent to the understanding,
insomuch that we assent to and perceive the truth of
them as soon as proposed. In the syllogism given
above, the premises are supposed to be self-evident
truths •, otherwise the conclusion could not be inferred
by a single act of reasoning. If, for instance, in the
major, every creature possessed of reason and liberty is
accountable for his actions, the connexion between the
subject and predicate could not be perceived by a bare
attention to the ideas themselves j it is evident that
this proposition would no less require a proot than the
conclusion deduced from it. In this case a new middle
term must be sought for, to trace the connexion here
supposed j and this of course furnishes another syllo¬
gism, by which having established the proposition in
question, we are then, and not before, at liberty to
use it in any succeeding train ol reasoning. And
should it so happen, that in this second essay there was
j Q Part IIL
still some previous proposition whose truth did not ap- of
pear at first sight, we must then have recourse to a Reasoning,
third syllogism, in order to lay open that truth to the
mind: because so long as the premises remain uncer¬
tain, the conclusion built upon them must be so too.
When, by conducting our thoughts in this manner,
we at last arrive at some syllogism where the previous
propositions are intuitive truths j the mind then rests in
full security, as perceiving that the several conclusions it
has passed through stand upon the immoveable founda¬
tion of self-evidence, and when traced to their source
terminate in it
66
uiiuaio I.. ... , , • „ Reasoning,
VIII. We see, therefore, that in order to inter a.n thelliglj-
conclusion by a single act of reasoning, the premises est exerc;se
must be intuitive propositions. Where they are not, of it, only a
previous syllogisms are required > in which ease rea^oncatena-
soiling becomes a complicated act, taking in a variety logisms
of successive steps. This frequently happens in tra¬
cing the more remote relation of our ideas *, where,
many middle terms being called in, the conclusion can¬
not be made out but in consequence of a series ot syl¬
logisms following one another in train. But although
in this concatenation of propositions, those that torm
the premises of the last syllogism are often consider¬
ably removed from self-evidence •, yet if we trace the
reasoning backwards, we shall find them the conclusions
of previous syllogisms, whose premises approach nearer
and nearer to intuition in proportion as we advance,
and are found at last to terminate in it. And it, al¬
ter having thus unravelled a demonstration, we take it
the contrary way and observe how the mind, setting
out with intuitive perceptions, couples them together
to form a conclusion : how, by introducing this con¬
clusion into another syllogism, it still advances one
step father •, and so proceeds, making every new dis¬
covery subservient to its future progress 5 we shall
then perceive clearly, that reasoning, in the highest
sense of that faculty,' is no more than an orderly com¬
bination of those simple acts which we have already so
fully explained. . . . • , t,
IX. Thus we see, that reasoning, beginning with Requires
first principles, rises gradually from one judgment to
another, and connects them in such manner, that every tvery step
stao-e of the progression brings intuitive certainty along 0f the pro-
with it. And now at length we may clearly under- gressiou.
stand the definition given above of this distinguishing
faculty of the human mind. Ileason, we have said, is
the ability of deducing unknown truths from principles
or propositions that are already known. This evi¬
dently appears by the foregoing account, where we
see that no proposition is admitted into a syllogism, to
serve as one of the previous judgments on which the
conclusion rests, unless it is itself a known and esta¬
blished truth, whose connexion with self-evident prin¬
ciples has been already traced.
Chap. II. Of the several kinds of Reasoning: and
first, of that by which we determine the Genera and
'Species of Things.
6S
I. All the aims of human reason may in the general Reason^
be reduced to these two: 1. To rank things undertwoioio.
those universal ideas to which they truly belong *, and,
2. To ascribe to them their several attributes and pio-
nerties in consequence of that distribution.
r H. One
"art III.
LOGIC.
Me,
i36.
7°
Of II. One great aim of human reason is to determine
leasoiiing the genera and species of things. We have seen in
*—the First Part of this treatise, how the mind proceeds
e^first in framing general ideas*. We have also seen in the
aid re- Second Part, how by means of these general ideas we
ards the come by universal propositions. Now as in these uni-
enera and Versal propositions we affirm some property of a genus
Decics of or Spec;eSj ^ is plain that we cannot apply this proper-
'sce Foot ty to particular objects till we have first determined
whether they are comprehended under that general
idea of which the property is affirmed. Thus there are
certain properties belonging to all even numbers, which
nevertheless cannot be applied to any particular num¬
ber, until we have first discovered it to be of the species
expressed by that natural name. Hence reasoning be¬
gins with referring things to their several divisions and
classes in the scale of our ideas j and as these divisions
are all distinguished by particular names, we hereby
learn to apply the terms expressing general conceptions
to such particular objects as come under our immediate
observation.
III. Now, in order to arrive at these conclusions, by
which the several objects of perception are brought un¬
der general names, two things are manifestly necessary.
First, That we take a view of the idea itself denoted
by that general name, and carefully attend to the dis¬
tinguishing marks which serve to characterize it. Se¬
condly, That we compare this idea with the object
under consideration, observing diligently wherein they
agree or differ. If the idea is found to correspond with
the particular object, we then without hesitation apply
the general name ; but if no such correspondence in¬
tervenes, the conclusion must necessarily take a contra¬
ry turn. Let us, for instance, take the number eight,
and consider by what steps we are led to pronounce it
an even number. First then, we call to mind the idea
signified by the expression an even number, viz. that it
is a number divisible into two equal parts. We then
compare this idea with the number eight, and finding
them manifestly to agree, see at once the necessity of
admitting the conclusion. These several judgments
therefore transferred into language, and reduced to the
form of a syllogism, appear thus :
he steps
y which
e arrive
11 conclu-
ons of
iis soi l.
“ Every number that may be divided into two equal
“ parts is an even number :
“ The number eight may be divided into two equal
“ parts •,
“ Therefore the number eight is an even number.’'’
71
?hose steps IV. Here it may he observed, that where the ge-
Iways neral idea, to which particular objects are referred, is
allowed, very familiar to the mind, and frequently in view ;
Mnifiar” ref®rence» an(l the application of the general
ases we do name, seem to be made without any apparatus of rea-
iot always soning. When wTe see a horse in the fields, or a dog
ttend to jn the street, we readily apply the name of the spe¬
cies *, habit, and a familiar acquaintance with the ge¬
neral idea, suggesting it instantaneously to the mind.
W7e are not however to imagine on this account that
the understanding departs from the usual rules of just
thinking. A frequent repetition of acts begets a ha¬
bit j and habits are attended with a certain prompt¬
ness of execution, that prevents our observing the se¬
veral steps and gradations by which any course of ac-
'ion is accomplished. But in other instances, where
hem.
we judge not by precontracted habits, as when the
general idea is very complex, or less familiar to the
mind, we always proceed according to the form of
reasoning established above. A goldsmith, for instance,
who is in doubt as to any piece of metal, whether it be
of the species called gold, first examines its proper¬
ties, and then comparing them with the general idea
signified by that name, if he finds a perfect correspond¬
ence, no longer hesitates under what class of metals to
rank it.
V. Nor let it be imagined that our researches here,
because in appearance bounded to the imposing of ge¬
neral names upon particular objects, are therefore tri¬
vial and of little consequence. Some of the most con¬
siderable debates among mankind, and such too as
nearly regard their lives, interest, and happiness, turn
wholly upon this article. Is it not the chief employ¬
ment of our several courts of judicature to determine
in particular instances, what is law, justice, and equity ?
Of what importance is it in many cases to decide
aright whether an action shall be termed murder or
manslaughter ? We see then that no less than the lives
and fortunes of men depend often upon these decisions.
The reason is plain. Actions, when once referred to
a general idea, draw after them all that may be affirm¬
ed of that idea ; insomuch that the determining the
species of actions is all one with determining what pro¬
portion of praise or dispraise, commendation or blame,
ike. ought to follow them. For as it is allowed that
murder deserves death ; by bringing any particular
action under the head of murder, we of course decide
the punishment due to it.
VI. But the great importance of this branch of rea¬
soning, and the necessity of care and circumspection
in referring particular objects to general ideas, is still
farther evident from the practice of the mathemati¬
cians. Every one who has read Euclid, knows, that
he frequently requires us to draw lines through certain
points, and according to such and such directions.
The figures thence resulting are often squares, paral¬
lelograms, or rectangles. Yet Euclid never supposes
this from their bare appearance, but always demon¬
strates it upon the strictest principles of geometry.
Nor is the method he takes in any thing different from
that described above. Thus, for instance, having de¬
fined a square to be a figure bounded by four equal
sides joined together at right angles *, when such a fi¬
gure arises in any construction previous to the demon¬
stration of a proposition, yet he never calls it by that
name until he has shown that its sides are equal, and
all its angles right ones. Nowr this is apparently the
same form of reasoning we have before exhibited in
proving eight to be an even number.
\ II. Having thus explained the rules by which we
are to conduct ourselves in ranking particular objects
under general ideas, and shown their conformity to
the practice and manner of the mathematicians : it re¬
mains only to observe, that the true way of rendering
this part of knowledge both easy and certain is, by
habituating ourselves to clear and determinate ideas,
and keeping them steadily annexed to their respective
names. For as all our aim is to apply general words
aright, if these words stand for invariable ideas that
are perfectly known to the mind, and can be readily
distinguished upon occasion, there will be little danger
72
The great
importance
of this
branch of
reasoning;
73
and the ex¬
act obser¬
vance of it
practised
by mathe¬
maticians.
.
Fixed and
invariable
ideas, with
a steady
application
of names,
renders this
part of
knowledge
both easy
and cer¬
tain.
er
148
Of of mistake or error in our reasonings.
L O
Let us suppose
Reasoning, that, by examining any object, and carrying our a -
 * tention successively from one part to another, tve have
acquainted ourselves with the. several particulars ob¬
servable in it. If among these we hnd such as consti¬
tute some general idea, framed and settled before¬
hand bv the understanding, and distinguished oy a pai-
tidnlar name, the resemblance thus known and perceiv¬
ed necessarily determines the species of the object,
and thereby gives it a right to the name by which
that species is called. Thus four equal sides, joined
together at right angles, make up the notion ot a
square. As this is a fixed and invariable idea, with¬
out which the general name cannot be applied} we ne¬
ver call any particular figure a square until it appears
to have these several conditions-, and contrarilv,
-wherever a figure is found with these conditions, it
necessarily takes the name of a square. The same
will be found to hold in all our other reasonings of tins
kind, where nothing can create any difficulty but the
want of settled ideas. If, for instance, we have not
determined within ourselves the precise notion denot¬
ed by the word manslaughter, it will be impossible toi
us to decide whether any particular action ought to
bear that name : because, however nicely we examine
the action itself, yet, being strangers to the general
idea with which it is to be compared, we are utteily
unable to judge of their agreement or disagreement.
TJut if we take care to remove this obstacle, anti di¬
stinctly trace the two ideas under consideration, all dit-
ficulties vanish, and the resolution becomes both easy
and certain. . . , ,
VIII. Thus we see of what importance it is towards
the improvement and certainty of human knowledge,
that we accustom ourselves to clear and determinate
ideas, and a steady application of words.
Chap. III. Of Reasoning, as it regards the Poivers
and Properties 'of Things, and the Relations of our
general Ideas.
as it re
gards the
sciences,
and as it
concerns
common
Tite.
T'he dis- I. Wf. now come to the second great end which
tinction of inen have in view in their reasonings j namely, the
reasoning, discovering and ascribing to things their several attri-
asitre' bates and properties. And here it will be necessary
to distinguish between reasoning, as it regards the
sciences, and as it concerns common life. In the sci¬
ences, our reason is employed chiefly about univer¬
sal truths, it being by them alone that the bounds ot
human knowledge are enlarged. Hence the division
of tilings into various classes, called otherwise genera
■and spccieS. For these universal ideas being set up as
the representatives of many particular things, whatever
is affirmed of them may be also affirmed of all the in¬
dividuals to which they belong. Murder, for instance,
is a general idea, representing a certain Species ol hu¬
man actions. Reason tells us that the punishment clue
to it is death. Hence every particular action coming
under the notion of murder, has the punishment ol
death allotted to it. Here then we apply the general
Vruth to some obvious instance ; and tins is what pio-
perly constitutes the reasoning at common nle. hor
men, in their ordinary transactions and intercourse
one with another, have, for the most part, to do on¬
ly with particular objects. Our friends, and remUons,
4
G I C. Part II!.
their characters and bcliAv 1 our, the constitution of the ot
several bodies that surround us, and the uses to which Reasoning.
they may be applied, are what chiefly engage our at- v—-'
tention. In all these, we reason about particular
things and the whole result of our reasoning is, the
applying the general truths of the sciences in the or¬
dinary transactions of human life. When we see a
viper, we avoid it. Wherever we have occasion lor
the forcible action of water to move a body that makes
considerable resistance, we take care to convey it in
such a manner that it shall fall upon the object with
impetuosity. Now all this happens in consequence ol
our familiar and ready application of these two gene¬
ral truths. The bite of a viper is mortal. Water jail
ing upon a body u-ith 'impetuosity, acts very forcibly to-
ward's setting it in motion. In like manner, il we set
ourselves to consider any particular character, in order
to determine the share of praise or dispraise that be¬
longs to it, our great concern is to ascertain exactly
theV’oportion of virtue and vice. The reason is ob¬
vious. A just determination, in all cases ol this kind,
depends entirely upon an application ol these general
maxims of morality : Virtuous actions deserve praise ;
vicious actions deserve blame. _ _ 7s
II. Hence it appears that reasoning, as it regards The steps
common life, is no more than the ascribing the ge-“ye'™d
neral properties ot things to those several objects tjlcrea^
which we are more immediately concerned, according soiling o£
as they are found to he of that particular division or cciimioa
class to which the properties belong. The steps then hie.
by which we proceed are manifestly these. First, e
refer the object under consideration to some general
idea or class of things. We then recollect the several
attributes of that general idea. And, lastly, Ascribe
all those attributes to the present object, rhus, m
considering the character of Sempronius, if we find it
to be of the kind called virtuous, when wc at the. same
time reflect that a virtuous character is deserving ol
esteem, it naturally and obviously follows that Sem-
pronius is so too. These thoughts put into a sylk*
gism, in order to exhibit the form of reasoning here re¬
quired, run thus:
“ Every virtuous man is worthy of esteem.
11 Sempronius is a virtuous man :
“ Therefore Sempronius is worthy of esteem.” ^
HI. By this syllogism it appears, that before we af-Tlie con-
•7 *7. ^ • 1 1 • nexion an
111. 1>V tins xuuui'io/f* ’     •
firm any thing of a particular object, that object ^ust nexion^
111111 — - r- o • • „„ aepeiiueiRH
be referred to some general idea, bempromus is py«-of tjlc two
r* 1 * .       ,r> ^ 4 hlC! l
nounced worthy of esteem only in consequence of his grall(j
beino- a virtuous man, or coming under that general branches«
notion. Hence we see the necessary connexion of tbe reasoning
various parts of reasoning, and the dependence they
have one upon another. The determining the genera
and species of things is, as we have said, one exercise
of human reason 5 and here we find that this exercise
is the first in order, and previous to tne other, which
consists in ascribing to them their powers, properties,
and relations. But when we have taken this previous
step, and brought particular objects under general
names as the properties we ascribe to them aie no.,
other than those of the general idea, it is plain that,
in order to a successful progress in this part ot know¬
ledge, we must thoroughly acquaint ourselves with the
several relations and attributes of these our general
ideas.
Lift III. LOG
Of ideas. When this is done, the other part will be easy,
j| asonin^. an([ requires scarce any labour or thought, as being no
  more than an application of the general form of rea¬
soning represented in the foregoing syllogism. Now,
as we have already sufficiently shown how we are to
proceed in determining the genera and species ol
things, which, as we have said, is the previous step
to this second branch of human knowledge j all that
is farther wanting towards a due explanation of it is,
to offer some considerations as to the manner ol in¬
vestigating the general relations of our ideas. This is
the highest exercise of the powers of the understand¬
ing, and that by means whereof we arrive at the dis¬
covery of universal truths j insomuch that our deduc¬
tions in this way constitute that particular species ol
reasoning which we have before said regards principally
s the sciences.
Ifo things IV. But that we may conduct our thoughts with
8juired to some order and method, we shall begin with observ-
i.ke a jngj i{]at the relations of our general ideas are ol two
5 id tea- jcjn^s . either such as immediately discover themselves,
upon comparing the ideas one with another ; or such
as, being more remote and distant, require art and
contrivance to bring them into view. The relations'
of the first kind furnish us with intuitive and self-evi¬
dent truths : those of the second are traced by reason¬
ing, and a due application of intermediate ideas. It
is of this last kind that we are to speak here, having
despatched what was necessary with regard to the
other in the Second Part. As, therefore, in tracing the
more distant relations of things, we must always have
recourse to intervening ideas, and are more or less
successful in our researches according to our acquaint¬
ance with these ideas, and ability of applying them }
and it is evident, that to make a good reasoner, two
things are principally required. First, An extensive
knowledge of those intermediate ideas, by means of
which things may be compared one with another.
Secondly, The skill and talent of applying them hap¬
pily in all particular instances that come under consi-
■ <1^ deration.
fst, An Y. In order to our successful progress in reasoning,
i“"17 We mi,V l‘ave an extensive knowledge of those inter-
"interme- met^atc ideas by means of which things may be com¬
ite ideas, pared one with another. For as it is not every idea
that will answer the purpose of our inquiries, hut such
only as are peculiarly related to the objects about
which we reason, so as, by a comparison with them
to furnish evident and known truths; nothing is more
apparent than that the greater variety of conceptions
we can call into view, the more likely we are to find
some among them that will help us to the truths here
required. And, indeed, it is found to hold in experi¬
ence, that in proportion as we enlarge our views of
things, and grow acquainted with a multitude of dif¬
ferent objects, tire reasoning faculty gathers strength :
for, by extending our sphere of knowledge, the mind
acquires a certain force and penetration, as being ac¬
customed to examine the several appearances of its
ideas, and observe what light they cast one upon ano¬
ther.
VI. This is the reason why, in order to excel re¬
markably in any one branch of learning, it is necessa¬
ry to have at least a general acquaintance with the
whole circle of arts and. sciences. The truth of it is,
I C. 149
all the various divisions of human knowledge are very Of
nearly related among themselves, and, in innumerable Reasoning.
instances, serve to illustrate and set off each other-.'
And although it is not to be denied that, by an ob-Toexcclin
stinate application to one branch of study, a man may any one
make considerable progress, and acquire some degree branch of
of eminence in it; yet his views will he always nar* ^eTnuft be
row and contracted, and he will want that masterly gCrieraj
discernment which not only enables us to pursue ouracqUainLe(i
discoveries Avith ease, but also, in laying them open with the
to others, to spread a certain brightness around them, whole cir-
But when our reasoning regards a particular science, ^Ij^'ckn-
it is farther necessary that tve more nearly acquaint ccs
ourselves with whatever relates to that science. A
general knotvledge is a good preparation, and enables
us to proceed with ease and expedition in Avhatever
branch of learning we apply to. But then, in the
minute and intricate questions of any science, avc are
by no means qualified to reason Avith advantage until
we have perfectly mastered the science to Avhich they
belong. St
VII. We come noAV to the second thing requir-Secondly,
ed, in order to a successful progress in reasoning;rl1® s.klll.°*
namely, the skill and talent of applying intermediatetfrmedmte'
ideas happily in all particular instances that come un-ideas hap-
der consideration. And here, rules and precepts are pily in par-
of little service. Use and experience are the bestt*cu^ar “1~
instructors. For, whatever logicians may boast 0Ctanccs'
being able to form perfect reasoners by book and rule,
we find by experience, that the study of their pre¬
cepts does not always add any great degree of strength
to the understanding. In short, it is the habit alone
of reasoning that makes a reasoner. And therefore
the true way to acquire this talent is, by being much
conversant in those sciences where the art of reason¬
ing is allowed to reign in the greatest perfection.
Hence it Avas that the ancients, who so Avell under¬
stood the manner of forming the mind, always began
Avith mathematics, as the foundation of their philo¬
sophical studies. Here the understanding is by de¬
grees habituated to truth, contracts insensibly a cer¬
tain fondness for it, and learns never to yield its as¬
sent to any proposition but where the evidence is
sufficient to produce full conviction. For this reason
Plato has called mathematical demonstrations the ca¬
thartics or purgatives of the soul, as being the pro¬
per means to cleanse it from error, and restore that
natural exercise of its faculties in Avhich just thinking
consists. 8Z
VIII. If therefore Ave would form our minds to a The study
habit of reasoning closely and in train, we cannot takeof matIje-
any more certain method than the exercising ourselves
in mathematical demonstrations, so as to contraeta kiudtjons ot-
of familiarity Avith them. Not that Ave look upon it as great avails
necessary that all men should be deep mathematicians ; hi this re¬
but that, having got the way of reasoning which thatsPect
study necessarily brings the mind to, they may kc As ^ 0f „
able to transfer it to other parts of knoAVledge, as they suc£
shall have occasion. thors on
IX. But although the study of mathematics be of all other sub-
others the most useful to form the mind and give itJecty, as are
an early relish of truth, yet ought not other parts of^"rguIsl1
philosophy to he neglected. For there also Ave meetstvength
Avith many opportunities of exercising the powers ofandjust-
the understanding; and the variety of subjects natii-ness ofrea-
r..pv seeing.
i
LOG
to observe all those different turns ot
Of rally leads u-> ^ . ,
Reasening. thinking that are peculiarly adapted to the several
  v 1 ideas we examine, and the truth we search after. A
mind thus trained acquires a certain mastery over its
own thoughts, insomuch that it can range and model
them at pleasure, and call such into view as best suit
its present designs. Now in this the whole art of rea¬
soning consists j from among a great variety ot diiter-
ent ideas to single out those that are most proper tor
the business in hand, and to lay them together in such
order, that from plain and easy beginnings, by gentle
degrees, and a continued train of evident truths, we
may be insensibly led on to such discoveries, as at our
first setting out appeared beyond the reach of human
understanding. For this purpose, besides the study ot
mathematics before recommended, tve ought to apply
ourselves diligently to the reading of sucli authors as
fiave distinguished themselves for strength ol reasoning,
and a just and accurate manner of thinking, lor it is
observable, that a mind exercised and seasoned to
truth, seldom rests satisfied in a bare contemplation ol
the arguments offered by others j but will be frequent¬
ly assaying its own strength, and pursuing its discove¬
ries upon the plan it is most accustomed to. I bus we
insensibly contract a habit of tracing truth from one
stage to another, and of investigating those general
relations and properties which we afterwards ascribe to
particular things, according as we find them compre¬
hended under the abstract ideas to tvliich the proper¬
ties belong.
Chap IV. Of the Forms of Syllogisms.
The ^figures I- Hitherto we have contented ourselves with &
Tif syllo- general notion of syllogisms, and of the parts of which
gisms. they consist. It is now time to enter a little more
particularly into the subject, to examine their various
forms, and lay open the rules of argumentation pro¬
per to each. In the syllogisms mentioned in the fore¬
going chapters, we may observe, that the middle term
is the subject of the major proposition, and the predi¬
cate of the minor. This disposition, though the most
natural and obvious, is not however necessary j it fre¬
quently happening, that the middle teian is the sub¬
ject in both the premises, or the predicate in both *,
and sometimes directly contrary to its disposition m
the foregoing chapters, the predicate in the major,
und the subject in the minor. Hence the distinction
of syllogisms into various kinds, figures by logi¬
cians. °For figure, according to their use of the word,
is nothing else but the order and disposition ot the
middle term in any syllogism. And as this disposition
is, we see, fourfold, so the figures of syllogisms thence
arising are four in number. When the middle term is
the subject of the major proposition, and the predicate
of the minor, we have what is called the first figure ;
As,
“ No work of God is bad :
« The natural passions and appetites of men are
“ the work of God ;
“ Therefore none of them is bad.”
If, on the other hand, it is the predicate of both the
premises, the syllogism is said to be the second jigure:
As,
| Part IH,
« Whatever is had is not the work of God: Of
“All the natural passions and appetites of men Reasoning,
“ are the work of God :
“ Therefore the natural passions and appetites of
“ men are not bad.”
Again, In the third figure, the middle term is the sub¬
ject of the two premises : As,
“ All Africans are black :
“ All Africans are men :
“ Therefore some men are black.”
And lastly, By making it the predicate of the major,
and subject of the minor, we obtain syllogisms, in the
fourth figure: As,
“ The only Being who ought to be worshipped is
“ the Creator and Governor of the world :
“ The Creator and Governor of the world is
“ God :
“ Therefore God is the only Being who ought to
“ be worshipped.” ^ ,
II. But, besides this fourfold distinction of syllo-The moods
Visms, there is also a farther subdivision of them in of syllo-
every figure, arising from the quantity and quality, as£=i ms-
they are called, of the propositions. By quantity we
mean the consideration of propositions, as universal or
particular; by quality, as affirmative or negative.
Now as, in all the several dispositions of the middle
term, the propositions of which a syllogism consists
may be either universal or particular, affirmative or
negative } the due determination of these, and so put-
ing them together as the laws of argumentation re¬
quire, constitute what logicians call the moods of syllo¬
gisms. Of these moods there is a determinate num¬
ber to every figure, including all the possible ways in
which propositions differing in quantity or quality can
be combined, according to Rny disposition of the mid¬
dle term, in order to arrive at a just conclusion.
The first figure has only four legitimate moods.
The major proposition in this figure must be universal,
and the minor affirmative-, and it has this property,
that it yields conclusions of all kinds, affirmative and
negative, universal and particular.
The second figure has also four legitimate moods.
Its major proposition must be universal, and one of the
premises must be negative. It yields conclusions both
universal and particular, but all negative.
The third figure has Six legitimate moods. Its mi¬
nor must always be affirmative j and it yields conclu¬
sions both affirmative and negative, but all particular.
  These are all the figures which were admitted by
the inventor of syllogisms, and of which, so far as we
know, the number of legitimate moods has been as¬
certained, and severally demonstrated. In every figure
it will be found upon trial, that there are sixty-four dif¬
ferent moods of syllogism ; and he who thinks it worth
While to construct so many in the fourth figure, always
remembering that the middle term in each must be the
predicate of the major and the subject of the minor pro¬
position, will easily discern what number of these moods
are legitimate, and give true conclusions.
Besides the rules that are proper to each figure,
Aristotle has given some that are common to all, by
which the legitimacy of syllogisms may be fried.
g These
I rt III. LOG
Of These may be reduced to five:——I. There must be
Masoning only three terms iu a syllogism : As each term occurs
'•"Y—-'jn two of the propositions, it must be precisely the
same in both ; if it be not, the syllogism is said to have
four terms, which makes a vicious syllogism. 2. The
middle term must be taken universally in one of the pre¬
mises. 3. Both premises must not be particular propo¬
sitions, nor both negative. 4. The conclusion must be
particular, if either of the premises be particular ; and
negative, if either of the premiles be negative. 5. No
term can be taken universally in the conclusion, it it be
not taken universally in the premises.
For understanding the second andi fifth of these rules,
it is necessary to observe, that a term is said to be ta¬
ken universally, not only when it is the subject of a uni¬
versal proposition, but also when it is the predicate of
a negative proposition. On the other hand, a term is
said to be taken particularly, when it is either the sub¬
ject of a particular or the predicate of an affirmative
86 proposition.
IJindation III. The division of syllogisms according to mood
c he otheran4 figure respects those especially which are known
dfision of ky ^jje narne 0f plajn simple syllogisms j that is, which
s.o^nis. are bounded to three propositions, all simple, and where
the extremes and middle term are connected, according
to the rules laid down above. But as the mind is not
tied down to any one precise form of reasoning, but
sometimes makes use of more, sometimes of fewer pre¬
mises, and often takes in compound and conditional
propositions, it may not be amiss to take notice of the
different forms derived from this source, and explain
the rules by which the mind conducts itself in the use
g of them.
(Mitional JN* When in any syllogism the major is a condition-
ipogisms. al proposition, the syllogism itself is termed conditional.
Thus :
“ If there is a God, he ought to be worshipped :
“ But there is a God:
“ Therefore he ought to be worshipped.”
In this example, the major, or first proposition, is,
we see, conditional, and therefore the syllogism itself
is also of the kind called by that name. And here we
are to observe, that all conditional propositions are
made of two distinct parts: one expressing the condi¬
tion upon which the predicate agrees or disagrees with
the subject, as in this now before us, if there is a God;
the other joining or disjoining the said predicate and
subject, as here, he ought to be worshipped. The first
of these parts, or that which implies the condition, is
called the antecedent; the second, where we join or dis¬
join the predicate and subject, has the name of the con-
8S sequent.
ouird of V. In all propositions of this kind, supposing them
ition in to be exact in point of form, the relation between the
iditional antecedent and consequent must ever be true and real;
ogisms. t])e antecedent must always contain some cer¬
tain and genuine condition, which necessarily implies
the consequent; for otherwise the proposition itself
will be false, and therefore ought not to be admitted
into our reasonings. Hence it follows, that when any
conditional proposition is assumed, if we admit the
antecedent of that proposition, wTe must at the same
time necessarily admit the consequent 5 but if we re¬
ject the consequent, we are in like manner bound to
I C. 151
reject the antecedent. For as the antecedent always Of
expresses some condition which necessarily implies the Reasoning.
truth of the consequent 5 by admitting the antecedent, v
we allow of that condition, and therefore ought also
to admit the consequent. In like manner, if it appears
that the consequent ought to be rejected, the antece¬
dent evidently must be so too : because, as was just
now demonstrated, the admitting of the antecedent
would necessarily imply the admission also of the con¬
sequent. gp
VI. There are two ways of arguing in hypothetical'?^ two
svllotrisms, which lead to a certain and unavoidable con-moof.s.°*
{.o’, . ... • , conditional
elusion, ror as the major is always a conditional pro-sj.jj0 ■ m:e
position, consisting of an antecedent and a consequent *,
if the minor admits the antecedent, it is plain that the
conclusion must admit the consequent. This is called
arguing from the admission of the antecedent to the
admission of the consequent, and constitutes that mood
or species of hypothetical syllogisms which is distin¬
guished in the schools by the name of the modus pone ns,.
inasmuch as by it the whole conditional proposition,
both antecedent and consequent, is established. Thus :
“ If God is infinitely wise, and acts with perfect free-
“ dom, he does nothing but what is best:
“ But God is infinitely wise, and acts with perfect
“ freedom :
“ Therefore he does nothing but what is best.”
Here we see the antecedent or first part of the con¬
ditional proposition is established in the minor, and the
consequent or second part in the conclusion j whence
the syllogism itself is an example of the modus ponens.
But if now we on the contrary suppose that the mi¬
nor reject the consequent, then it is apparent that the
conclusion must also reject the antecedent. In this
case we are said to argue from the removal of the con¬
sequent to the removal of the antecedent, and the par¬
ticular mood or species of syllogisms thence arising is
called by logicians the modus tollens ; because in it both
antecedent and consequent are rejected or taken away,
as appears by the following example :
“ If God were not a Being of infinite goodness, nei-
“ ther would he consult the happiness of his crea-
“ tures :
“ But God does consult the happiness of his crea-
“ tures :
“ Therefore he is a Being of infinite goodness.
9°
VII. These two species take in the whole class of They in¬
conditional syllogisms, and include all the possible tvays elude all
of arguing that lead to a legitimate conclusion ; be-
cause we cannot here proceed by a contrary process of arguing!
of reasoning, that is, from the removal of the antece¬
dent to the removal of the consequent, or from the
establishing of the consequent to the establishing of the
antecedent. For although the antecedent always ex¬
presses some real condition, which, once admitted,
necessarily implies the consequent, yet it does not fol¬
low that there is therefore no other condition j and if
so, then, after removing the antecedent, the conse¬
quent may still hold, because of some other determi¬
nation that infers it. When we say, If a stone is ex¬
posed some time to the rays of the sun, it will contract
a certain degree of heat; the proposition is certainly
true; and, admitting the antecedent, we must also
admit
152
LOG
Of
Reasoning.
P1
The man¬
ner of ar-
guing in
disjunctive
syllogisms.
atlmit the consequent, lint as there are others ways
by which a stone may gather heat, it will not tollow,
from the ceasing of the before-mentioned condition,
that therefore the consequent cannot take place. In
other words, we cannot argue : Rut the stone has not
been exposed to the rays oj the sun ; therefore neither
has it any degree of heat: Inasmuch as there are a
great many other ways by which heat might have been
communicated to it. And if we cannot argue from
the removal of the antecedent to the removal ot the
consequent, no more can we from the admission ol
the consequent to the admission of the antecedent,
because, as the consequent may flow from a great va¬
riety of different suppositions, the allowing of it does
not determine the precise supposition, but only that
some one of them must take place. Thus in the fore¬
going proposition, If a stone is exposed some time to the
rays of the sun, it will contract a certain degree of heat;
admitting the consequent, viz. that it has contracted a
certain degree of heat, we are not therefore bound to
admit the antecedent, that it has been some time expo¬
sed to the rays oj the sun : because there are many
other causes whence that heat may have proceeded.
These two ways of arguing, therefore, hold not in con¬
ditional syllogisms. _ . .
VIII. As from the major’s being a conditional pro¬
position, we obtain the species of conditional syllo¬
gisms : so’ where it is a disjunctive proposition, the
syllogism to which it belongs is also called disjunctive,
as in the following example :
« The world is either self-existent, or the work of
“ some finite, or of some infinite Being :
“ But it is not self-existent, nor the work of a finite
“ being :
“ Therefore it is the work of an infinite Being.”
x c. Part
other, is evident from the very nature oi a disjunctive of
• • Ileasonimr
proposition. .
IX. In the several kinds of syllogisms hitherto men- ^
tioned, we may observe that the parts are complete ) jmperleet
that is the three propositions of which they consist are or mlnila.
represented in form. But it often happens, that some ted syllo-
one of the premises is not only an evident truth, but e15^-
also familiar and in the minds of all men •, in which
case it is usually omitted, whereby we have an imper¬
fect syllogism, that seems to he made up of only two
propositions. Should we, for instance, argue m this
manner:
fill
i P*
“ Every man is mortal:
“ Therefore every king is mortal
All i
Jet
93
Now, a disjunctive proposition is that, W’hcre of se¬
veral predicates, wc affirm one necessarily to belong
to the subject, to the exclusion of all the rest, but
leave that particular one undetermined. Hence it
follows, that as soon as we determine the particular
predicate, all the rest are of course to he rejected ; or
if we reject all the predicates but one, that one neces¬
sarily takes place. When, therefore, in a disjunctive
syllogism, the several predicates are enumerated in the
major; if the minor establishes any one of these pre¬
dicates, the conclusion ought to remove all the rest j
or if, in the minor, all the predicates but one are re¬
moved, the conclusion must necessarily establish that
one. Thus, in the disjunctive syllogism given above,
the major affirms one of the three predicates to be¬
long to the earth, viz. self-existence, or that it is the
work of a finite, or that it is the work of an infinite Be¬
ing. Two of these predicates are removed in the
minor, viz. self-existence, and the work of ^ a finite be¬
ing. Hence the conclusion necessarily ascribes to it the
third predicate, and affirms that it is the ivork of an
infinite Being. If now we give the syllogism another
turn, insomuch that the minor may establish one of the
predicates, by affirming the earth to he the production
of an infinite Being : then the conclusion must remove
the other two, asserting it to be neither self-existent,
nor the work of a finite Being. These are the forms of
reasoning in these species of syllogisms, the justness ot
which appears at first sight: and that there can he no
the syllogism appears to be imperfect, as consisting hut
of two propositions. A ct it is really complete j only
the minor [every king is a man~\ is omitted, and Iclt to
the reader to supply, as being a proposition so familiar
and evident that it cannot escape him.
X. These seemingly imperfect syllogisms arc called Emliyine-
enthymemes ; and occur very frequently in reasoning,mus'
especially where it makes a part of common conver¬
sation. Nay, there is a particular elegance in them,
because, not displaying the argument in all its parts,
they leave somewhat to the exercise and invention of
the mind, -^y this means wre are put upon exciting
ourselves, and seem to share in the discovery of what
is proposed to us. Now this is the great secict of
fine writing, so to frame and put together our thoughts,
as to give full play to the reader’s imagination, and
draw him insensibly into our very views and course
of reasoning. This gives a pleasure not unlike to that
which the author himself feels in composing. It besides
shortens discourse, and adds a certain force and liveli¬
ness to our arguments, when the words in which they
are conveyed favour the natural quickness of the mind
in its operations, and a single expression is left to ex¬
hibit a whole train of thoughts. 94
XI. But there is another species of reasoning with Ground oi
two propositions, which seems to be complete in itself,reasoning
jorm
jij *
and where we admit the conclusion without supposing111 imme
5 diate con-
any tacit or suppressed judgment in the mind, Irom seqUeuces.
which it follows syllogistically. This happens between
propositions, where the connexion is such, that the ad¬
mission of the one necessarily and at the first sight im¬
plies the admission also of the other. 1 or if it so tails
out, that the proposition on which the other depends is
self-evident, we content ourselves with barely affirm¬
ing it, and infer that other by a direct conclusion.
Thus, by admitting an universal proposition, wre are
forced also to admit of all the particular propositions
comprehended under it, this being the very condition
that constitutes a proposition universal. If then that
universal proposition chances to be self-evident, the
particular ones follow ot course, without any farther
train of reasoning. Whoever allows, for instance,
that things equal to one and the same thing are equal to
one another, must at the same time allow, that two
triangles, each equal to a square whose side is three
inches, are also equal between themselves. This ar¬
gument, therefore,
“ Things equal to one and the same thing, are equal
‘5 to one another ;
“ Therefore,
art III*
LOGIC.
95 .
11 reduci-
c to syl-
igisms of
■me one
rm or
.her.
“ Therefore these two triangles, each equal to the
“ square of a line of three inches, are equal be-
“ tween themselves”—
is complete in its kind, and contains all that is neces¬
sary towards a just and legitimate conclusion. I or the
first or universal proposition is self-evident, and there¬
fore requires no farther proof. And as the truth of
the particular is inseparably connected with that of the
universal, it follows from it by an obvious and unavoid¬
able consequence.
XII. Now, in all cases of this kind, where proposi¬
tions are deduced one from another, on account of a
known and evident connection, we are said to reason
by immediate consequence. Such a coherence of pro¬
positions manifest at first sight, and forcing itself upon
the mind, frequently occurs in reasoning. Logicians
have explained at some length the several suppositions
upon which it takes place, and allow of all immediate
consequences that follow in conformity to them. It is
however observable, that these arguments, though
seemingly complete, because the conclusion follows ne¬
cessarily from the single proposition that goes before,
may yet be considered as real enthymemes, whose ma¬
jor, which is a conditional proposition, is wanting. I he
syllogism but just mentioned, when represented accord¬
ing to this view, will run as folloivs :
** If things equal to one and the same thing, are
“ equal to one another j these two triangles, each
•• equal to a square whose side is three inches, are
“ also equal between themselves.
“ But things equal to one and the same thing, are
“ equal to one another :
“ Therefore also these triangles, &c. are equal be-
“ tween themselves.”
This observation will be found to hold in all imme¬
diate consequences whatsoever, insomuch, that they are
in fact no more than enthymemes of hypothetical syl¬
logisms. But then it Is particular to them, that the
ground on which the conclusion rests, namely its co¬
herence with the minor, is of itself apparent, and
seen immediatelv to flow from the rules and reasons of
6 logic.
sorites of XIII. The next species of reasoning we shall take
ain simple notice of here is what is commonly known by the name
llogisms. 0f a sorites. This is a way of arguing, in which a
great number of propositions are so linked together,
that the predicate of one becomes continually the sub¬
ject of the next following, until at last a conclusion is
formed, by bringing together the subject of the first
proposition, and the predicate of the last. Of this kind
is the following argument :
“ God is omnipotent:
“ An omnipotent Being can do every thing pos-
“ sible :
44 He that can do every thing possible, can do wliat-
“ ever involves not a contradiction :
44 Therefore God can do whatever involves not a
“ contradiction.”
This particular combination of propositions may be
Continued to any length we please without in the least
weakening the ground upon which the conclusion rests.
The reason is, because the sorites itself mav be resolved
VOL. XII. Part I. . f
153
into as many simple syllogisms as there are middle terms Of
in it; where this is found universally to hold, that when Reasoning,
such a resolution is made, and the syllogisms are placed v
in train, the conclusion of the last in the series is also
the conclusion of the sorites. This kind of argument,
therefore, as it serves to unite several syllogisms into
one, must stand upon the same foundation with the syl¬
logisms of which it consists, and is indeed, properly
speaking, no other than a compendious way of reason¬
ing syllogistically. 97
XIV. What is here said of plain simple propositions A sorites of
may be as well applied to those that arc conditional }
that is, any number of them may be so joined together gg.ms.
in a series, that the consequent of one shall become
continually the antecedent of the next following j in
which case, by establishing the antecedent of the first
proposition, we establish the consequent of the last, or
by removing the last consequent remove also the first
antecedent. This W'ay of reasoning is exemplified in
the following argument:
“ If we love any person, all emotions of hatred to-
“ wrards him cease :
“ If all emotions of hatred towards a person cease,
“ we cannot rejoice in his misfortunes:
“If we rejoice not in his misfortunes, wre certainly
“ wish him no injury :
“ Therefore, if wc love a person, we wish him no
“ injury.”
It is evident that this sorites, as well as the last, may
be resolved into a series of distinct syllogisms, with this
only difference, that here the syllogisms are all condi¬
tional. <38
XV. The last species of syllogism we shall take The ground
notice of in this chapter is that commonly distinguish-of argu¬
ed by the name of a dilemma. A dilemma is an ar"
gument by which we endeavour to prove the absur- jenjma
dity or falsehood of some assertion. In order to this,
we assume a conditional proposition, the antecedent
of which is the assertion to be disproved, and the con¬
sequent a disjunctive proposition, enumerating all the
possible suppositions upon which that assertion can take
place. If then it appears, that all these several sup¬
positions ought to be rejected, it is plain that the an¬
tecedent or assertion itself must be so too. When
therefore such a proposition as that before mentioned
is made the major of any syllogism ; if the minor re-
iects all the suppositions contained in the consequent,
it follows necessarily, that the conclusion ought to re¬
ject the antecedent, which, as we have said, is the , -
very assertion to be disproved. This particular way
of arguing is that which logicians call a dilemma ; and
from the account here given of it, it appears that we
may in the general define it to be a hypothetical syl¬
logism, v/here the consequent of the major is a dis¬
junctive proposition, which is wholly taken away or
removed in the minor. Of this kind is the follow-
ing :
“ If God did not create the world perfect in its
“ kind, it must either proceed from want of incli-
“ nation, or from want of power :
“ But it could not proceed either from want of in-
“ clination, or from want of power:
“ Therefore, he created the world perfect in its
U “ kind.”
L O
Or, ivliicli is tlie same thing: “ It is
G I C.
“ kind.” yji , «“*''** ^, , i
“ absurd to say that he did not create the world
“ perfect in its kind.”
99
An univer¬
sal deserip-
tjon of it.
XVI. The nature then of a dilemma is universally
this The major is a conditional proposition, whose
consequent contains all the several suppositions upon
which the antecedent can take place. As therefore
these suppositions are wholly removed in the minor,
it is evident that the antecedent must be so too j inso¬
much that we here always argue from the removal ot
the consequent to the removal of the antecedent. 1 ia
is, a dilemma is an argument in the modus tollens ot
hypothetical syllogisms, as logicians love to speak.
Hence it is plain, that if the antecedent of the major
is an affirmative proposition, the conclusion ot the di¬
lemma will be negative *, but if it is a negative proposi¬
tion, the conclusion will be affirmative.
roo
Reason at
first em¬
ployed a
bout par¬
ticulars ;
Chap. V. O f Induction.
I. Alt. reasoning proceeds ultimately from first
truths, either self-evident or taken for grantedand the
first truths of syllogistic reasonings are general proposi¬
tions. But except in the mathematics, and such other
sciences as, being conversant about mere ideas have
no immediate relation to things without the mmd, we
cannot assume as truths propositions which are general.
The mathematician indeed may be considered as taking
his ideas from the beginning in their general form.
Every proposition composed ot such ideas is therefore ge-
neralV and those which are theoretic are reducible to
two parts or terms, a predicate and a subject with a
copula generally affirmative. If the agreement or the
relation between the two terms be not immediate and
self-evident, he has recourse to an axiom, which is a
proposition still more general, and which supplies him
with a third or middle term. This he compares first
with the predicate, and then with the subject, or rice
versa. These two comparisons, when drawn-out in
form, make two propositions, which are called the pre-
mises; and if they happen to be immediate ant self-evi¬
dent, the conclusion, consisting ot the terms of the ques-
Part III,
tion proposed, is said to be demonstrated. This method Of
of reasoning is conducted exactly in the syllogistic form Reason,
explained in the preceding chapter.
II. But in sciences which treat of things external
to the mind, we cannot assume as first principles the
most general propositions, and from them inter others
less and less general till we descend to particulars. 1 lie
reason is obvious. Every thing in the universe, whe¬
ther of mind or body, presents itself to our observation
in its individual state; so that perception ad judgment
employed in the investigation of truth, whether
cal, metaphysical, moral, or historical, have m the ti^
place to encounter with PARTICULARS. 1 ii l
reason begins, or should begin, its operations. It ob¬
serves, tries, canvasses, examines, and compares them
together, and judges of them by some of those native
evidences and original lights, which as they are the
first and indispensable inlets of know edge to the mind,
have been called the primary principles oj truth. bee
Metaphysics. . . ior
HI “ By such acts of observation and judgment, from
diligently practised and frequently
individuals of the same class or ot a similar nature,mot ^
il ««
inaiviauais oi Uic same -  it ascends
ino- their agreements, marking their difierences how-10 generals
ever minute, and rejecting all instances which, however or axioms
similar in appearance, are not in effect the same, REA¬
SON, with much labour and attention, extracts some
general laws respecting the powers, properties, qualities,
actions, passions, virtues, and relations ot real things.
This is no hasty, premature, notional abstraction ot the
mind, by which images and ideas are formed that have
no archetypes in nature : it is a rational, operative, ex¬
perimental process, instituted and executed upon the
constitution of beings, which in part compose the uni¬
verse. By this process reason advances irom particu¬
lars to generals, from less general to more general, tiW.
by a series of slow progression, and by regular eegrees,
it arrive at the most general notions, called FORMS oi
FORMAL CAUSES (c). And by affirming or denying a
genus of a species, or an accident of a substance or class
of substances, through all the stages of the gradation,
we form conclusions, which, if logically drawn are
axioms (d), or general propositions ranged one above
  * * 1 ^ * 11 —- 4-^ #1 /~>»■>cvicrp/nC'Y'a^i
Striae unquam III   7 u
"Tvyfc word axiom, 4^ « f 'cXd
truth ot maxim, and sometimes any tenth s° ^ axiomS
ance in a process of veasonmg. The axtoms of Euclid The former appear
of the Newtonian philosophy. But these two kinds of a. . ^ ^ lhtyresult of the most laborious induction,
true upon a bare contemplation of our ideas , wherea ‘ , coniecture, or even upon the au-
SrdTacon therefore strenuously contends that they should never be taken upon ^tu e o Pshould be
thoritv of the learned ; hut that, as they are f 8Xlr“u axbrlt™ cotiglur inlguitas^umVerumgue
canvassed and examined with the most scrupulous attenl ^ ^ „ At(1',c iUa ipSa putativa princtp.a
in exemplis vulgatis fundamentum habent. xl * • ry • . y Qneris Hr Tatham makes
men. Other axioms, though not intuitive, may Jc properlv.said to he evil
Ptoved. H this distinction he
just, and we think it is, oo\y particular truths can be intuitive axioms.
“art m. L O
Of another, till they terminate in those that are UNI-
xasoning. VERBAL.
—v—IV. “ Thus, for Instance, the evidence of the exter-
- 102 ned senses is obviously the primary principle from
'ss of*in- which all physical knowledge is elerived. But, where-
ictionex- as nature begins with causes, which, after a variety of
uplifted changes, produce effects, the senses open upon the ef-
i physics, .in(i from tliem, through the slow and painful
road of experiment and observation, ascend to causes*
By experiments and observations skilfully chosen, art¬
fully conducted, and judiciously applied, the philosopher
advances from one stage of inquiry to another in the ra¬
tional investigation of the general causes of physical
truth. From different experiments and observations
made on the same individual subject, and from the same
experiments and observations made on different subjects
of the same kind, by comparing and judging, he disco¬
vers some qualities, causes, or phenomena, which, after
carefully distinguishing and rejecting all contradictory
instances that occur, he finds common to many. Thus
from many collateral comparisons and judgments form¬
ed upon particulars he ascends to generals; and by a
repetition of the same industrious process and laborious
investigation, he advances from general to more general,
till at last he is enabled to form a few of the most gene¬
ral, with their attributes and operations, into axioms
or secondary principles, which are the well-founded laivs
enacted and enforced by the God of nature.—This is
that just and philosophic method of reasoning which
sound logic prescribes in this as w'ell as in other parts
of learning j by which, through tiie slow but certain
road of experiment and observation, the mind ascends
from appearances to qualities, from effects to causes *,
and from experiments upon many particular subjects
forms general propositions concerning the powers and
properties of physical body.
V. “ Axioms so investigated and established are ap¬
plicable to all parts of learning, and are the indispen-
, all parts sable, and indeed the wonderful expedients, by which,
learning, in every branch of knowledge, reason pushes on its in¬
quiries in the particular pursuit of truth; and the me¬
thod of reasoning by which they are formed, is that of
true and legitimate induction 4 which is therefore by
Lord Bacon, the best and soundest of logicians, called
the key of interpretation.
VI. “ Instead of taking his axioms arbitrarily out of
the great families of the categories (see Category),
and erecting them by his own sophistical invention in¬
to the principles upon which his disputation was to be
employed, had the analytical genius of Aristotle pre¬
sented us with the laws of the true inductive logic,
by which AXIOMS are philosophically formed, and had
he with his usual sagacity given us an example of it
m a single branch of science •, he would have brought
to the temple of truth, an offering more valuable than
he has done by the aggregate of all his logic and phi¬
losophical productions.
ior^Q011 ^ U sciences, except the mathematics, it is
ftnition on^ a^ter the inductive process has been industrious¬
ly pursued and successfully performed, that DEFINITION
may be logically and usefully introduced, by beginning
with the genus, passing through all the graduate and
00
. I°3
Kioms so
tablished
tplicable
104
G I C. 1
subordinate stages, and marking the specific difference of
as it descends, till it arrive at the individual, which is Reasoning,
the subject of the question. And by adding an
tion or negation of the attribute of the genus or the spe¬
cies or individual, or of a general accident on the parti¬
cular substance so defined, making the definition a pro¬
position, the truth of the question will be logically solved
without any farther process. So that instead of being
the first, as employed by the logic in common use, de¬
finition may be the lust act of reason in the search of
truth in general. I0^
VIII. “ These axioms or general propositions, thus and to syl-
inductively established, become another species of PRIN-tagisnv
ciples, which may be properly called secondary,
and which lay the foundation of the syllogistic method
of reasoning. When these are formed, but not before,
we may safely admit the maxim w’ith which logicians
set out in the exercise of their art, as the great hinge
on which their reasoning and disputation turn : From
truths that are already known, to derive others which
are not known. Or, to state it more comprehensively, so
as to apply to probable as well as to scientific reason¬
ing—From truths which are better known, to derive
others which are less known. Philosophically speaking,
syllogistic reasoning is, vmOier general propositions to re¬
duce others which are less general or which are parti¬
cular; for the inferior ones are known to be true, only
as we trace their connexion with the superior. Logi¬
cally speaking, it is, To predicate a genus of a species
or individual comprehended under it, or an accident of
the substance in which it is inherent. I05
IX. “ Thus INDUCTION and SYLLOGISM are the Induction
two methods of direct reasoning corresponding to the a?d sybo-
two kinds of principles, and secondary, on which^H^^j
they are founded, and by which they are respectively
conducted. In both methods, indeed, reason proceeds
by judging and comparing, but the process is different
throughout; and though it may have the sanction of
Aristotle, an inductive syllogism is a solecism. toy
X. “ Till general truths are ascertained by indue-Induction
tion, the third or middle terms, by which syllogisms are1!16 f°unda-
made are nowhere safely to be found. So that ano- j .sm J "
ther position of the Stagyrite, that syllogism is naturally
prior in order to induction, is equally unfounded 5 for
induction does not only naturally but necessarily precede
syllogism; and, except in mathematics, is in every re¬
spect indispensable to its existence j since, till generals
are established, there can be neither definition,proposi¬
tion, nor axiom, and of course no syllogism. And as
induction is the first, so is it the more essential and fun¬
damental instrument of reasoning : for as syllogism can¬
not produce its own principles, it ipust have them from
induction j and if the general propositions or secondary
principles be imperfectly or infirmly established, and
much more if they be taken at hazard, upon authority,
or by arbitrary assumption like those of Aristotle, all
the syllogizing in the world is a vain and useless logo¬
machy, only instrumental to the multiplication of false
learning, and to the invention and confirmation of er¬
ror. The truth of syllogisms depends ultimately on the
truth of axioms, and the truth of axioms on the sound¬
ness of inductions (e).”—But though induction is
U 2 prior
(e) This chapter is almost wholly taken from Tat hands Chart and Scale of Truth; a work which, notwith¬
standing
io8
Why we
have treat¬
ed of syl-
loehm first
L 0
prior in order, as well as superior in utmty, to sylio-
oism, we have thought it expedient to treat oi^ it last,
both because syllogism is an easier exercise oi the rea¬
soning faculty than induction, and because it is the
method of mathematics, the first science oi reason m
which the student is commonly initiated.
Chap. VI. Of Demonstration.
109
Of reason¬
ing by a
concatena
tion of syl
logisms.
I. Having dispatched what seemed necessary to he
said with regard to the two methods of direct reason-
inn, indue turn and syllogism; we now proceed to consi¬
der the laws of demonstration. And here it must he
acknowledged, that in strict demonstration, which re¬
moves from the mind all possibility of doubt or error,
the inductive method of reasoning can have no place.
When the experiments and observations irom wlncli
the general conclusion is drawn are numerous and ex¬
tensive, the result of this mode of reasoning is moral
certainty ; and could the induction be made complete
it would be absolute certainty, equally convincing with
mathematical demonstration. But however numerous
and extensive the observations and experiments may
be upon which an inductive conclusion is established
they must of necessity come short of the number and
extent of nature ; which, in some cases, by its im¬
mensity, will defeat all possibility of their co-exten¬
sion •, and in others, by its distance, lies out of the
reach of their immediate application. 1 hough truth
does not appear in all other departments of learning
with that hold and resistless conviction with which it
presides in the mathematical science, it shines through
them all, if not interrupted by prejudice or perverted
by error, with a clear and useful, though inferior
strength. And as it is not necessary for the general
safety or convenience of a traveller, that he should al¬
ways enjoy the heat and splendour of a mid-day sun,
whilst he can with more ease pursue lus journey under
the weaker influence of a morning or an evening ray j
so it is not requisite, for the various concerns and pur¬
poses of life, that men should be led by truth of the
most redundant brightness. Such truth is to be had
only in those sciences which are conversant about ideas
and their various relations} where every thing being
certainly what it appears to be, definitions and axioms
arise from mere intuition. Here syllogism takes up the
process from the beginning ; and by a sublime intellec¬
tual motion advances from the simplest axioms to the
most complicated speculations, and exhibits truth
springing out of its first and purest elements, and spread¬
ing on all sides into a system of science. As each step
in the progress Is syllogistic, we shall endeavour to ex¬
plain the use and application of syllogisms in this spe¬
cies of reasoning.
We have seen, that In all the different appearances
they put on, we still arrive at a just and legitimate con¬
clusion-, nowit often happens, that the conclusion of
one syllogism becomes a previous proposition in ano¬
ther by which means great numbers of them are
sometimes linked together in a series, and truths are
G '1 C. PartHI.
made to follow one another in a train. And as in such Of
a concatenation of syllogisms all the various ways ol
reasoning that are truly conclusive may be with safety
introduced 5 hence it is plain, that in deducing any
truth from its first principles, especially where it lies
at a considerable distance from them, we are at liberty
to combine all the several kinds of syllogisms above ex¬
plained, according as they are found best to suit the
end and purpose of our inquiries. When a. proposition
is thus, by means of syllogisms, collected from others
more evident and known, it is said to be proved ; so that
we may in the general define the proof ot a proposition
to be a syllogism, or series of syllogisms, collecting that
proposition from known and evident truths. But more
particularly, if the syllogisms of which the proofs consist
admit of no premises but definitions, self-evident truths,
and propositions already established, then is the argu¬
ment so constituted called a demonstration ; whereby it
appears that demonstrations are ultimately founded on
definitions and self-evident propositions. no
II All syllogisms whatsoever, whether compound, All s\ lo-
J,ifo™,o5r defective, are reducible t. pi.in staple
syllogisms in some one ol the four figures. But this 18 diicibk to
not all Syllogisms of the first figure, in particular, the fast fi-
admit of all possible conclusions : that is, any proposi-gure.
tions whatsoever, whether an universal affirmative or
universal negative, a particular affirmative or parti¬
cular negative, which fourfold division embraces all
their varieties; any one of these may he inferred by
virtue of some syllogism in the first figure. By this
means it happens that the syllogisms ol all the other
figures are reducible also to syllogisms of the first fi¬
gure, and may be considered as standing on the same
foundation with them. W e cannot here demonstrate
and explain the manner of this reduction, because it
would too much swell the bulk of this treatise. It is
enough to take notice that the thing is universally
known and allowed among logicians, to whose writings
we refer such as desire farther satisfaction in this matter.
This then being laid down, it is plain that any de¬
monstration whatsoever may be considered as composed
of a series of syllogisms, all in the first figure lor,
since all the syllogisms that enter the demonstration
are reducible to syllogisms ot some one ot the lour
figures ; and since the syllogisms of all the other fi¬
gures are farther reducible to syllogisms of the first
figure it is evident that the whole demonstration may
be resolved into a series of these last syllogisms. Let
us now, if possible, discover the ground upon which
the conclusion rests in syllogisms of the first figure; be¬
cause, by so doing, we shall come at an universal prin¬
ciple of certainty, whence the evidence ol a 1 demon¬
strations in all their parts may be ultimately derived in
HI. The rules then of the first figure are bnefly Thejroi.
these. The middle term is the subject ot the mapi in tb(
proposition, and the predicate of the minor. 1 h.e first figut.
major is always an universal proposition and the mi¬
nor always affirmative. Let us now see what effect
these rules will have in reasoning. The major is an
universal proposition of which the middle term is the
subject j
P
if -fo favle has so much real merit as a system of logic, that it cannot be too diligently
who ibhes .0 travel by the straight toad to the temple of Scteoce.
Lrt III. L ° G
0C subject, and the predicate of tlie conclusion the predi-
I sonin?. cate. Hence it appears, that in the major the predicate
1-v—of the conclusion is always affirmed or denied universal¬
ly of the middle term. Again, The minor is an affirma¬
tive proposition, whereof the subject of the conclusion is
the subject, and the middle term the predicate. Here
then the middle term is affirmed oi the subject of the
conclusion } that is, the subject oi the conclusion is
affirmed to be comprehended under, or to make a part
of, the middle term. Thus then we see what is done in
the premises of a syllogism of the first figure. 1 he pre¬
dicate of the conclusion is universally affirmed or denied
of some idea. rIhe subject ol the conclusion is affii ru¬
ed to be or to make a part of that idea. Hence it na¬
turally and unavoidably follows, that the predicate of
the conclusion ought to be affirmed or denied of the
■ subject. To illustrate this by an example, we shall re¬
sume one of the syllogisms of the first chapter.
11 Every creature possessed of reason and liberty is
“ accountable for his actions :
“ Man is a creature possessed of reason and liberty :
“ Therefore man is accountable for his actions.
Here, in the first proposition, the predicate of the
conclusion accountableness, is affirmed of all creatures
that have reason and liberty. Again, In the second
proposition, man, the subject ol the conclusion, is <u-
firmed to be or to make a part ol this class ot crea¬
tures. Hence the conclusion necessarily and unavoid¬
ably follows, viz. that man is accountable for his ac¬
tions ; because, if reason and liberty he that which
constitutes a creature accountable, and man has reason
and liberty, it is plain he has that which constitutes
him accountable. In like manner, where the major
is a negative proposition, or denies the predicate of
the conclusion universally of the middle term, as the
minor always asserts the subject of the conclusion to
be or make a part of that middle term, it is no less
evident that the predicate of the conclusion ought in
this case to be denied of the subject. So that the
ground of reasoning, in all syllogisms of the first figure,
is manifestly this : “ Whatever may be affirmed uni¬
versally of any idea, may be affirmed of every or any
number of particulars comprehended under that idea.”
And again : “ Whatever may be denied universally
of any idea, may be in like manner denied of every or
any number of its individuals.” These two propositions
are called by logicians the dictum de omni, and dictum
de nullo; and are indeed the great principles of syl¬
logistic reasoning, inasmuch as all conclusions whatso¬
ever rest immediately upon them, or upon propositions
deduced from them. But what adds greatly to their
value is, that they are really self-evident truths, and
such as we cannot gainsay without running into an
express contradiction. To affirm, for instance, that no
man is perfect, and yet argue that some men are per¬
fect; or to say that all men are mortal, and yet that
some men are not mortal, is to assert a thing to be and
not to be at the same time.
lil'emon- IV. And now we may affirm, that, in all syllogisms
ration an of the first figure, if the premises are true, the conclu-
| fallible sion must needs he true. If it be true that the pre-
uthand ^*ca*:e ^ie concfosion, whether affirmative or nega-
rtainty ^ve> agree universally to some idea j and if it be also
true that the subject of the conclusion is a part of or
112
I C. - 157
comprehended under that idea; then it necessarily Of
follows, that the predicate of the conclusion agrees also Reasoning.
to the subject. For to assert the contrary, would be ' ^ ^
to run counter to some one ot the two principles be¬
fore established ; that is, it would be to maintain an
evident contradiction. And thus we are come at last
to the point we have been all along endeavouring to
establish ; namely, that every proposition which can
be demonstrated is necessarily true. For as every de¬
monstration may be resolved into a series of syllo¬
gisms all in the first figure ; and as in any one of these
syllogisms, if the premises are true, the conclusion
must needs be so too ; it evidently follows, that if all
the several premises are true, all the several conclu
sions are so, and consequently the conclusion also of
the last syllogism, which is always the proposition to
be demonstrated. Now that all the premises of a de
monstration are true, will easily appear from the very
nature and definition of that form of reasoning. A
demonstration, as we have said, is a series of syllo
gisms, all whose premises are either definitions, sell-
evident truths, or propositions already established.
Definitions arc identical propositions, wherein we con
nect the description of an idea with the name by
which we choose lo have that idea called, and there¬
fore as to their truth there can be no dispute. Self
evident propositions appear true of themselves, ano
leave no doubt or uncertainty in the mind. Proposi¬
tions, before established, are no other than conclusions
gained by one or more steps from definitions and self-
evident principles, that is, from true premises, and
therefore must needs be true. Whence all the pre¬
vious propositions of a demonstration being, we see,
manifestly true; the last conclusion, or proposition to
he demonstrated, must be so too. So that demonstra¬
tion not only leads to certain truth, but we have here
also a clear view of the ground and foundation of that
certainty. For as, in demonstrating, we may be said
to do nothing more than combine a series of syllogisms
together, all resting on the same bottom ; it is plain
that one uniform ground of certainty runs through the
whole, and that the conclusions are everywhere built
upon some one of the two principles before established,
as the foundation of all our reasoning. These two
principles are easily reduced into one, and may be ex¬
pressed thus : “ Whatever predicate, whether affirma¬
tive or negative, agrees universally to any idea ; the
same must needs agree to every or any number of indi¬
viduals comprehended under that idea.” And thus at
length ive have, according to our first design, reduced
the certainty of demonstration to one simple and univer¬
sal principle ; which carries its own evidence along with
it, and which is indeed the ultimate foundation of all
syllogistic reasoning. 113
V. Demonstration therefore serving as an infallible The rules
guide to truth, and therefore on so sure and unaltera- ®
ble a basis, avc may noAV venture to assert, that the ejen^crite-
rules of logic furnish a sufficient criterion for the dis- tenon for
tinguishing betAveen truth and falsehood. For since distinguUh-
every proposition that can be demonstrated is neces- ing be-
sarily true, he is able to distinguish truth from false-
hood avIio can with certainty judge when a proposi-hood.
tion is truly demonstrated. Noav, a demonstration is,
as Ave have said, nothing more than a concatenation
of syllogisms, all Avhose premises are definitions, self-
ii4
and ex¬
tending to
all cases
where a
certain
knowledge
of truth is
attainable.
IIS
The dis¬
tinction of
demonstra¬
tion into
direct and
4ndiiect. -
L O
Evident truths, or propositions previously established.
To judge therefore ot the validity ol a demonstration,
ire must he able to distinguish whether the definitions
that enter it are genuine, and truly descriptive of the
ideas they , are meant to exhibit : whether the pro¬
positions assumed without proofs as intuitive truths
have really that self-evidence to which they lay claim :
whether the syllogisms are drawn up in due form,
and agreeable to the laws of argumentation : m fine,
whether they are combined together in a just and or¬
derly manner, so that no demonstrable piopositions
serve anywhere as premises unless they are conclu¬
sions of previous syllogisms. Now, it is the business
of logic, in explaining the several operations ol the
mind, fully to instruct us in all these points. It teaches
the nature and end of definitions, and lays down the
rules by which they ought to be framed. It unfolds
the several species of propositions, and distinguishes
the self-evident from the demonstrable. It delineates
also the different forms of syllogisms, and explains the
laws of argumentation proper to each. In fine, it de¬
scribes the manner of combining syllogisms, so as that
they may form a train of reasoning, and lead to the
.successive discovery of truth. The precepts ol logic,
therefore, as they enable us to judge with certainty
when a proposition is duly demonstrated, furnish a
sure criterion for the distinguishing between truth and
falsehood.
VI. Perhaps, it may be objected, that demonstra¬
tion is a thing very rare and uncommon, as being the
prerogative of but a few sciences, and therefore the
criterion here given can be ot no great use. But
wherever, by the bare contemplation of our ideas,
truth is discoverable, there also demonstration may be
attained. Now that is an abundantly sufficient crite¬
rion which enables us to judge with certainty in all
cases where the knowledge of truth comes within our
.reach; for with discoveries, that lie beyond the li¬
mits of the human mind, we have, properly, no busi¬
ness or concernment. When a proposition is demon¬
strated, we are certain ol its truth. VI hen, on the
contrary, our ideas are such as have no visible connec¬
tion or repugnance, and therefore furnish not the pi o-
jier means of tracing their agreement or disagreement,
there we are sure that scientifical knowledge is not
attainable. But where there is some foundation of
.reasoning, which yet amounts not to the full evidence
of demonstration, there the, precepts of logic, by
teaching us to determine aright ol the degree ol
proof, and of what is still wanting to render it full
and complete, enable us to make a due. estimate o.
the measures of, probability, and to proportion our as¬
sent to the grounds on which the proposition stands.
And this is all we can possibly arrive at, or even so
much as hope for, in the -exercise of faculties so im¬
perfect and limited as ours.
VII. Before we .conclude this chapter, it may not
be improper to take notice of the distinction of demon¬
stration into direct and indirect. A direct demonstration
is .. when,-beginning with definitions, self-evident pro¬
positions, or known and allowed truths, we form a
train of syllogisms, and combine them in an orderly
manner, continuing the series through a variety of suc¬
cessive steps, until at last we arrive at a syllogism whose
conclusion is the proposition to be demonstrated. Proofs
2
G T C. Part HI.
of this kind leave no doubt or uncertainty behind of
them ; because, all the several premises being true, the Iteasoninj;, j
conclusions must be so too, and of course the very last't-—» |
conclusion or proposition to be proved. 'I he other
species of demonstration is the indirect, or, as it is
sometimes called, the apogogical. The manner ol pro¬
ceeding here is, by assuming a proposition which di¬
rectly contradicts that we mean to demonstrate j and
thence, by a continued train of reasoning, in the way
of a direct demonstration, deducing some absurdity or
manifest untruth. For hereupon we conclude, that
the proposition assumed w as false ) and thence again,
by an immediate consequence, that the proposition to
he demonstrated is true. Thus Euclid, in his third
book, being to demonstrate that circles which touch one
another inwardly have not the same centre, assumes the
direct contrary to this, viz. that they have the same cen¬
tre ; and thence, by an evident train of reasoning,
proves that a part is equal to the whole. The supposi¬
tion therefore leading to this absurdity he concludes to
be false, viz. that circles touching one another inwardly
have the same centre i and thence again immediately in¬
fers, that they have not the same centre. ns
VIII. Now, because this manner of demonstration is Groundcf
accounted by some not altogether so clear and satisfac-^onm^
tory j we shall therefore endeavour to show, that it
equally with the other leads to truth and certainty, ^jons.
Two propositions are said to be contradictory one of
another, when that which is asserted to be in the one
is asserted not to be in the other. Thus the proposi¬
tions, Ciriies that touch one another invbardly have the
same centre, and Circles that touch one another inwardly
have not the same centre, are contradictories, because
the second asserts the direct contrary of what is assert¬
ed in the first. Now, In all contradictory propositions,
this holds universally, That one of them is necessarily
true, and the other necessarily false. For if it be
true, that circles which touch one another inwardly
have not the same centre ; it is unavoidably false that
they have the same centre. On the other hand, if it
be false that they have the same centre, it is necessarily
true that they have not the same centre, Since therefore
it is impossible for them to be both true or both false
at the same time, it unavoidably follows, that one is
necessarily true, and the other necessarily false. This
then being allowed, which is indeed self-evident j if any
two contradictory propositions are assumed, and one of
them can by a clear train of reasoning be demonstrat¬
ed to be false, it necessarily follows that the other is true.
For as the one is necessarily true, and the other neces¬
sarily false j when we come to discover which is the false
proposition, we thereby also know the other to be true, n7
IX. Now this is precisely the manner of an indirect Indirect*
demonstration, as is evident from the account given oftiioustA-
1 • i • i v tion a sui
firi
it above. For there we assume a proposition which di-^n asuff
---  - * x guide to
rectly contradicts that we mean to demonstrate j and* certainy.
having by a continued series of proofs shown it to be
false, thence infer that it is contradictory, or the pro¬
position to be demonstrated is true. As, therefore,
this last conclusion is certain and unavoidable, let us
next inquire after what manner we come to be satisfied
of the falsehood of the assumed proposition, that so no
possible doubt may remain as to the force and validity
of demonstration of this kind. The manner then is
plainly this: Beginning with the assumed proposition,
Art IV. L O
Cliletliod. we, by the bdp of definitions, self-evident truths, or
-v ' * propositions already established, continue a series of
reasoning, in the way of a direct demonstration, until
at length we arrive at some absurdity or known false¬
hood. Thus Euclid, in the example before mention¬
ed, from the supposition that circles touching one an¬
other inwardly have the same centre, deduces that a
part is equal to the tvhole. Since, therefore, by a due
and orderly process of reasoning, we come at last to a
false conclusion j it is manifest, that all the premises
cannot be true : for, were all the premises true, the
last conclusion must be so too, by what has been be¬
fore demonstrated. Now, as to all the other premises
made use of in the course of reasoning, they are mani¬
fest and known truths by supposition, as being either
definitions, self-evident propositions, or truths previ¬
ously established. The assumed proposition is that on¬
ly as to which any doubt or uncertainty remains.
That alone, therefore, can be false ; and indeed, from
what has been already shown, must unavoidably be so.
And thus we see, that in indirect demonstrations, two
contradictory propositions being laid down, one of
which is demonstrated to be false, the other, which is
always the proposition to be proved, must necessarily
be true ; so that here, as well as in the direct way of
proof, we arrive at a clear and satisfactory knowledge
n3 of truth.
marticu- X. This is universally the method of reasoning in all
Ittcasc of apogogical or direct demonstrations. But if any pro-
* ' position is assumed, from which, in a direct train of
reasoning, we can deduce its contradictory ; the pro¬
position so assumed is false, and the contradictory one
true. For if we suppose the assumed proposition to
be true, then, since all the other premises that enter
the demonstration are also true, we shall have a series
of reasoning consisting wholly of true premises j whence
the last conclusion or contradictory of the assumed pro¬
position must be true likewise ; so that by this means
we should have two contradictory propositions both
true at the same time, which is manifestly impossible.
The assumed proposition, therefore, whence this absur¬
dity flows, must necessarily be false \ and consequently
its contradictory, which is here the proposition deduced
from it, must be true. If then any proposition is pro¬
posed to be demonstrated, and we assume the contra¬
dictory of that proposition, and thence directly infer
the proposition to be demonstrated ; by this very means
we know that the proposition so inferred is true. For,
since from an assumed proposition we have deduced its
contradictory, we are thereby certain that the assumed
proposition is false , and if so, then its contradictory,
or that deduced from it, which in this case is the
same with the proposition to be demonstrated, must be
true.
ilurect de-
mistra-
t.s.
G I C. 159
XL We have a curious instance of this in the twelfth Of Method,
proposition of the ninth book of the Elements. Eu- v
did there proposes to demonstrate, that in any series ^ ^
of numbers, rising from unity in geometrical ^rogr«-knowledgcr
sion, all the prime numbers that measure the last term 0f the prin-
in the series will also measure the next after unity. In cip es ot lo-
order to this, he assumes the contradictory of the pro-
position to be demonstrated ; namely, that some prime
number measuring the last term in the series does not make
measure the next after unity ; and thence, by a conti- us proper
nued train of reasoning, proves that it actually d°esj‘kj»^°|
measure it. Hereupon he concludes the assumed pro-^™0118 ia~
position to be false *, and that which is deduced from
it, or its contradictory, which is the very proposition
he proposed to demonstrate, to be true. Now that this
is a just and conclusive way of reasoning, is abundant¬
ly manifest from what we have so clearly established
above. Whence it appears, how necessary some know¬
ledge of the rules of logic is, to enable us to judge of
the force, justness, and validity, of demonstrations. For,
though it is readily allowed, that by the mere strength
of our natural faculties we can at once discern, that ot
two contradictory propositions, the one is necessarily
true, and the other necessarily false ; yet when they are
so linked together in a demonstration, as that the one
serves as a previous proposition whence the other is de¬
duced, it does not so immediately appear, without some
knowdedge of the principles ot logic, why that alone,
which is collected by reasoning, ought to be embraced
as true, and the other, whence it is collected, to be re¬
jected as false. I20
XII. Having thus sufficiently evinced the certainty an(i 0f ;t_
of demonstration in all its branches, and shown the rules self sufli-
by which we ought to proceed, in order to arrive at ac*ent to
just conclusion, according to the various ways of argu-|ga)us^
ing made use of, it is needless to enter upon a particu-e°.01. and
lar consideration of those several species of false reason-false rea-
ing which logicians distinguish by the name of sophisms, soiling.
He that thoroughly understands the form and struc¬
ture of a good argument, will of himself readily dis¬
cern every deviation from it. And although sophisms
have been divided into many classes, which are all
called by sounding names, that therefore carry in them
much appearance of learning*, yet are the errors them¬
selves so very palpable and obvious, that it would be
lost labour to write for a man capable of being misled
by them. Here, therefore, we choose to conclude this
part of logic : and shall in the next give some account
of Method, which, though inseparable from reasoning,
is nevertheless ahvays considered by logicians as a di¬
stinct operation of the mind *, because its influence is
not confined to the mere exercise of the reasoning fa¬
culty, but extends in some degree to all the transactions
of the understanding.
PART IV. OF METHOD.
, 121
undcr-
*• ding
'climes
ployed
’.tting
hither
h '.vn
tAs;
WE have now done with the three first operations of
the mind, whose office it is to search after truth, and
enlarge the bounds of human knowledge. There is
yet a fourth, which i*egards the disposal and arrange¬
ment of our thoughts, when we endeavour so to put
them together as that their mutual connexion and de¬
pendence may be clearly seen. I his is what logicians
called Method, and place always the last in order in ex¬
plaining the powers ot the understanding j because it
necessarily supposes a previous exercise of our other fa¬
culties, and some progress made in knowledge before
we can exert it in any extensive degree.
11. In.
i6o L O
Of Method. II. In this view, it is plain that we must be before
G
hand well acquainted with the truths we are to combine
together ^ otherwise, how could we discern then several
connections and relations, or so dispose of them as
I C. ^art iv.
we have passed through, inasmuch as they are now O' Mctlioi
search and their mutual dependence may require ? But it often
discovery
of such as
are un¬
known :
happens, that the understanding is employed, not in
the arrangement and composition of known truths,
but in the search and discovery of such as are un¬
known. And here the manner of proceeding is very^
different. We assemble at once our whole stock of
knowledge relating to any subject, and, after a ge¬
neral survey of things, begin with examining them se-
oarately and by parts. Hence it comes to pass, that
whereas, at our first setting out, we were acquainted
only with some of the grand strokes and outlines ol
truth } by thus pursuing her through her several wind¬
ings and recesses, we gradually discover those more
inward and finer touches whence she derives all her
strength, symmetry, and beauty. And here it is, that
when, by a narrow scrutiny into things, -we have un¬
ravelled any part of knowledge, and traced it to its
first and original principles, insomuch that the whole
frame and contexture of it lies open to the view of the
mind; here it is^that, taking it the contrary way, and
beginning with these principles, we can so adjust and
put together the parts as the order and method ot science
require.
I^ted HI. But as these things are best understood when il-
bytkesimi-lust rated by examples, let us suppose any machine, for
litude of a instance a watch, presented to us, whose structuie and
seen to stand upon the firm and immoveable founda- "™
tion of our intuitive perceptions. And as we arrived
at this certainty by tracing things backward to the
original principles whence they fiow j so may we at
any time renew it by a direct contraiy process, if, be¬
ginning with these principles, we cany the train of
our thoughts forward, until they lead us, by a con¬
nected chain of proofs, to the very last conclusion ot
the series. . 12.5
V. Hence it appears, that, in disposing and putting JJmsion^
together our thoughts, either for our own use, that the to anaj “
l svntlit
watch
composition we are as yet unacquainted with, but
want, if possible, to discover. The manner of pro¬
ceeding, in this case, is, by taking the whole to pieces,
and examining the parts separately, one after another.
When, by such a scrutiny, we have thoroughly in¬
formed ourselves of the frame and contexture ot each,
we then compare them together, in order to judge of
their mutual action and influence. By this means we
gradually trace out the inward make and composition
of the whole, and come at length to discern how parts
of such a form, and so put together as we found m
unravelling and taking them asunder, constitute that
particular machine called a watch, and contribute to
all the several motions and phenomena observable in
it. This discovery being made, we can take things
the contrary way, and, beginning with the parts, so
dispose and connect them as their several uses and struc¬
tures require, until at length we arrive at the whole
itself, from the unravelling of which those parts re¬
sulted.
IV. And as it is in tracing and examining the works
Analytic of art; so is it, in a great measure, in unfolding any
andsynthe-part of human knowledge: for the relations and mu-
tic me- tual habitudes of things do not always immediately ap-
thods. pear upon comparing them one with another. Hence
we have recourse to intermediate ideas ; and, by means
of them, are furnished with those previous propositions
that lead to the conclusion we are in quest of. And
if it so happens that the previous propositions them¬
selves are not sufficiently evident, we endeavour, by new
middle terms, to ascertain their truth ; still tracing
things backward, in a continual series, until at length
we arrive at some syllogism where the premises are first
and self-evident principles. 1 his done, we become
perfectly satisfied as to the truth of all the conclusions
124
   a 7 - - . .. IU it
discoveries we have made may at all times he open to an(j
the review of the mind, or where we mean to commu tic.
nicate and unfold the discoveries to others, there are
two ways of proceeding equally within our choice :
for we may so propose the truths relating to any part
of knowledge, as they presented themselves to the mind
in the manner of investigation ; carrying on the series
of proofs, in a reverse order, until they at last termi¬
nate in first principles : or, beginning with these prin¬
ciples, we may take the contrary way, and Irom them
deduce, by a direct train of reasoning, all the [several
propositions we want to establish, 'i his diversity in the
manner of arranging our thoughts gives rise to the
twofold division of method established among logi¬
cians : for method, according to their use ot the word,
is nothing else hut the order and disposition of our
thoughts relating to any subject. When truths are so
proposed and put together as they were or might have
been discovered, this is called the analytic method, or the
method of resolution; inasmuch as it traces things back¬
ward to their source, and resolves knowledge into its
first and original principles. W hen, on the other hand,
they are deduced from these principles, and connected
according to their mutual dependence, insomuch that
the truths first in order tend always to the demonstra¬
tion of those that follow; this constitutes what we call
the synthetic method, or method of composition. I or here
we proceed by gathering together the several scatter¬
ed parts of knowledge, and combining them into one
whole or systep?, m such manner that the understand¬
ing is enabled distinctly to follow truth through all hex-
different stages and gradations.
VI. There is this farther to he taken notice of, in Called *
relation to these two species of method ; that the first therwist
has also obtained the name of the method oj invention, ofjnven
because it observes the order in which our thoughts lion, am
succeed one another in the invention or discovery ol the metl
truth. The other, again, is often denominated theofscienc
method of doctrine or instruction; inasmuch as in laying
our thoughts before others, we generally choose to
proceed in the synthetic manner, deducing them from
their fix*st principles. 1 or we are to observe, that al¬
though there is great pleasure in pursuing truth in the
method of investigation, because it places us in the
condition of the inventor, and shows the particular
train and process of thinking by which he arrived at
his discoveries; yet it is not so well accommodated to
the purposes of evidence and conviction. For, at our
first setting out, we are commonly unable to divine
where the analysis will lead us ; insomuch that our re¬
searches are for some time little better than a mere
groping in the dark. And even after light begins to
break in upon us, we are still obliged to many reviews,
atH
126
I'art IV. L O
Method, and a frequent comparison of the several steps of the
1,1 ' investigation among themselves. Nay, when we have
unravelled the whole, and reached the very foundation
on which our discoveries stand, all our certainty, in re¬
gard to their truth, will be found in a great measure to
arise from that connexion we are now able to discern
between them and first principles, taken in the order of
composition. But in the synthetic manner of dispo¬
sing our thoughts, the case is quite different: for as
we here begin with the intuitive truths, and advance
by regular deductions from them, every step of the
procedure brings evidence and conviction along with
it so that, in our progress from one part of know¬
ledge to another, wTe have always a clear perception of
the ground on which our assent rests. In communi¬
cating therefore our discoveries to others, this method
is apparently to be chosen, as it wonderfully improves
and enlightens the understanding, and leads to an im¬
mediate perception of truth.
VII. The logic which for so many ages kept posses¬
sion of the schools, and was deemed the most important
of the sciences, has long been condemned as a mere art
of wrangling, of very little use in the pursuit of truth.
Attempts have been made to restore it to credit, but
without success ; and of late years little or no atten¬
tion whatever has been paid to the art of reasoning in
the course of what is called a liberal education. As
both extremes may be faulty, it should seem that we
cannot conclude this short treatise more properly than
with the following
Reflections on the Utility of Logic.
If xlristotle was not the inventor of logic, he was
certainly the prince of logicians. The whole theory
of syllogisms he claims as his own, and as the fruit of
much time and labour ; and it is universally known,
that the later writers on the art have borrowed their
materials almost entirely from his Organon and Por¬
phyry’s Introduction. But after men had laboured
near 2000 years in search of truth by the help of syl¬
logisms, Lord Bacon proposed the method of induction,
as a more effectual engine for that purpose $ and since
his days the art of logic has gradually fallen into disre¬
pute.
To this consequence many causes contributed. The
art of syllogism is admirably calculated for wrangling ;
and byr the schoolmen it was employed with too much
success, to keep in countenance the absurdities c-f the
Romish church. Under their management it pro¬
duced numberless disputes, and numberless sects, who
longht against each other with much animosity with¬
out gaining or losing ground ; but it did nothing con¬
siderable for the benefit of human life, whilst the me¬
thod of induction has improved arts and increased
knowledge. It is no wonder, therefore, that the ex¬
cessive admiration of Aristotle, which continued for so
many ages, should end in an undue contempt : and
that the high esteem of logic, as the grand engine of
science, should at last make way for too unfavourable
an opinion, which seems now prevalent, of its being
unworthy of a place in a liberal education. Men rare¬
ly leave one extreme without running into the contrary :
Those who think according to the fashion, will be as
prone to go into the present extreme as their grand¬
fathers were to go into the former : and even they who
Vol. XII. Part I.
s»
G I C. 161
in general think for themselves, when they are offend-Of Method,
ed at the abuse of any thing, are too apt to entertain v ■ ■
prejudices against the thing itself. “ In practice (says
the learned Warburton *), logic is more a trick than * Introduc-
a science, formed rather to amuse than to instruct. to Ju-
And in some sort we may apply to the art ot syllogism^”’ ^:c•
what a man of wit says of rhetoric, that it only
tells us how to name those tools which nature had be¬
fore put into our hands. In the service ot chicane, in¬
deed, it is a mere juggler’s knot, now fast, now loose ;
and the schools where this legerdemain was exercised
in great perfection are full of the stories of its wonders.”
The authority of Warburton is great j but it may be
counterbalanced by another, which, on subjects of this
nature, is confessedly greater.
“ Laying aside prejudice, whether fashionable or
unfashionable, let us consider (says Dr Reidf) whe-f
ther logic is or may be made subservient to any good ^(nffs
purpose. Its professed end is, to teach men to think,5^,^ on
to judge, and to reason, with precision and accuracy.the PriTici-
No man will say this is a matter of little importance -.pies and
the only thing therefore that can admit of doubt is, whe- !
ther it can be taught ?
“ To resolve this doubt, it may be observed, that
our rational faculty is the gift of God, given to
men in very different measures : Some have a large
portion, some a less j and where there is a remarkable
defect of the natural power, it cannot be supplied by
any culture. But this natural power, even where it
is the strongest, may lie dead for want of the means of
improvement. Many a savage may have been born
with as good faculties as a Newton, a Racon, or an
Aristotle ; but their talents were buried by having never
been put to use, whilst those of the philosophers were
cultivated to the best advantage. It may likewise be
observed, that the chief mean of improving our ration¬
al power, is the vigorous exercise of it in various ways
and on different subjects, by which the habit is ac¬
quired of exercising it properly. Without such ex¬
ercise, and good sense over and above, a man who has
studied logic all his life may be only a petulant wtang¬
ler, without true judgment or skill of reasoning in any
science.”
This must have been Locke’s meaning, when in his
Thoughts on Education, he says, “ If you would have
your son to reason well, let him read Chillingworth.”
The state of things is much altered since Locke wrote :
Logic has been much improved chiefly by his writings ;
and yet much less stress is laid upon it, and less time
consumed in its study. His counsel, therefore, was ju¬
dicious and seasonable; to wit, That the improvement
of our reasoning power is to be expected much more
from an intimate acquaintance with the authors who
reason best, than from studying voluminous systems of
school logic. But if he had meant, that the study of
logic was of no use, nor deserved any attention, he
surely would not have taken the pains to make so con¬
siderable an addition to it, by his Essay on the Hainan
Understanding, and by his Thoughts on the conduct of
the Understanding ; nor would he have remitted his pu¬
pil to Chillingworth, the acutest logician as well as the
best reasoner of his age.”
There is no study better fitted to exercise and
strengthen the reasoning powers than that of the ma¬
thematical sciences , because there is no other branch
t X of
I 62
LOG
Of Method, of science which gives such scope to long and accurate
trains of reasoning, or in which there is so little room
for authority or prejudice of any kind to give a lalse
bias to the judgment. When a youth of moderate
parts begins to study Euclid, every thing is new to him .
His apprehension is unsteady ; his judgment is feeble
and rests partly upon the evidence of the thing, and
partly upon the authority of his teacher. But every time
lie goes over the definitions, the axioms, the elementary
propositions, more light breaks in upon him 5 and as he
advances, the road of demonstration becomes smooth
and easy } he can walk in it firmly, and take wider
steps, till at last he acquires the habit not only ot un¬
derstanding a demonstration, but of discovering and
demonstrating mathematical truths.
It must indeed be confessed, that a man without the
rules of logic may acquire a habit ol reasoning justly
in mathematics, and perhaps in any other science.
Good sense, good examples, and assiduous exercise,
may bring a man to reason justly and acutely in bis
own profession without rules. But whoever thinks,
that from this concession he may infer the inutility of
logic, betrays by this inference a great want of that
art *, for he might as well infer, because a man may go
from Edinburgh to London by the way of Baris, that
therefore any other road is useless.
There is perhaps no art which may not be acquired,
in a very considerable degree, by example and prac-
tice* without reducing it to rules. But practice joined
with rules may carry a man forward in his art far¬
ther and more quickly than practice without rules.
Every ingenious artist knows the utility of having his
art reduced to rules, and thereby made a science. By
rules he is enlightened in his practice, and works with
more assurance. They enable him sometimes to cor¬
rect his own errors, and often to detect the errors of
others •, and he finds them of great use to confirm his
judgment, to justify what is right, and to condemn
what is wrong. Now mathematics are the noblest/iraxv-?
ot logic. Through them we may perceive bmv the sta¬
ted forms of syllogism are exemplified in one subject,
namely the predicament of quantity 5 and by marking
the force of these forms, as they are there applied, we
may be enabled to apply them of ourselves elsewhere.
Whoever, therefore, will study mathematics with this
view, will become not only by mathematics a more ex¬
pert logician, and by logic a more rational mathematician,
but a wiser philosopher, and an acuter reasoner, in all
the possible subjects either of science or deliberation.
But when mathematics, instead of being applied to
this excellent purpose, are used not to exemplify logic,
but to supply its place, no wonder if logic fall into
contempt; and if mathematics, instead of furthering
science, become in fact an obstacle. For when men,
knowing nothing of that reasoning which is universal,
come to attach themselves for years to a single species,
a species wholly involved in lines and numbers^ the
mind becomes incapacitated for reasoning at large, and
especially in the search at moral truth. Ihe object of
mathematics is demonstration; and whatever in that
science is not demonstration, is nothing, or at least be¬
low the sublime inquirer’s regard. Probability, through
its almost infinite degrees, from simple ignorance up
to absolute certainty, is the terra incognita ot the ma-
thematician. And yet here it is that the great business
I c. Part tv.
of the human mind is carried on in the search and of Method:
discovery of all the important truths which concern us ' v 
as reasonable beings. And here too it is that all its
vigour is exerted : for to proportion the assent to the
probability accompanying every varying degree of
moral evidence, requires the most enlarged and sove¬
reign exercise of reason.
In reasonings of this kind, will any man pretend
that it is of no use to be well acquainted with the va¬
rious powers of the mind by which we reason ? Is. it
of no use to resolve the various kinds ot reasoning in¬
to their simple elements *, and to discover, as far as we
arc able, the rules by which these elements are com¬
bined in judging and in reasoning ? Is it of no use to
mark the various fallacies in reasoning, by which even
the most ingenious men have been led into error ? It
must surely betray great want of understanding to think
these things useless or unimportant. Now these are
the things which logicians have attempted and which
they have executed—not indeed so completely as to
leave no room for improvement, but in such a manner as
to give very considerable aid to our reasoning powers.
That the principles they have laid down with regard
to definition and division, with regard to the conversion
and opposition of propositions, and the general rules of
reasoning, are not without use, is sufficiently apparent
from the blunders committed daily by those who dis¬
dain any acquaintance with them.
Although the art of categorical syllogism is confes¬
sedly little fitted for the discovery of unknown truth,-
it may yet be employed to excellent purposes, as it is
perhaps the most compendious method of detecting a
fallacy. A man in quest of unknown truths must ge¬
nerally proceed by the way of induction, from effects
to causes •, but he who as a teacher is to inculcate any
system upon others, begins with one or more self-evi¬
dent truths, and proceeds in the way of demonstration,
to the conclusion which he wishes to establish. Nowr
every demonstration, as has been already observed, may
be resolved into a series of syllogisms, of which the
conclusion of the preceding always enters into the pre¬
mises of that which follows : and if the first principles
be clear and evident, and every syllogism in some le¬
gitimate mode and figure, the conclusion of the whole
must infallibly be admitted. But when the demon¬
stration is thus broken into parts ; if we find that the
conclusion of one syllogism will not, without altering
the meaning of the terms, enter legitimately into the
premises of that which should immediately follow j or,
supposing it to make one of the premises of a new syl¬
logism, if we find that the conclusion resulting from
the whole series thus obtained, is different from that
of the demonstration ; we may, in either of these cases,
rest assured that the author’s reasoning is fallacious,
and leads to error } and that if- it carried an appear¬
ance of conviction before it was thus resolved into its
elementary parts, it must have been owing to the ina¬
bility of the mind to comprehend at once a long train
of arguments. "Whoever wishes to see the syllogistic
art employed for this purpose, and to be convinced of-
the truth of what we have said respecting its utility,
may consult the excellent writer recommended by
Locke, who, in places innumerable of his incompar¬
able book, has, without pedantry, even in that pe¬
dantic age, made the happiest application of the rules
Part IV.
LOGIC.
16
,* ^Method of logic for unravelling the sophistry of his Jesuitical
—v—J antagonist.
Upon the whole, then, though we readily acknow¬
ledge that much time was wasted by our forefathers
in syllogistic wrangling, and what might with little
impropriety be termed the mechanical yurt of logic j Of Method,
yet the art of forming and examining arguments is cer-
tainly an attainment not unworthy the ambition of that
being whose highest honour is to be endued with rea-
LOG
Logistse, LOGISTiE, certain officers at Athens, in number
Logogra- ten, whose business consisted in receiving and passing
the accounts of magistrates when they went out ol office.
*"""v The logistce were elected by lot, and had ten euthym or
auditors of accounts under them.
LOGOGRAPHY, a new method of printing, in
which the types, instead of answering only to single let¬
ters, are made to correspond to whole words.
This method, though seemingly a retrograde proces¬
sion in the printing art, has lately obtained the sanc¬
tion of his majesty’s patent, and has for some time been
actually put in execution in the way of trade, apparent¬
ly with advantage to the proprietors. In the year 1783?
a treatise upon this subject appeared by Henry Johnson,
in which the orign as well as the utility of the art are
fully laid down, and the matter set forth in such a light
as can scarce allow us to doubt that it is an improve¬
ment in the art. Mr Johnson informs us, that about
five years before, vii. in the year 1778, intending to
publish a daily list of blanks and prices in the lottery
numerically arranged, he found it could not be accom¬
plished in time by the ordinary way of printing. On
this account he procured types of two, three, or more
figures as was necessary for this purpose j and thus any
entire number might as readily be taken up as if it had
been a single type. His next attempt was in forming
some large mercantile tables of pounds, shillings, pence,
and farthings. For these he procured types expressive of
any sum of money ready composed and united, “ by
which (says he) every species of figure-printing could
be performed for the tenth part of the cost, printers
always charging it double the price of letter-print¬
ing.” Having thus succeeded to his wish in his two
first attempts, he next began to consider if the me¬
thod could not be applied to words j and in this also
the success was equal.
The properties of the logographic art according to
our author, are, 1. That the compositor shall have less
charged upon his memory than in the common way.
2. It is much less liable to error. 3. The type of each
word is as easily laid hold of as that of a single letter.
4. The decomposition is much more readily performed,
even by the merest novices, than they now decompose
letters. 5. No extraordinary expence nor greater num¬
ber of types is required in the logographic than in the
common method of printing.
The first ol these positions is proved by our author
in the following manner. In the common method,
the compositor has 150 divisions to which there is no
reference, and the printing offices are not agreed with
respect to the mode of placing their boxes ; “ but
tinder this improvement he has only to know the
‘setters of-the alphabet, and is assisted with an index
LOG
of them, insomuch that the simplicity of the latter Logogra-
apparatus enables him, by a little practice, to lay his ,
finger almost blindfold on the word required ; and the v
meanest capacity is equal to this mental exercise,
having little more to do than knowing by inspection
the difference between words under three and those
above three syllables j and all the apparatus being
within a compass not a great deal more extended than
common printing, for these reasons he is as soon pos¬
sessed of his type of a wodd as they are of a single
letter.”
Thus the first and third positions may be said to
be proved ; but in his proof of the second, our author
himself shows that his art is not inlallible, by substitut¬
ing the word third instead of second. Substitutions of
this kind, he owns, may readily take place; but such
errors are much more conspicuous than literal ones,
though they may be corrected with equal ease ; “ for
the erroneous substitution cannot fail of being nearly
equal in length to the word required j although, even
otherwise, it would not be attended wfith greater disad¬
vantage than in the common way, and it would be rec¬
tified with greater facility.”
The ease with which the composition is performed,
shows that there must be an equal case in performing
the decomposition j “ from whence (says Mr Johnson)
it is further demonstrable, that any work can be com¬
posed by this method nearly as soon as it can be deli¬
berately read 5 and as to the fifth position, that it shall
not require a greater expence of types, it is answered,
that it is impossible for more types of letters to be want¬
ed for this method than by any other printer according
to the equal quantity of business to be performed,
eveiy office having certain known quantities of each
letter called a fount. A printer’s fount contains about
92,500 letters, and our want is not more j nay, nearer
the truth, the present quantity for a fount containing
much more of some letters than necessary, and fewer
of others j which arises from the calculation of the
quantity of each letter wanted being adhered to since
‘the old spelling.”
Our author now proceeds to demonstrate that the
number of types must necessarily decrease as they are
combined in syllables, and much more when formed
into words. The wrhole art of arranging the words
consists in placing them under as few divisions as pos¬
sible, and still fewer subdivisions j which is attained by
the following process.
1. A collection of words, with the addition of
tenses, plurals, and degrees of comparison amounting
to more than 100,000, was made from the best English
dictionaries :
2. Collections were made from the miscellaneous part
X -2 of
LOG
t
‘Logogra-
piiy-
of 20 newspapers, the Spectator, ami Common i rayer-
book. The method was, by procuring duplicates o
' every sheet, so that each alternate side might be pasted
over with white paper, in order to leave the whole ot
the words on both sides perfect 5 and thus the whole
Hit: wui tio £ ' , . .
might be touched with less danger ol injury than other
wise could have been done. The confusion arismi
from the parts of other words be;'
opposite side was likewise prevented
3. The words, being separately (
cut out, were then
put into a ease marked with the divisions from one to
j6 according to the number oi letters contained in
each word. Thus several letters were distinctly col¬
lected *, and then each separate parcel sorted in a case
containing 26 divisions, marked with the letters ol
the alphabet, according to the commencing letter ot
the word } and thus all the words were ranged alpha¬
betical! v, consisting of two, three, four, or five letters,
in separate parcels.
4. The same words were then placed together, and
posted into an alphabet, with the number of times
marked to each that had occurred on the whole } that
in this manner a proportion might he determined how
many times particular words ought to be repeated lor
the printing of one sheet, and also to know wnat
words are in general use : There are likewise a num¬
ber of technical terms, and favourite phrases, a great
number of times repeated almost by every author j hut
though these occur throughout the whole book 111
great proportion to the rest, no more ol them will be
necessary than what suffice for a single sheet.
5. The whole of the above might be done without
the trouble iust mentioned, by posting every word at
once into a triformed alphabet ; hecausc the subdivi¬
sions of the second and third commencing letter oi
each word for references are now obtained, and thus
ran easily he placed in its proper division, and may be
marked as often as it occurs, without repeating the
same word 3 whence we plainly see the ease and expe¬
dition of it, from the facility and expedition of posting
every word from a leaf in any book. Before such sub¬
divisions were known, they could only have been pla¬
ced under the first commencing letter of the word *,
which would cause such a multiplicity of repetitions,
that it would take up more time, be iar more liable
to error, and require more subordinate postings to
bring them into arrangement j so that they may be
found more easily than by the above proceedings.
Thus also a collection will be obtained of single and
double word 1, which are constantly required from 20 to
400 or 500 times in the printing one sheet of any work
whatever j and which alone would abridge the composi¬
tor’s work near one-third. This second process like¬
wise enabled the author to reject, out of the first col¬
lection, obsolete words, technical terms, &c. which re¬
duces the original collection to one-fifth part. .
6 By proceeding in this manner, several species of
words are omitted in the founts. 1. Obsolete words ;
because they occur so seldom, that the difference of
time lost in composing them m the ordinary method
would be imperceptible. 2. Technical terms, names
of places, animals, &c. *, though, for any particular
work, the terms peculiar to it may he added to the
fount in a Informed alphabet apart. 3. Real ex¬
pounds, or words that may be compounded ol others,
4
164 ] ' L O G
are also rejected j because we actually have the words Logogta.
already, and they may be joined with sufficient expe-1 Pkv- ^
dition, though the spaces are annexed to each, by
being constructed accordingly. 4. Those ol the same
spelling are likewise omitted, though they bear differ¬
ent significations, for obvious reasons.
7. The variation of tenses, degrees of comparison,
and numerous words in the English language, having
in general, the same terminations, such as ED, ing, ly,
MENT, NESS, &c. an alphabet may be formed ol such
a kind as is capable of being annexed to the abso¬
lute words or radices, as expeditiously as the whole
word could be found in the fount, from its being
thereby so much less extended. Thus, by dividing se¬
veral words into their radices and terminations, many
other words may be formed from their radix by the ad¬
dition of various terminations, and each termination
may be added to other radices to which they are ap¬
plicable. . .
8. Some radices are imperfect, viz. such as end with
the vowel e, which must therefore be added in the usual
■way of composition. Thus, in the word adore, the ra¬
dix is ador, to which the terminations es, ed, est, ei/t,
er, ins;, mav be added occasionally.
9. By rejecting also the words which come under this
last denomination, the number necessary for a fount is
reduced to one-tenth of what it would otherwise be, as
will appear evident from the following considerations .
isf, There are at least 42 verbs, the infinitive of which
ends in ify ; as qualify, signify; the radices of which
are qual, sign ; the terminations are, ijics, ijied, rfywg,
&c. And Mr Johnson informs us, that by applying
these radices to other terminations, he was enabled to
dispense with more than 500 words which would other¬
wise have been necessary. 2d, For all regular verbs, no
more than six terminations are necessary, viz. s, cst, etft,
ed, es, ing. There are hut few irregular ones in the
English language •, whence it happens that 12 or 14
words may be formed from one single perfect verb as a
radix, and many imperfect ones save double that num¬
ber. . . , . ,
10. By using only the set of terminations which
may be contained in a box of two feet square, the
common operation of printing would be shortened near¬
ly one half} and in order to find out those which are
most in use, and fittest to retain, our author digested
them alphabetically, with the radices, words, or syl¬
lables, which make complete words annexed to them.
Thus,
1 abs—apper—ascer
! de—dis—eon
[ cer—cap-—cur
- enter—main—re—sus, &.c.
——ment J -
11. Thus it will he found, that out of more than
100,000 words of which the English language consists,
there will not he wanted much above 3500 lor a com¬
plete fount. This will he very evident to any person
who consults a dictionary. He will there find, that a
vast number of words require an explanation *, whereas
in any miscellaneous work, there are none hut what
can be understood most readily either together or ap: it.
Newspapers retain more of the uncommon kind of v- .ds
than any others. “ The vocabulary (says our a- )
or
tain
 ed
—ing
L O G
[ 165
iogogra-
phy.
or alpliulict as it is called, of the Chinese, consists of
above So,ooo letters or characters 5 yet he is admitted
a master of the language who knows about 4000 of
them, no more being in general use.”
The expedition with which the logographic method
of printing can be accomplished, depends essentially on
their arrangement j which, from great numbers of ex¬
periments, our author found to be best accomplished
in the following manner: 1. Words of one, two, or
three syllables, are alphabetically placed by themselves,
including all possible commencing syllables, by which
the compositor cannot fail ot finding the word eithei
in whole or in part, let it be what it will} and when
the whole cannot be found at once, the remainder may
easily be found in single or double syllables among the
terminations. 2. All words above three syllables ha\e
the same alphabetical arrangement; the terminations
being the same at the bottom of each. Experience
shows, that by a very few lessons, the meanest capacity
may determine the number of syllables, and refer to
the particular case containing words of that number,
there being conspicuous references to each ; and by
thus equalizing them, any person may possess himself
very expeditiously of what he wants. Even hoys who
scarcely knew more than the letters of the alphabet,
were hardly a fortnight employed in tins method, when
they could at the first glance tell the number of letters
contained in any word.
By this simplicity of arrangement, any intelligent
person, who never composed in his life, by being pla¬
ced in a room with the apparatus, could compose and
print, without other previous instruction than desiring
him to remember that the words under three syllables,
and those above three, are placed in separate alphabets;
and that whenever he wants a word, the first letter is
seen in capitals of two inches on the walls, the second
in letters of one inch in right lines •, and where it is ne¬
cessary to have more columns than one for such second
letter, the third is given in red down the column, com¬
prehending about 1 2 divisions, to contain the types of
the word coming under such reference.
To exemplify this method as far as it can he done
without actually seeing the apparatus, our author in¬
stances the two words Above and Unfortunately. In
looking for the former, the first letter, A, is seen upon
the wall as already mentioned : the second, B, is on
the case under it, and down that column is OVE,
opposite to the cell containing the types of the whole
word ; which would he only three references instead
of five with spaces, as in the common method. The
other word, viz. Unfortunately, may be found by the
same references, though it contains 13 letters j but
“ admitting that practice will give the word as soon
as a single letter, the average will be found eight for
one.”—Our author’s explanation of the method in
which this word might be composed, however, seems
by no means intelligible.—“ For this distinction in the
cases (says he), the alphabet, or rather marks of first
reference in large characters on the wall, is divided in¬
to two classes, not as vowels and consonants, but as fol¬
lows, viz. A, Con, Dis, E, In, O, P, S, Un, com¬
mencing references, the second or subsequent letters of
the words being in a right line from left to right, and
clown each column is found the remainder of the refe¬
rence to the words, distinguishing always the third let-
o ] L °. H
ter in red. The second distinction is that for all other
Commencing letters, the second letter ol reference is in
a column down, and the third letter in lines from left
to right in red.
These are the directions given by our author for
forming a fount of words *, the next requisite is a fount
of syllables, formed in the following method: 1. A
complete set of two letters was obtained in all tlieir
possible combinations, amounting to 676. 2. Having-
next obtained the possible combination of these letters,
viz. 17576, by retaining only all possible syllables, and
words of three letters, it is reduced to the 30th part,
which answer all the purposes of composing with sylla¬
bles of two and three letters, for Latin, French, Eng¬
lish, and all names of persons, places, and things, every
possible syllable being comprehended among them.
Hence it forms an universal triformed alphabet, where
English characters are used *, from whence all partial
biformed and triformed alphabets in the arrangement of
English, French, Latin, and all technical matters, are
drawn. Though combinations of four letters are again
26 times the number of those of three letters, and five
letters increase in the same ratio 5 yet as much as all
possible combinations increase in quantity proportionate
to the number of letters combined, so they decrease in
the actual number of syllables included among them,
insomuch, that all the syllables of four, five, six, and
seven letters together, are considerably fewer than the
syllables of three letters only.—Besides the two founts
already mentioned, a third was found necessary for such
terminations as are most commonly followed by parti¬
cular punctuations j but after some consideration, this
was judged unnecessary.
Our author now proceeds to obviate some objections
which must naturally occur to one who first hears of his
invention. These are,
1. A single letter damaged in a word renders the
whole useless.
This is not denied by Mr Johnson j but he contends,
that the quantity of metal lost in this manner is quite
trifling.
2. How are the blanks or spaces in a line to be ma¬
naged, as these are by no means equal ?
To this our author replies, that, at the time of writ¬
ing the pamphlet, he was undetermined whether it lie
most eligible to have spaces cast along with the begin¬
nings of words, or to space them in the common man¬
ner. The former would be more expeditious j and
where a greater distance is required, other spaces may
be introduced in the ordinary method.
3. How is a long word at the end of a line to be di¬
vided ?
This maybe easily accomplished by means of the syl¬
labic fount already mentioned.
4. How is the error of substituting one word for
another to be rectified.
The answer to this is, that an error of the kind spe¬
cified may be corrected in the very same manner as is
done in common printing. Long words may be divided
by means of the syllabic fount already mentioned, and
the intervals between the words may be filled up with
spaces as usual.
LOGWOOD. See ILematoxylon, Botany and
Dyeing Index.
LOIIOCH, or Loch, in Pharmacy, a composition
of
Logogi.'a-
phy*
II
Lohocli;
L O L [ t<
of a middle consistence between a soft electuary and
syrup, principally used in disorders ot the lungs.
LOINS, in Anatomy, the two lateral parts of the
umbilical region of the abdomen.
LOIRE, the largest river in France, rises in the
mountains of the Ccvenncs, and, after running a course
of about 500 miles, falls into the bay of Biscay>
LOKE, in Mythology, the name ot one of the dei¬
ties of the northern nations, answering to the Anma-
nius among the Persians, whom they represent as at en¬
mity both with gods and men, and the author of all the
evils which desolate the universe. Loke is described iti
the Edda as producing the great serpent which encircles
the w'orld which seems to have been intended as an
emblem of corruption or sin : he also gives birth to
Hela or death, the queen of the infernal regions ; and
also to the wolf Fenris, that monster who is to encoun¬
ter the gods and destroy the tvorld.
LOKMAN the Wise, an eminent philosopher £t- ,
mong the Easterns. The Arabians say he was the son
of Baura, the sort or grandson of a sister or aunt of Job.
He was an Ethiopian, and a slave for some time. It is
related that he ivas born in the time of David, and lived
till the age of the prophet Jonas. Some suppose him
to have been the same with iEsop the mythologist: and
indeed we find in the parables or apologues of Eok-
mau in Arabic, many particulars that aie seen in -/E-
sop’s fables ; so that it is not easy to determine whether
the Greek or the Arabian are the originals. He is said
to have been deformed in his person j but that this de¬
fect was sufficiently made up by the perfections of his
mind. Some pieces of his are extantand he was look¬
ed upon as so excellent a person, that Alahomet has in¬
serted a chapter c)f the Horan, calleil after his name, in
which he introduces God as saying, “ We heretofore
bestowed wisnom on Lokman.1,——It is related that he
got his liberty on the following occasion. His master,
having given him a bitter melon to eat, he ate it all.
His master, surprised at his exact obedience, asked,
How it was possible for him to eat such a nauseous
fruit ? He answered, “ I have received so many favours
from you, that it is no wonder I should once in my life
eat a bitter melon from your hand.” rI his generous
answer of the slave struck the master to such a degree,
that he immediately gave him his liberty. M. Galland
translated all the fables of Lokman, and Bidpai or Pil-
pay, a bramin philosopher, which were published at
Paris in I724-
LOLIUM, Darnel Grass ; a genus of plants be¬
longing to the triandria class •, and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 4th order, Gramina. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LOLLARDS, in ecclesiastical history, a religious
sect, differing in many religious points from the church
of Rome, which arose in Germany about the begin¬
ning of the 14th century 5 so called, as many writers
have imagined, from Walter Lollard, who began to
dogmatize in 1315, and was burnt at Cologn : though
others think that Lollard was no surname, but mere¬
ly a term of reproach applied to all heretics who con¬
cealed the poison of error under the appearance ot
piety.
The monk of Canterbury derives the origin of the
word Lollard among us, from lohum, u tare ", as it
'the Lollards were the tares sown in Christ’s vineyard.
5 ] ' L O L
Abelly says, that the word Lollard signifies “ praising Lollards
God,” from the German loben, “ to praise,” and herr,1 
“ Lord because the Lollards employed themselves
in travelling about from place to place, singing psalms
and hymns.
Others, much to the same purpose, derive lollhard,
lullhard, or hllert, lullert, as it was written by the an¬
cient Germans, from the old German word hdlen, lol-
len, or Mien, artd the termination hard, with which
many of the High Dutch words end. Lollen signifies
“ to sing with a low voice,” and therefore Lollard
is a singer, or one who frequently sihgs 5 and in the
vulgar tongue of the Germans it denotes a person who
is continually praising God with a song, or singing
hymns to his honour. The Alexians or Cellites were
called Lollards, because they Were public singers who
made it their business to inter the bodies of those who
died of the plague, and sang a dirge over them in a
mournful and indistinct tone as they carried them to the
grave. The name was afterwards assumed by persons
that dishonoured it ; for we find, among those Lollards
who made extraordinary pretences to piety and religion,
and spent the greatest part of their time in meditation,
prayer, and such acts of piety, there were many abo¬
minable hypocrites, who entertained the most ridiculous
opinions, and concealed the most enormous vices under
the specious mark of this extraordinary profession. And
many injurious aspersions rvere propagated against those
who assumed this name by the priests and monks ; so
that, by degrees, any person who covered heresies 01
crimes under the appearance of piety, was called a Lol¬
lard. Thus the name was used not to denote any one
particular sect, but was formerly common to all persons
and all sects who were supposed to be guilty of impiety
towards God or the church, under an external profes¬
sion of extraordinary piety. However, many societies
consisting both of men and women under the name of
Lollards, wTere formed in most parts of Germany and
Flanders, and Were supported partly by their manual la¬
bours, and partly by the charitable donations of pious
persons. The magistrates and inhabitants of the towns
where these brethren and sisters resided, gave them
particular marks of favour ahd protection, on account
of their great usefulness to the sick and needy. They
were thus supported against their malignant rivals, and
obtained many papal constitutions by which their in¬
stitute was confirmed, their persons exempted from
the cognizance of the inquisitors, and subjected en¬
tirely to the jurisdiction of the bishops •, but as these
measures were insufficient to secure them from mo¬
lestation, Charles duke of Burgundy, in the year
I472, obtained a solemn bull from Pope Sixtus IV.
ordering that the Cellites or Lollards should be rank¬
ed among the religious orders, and delivered from the
jurisdiction of the bishops 5 and Pope Julius II. grant¬
ed them yet greater privileges in the year 1506. Mo-
sheim informs us that many societies ot this kind are
still subsisting at Cologn, and in the cities of I landers,
though they have evidently departed from their ancient
rules.
Lollard and his followers rejected the sacrifice of
the mass, extreme unction, and penances for sin ; ar¬
guing, that Christ’s sufferings were sufficient. He is
likewise said to have set aside baptism, as a thing of
no effect} and repentance, as not absolutely necessary,
&c.
L O M [ i
Lollards &c-—^ll England, the followers of Wicklifie were
|| called, by way of reproach, Lollards, from some affinity
Lombards, there was between some of their tenets; though others
—v   are of opinion that the English Lollards came from
Germany.
They were solemnly condemned by the archbishop of
Canterbury and the council of Oxford.
LOMBARD, Peter, well known by the title of
Master of the Sentences, Avas born at Novara in Lom¬
bardy \ but being bred at Paris, he distinguished him¬
self so much at that university, that, he first had the
canonry of Chartres conferred on him, Avas some time
tutor to Philip son of Louis le Gros, and lastly obtained
the see of Paris. He died in 1064. His Avork of the
Sentences is looked on as the source of the scholastic
theology of the Latin church. He Avrote also Com¬
mentaries on the Psalms, and on St Paul’s Epistles.
LOMBARDS, a Scandinavian nation, who settled
in Italy in the fourth century, and for some time made
! a considerable figure.
tymology Their name of Lombards, or Longobards, is by some
^ derived from the Avord lack, or lache, signifying in the
German tongue winter ; because the Lombards, Avhile
in Scandinavia, lived in marshes, or near the sea. Others
think that it comes from the tAVo German Avords langen
harden, or helleborden, that is, from the long halberts
they were supposed to use in Avar. But Paul us Dia-
conus their historian, and Avho Avas himself a Lombard,
tells us that they Avere called Longobards from the
length of their beards, A nation called the Lombards
is mentioned by Tacitus, Strabo, and Ptolemy 5 but
these are different from the Lombards who afterAvards
settled in Italy, and are reckoned to be the same Avith
the Gepidoe, Avhom the Italian Lombards almost ex¬
terminated. The Lombards who settled in Italy are
j first mentioned by Prosper Aquitanus, bishop of Rhe-
andals glum in the year 379. That writer tells us, that
| Seated by about this time the Lombards, abandoning the most
mb"' ^sta,A coasts of the ocean, and their native country
Scandinavia, and seeking for neAV settlements, as they
Avere OAxrstocked with people at home, first attacked
and overcame the Vandals in Germany. They Avere
then headed by two chiefs, Iboreus and Aion ; AA'ho,
dying about the year 389, were succeeded by Agil-
mund, who is commonly reckoned the first king of the
3 Lombards.
Before the time of Odoacer, the Lombard history
juntry of a^or(^s nothing remarkable 5 in his time, however,
ie Itu- they settled on the Danube, in the country of the
ans. Rugians, whom Odoacer had almost totally extermi¬
nated or carried into captivity. During their stay in
this country, they rendered themselves formidable to
the neighbouring nations, and carried on successful
wars with the Heruli and Gepidse. In 526, they
were alloAved by the emperor Justinian to settle in
4 Pannonia ; and here they made Avar a second time
epid^^ w*th the Gepidae. Alboinus, the Lombard king, kill-
* ed the king of the Gepidae with his oavia hand, put his
army to the rout, and cut such numbers of them in
pieces, that they ceased from that time to lie a nation.
Having caused the deceased king’s head to be cut oft’,
he made a cup of his skull, called in the language of
the Lombards schala, which he made use of in all public
entertainments. HoAveArer, having taken, among many
other captives of great distinction, the last king’s
3
67 ] L O M
daughter, by name Rosaniujida, he married her after Lombards.
the death of his former Avife Clodisvinta, the daughter ' r—J
of Clotaire king of France.
By this victory Alboinus gained such reputation
that his friendship was courted by Justinian j and, in
consequence of the emperor’s application, a body ot
6ooo Lombards Avere sent to the assistance of Narses
against the Goths. The success of the Romans in
this expedition, the invasion of Italy by the Lombards,
and their successes in that country, have been taken 5
notice of under the article Italy, N° 28—32. At Alboinub^
last Alboinus, having made himself master of Venetia,
Liguria, iEmilia, Hetruria, and Umbria, Avas slain by assassina_
the treachery of his Avife, in the year 575, the fourth ted at the
of his reign. This princess Avas the daughter of the instigation
king of the Gepidae, Avhom Alboinus had killed inof w‘tc*
battle, and make a cup of his skull, as abo\re related.
As he Avas one day feasting at Verona, Avith his chief
favourites and principal officers, in the height of his
mirth he sent for the queen, and, filling the detested
cup, commanded her to drink merrily Avith her father.
Rosamund, struck Avith horror, hurried out of the
room ; and highly incensed against her husband for
thus barbarously triumphing over the misfortunes of
her family, resolved, at all events, to make him pay
dear for such an inhuman and affronting conduct.
Accordingly, she discovered her intention to Helmi-
child the king’s shield-hearer, a youth ol great bold¬
ness and intrepidity. Helmichild peremptorily refused
to imbrue his hands in the blood ol his sovereign, or-
to be any Avay accessory to his death j and in this re¬
solution he persisted, till he was, by a shameful strata¬
gem, forced by the queen to a compliance : for she,
knoAving that he carried on an intrigue with one of
her ladies, placed herself one night in her bed, and
receiving the youth, indulged him as if she had been
his own mistress in his amorous desires 5 Avhich she had
no sooner done, than discovering herself to the deceiv¬
ed lover, she told him that he must hoav either put the
king to death, or be put to death by him. Helmi¬
child, well apprised, that, after what he had done, his
safety depended upon the death of the king, engaged
in the treason, Avhich he othenvise abhorred. One day,
therefore, Avhile Alboinus was reposing in his chamber
after dinner, Helmichild, with some others whom he
had made privy to his design, breaking in unexpected¬
ly, fell upon the king with their daggers. Alboinus
starting up at their first coming in, laid hold of his
sword, Avhich he had always by him 5 but having in
vain attempted to draAV it, the queen having before¬
hand fastened it in the scabbard, he defended himself
for some time with a footstool 5 hut Avas in the end
overpowered, and despatched Avith many wounds.
Rosamund had promised to Helmichild, that, as
soon as he had despatched the king, she would marry
him, and, with her person, bestow upon him the king¬
dom of the Lombards. The first part of her promise
she immediately performed ; but was so far from being
able to bestoAV the crown upon him, that both of them
were obliged to save themselves by flight. I hey fled
to Longinus the exarch of Ravenna, taking A\rith them-
all the jewels and treasure of the late king. Longinus
received her Avith the greatest marks of friendship and
kindness, and assured her of his protection. She had-
not been long in Ravenna, hoAvever, before the exarch,,
judging
L O
Lombards, judging that a favourable
M [ 168 ] L
opportunity now ofl'ered of laws among these pcojde.
abolished.
making himself king of Italy by her means, imparted
his design to her, and declared his intention to marry
her, provided, by some means or other, she despatched
Helmichild.—Hosamipd, highly pleased with the pro¬
posal, resolved to satisfy her ambition by getting rid
of the person whom she had married in order to gi a-
tify her revenge. Accordingly, having prepared a
strong poison, she mixed it with wine, and gave it to
her husband as he came out of the bath, and called lor
drink, according to his custom. Helmichild had not
half emptied the cup, when, by the sudden and strange
6 operation which he lelt in his bov/els, he concluded
1-Icr death, what it was •, and, with his sword pointed at the queen a
breast, compelled her to drink the rest. I he poison
had the same effect on both j for they died in a few
hours. Longinus, on the death of the queen, laid
aside all thoughts of making himself king of Italy,
and sent the king’s treasure to Constantinople, together
with Albisoinda, the daughter of Alboinus by llosa-
■mund, whom she had brought along with her.
After the death of Alboinus, the Lombards chose
Clephis, one of the nobility, for their king. He was
murdered after a short reign of 18 months •, upon which
7 ensued an interregnum of 10 years, as related under
Monarchy the article Italy, N° 32. £>uring this time, they
extended their conquests in that country hut at last
the Romans, jealous of their progress, resolved to put
a stop to their victories, and, if possible, to drive them
quite out. For this purpose, they designed not only
to employ their own force, but entered into alliance
with the Franks j which so alarmed the Lombards
that they re-established the monarchical form of go¬
vernment among themselves, and chose Autharis the
son of Clephis for their king. This monarch, consi¬
dering that the power of the dukes, who had governed
Lombardy for the space of 10 years, was during that
length of time very much established, and that they
would not probably be willing to part with the au¬
thority which they had so long enjoyed, allowed them
to continue in their governments * but obliged them to
■contribute one moiety of their revenues towards the
maintenance and support of his royal dignity, suffer¬
ing them to dispose of the other as they thought pro¬
per. He reserved to himself the supreme dominion
and authority} and took an oath of the dukes, that
in time of War, they would readily assist him to the
utmost of their power. Though he could remove the
dukes at pleasure, yet he deprived none of them of
their dukedoms, except in cases of treason •, nor gave
them to others, except when their male issue failed.
Having settled matters in this manner with the dukes,
he enacted several wholesome laws against theft, ra¬
pine, murder, adultery, and other vices which prevailed
among his subjects, and was the first of the Lombard
kings who embraced Christianity. Most of his subjects
followed the example of their monarch; hut as they
were all instructed by Arian bishops, they continued
long infected with that heresy *, which occasioned great
disputes between them and the orthodox bishops of the
cities subject to them.
writton From the re-establishmertt of the monarchy tinder
laws when Autharis, to the reign of Rotharis in 636, the history
'first intro- 0f the Lombards affords nothing memorable. I his
duced. period is remarkable for the introduction of written
8
Restored.
O M
  r- -i Before his time they had Lombards. |J
been governed only by tradition ; hut Rotharis, in imi- v -*
tation of the Romans' and Goths, undertook the pub¬
lishing of written laws j and to those which he enacted,
many were added by the succeeding princes. Grotius
prefers the method which the Lombards followed m
making laws, to that which was practised by the Ro¬
mans themselves. Among the latter the emperor was
the sole lawgiver ; so that whatever pleased him had
the force of a law. But the Lombard kings did not
assume that power to themselves, since their laws were
enacted in public assemblies, convened for that purpose,
after they had been maturely examined and approved
of by all the lords of the kingdom. From these assem¬
blies were excluded the ecclesiastic order, and the peo¬
ple : so that the legislative power was lodged in the
king and nobles alone.
The reign of Rotharis is remarkable, not only tor
his introducing written laws among his subjects, but
for the conquests he made, and the successful wars'
carried on with the exarch of Ravenna, whom he
totally defeated in several engagements, and made
himself master of some part of his territories. Ibis
monarch died in 652 ; and the affairs of the Lombards
wrent on prosperously, till the ambition of Luitprand
laid the foundation of the total ruin of his kingdom. I0
He ascended the throne of Lombardy in 711, and Luit.
watched all opportunities of enlarging bis dominions atprand’s
the expence of the emperor’s. Of this, a fair oppor- ambition
tunity offered in 716: for the emperor Leo Isauncus,
who at that time reigned in the east, having, by his
famous edict, forbidden the worship of images, and
ordered them to be everywhere pulled down, the
people were so provoked at that innovation, that, m
several places, they openly revolted, and, lalbng up¬
on the emperor’s officers, drove them out of the cities.
In the east, Germanus, patriarch of Constantinople,
opposed the emperor’s design with great warmth 5 but
Leo caused him to be deposed, and Anastasius to be
raised to that see in his room, ordering at the same,
time all the images in the imperial city to be pulled
down and publicly burnt. He strictly enjoined his
officers in the west, especially the exarch of Ravenna,
to see his edict punctually obeyed in their respective
governments. In compliance with these orders, Scho-
lasticus, then exarch, began to pull down the images
in all the churches and public places in Ravenna ^
9
Written
which incensed the superstitious multitude to such a
degree, that taking arms, they openly declared they
would rather renounce their allegiance to the emperor
than the worship of images.
Thus a kind of civil war being kindled in the city,
Luitprand thought he had now a favourable opportu¬
nity of making himself master of the seat of the exarch,
not doubting hut the conquest of such an important
place would he followed by that of the whole ex- jj
archate. Having therefore drawn together all his jjci;esieg
forces, he unexpectedly appeared before Ravenna, and and at la:
closely besieged it. The exarch little expected such ataxia
surprise, as a friendly correspondence had been main-ve'
tained for many years between the exarchs and the
Lombard kings. However, he defended the place
with such courage and resolution, that Luitprancfi
despairing of success, broke up the siege and led his
army against Classis, at a small distance from Ravenna,
which
L o M r 169 ] L O M
milliards, which lie took, plundered, and levelled with the
—V”—' ground. The loss of this place, and the severe treat¬
ment the inhabitants met with from the king, threw
the citizens of Ravenna into the utmost consternation }
which Luitprand being informed of, he resolved to
take advantage of their fears, and, returning before
Ravenna while the inhabitants were thus dishearten¬
ed, to attempt once more the reduction of that place.
Accordingly he led his whole army against it, and,
by frequent attacks, tired the inhabitants and garri¬
son to such a degree, that the exarch, finding they
could hold out no longer, and despairing of relief,
privately withdrew. Luitprand, informed of his re¬
treat, attacked the town with more violence than ever;
and, having carried it by storm, gave it to be plunder¬
ed by his soldiers, who found in it an immense booty,
as it had been for a long time the seat of the Roman
emperors, of the Gothic kings, and the exarchs. The
king stripped it of most of its valuable monuments of
antiquity, and caused, amongst the rest, an equestrian
statue of an emperor, of wonderful workmanship, to be
conveyed to Pavia, where it is to be seen to this day.
The reduction of Ravenna wras followed by the surrend-
12 er of several cities of the exarchate, which Luitprand
jduces reduced to a dukedom; appointing Hildebrand his
e exarch-grandson to govern it with the title of duke : and giving
js to a him, as he was vet an infant, Peredeus duke of Vicenza
kedom. , • , •
lor his guardian.
The conquest of Ravenna and the greater part of
the exarchate did not a little alarm Gregory II. bi¬
shop of Rome. He was then at variance with the
emperor, whose edict against the worshipping of im¬
ages he had opposed with all his might, and by that
means provoked Leo to such a degree, that he had
threatened to drive him from the see, and send him in¬
to exile. However, the pope, no less jealous of the
power of the Lombards than all his predecessors had
been, resolved, by some means or other, to put a stop
to their conquests. The only prince in Italy to whom
he could have recourse was Ursus duke of Venice, the
13 Venetians making already no inconsiderable figure.
1 e exarch To him accordingly, he wrote a very pressing letter;
; hted by conjuring him to assist his worthy son the exarch, and,
■ Yene- for the love of the holy faith, to attempt with him
the recovery of the exarchate, which the wicked na¬
tion of the Lombards had unjustly taken from his sons
Leo and Constantine emperors. Ursus and the Ve¬
netians, moved with the pope’s letter, and at the same
time greatly alarmed at the growth of so powerful a
neighbour, promised to assist the exarch with the whole
strength of their republic; and accordingly fitted out
a considerable fleet, pretending it was designed for the
service of the emperor against the Saracens. At the
same time the exarch, who had taken refuge in Ve¬
nice ; abandoning that place, as R were in despair of
bringing the duke over to his party, raised, in the
places still subject to the emperor, what forces he was
able ; and having got together a considerable body,
he marched with them towards Imola, giving out that
he designed to besiege that city; hut turning on a
sudden towards Ravenna, as had been agreed on be¬
tween him and the Venetians, he laid siege to it by
land, while they invested it almost at the same instant
by sea. I eredeus defended the town for some time
Wth great courage and resolution: obliging all those
Vol. XII. Part L fob
who were able to bear arms to repair to the walls. But Lombards.
the Venetians having, in spite of all opposition, forced ' v ’
open one of the gates on the side of the sea, the city x4
was taken, and Peredeus slain, while he was attempt- p^venna *
ing, at the head of a choice body, to drive the enemy
from the posts they had seized. As for Hildebrand,
he fell into the hands of the Venetians; who, having
thus recovered Ravenna to the emperor, returned home,
leaving the exarch in possession of the city. Luitprand
was then at Pavia ; but the town was taken before he
could assemble his troops to relieve it.
And now Gregory bishop of Rome, to whom the
recovery of Ravenna was chiefly owing, persuading
himself, that the emperor would, out of gratitude,
give ear to his remonstrances and admonitions, began
to solicit him with more pressing letters than ever to
revoke his edict against the worship of images : but
Leo, well apprised that the bishop, in all the mea¬
sures he had taken, had been more influenced by a re¬
gard to his own interest than to that of the empire,
instead of hearkening to his remonstrances, wras still
more provoked against him for thus obstinately oppos¬
ing the execution of his edict. Being, therefore, re¬
solved at all events to have it observed in Rome itself,
and, on the other hand, not doubting but the pope
would oppose it to the last with all his might; in order
to remove all obstacles, he sent three officers to Rome,
with private orders, either to despatch the pope, or to
take him prisoner, and convey him to Constantinople.
At the same time, he wrote to Mauritius duke of
Rome, secretly enjoining him to assist his three officers
in their undertaking: but no favourable opportunity
ofiering to put their design in execution, the emperor,
in the year 725 recalled Scholastic us, and sent Paul
a patrician into Italy, to govern in his room, with pri¬
vate instructions to encourage the above-mentioned of¬
ficers with the promise of great rewards, and to assure
them of his protection.
But, in the mean time, the plot was discovered, and
two ol the conspirators were apprehended by the citizens
of Rome, and put to death : the third having escaped
into a monastery, where he took the monastic habit
and ended his days. Hereupon the exarch, in com¬
pliance with the emperor’s orders, resolved to proceed
no longer by secret plots, but by open force. Accord-
ingly, he drew together a considerable body of troops,
and set out at the head of them on his march to Rome,
with a design to seize on the pope, and send him, as he
had engaged to do, in chains to Constantinople.  l uu rana
on this occasion, Luitprand, though highly provoked assists the
against Gregory for having stirred up the Venetians pope a-
against him, yet resolved to assist him and the citizens kainst the
of Rome against the exarch, in order to keep the ba-
lance even between them, and by assisting sometimes
the one and sometimes the other, weaken both Pur¬
suant to this resolution, he ordered the Lombards of
Tuscany, and those of the dukedom of Spoletto, to join
the pope and the inhabitants of Rome; who, being
by this reinforcement far superior in strength and num¬
ber to the exarch, obliged him to return to Ravenna,
and give over all thoughts of any further attempt on
the person of the pope.
In the mean time, Leo, persisting in his former re¬
solution of suppressing throughout his dominions the
worship of images, sent fresh orders to the exarch
Y Paid,
Luitprand
L O M
[ i?0 1
L O M
t , Paul, strictly enjoining him to cause his edict to he put
in executio/in ill the cities of Italy under his empire,
especially in Rome. At the same time, he wrote to the
pope, promising him his favour and protection if he
complied with the edict j and declaring him, if he con¬
tinued to oppose it, a rebel, and no longer vested with
the papal dignity. But Gregory was so far from
yielding to the emperor’s threats, or promises that on
the contrary, he solemnly excommunicated the exarch
for attempting to put the imperial edict in execution ,
and at the same time wrote circular letters to the ' e-
netians, to King Luitprand, to the Lombard dukes
and to all the chief cities of the empire, exhortmg
them to continue stedfast in the Catholic faith, and to
oppose with all their might such a detestable innova¬
tion. These letters made such an impression on the
minds of the people in Italy, that though ot dnlerent
interests, and often at war with one another, they all
united *, protesting they would defend the Catholic
faith, and the life of the pope, in so glorious a cause,
at the expence of their own*, nay, the citizens ot
Rome, and the inhabitants of Pentapolis, now Marca
d’Ancona, not contenting themselves with such a pro¬
testation, openly revolted from the emperor; and,
pulling down his statues, they elected, by their own
authority, magistrates to govern them during the m-
terregnum. We are even told, that, transported with
a blind zeal, they were for choosing a new emperor
and conducting him to Constantinople not doubting
but the people would everywhere join them. But the
pope, thinking this resolution unseasonable, and not to
be easily put in execution, opposed it j so that it did
^In thePmean time the exarch Raul, having gained
a considerable party in Ravenna, began, pursuant to the
the repeated orders from the emperor, to remove the
T< images, as so many idols, out of the churches. Here-
A civil war upon the adverse party, supported and encouraged by
in Raven- the pope, flew to arms *, and, falling upon the itono-
dast or image-breakers, as they styled them, gave rise
civil waAithin ,he walls of Eavenna. Great nom-
bers were killed on both sides : but those, who were lor
the worship of images prevailed in the end, a dread¬
ful slaughter was made of the opposite party, and,
among the rest, the exarch himself was ™ir<kred.
However, the city of Ravenna continued faithful to
the emperor ; but most of the citizens of Romagna be¬
longing to the exarchate, and all those ot Rentapohs
or La Marca d’ Ancona, abhorring the emperor as an
heretic, submitted to Luitprand king ot the Lombards,
who, pretending a zeal for the Catholic religion took
care to improve the discontent of the people to his
advantage, by representing to them, that they could
never maintain their religious rights under a prince,
who was not only an heretic, but a persecutor ot the
In Naples, Exhilaratus, duke of that city, having
received peremptory orders from the emperor to cause
his edict to be put in execution, did all that lay in his
power to persuade the people to receive it *, but find¬
ing all his endeavours thwarted by the bishop of Rome,
for whom the Neapolitans had a great veneration he
hired assassins to murder him. But the plot being dis¬
covered, though carried on with great secrecy, the
Neapolitans, highly provoked against the duke, toie
na.
^ j
both him and his son to pieces, and likewise put to .Lombards,
death one of his chief officers, who had composed a' ^
libel against the pope. Luitprand, and Gregory at
that time duke of Benevento, laying ho d ol so la-
vourable an opportunity to make themselves masters
of the dukedom of Naples, did all that lay m heir
power to persuade the Neapolitans to submit to them.
But the Neapolitans, bearing an irreconcilable ha¬
tred to the Lombards, with whom they had been con¬
stantly at variance, rejected every overture ot that na¬
ture with the utmost indignation*, and continuing
stedfast in their allegiance to Leo, received trom Con¬
stantinople one Peter, who was sent to govern them m
the room of Exhilaratus. Some writers suppose the
Neapolitans, in this general revolt ol the cities ot Italy,
to have shaken off the yoke with the rest, and to have
appointed magistrates of their own election to govern
them, in the room of the officers hitherto sent Irom
Constantinople, or named by the exarch: but they
are certainly mistaken *, it being manifest from history,
that Peter succeeded Exhilaratus in that dukedom,
and that the Neapolitans continued to live under the
emperors, till they were conquered many years alter
by the Normans. . „ . if
J In the mean time, Leo hearing of the murder of the
exarch, and the general revolt of the cities and not
doubting but the pope was the chief author of so much
mischief, sent the ennuch Eutyclnus into Italy, with
the title and authority of exarch, strictly enjoining
him to get the pope despatched by some means or
other, since his death was absolutely necessary for the
tranquillity of Italy. The exarch spared no pains to
get the pope into his power : but a messenger, whom
he had sent to Rome, being apprehended by the citi¬
zens, and an order from the emperor being lound up¬
on him to all his officers in that city, commanding
them to put the pope to death at all events, the pope s
friends thenceforth guarded him with such care, that
the exarch’s emissaries could never afterwards find an
opportunity of executing their design. As for the mes¬
senger, the Romans were for putting him to death,
but” the pope interposed, contenting himseix with ex-
commuincatnigffie^exain^, more than ever The Ro-
against Leo, and, on the other hand, ^milling to-ns -
live under the Lombards, resolved to revolt from the
emperor, and appoint their own magistrates, keeping
themselves united under the pope, not yet as their
prince, but only as their head. This they did ac¬
cordingly j and from these slender beginnings the so¬
vereignty of the popes in Italy took its rise, thoug i
they did not then, as is commonly supposed by histo¬
rians, but many years after, become sovereign lords
of Rome. . rf
Eutychius failed in his design upon the hie ot the
pope j but having brought with him from ^01jsta"t‘"‘
ople a good number of troops, he easily quelled the
hellion in Ravenna, and severely punished the authors
of the late disturbances. As for the rebellious Ro¬
mans, he was well apprized he could never reduce them,
so long as they were supported by the king of the Lorn
bards *, and therefore he employed all his art and p -
licy to take off that prince from the party ol the Ho¬
mans, and bring him over to Ins own.
Luitprand, lor some time, withstood all Ins offers ,
th the
xareh
19
The pope
ubraits to
L 0 M [17
omhards. Thrasimund duke of Spoletto revolting at this very
  v juncture, the exarch, laying hold of that opportuni-
iS tv, ofl'ered to assist the king with all his strength a-
Luitprand ga;nsj j}ie rebellious duke, provided he would, in like
^TllhuHe manner> assist him against the pope and the Romans.
With this proposal Luitprand readily closed and a
league being concluded upon these terms between him
and the exarch, the two armies joined, and began
their march towards Spoletto. At their approach, the
duke, despairing of being able to resist two such
powers, came out •with a small attendance to meet
them, and, throwing himself at the king’s feet, sued,
in that humble posture, for pardon *, which Luitprand
not only granted him, but confirmed him in the duke¬
dom, after he had obliged him to take a new oath of
allegiance, and give hostages for his fidelity in time
to come. From Spoletto, the two armies marched,
in pursuance of the treaty, to Rome *, and encamped
in the meadows of Nero, between the Tiber and the
Vatican.
Gregory had caused the city of Rome to be fortified
in the best manner he could •, but being sensible that
Luitprand. t]ie Romans alone could not long hold out against two
such armies, and reflecting on the kind treatment the
duke of Spoletto had met with upon his submitting to
the king, he resolved to follow his example : and ac¬
cordingly, taking with him some of the clergy, and
the principal inhabitants of the city, he went to wait
on the king in his camp 5 and there, with a pathetic
speech, as he was a great master of eloquence, soften¬
ed Luitprand to such a degree, that, throwing him¬
self at his feet in the presence of the whole army, he
begged pardon for entering into an alliance against
him : and, assuring him of his protection for the fu¬
ture, he went with them to the church of St Peter •,
and there, disarming himself in the presence of his
chief officers, he laid his girdle, his sword, and his
gauntlet, with his royal mantle, his crown of gold, and
cross of silver, on the apostle’s sepulchre. After this,
he reconciled the pope wfith the exai’ch, avIio was
thereupon received into the city, where he continued
for some time, maintaining a friendly correspondence
with the pope. At this time an impostor, taking the
name of 'Tiberius, and pretending to be descended from
the emperors, seduced a great many people in Tus¬
cany, and was by them proclaimed emperor. The
exarch resolved to march against him •, hut as he had
not sufficient forces to oppose the rebels, Gregory, who
let no opportunity slip of obliging Leo, persuaded the
Romans to attend the exarch in this expedition ; by
which means the usurper being taken in a castle, his
head was sent to the emperor, and the rebellion utter¬
ly suppressed. But the emperor still insisting upon his
edict against the images being received in Rome, the
Romans, at the instigation of the pope, publicly re¬
nounced their allegiance to Leo, paid him no more
tribute, and withdrew for ever their obedience to the
emperors of the East.
Leo, informed of this revolt, and not questioning
ior seizes but the pope was the author of it, immediately caused
Ins of Uie^*I)atr*mon^es °f the church of Rome in Sicily,
[jope. Calabria, and his other dominions, to be confiscated.
At the same time, he ordered a powerful army to be
raised, with a design to recover the towns that had re¬
volted j to chastise the Romans for their rebellion $ and,
1 ]
L O M
I'lie empe¬
ror seizes
above all, to be revenged on the pope, who had rais- LcmlnrcU.
ed all these disturbances, by himself opposing, and v——v '
persuading others to oppose, the execution of his e-(
diet. Gregory, alarmed at the warlike preparations
that were carrying on throughout the empire, and
well apprised that they were chiefly designed against
him and the Romans, resolved to recur to the pro¬
tection of the French, the only nation at that time
capable of coping with the emperor, and on whom,
on account of their zeal for religion, he thought he
might depend. The Lombards were then very power¬
ful *, but, as they wanted to be masters of Rome,
he did not think it advisable to trust them. The Ve¬
netians, though zealous in the defence of the pope,
Avere not yet in a condition to Avithstand the poAver of
the emperor } and, besides, Avere jealous of the Lom¬
bards, Avho Avatched all opportunities of enlarging
their dominions at the expence of their neighbours*
As for Spain, it Avas then in a most deplorable condi¬
tion, being overrun, and almost AA'holly ruined, by the
Saracens. 2I
The French nation Avas at this time governed by Who ap-
the celebrated Charles Martel, Avho had distinguished plies to the
himself in a most eminent manner in the Avars ofFiench-
France and Germany ; and had, not long before,
gained a signal victory over the Saracens in the neigh¬
bourhood of Tours 5 Avhence he Avas generally reputed
the best commander, and the greatest hero, of his
time. To him, therefore, Gregory sent a solemn em¬
bassy, with a great number of relics, earnestly en¬
treating him to take the Romans, and the church, un¬
der his protection, and defend them against the at¬
tempts of Leo. The ambassadors Avere received with
extraordinary marks of honour ; and a treaty Avas soon
concluded betAveen them and Charles, who engaged to
march into Italy in person, at the head of a poAver-
ful army, in defence of the Romans and the church,
if they should he attacked either by the emperor or the
Lombards. On the other hand, the Romans were to
acknoAvledge him for their protector, and confer on
him the honour of the consulship as it had been for¬
merly conferred on Clovis by the emperor Anastasias,
after that prince had defeated the Visigoths. The am¬
bassadors returned from France loaded Avith rich pre¬
sents. But Gregory did not long enjoy the fruit of
their negociations j for he died the same year 731,
and Avas succeeded by Gregory III. in whose time some
place the above-mentioned embassy. 2Z
The French nation Avas at this time just recoArered End of the
from its distressed situation under the descendants of Lombard
Clovis •, and by the bravery and conduct of Charles moIlait*‘)'-
Martel, had become the most powerful kingdom in
the Avest. His successor Repin Avas no less Arise and
powerful than his father had been ; and as the ambi¬
tion of the Lombard princes Avould be satisfied with
nothing less than the entire conquest of Italy, the
French monarch, Charlemagne, under colour of assist¬
ing the pope, at last put an end to the empire of
Lombardy, as related under the article France,
N° 21, 22. 23
The Lombards Avere at first a cruel and barbarous Character,
nation •, but dNesting themseh'es by degrees of their^c- l*’e
native fierceness and barbarity, especially after they 011 ai ^
had embraced the Christian religion, they gOA’erned
with such equity and moderation, that most other na-
V 2 tions
Lombards
L O M [ 17
dons envied the happiness oi those who lived under
them. Under the government ot the Lombards (says
Paulus Diaconus) no violence w'as committed, no one
unjustly dispossessed of his property, none oppressed
with taxes; theft, robberies, murder, and adultery,
were seldom heard of: every one went, without the
least apprehension, wherever he pleased. Their laws
were so just and equitable, that they were retained in
Italy, and observed there some ages after their king¬
dom wras at an end.—According to Paulus Diaconus,^
also, their dress was loose, and for the most part of
linen, such as the Anglo-Saxons wore, being inter¬
woven with various colours; that their shoes were
open to the end of their foot, and that they used to
button or lace them. From some ancient paintings,
it appears, that they shaved the back part ol their
heads, but that their hair was long before ; then-
locks being parted, and laid on each side their lore-
heads.
LOMBART, or Lombard, Peter, an engraver ot
considerable eminence, who flourished about tiie year
1660. He was a native of Paris, where he learned
the art of engraving. It appears that he came to Lng-
land before the Revolution, because some of his plates
for English publications are dated prior to that event.
He executed a vast variety of plates, as well historical
as emblematical; which, however, were chiefly lor
books. But his best works are portraits ; and of these
he produced a considerable number, which are esteem¬
ed. They are mostly after ^ andyck.—He also engra¬
ved historical subjects, from Poussin, Raphael, Annibal
Carracci, Guido, and other masters.
LOMENTACEiE, in Botany, (from hmentum, a
colour used by painters), the name ot the 33d order
in Linnaeus’s Fragments oi a Natural Method, consist¬
ing of the following genera, many of which furnish beau¬
tiful tinctures that are used in dyeing, viz. adenanthe-
ra, bauhinia, caesalpina, cassia, ceratonia, cercis, gledit-
sia, guilandina, haematoxylon, hvmemea, mimosa, par-
kinsonia, poinciana, polygama. See Botany.
Loch-LOMOND, a large lake of Dunbarton or
Lennox-shire in Scotland, of which Mr Pennant gives
the following description. a Loch-Lomond, the last,
the most beautiful of the Caledonian lakes. I be first
view of it from Tarbet presents an extensive serpentine
winding amidst lofty hills; on the north, barren,
black, and rocky, which darken with their shade that
contracted part of the water. On the west side, the
mountains are clothed near the bottoms with woods
of oak quite to the water edge ; their summits lofty,
naked, and craggy. On the east side, the mountains
are equally high ; but the tops form a more even ridge
parallel to the lake, except where Benlomond, like Saul
amidst his companions, overtops the rest. The upper
parts were black and barren ; the lower had great marks
of fertility, or at least of industry, for the yellow corn
was finely contrasted with the verdure of the groves in¬
termixed with it.
“ This eastern boundary is part of the Grampian
hills, which extend from hence through the counties of
Perth, Angus, Mearns and Aberdeen. The road runs
sometimes through woods; at others is exposed and
naked; in some, so steep as to require the support ot
a wall; the whole the work of the soldiery: blessed
exchange cf instruments of destruction for those that
1
L O M
give safety to the traveller, and polish to the once Loch-,
inaccessible native 1 Two great headlands covered with I.cmiomt,
trees separate the first scene from one totally different;
the last is called the Point of Firkin. On passing this
cape an expanse of water bursts at once on your eye,
varied with all the softer beauties of nature. Imme¬
diately beneath is a flat covered with wood and corn :
beyond, the headlands stretch far into the water, and
consist of gentle risings ; many have their surfaces co¬
vered with wood, others adorned with trees loosely scat¬
tered either over a fine verdure or the purple bloom
of the heath. Numbers of islands are dispersed over
the lake, of the same elevated form as the little capes,
and wooded in the same manner; others just peep
above the surface, and are tufted with trees ; and num¬
bers are so disposed as to form magnificent vistos be¬
tween.
“ Opposite Luss, at a small distance from shore, is a
mountainous isle almost covered with wood ; it is near
half a mile long, and has a most fine effect. I could
not count the number of islands, but was told there
are 28 ; the largest two miles long, and stocked with
deer.
“ The length of this charming lake is 24 miles ; its
greatest breadth 8 ; its greatest depth, which is be¬
tween the point of Firkin and Benlomond, is 120 fa¬
thoms. Besides the fish common to the lochs are gui-
niads, called here poans.
“ The surface of Loch-Lomond has for several years
past been observed gradually to increase, and invade
the adjacent shore : and there is reason to suppose that
churches, houses, and other buildings, have been lost
in the water. Near Luss is a large heap of stones at
a distance from the shore, known by the name ol the
old church ; and about a mile to the south of that, in
the middle of a large bay, between Camstraddan and
the isle Inch-tavanack, is another heap, said to have
been the ruins of a house. To confirm this, it is
evident by a passage in Camden’s Atlas Britannica^
that an island, existing in his time, is now lost; for
he speaks of the isle of Camstraddan, placed between
the lands of the same name and Inch-tavanack, in
which, adds he, was an house and orchard. Besides
this proof, large trees with their branches still ad¬
hering are frequently found in the mud near the shore,
overwhelmed in former times by the increase of water.
This is supposed to be occasioned by the vast quanti¬
ties of stone and gravel that are continually brought
down by the mountain rivers, and by the falls ol the
banks of the Leven ; the first filling the bed of the lake,
the last impeding its discharge through the bed of the
river.”
LOMONOZOF, a celebrated Russian poet, the
great refiner of his native tongue, was the son of a
dealer in fish at Kolmogori : he was born in ly11* and
was fortunately taught to read; a rare circumstance
at that time for a person ot his station in Russia. His
natural genius for poetry was first kindled by the pe¬
rusal of the Song of Solomon, done into verse by Po-
lotski, whose rude compositions, perhaps scarcely su¬
perior to our version of the psalms by Sternhold and
Hopkins, inspired him with such an irresistible passion
for the muses, that he fled from his father, who was
desirous of compelling him to marry, and took reiuge
in the Kaikonospaski monastery at Moscow ; there he
L O M
u310nozof.I1 ad an opportunity of indulging his taste for letters
——y—' and of studying the Greek and Latin languages. In
this seminary he made so considerable progress in po¬
lite literature, as to he noticed and employed by the
Imperial Academy of Sciences. In 1736 he was sent
at the expence of that society, to the university of
Marpurg in Hesse Cassel, where he became a scholar
of the celebrated Christian Wolf, under whom he studi¬
ed universal grammar, rhetoric, and philosophy. He
continued at Marpurg lour years, during which time
he applied himself with indefatigable diligence to che-
mistry, which he afterwards pursued with still greater
success, under the famous Henckel at Frey berg in
Saxony. In 1741 he i-eturned into Russia; was cho¬
sen in 1742 adjunct to the Imperial Academy ; and in
the ensuing year member of that society and professor
of chemistry. In 1760 he was appointed inspector of
the seminary then annexed to the academy ; in 1764
he was gratified by the late empress with the title of
counsellor of state, and died April 4th that year, in
the 54th year of his age. JLomonozof excelled in va¬
rious kinds of composition ; but his chief merit, by
which he hears the first rank among the Russian writ¬
ers, is derived from his poetical compositions, the
finest of which are his odes. The first was written in
1739, while he studied in Germany, upon the taking
of Kotschin, a fortress in Crim Tartary, by Marshal
Munich. The odes of Lomonozof are greatly ad¬
mired for originality of invention, sublimity of senti¬
ment, and energy of language ; and compensate for the
turgid style which, in some instances, has been im¬
puted to them, by that spirit and fire which are the
principal characteristics in this species of Composition.
Pindar was his great model ; and if we may give cre¬
dit to a person well versed in the Russian tongue, he
has succeeded in this daring attempt to imitate the
Theban bard, without incurring the censure of Ho¬
race. In this, as well as several other species of com¬
position, he enriched his native language with various
kinds ol metre, and seems to have merited the appel¬
lation bestowed upon him of the Father of Russian Poe¬
try. A brief recapitulation of the principal works of
LON
Lomonozof, which were printed in three volumes or. Lomonozof,
tavo, will serve to show the versatility of his genius, London,
and his extensive knowledge in various branches of li-' v 1
terature. The first volume, besides a Preface on the
advantages derived to the Russian tongue from the ec¬
clesiastical writings, contains ten sacred and nineteen
panegyric odes, and several occasional pieces of poetry.
The second comprises An Essay in Prose on the Rules
for Russian Poetry *, Translation of a German Ode ;
Idylls ; Tamira and Selim, a tragedy; Demophoon, a
tragedy ; Poetical Epistle on the Utility of Glass ; two
cantos of an epic poem, entitled, Peter the Great ; A
Congratulatory Copy of Verses ; An Ode ; Translation
of Baptist Rousseau’s Ode Sur ie Ronheur; Heads of
a Course of Lectures on Natural Philosophy ; certain
passages translated in verse and prose, according to the
original, from Cicero, Erasmus, Lucian, iElian, Am-
mianus Marcellinus, Quintus Curtins, Homer, Virgil,
Martial, Ovid, Horace, and Seneca, which Russian
translations were brought as examples in his Lectures
upon Rhetoric ; lastly, Description of the Comet which
appeared in 1744- The third volume consists chiefly
of Speeches and Treatises read before the Academy ;
Panegyric on the Empress Elizabeth; on Peter the
Great ; Treatise on the Advantages of Chemistry ; on
the Phenomena of the Air occasioned by the Electri¬
cal Fire, with a Latin translation of the same ; on the
Origin of Light as a new Theory of Colours ; Me¬
thods to determine with precision the course of a Vessel;
on the origin of Metals by the means of Earthquakes ;
Latin Dissertation on Solidity and Fluidity ; on the
Transit of Venus in 1761, with a German translation.
Besides these various subjects, Lomonc.zof made no in¬
considerable figure in history, having published two
small works relative to that of his own country. The
first, styled Annals of the Russian Sovereigns, is a short
chronology of the Russian monarchs ; and the second
is, the Ancient History of Russia, from the Origin of
that Nation to the Death of the Great Duke Yaro-
slaf I. in 1054 ; a performance of great merit, as it il ¬
lustrates the most difficult and obscure period in the
annals of this country.
[ 173 J
L O N D O N.
T ONDON, a large city of Middlesex in England,
the metropolis of Great Britain, and one of the
most wealthy and populous cities in the world, is situat¬
ed on the river Thames, in 510 31' north latitude, 400
miles south of Edinburgh, and 270 south-east of Dub¬
lin ; 180 miles west of Amsterdam, 210 north-west of
I Paris, 500 south-west of Copenhagen, 600 north-west
ot Vienna, 790 south-west of Stockholm, 800 north-east
of Madrid, 820 north-west of Rome, 850 north-east of
Lisbon, 1360 north-west of Constantinople, and 1414
T south-west of Moscow.
different This city was by the Romans first called Londinium
mes. or Lundinum, as we find it in Tacitus, Ptolemy, An¬
toninus, and Ammianus. That name was afterwards
changed into Augusta. How long this name prevailed,
is not certainly known ; but after the establishment of
the Saxons we find it called Coer Lundain, Lundoun
Lundcn Ceaster, Lunden-wye, Lundennc, Lun-
den-hcrh or Lundenhurg ; since the Conquest the re¬
cords call it Londinia, Lundonia, Londine, Londres;
and, for several ages past, it has been called London, a
manifest corruption from Tacitus’s Londinium. The
most probable derivation of these names appears to he,
either from the British words thong, “ a ship,” and din,
“ a town,” i. e. a town or harbour for ships ; or from
LJin, “ a lake,” i. e. Llin din, “ the town upon the lake,”
the Surry side being supposed, upon very probable
grounds, to have been anciently a great expanse of water. a
Londinium, however, was not the primitive name ofWhen
this famous place, which existed before the invasion 0ff°unded.
the Romans ; being, at the time of Caesar’s arrival in
the island, the capital of the Trinobantes or Trinou-
antes. The name of this nation, as appears from Bax¬
ter’s British Glossary*, was derived from the three*p. 230.
following British words, tri, nou, hunt, which signify
the “ inhabitants of the new city.” This name, it is
supposed.
17+ L O N
History, supposed, might have been given them by their neigh-
' y 1 hours, on account of their having newly come from
the continent into Britain, and having there founded
a city called tri-now, or the “ new city ^ the most an¬
cient name of the renowned metropolis of Britain. 1 he
Trinobantes had come so lately from Belgium, that
Henry's
Hi4. vol. i.
p. 17 x.
they seem scarcely to have been firmly established in
Britain at the time of the first Homan invasion : for
their new city, which soon after became so famous, was
then so inconsiderable, that it is not mentioned by Che-
sar, though he must have been within sight of the place
where it was situated. His silence about this place, in¬
deed, is brought as a proof that he did not cross the
Thames } while Norden by the firmtssima civitas of the
Trinobantes understands the city in question, the Tri¬
nobantes themselves having been among the first of the
British states who submitted to that conqueror.
By Ptolemy, and some other ancient writers of good
authority, indeed, Londinium is placed in Cantiunl,
or Cent, on the south side of the Thames •, and it is
the opinion of some moderns, that the Romans pro¬
bably had a station there, to secure their conquests on
that side of the river, before they reduced the irino-
bantes. The place fixed upon for this station is bt
George’s Field, a large plat of ground situated be¬
tween Lambeth and Southwark, where many Roman
coins, bricks, and checqucred pavements, have been
found. Three Roman ways from Kent, Surry, and
Middlesex, intersected each other in this place j this
therefore is supposed to be the original Londinium,
which it is thought became neglected after the Romans
reduced the Trinobantes, and settled on the other side
of the Thames-} and the name was transferred to the
new city.
The ’Romans possessed themselves of London, on
their second invasion in the reign of Claudius, a.bout
session o. 105 years after their first under Ctcsar. They had be-
Py the Ho- gun with Camelodunum, the present Maldon in Lssex j
mans. an(l having taken it, planted there a colony consisting
of veterans of the 14th legion. London and ^eiulam
were next taken possession of about one and the same
time. Camelodunum was made a colonia or place go •
verned entirely by Roman laws and customs ; Verulam
(on the site of which St Alban’s now stands), a mum-
cipium, in which the natives were honoured with the
privileges of Roman citizens, and enjoyed their ogn
laws and constitutions •, and Londinium only a pveefec-
tura, the inhabitants, a mixture of Romans and Britons,
being suffered to enjoy no more than the name of citi¬
zens of Rome, being governed by prsefects sent annu¬
ally from thence, without having either their own laws
or magistrates. “ It was even then of such concourse
(says Mr Pennant), and such vast trade, that the wise
conquerors did not think fit to trust the inhabitants
with the same privileges as other places of which they
had less reason to be jealous.” But others observe,
that this is a mistake •, and that the Romans, in order
to secure their conquest, and to gain the affections of
those Britons who had already submitted to their autho¬
rity, made London equally a municipium or free city
with Verulamium, as maybe seen by referring to Aulus
Gellius, lib. xvi. c. 13. and to Spanhem. orbis Roman.
4 tom. ii. p. 37, 38. . . .
Ancient It to say what were the particular articles
,of London, of commerce exported from and imported into the port
3
When
taken pos¬
session of
DON.
of London at this period. The imports and exports of History,
the island in general we know : Strabo says, “ Britain ' v—«
produceth corn, cattle, gold, silver, iron; besides which,
skins, slaves, and dogs, naturally excellent hunters, aie
exported from that island.” It is probable that the
two first and three last articles were exported from
London ; and perhaps, too, the gagates or jet-stone
mentioned by Solinus as one of the productions of Bri¬
tain, together with horses, were exported from thence.
The imports were at first salt, earthen ware, and works
in brass, polished bits of bones emulating ivory, horse
collars, toys of amber, glasses, and other articles ol the
same material.
In the reign of Nero, as Tacitus informs ns, London
was become a city highly famous for the great conflux
of merchants, her extensive commerce, and plenty of
all things. No fewer than seven of the fourteen itinera
of Antoninus begin or end at London ; which tends to
corroborate the many proofs which might be adduced,
that this city was the capital of Britain in the Roman
times. . 5
At first London had no walls or other fortifications When fir-
to defend it, and was therefore exposed to the attacks
of every enemy } and thus it suffered severely about the
year 64, being burnt by the Britons under Boadicea,
and all the inhabitants massacred. Rut it was soon re¬
stored by the Romans 5 and increased so much, that in
the reign of the emperor Severus it is called by Hero-
dian a great a?id wealthy city. It continued, however,
in a defenceles state for more than a century after this
last period ; when at last a wall of hewn stone and Bri¬
tish bricks was erected around it.
London at this time extended in length from Lud-
gate-hill to a spot a little beyond the lower. I he
breadth was not half equal to the length, and at each
end grew considerably narrower. Maitland ascribes
the building of the walls to Theodosius governor of
Britain in 369. Dr Woodward, with more probabi¬
lity, supposes them to have been founded under the
auspices of Constantine the Great: and this seems to
be confirmed by the numbers of coins of that empe¬
ror’s mother Helena, which have been discovered un¬
der them, placed there by him 111 compliment to her.
The same emperor made it a bishop’s see k, for it ap¬
pears that the bishops of London and A ork, and ano¬
ther English bishop, were at the council of Arles in the
year 314 : he also settled a mint in it, as is plain from
some of his coins.
The ancient course of the wall JAot ^
course, 5
was as follows : It began with a fort near the presentcienl
site of the Tower, was continued along the Minories,
and the back of Houndsditch, across Bishopsgate-
street, in a straight line by London wall to Cripple-
gate } then returned southward by Crowder’s M ell
alley (where several remnants of lofty towers were
lately to be seen), to Aldersgate, thence along the
back of Bull-and-Mouth-street to Newgate, and again
along the back of the houses in the Old Bailey to
Ludgate ; soon after which, it probably finished with
another fort, where the house, late the king’s print¬
ing house, in Black Friars, now stands : from hence
another wall ran near the river side, along Thames-
street, quite to the fort on the eastern extremity. The
walls were three miles a hundred and sixty-five feet in
circumference, guarded at proper distances on the land
side with fifteen lofty towers } some of them were re¬
maining
7
adon
limits to
: Saxons.
L O N
maining within these few years, and possibly may still.
Maitland mentions one twenty-six feet high, near Gra¬
vel-lane, on the west side of Houndsditch 5 another,
about eighty paces south-east towards Aldgate; and
the bases of another, supporting a modern house, at
the lower end of the street called the Vinegar-yard,
south of Aldgate. The walls, when perfect, are sup¬
posed to have been twenty-two feet high, the towers
forty. These, with the remnants of the wall, proved
the Roman stnicture, by the titles and disposition ol
the masonry. London-wall, near Moorfields, is now
the most entire part left of that ancient precinct. The
gates which received the great military roads, were
four. The Praetorian way, the Saxon Watling-street,
passed under one, on the site of the late Newgate ;
vestiges having been discovered of the road in digging
above Holburn-bridge : it turned down to Dowgate,
or more properly Dwr-gate or Water-gate, where
there is a trajectus or ferry, to join it to the W atling-
street, which was continued to Dover. The Hermin-
street passed under Cripplegate j and a vicinal w'ay
went under Aldgate by Bethnal-green, towards Old-
ford, a pass over the river Lee to Duroleiton, the mo¬
dern Leiton in Essex.
After the Romans deserted Britain, a new and fierce
race succeeded. The Saxons, under their leaders
Hengist and Horsa, landed in 44^’ having been in¬
vited over by the provincials as auxiliaries against the
Scots and Piets ; hut quarrelling with their friends,
they found means to establish themselves in the island,
and in process of time entirely subdued them, as re¬
lated under the article England, N° 31—44. Lon¬
don fell into the hands of these invaders about the
year 457 and became the chief city of the Saxon
kingdom in Essex. It suffered much in the wars car¬
ried on between the Britons and Saxons : but it soon
recovered j so that Bede calls it a princely mart town,
under the government of a chief magistrate, whose
title of portgrave or portreve, (for we find him called
by both names), conveys a grand idea of the mercan¬
tile state of London in those early ages, that required
a governor or guardian of the port. During the ci¬
vil wars of the Saxons with each other, the London¬
ers had always the address to keep themselves neuter \
and about the year 819, when all the seven Saxon
kingdoms fell under the power of Egbert, London
became the metropolis of England, which it has ever
since continued.
During the invasions of the Danes, London suffered
greatly. In 849, these invaders entered the Thames
with 250 ships, plundered and burnt the city, and mas¬
sacred the inhabitants •, and two years after they re¬
turned with a fleet of 350 sail, fully determined to de¬
stroy every thing that had escaped their barbarity in
the former expedition. At this time, however, they
xvere disappointed } most of their troops being cut in
pieces by King Ethelwolf and his son Athelbald j yet
such was the destruction made by those barbarians at
London, that it suffered more from these two incur¬
sions than ever it had done before.
In the reign of King Alfred the Great, London be¬
gan to recover from its former ruinous state. He re¬
built its walls, drove out the Danish inhabitants who
had settled there, restored the city to its former liberties
and beauty, and committed the care of it to his son-
2
DON.
*75
in-law, Ethelred duke of Mercia, in hopes that this History,
might always be a place oi secure retreat within its '~~ * f
strong walls, whatever might happen from a foreign or
domestic enemy. In 893, however, he had the mor'to
tification to see his capital totally reduced to ashes by ,lslieSi
an accidental fire, which could not be extinguished, as
tVi** linneps nt that time were all built of wood. Hie
walls, however, being constructed of incombustible ma¬
terials, continued to aflord the same protection as be¬
fore } the houses were quickly rebuilt, and the city di¬
vided into wards and precincts, for its better order and
government. This king also instituted the office of 11
sheriff, the nature of which office made it necessary to
have it also in London ; so that here we have the glim- tled
merings of the order of magistrates afterwards settled
in the city of London : in the person of the portreve,
or portgrave, or governor of the city, as supreme ma¬
gistrate j in the sheriff, and in the officer or subordi¬
nate magistrate by what name soever then distinguish¬
ed, which, being placed at the head of each ward or
precinct, were analogous to the more modern title of
aldermen and common-council men. 12
Alfred having settled the aflairs of England in the Brick and
most prudent manner, directed his attention to the or" f-rst
namenting, as much as possible, the city of London.
For this purpose, he spirited up the English to an emu¬
lation in building their houses of stronger and more
durable materials than formerly. At that time their
houses were mostly of wood *, and a house built ol
any other materials was looked upon as a kind of won¬
der. But Alfred having begun to raise his palaces of
stone and brick, the opulent Londoners, and the no¬
bility resident in and about London, followed the ex¬
ample, though the custom did not come into general
use till some ages after. 13
In 10x5, a foreign enemy again appeared before Besieged
London. Canute king of Denmark having invaded t>y C*»lute.
and plundered the counties of Dorset, Somerset, and
Wilts, sailed up the Thames with 200 ships, and laid
siege to the city. The citizens continued faithful, not¬
withstanding the defection of the greatest part of the
kingdom •, and made such a brave resistance, that Ca¬
nute thought fit to withdraw his army, leaving only
his fleet to blockade the city by water, that when he
found a fair opportunity he might renew the siege with
better success. At last, however, being defeated in
several battles by Edmund Ironside, he was obliged
to call off his ships to cover his own army in case of
necessity. In the compromise, however, which was
afterwards made between Edmund and Canute, the city
of London was given to the latter, and owned him for
its lawful sovereign. We have a strong proof of the
opulence of London even at this time, from the tax laid
upon it by Canute in order to pay his army; this be¬
ing no less than 10,500!. while the rest of the nation
was at the same time taxed only at 72,000!.
In 1046, we have the first instance of the London Sends re-
ers sending representatives to parliament. This hap-presenta-
pened on settling the succession to the throne after Ca-f^topar-
nute’s death. The English in general declared for Ed¬
ward, son of King Ethelred ; or, if that could not be
carried, for Hardicanute, son of Canute by Queen
Emma, and then absent on a tour to Denmark. Ihe
city of London espoused the claim and interest of Ha¬
rold Harefoot, son also of Canute, by Queen Elviga
15
Suffers
LON
of Northampton. Edward’s party soon declined ; and
the Londoners agreed, for the peace of the realm, that
the two brothers should divide the kingdom between
them y but as Hardicanute did not return in proper
time to England, a wittena-gcmote was held at Ox-
-ford, where Earl Leofric, and most of the thanes on
the north of the Thames, with the pilots of London,
chose Harold for their king. Here, by pilots we are
to understand the directors, magistrates, or leading
men of the city : and this manifestly shows, that Lon¬
don was then of such consequence, that no important
national affair was transacted without the consent of
the inhabitants j for the Saxon annals assure us, that
none were admitted into this assembly of election but
the nobility and the pilots of London.
MU..v,.o On the invasion of the Normans under William I.
greatly by Loudon submitted as well as the rest ol the kingdom ;
fires, hurri- an(j reGeived two charters from that prince, confirm-
canes, &.c ^ the privileges they had under the Saxon kings,
and adding several new ones. But while the citizens
were promising themselves all manner of security and
tranquillity under the new government, it was almost
entirely reduced to ashes by an accidental fire in 1077.
It had scarce recovered from this calamity, when it
was visited by another of the same kind in 1086, which
began at Ludgate, and destroyed the best and most
opulent part of the city, consuming, among other build¬
ings, the cathedral of St Paul’s ; which, however, was
soon rebuilt more magnificently than before. Under
the reign of William Rufus, London suffered consider¬
ably by fires, hurricanes, and inundations, and seems
to have been depressed by the tyranny of that prince ;
but Henry I. granted large immunities to the city,
which again revived its trade, and was favourable to
the progress of the arts. The king, however, still re¬
tained the privilege of appointing the portreve, or
chief magistrate j but the immunities granted to the
Londoners secured their affections, and tended much
to secure him on the throne. At the same time, there
was such a plenty of all kinds of provisions, that as
much corn was sold for is. as would suffice 100 people
for a day *, 4d. would purchase as much hay and corn
as would maintain 20 horses for a day ; and a sheep
could be bought for a groat.
Henry thought proper also to check the licentious
—- behaviour of the Normans, which, by the favour
ness of the s|j0we(j them under the two Williams, had carried
Normans. ;nto tlie most barbarous practices. Those who
followed W illiam Rufus in his excursions, harassed
and plundered the country at discretion. Many of
them were so extravagant in their barbarity, that what
they could not eat or drink in their quarters, they ei¬
ther obliged the people to carry to market and sell
for their use, or else they would throw it into the fire :
and, at their going off, they frequently washed their
horses heels with the drink, and staved the casks con¬
taining the remainder. King Henry resolved to put
a stop to these excesses and savage customs j and there¬
fore published a proclamation at London, commanding
that thenceforward all persons who should be convicted
of such barbarities should have their eyes pulled out,
or their hands or feet cut off, as the ministers of justice
should think fit. This effectually checked the inso¬
lence of tire Normans, and the city continued to flou¬
rish throughout the reigns of Henry I. and Stephen.
D O N.
The attachment of the citizens to Stephen, however,
was a crime which never could be forgiven by Henry H. v—
and, of consequence, he made them sensible of his dis¬
pleasure, by making frequent demands ot money from
them. About this time, indeed, the Londoners were oft]l'
arrived at such a pitch of licentiousness, that their pro-Londoner*
sperity seemed a curse rather than a blessing. I he
sons of the most eminent and wealthy citizens entered
into a confederacy to commit burglaries, and to rob
and murder all that came in their w’ay in the night¬
time. The king took an opportunity from these irre¬
gularities to enrich himself. He demanded several
loans and free gifts-, till at last the Londoners, to
prevent further inquiries into their conduct, paid into
the exchequer 5000I. in three years. These disorders,
however, were at last stopped by the execution ol John
Senex j who, though a very rich and reputable citizen,
had engaged in these enterprises. He offered 5001b.
weight of silver, a prodigious sum in those days, for
his pardon, hut w'as refused. The king, however, still
continued to drain the citizens of their money by free
gifts y and at last fined every separate guild, fraternity,
or company, that had presumed to act as bodies corpo¬
rate without the royal letters-patent.
On the death of Henry II. the title of the first ma¬
gistrate of London was changed from portgreve to that
of bailiff; and in 1189 claimed and acted in the office
of the c/def butler at the coronation of Richard I. In 18
16
Monstrous
licentious-
1191 this monarch permitted the bailiff, named Henry 0f mayor
Fit%-Alwiuey to assume the title of mayor. For, in when first
1192, we’find certain orders of the mayor and alder-instituted
men to prevent fires ; whereby it was ordained, that
“ all houses thereafter to he erected in London and
the liberties thereof, should be built of stone, with
party-walls of the same ; and covered either with slates
or tiles, to prevent those dreadful calamities by fire,
which were frequently and chiefly occasioned by houses
built of wood, and thatched with straw or reeds.”
And for this purpose, it Avas also provided by the dis-
creeter men of the city, “ that 12 aldermen of the
city should be chosen in full hustings, and there-sworn
to assist the mayor in appeasing contentions that might
arise among neighbours in the city upon enclosure be¬
twixt land and land, and to regulate the dimensions of
party-walls, which were to be of stone, 16 feet high
and three feet thick j and to give directions about
girders, windoAvs, gutters, and Avells.” Such confi¬
dence also did Richard put in the wisdom and faith¬
fulness of the city of London, that Avhen it Avas re¬
solved to fix a standard for weights and measures for
the whole realm, his majesty committed the execution
thereof to the sheriffs of London and Middlesex, Avhom
he commanded to provide measures, gallons, iron rods,
and Aveights, for standards, to be sent to the several
counties of England. This happened in 1198, at
which time corn Avas advanced to the enormous price
of 18s. 4d. per quarter. ^ 19
The city of London Avas much favoured by King Favour
John, who granted them three charters soon after his granted te
accession. "The first was a recital and confirmation of^^
those granted by Henry I. and II. with the farther
privilege of being free from toll and every other duty
or custom in his majesty’s foreign dominions } for
which they paid the sum of 3000 merks. rIhe second
was a confirmation of one granted by King Richard.
By
mmmm
LON
I History.
20
.ondon op-
ressed by
Icnry III.
By tins the citizens of London had the jurisdiction
and conservancy of the river Thames } with a clause to
extend that jurisdiction, and the powers therewith
granted, to the river Medway 5 and with another
clause to enable the said city, as conservators of the
rivers Thames and Medway, to inflict a penalty ol 10I.
upon any person that should presume to erect a wear
in either of these rivers. The third charter contains
a fee-farm-rent of the sheriffwicks of London and
Middlesex at the ancient rent, of which they had been
deprived by Queen Maud 5 granting them also the ad¬
ditional power of choosing their own sheriffs. This
charter was given by way of conveyance from the
crown to the citizens for a valuable consideration, by
which the sheriffwick became their freehold ; and this
is the first covenant or conveyance we find on record
with the legal terms of to have and to hold, which are
at this time accounted an essential part in all convey¬
ances of property.
During the reign of Henry III. the city of London
was oppressed in many different ways. In 1218, he
exacted a fine of 40 marks for selling a sort of cloth
not two yards within the lists; and a 15th of the citi¬
zens personal estates lor the enjoyment ol their ancient
rights and privileges. In 1221, he commanded by
proclamation all the foreign merchants to depart the
city, which drew 30 marks from the Hanseatic com¬
pany of the Steelyard, to have seisin of their guild or
hall in Thames-street. But it was the wrestling match
at St Giles’s in the fields that brought on their great¬
est burden. In the year 1221, on St James’s day,
the citizens of London having carried oil' the victory
from the people of Westminster and other neighbour¬
ing villages, the steward of the abbot ol Westminster,
meditating revenge against the Londoners, proposed
another wrestling match with them, and gave a ram for
the prize. The citizens resorted to the place at the
time appointed; but were unexpectedly assaulted by a
great number of armed men, who killed and wounded
many, and dispersed the rest. This raised a great
commotion in the city. The populace breathed re¬
venge ; and, by the instigation ol Constantine Fitz-
Arnulph, a great favourer of the French party during
the troubles in King John’s reign, they proceeded to
Westminster, and pulled down the houses both of the
steward and abbot. Hearing afterwards that the ab¬
bot was come into tbe city with his complaint to
Philip d’Aubney the king’s counsel, th§y pursued him,
beat his servants cruelly, took away 12 of his horses,
and would have murdered himself, had he not escaped
by a back-door. Upon this tumult, Hubert de Bury,
then chief justiciary, summoned the mayor and many of
the principal citizens to attend him in the tower of
London ; and inquiring for the authors of the riot,
Constantine, the ringleader, boldly answered, that “ he
was one ; that they had done no more than they
ought ; and that they were resolved to avow what
they had done, let the consequence be what it would.”
In this he was seconded by his nephew and one Geof¬
frey : but the justiciary, having dismissed all the rest,
detained these three, and ordered them to be hang¬
ed next morning, though Constantine offered 15,000
marks for his pardon. Hubert then coming into the
city with a strong guard, caused the hands and feet of
most of the principal rioters he could seize to be cut
VOL, XII. Part i.
D O N,
off: all which was executed without any legal pro¬
ceedings or form of trial. After these arbitrary cruel- 1
ties, he degraded the mayor and all the magistrates ;
placed a custos over the city, and obliged 30 persons
of his own choosing to become securities for the good
behaviour of the whole city. Several thousand marks
were also exacted by the king, before he would consent
to a reconciliation.
This arbitrary conduct alarmed the whole nation.
The parliament of 1224 began to be uneasy for them¬
selves, and addressed his majesty that he would be plea¬
sed to confirm the charter of liberties which he had
sworn to observe ; and the consequence of this applica¬
tion was a confirmation of the magna charta in the full
parliament at Westminster in the year 1225. At this
time, also, the rights and privileges of the citizens
were confirmed. They were exempted from prosecu¬
tion for burels, i. e. listed cloth ; and were granted the
right of having a common seal. The necessitous cir¬
cumstances of this monarch, however, made him often
exact money arbitrarily as long as he lived.
Under the succeeding reigns, as the liberty of the
people in general was augmented, so the liberty, opu¬
lence, and power of the citizens of London, increased,
until they became a kind of balance to the power of the
crown itself, which in some measure they still continue
to be. Riots indeed, for which they generally suflered,
were by no means unfrequent; the city often suffered
by fires and plagues. Nothing, however, happened
which materially aflected the welfare of the city, till
the reign of Charles II. in 1665.—This year London j>rea(jfui
was ravaged by the most violent plague ever known in plague in
Britain. The whole summer had been remarkably still i665*
and warm, so that the weather was sometimes suffocating
even to people in perfect health ; and by this unusual
heat and sultry atmosphere, people were undoubtedly
prepared for receiving the infection, which appeared
with violence in the months of July, August, and
September. A violent plague had raged in Holland
in the year 1663 ; on which account the importation
of merchandise from that country was prohibited by
the British legislature in 1664. Notwithstanding this
prohibition, however, it seems the plague had actually
been imported; for in the close of the year 1664, two
or three persons died suddenly in Westminster, with
marks of the plague on their bodies. Some of their
neighbours, terrified at the thoughts of their danger,
removed into the city; but their removal proved too
late for themselves, and fatal to those among whom
they came to reside. They soon died of the plague ;
and communicated the infection to so many others,
that it became impossible to extinguish the seeds of it,
by separating those that were infected from such as
were not. It was confined, however, through a hard
frosty winter, till the middle of February, when it
again appeared in the parish of St Giles’s, to which it
had been originally brought; and, after another long
rest till April, showed its malignant force afresh, as
soon as the warmth of the spring gave it opportunity.
—At first, it took off one here and there, without any
certain proof of their having infected each other, and
houses began to be shut up, with a design to. prevent
its spreading. But it was now too late ; the infection
gained ground every day, and the shutting up of
houses only made the disease spread wider. People,
Z afraid
178
History.
LON
afraid of being shut up, and sequestered from all com-
' munication with society, concealed their illness, or
found means to escape from their places of confinement ,
while numbers expired in the greatest torments, desti¬
tute of every assistance; and many died both of the
plague and other diseases, who would in all probabi¬
lity0 have recovered, had they been allowed their
liberty with proper exercise and air.—A house was
shot up on accoint of a maid-servant, who had only
spots, and not the gangrenous plague-blotches, upon
her so that her distemper was probably a petechial
fever. She recovered; but the people of the house
obtained no liberty to stir, either for air or exercise, lor
40 days. The bad air, fear, anger, and vexation, at¬
tending this injurious treatment, cast the mistress of
the family into a fever. The visitors appointed to
search the house, said it was the plague, though the
physicians were of a different opinion : the family,
however, were obliged to begin their quarantine anew
though it had been almost expired before; and this
second confinement affected them so much, that most
of the family fell sick, some of one distemper and some
of another. Every illness that appeared in the farm y
produced a fresh prolongation of their confinement,
till at last the plague was actually brought m by so
of those who came to inquire into the health of the
family, and almost every person m the house died.—
Many examples of a similar kind happened, and this
was one of the worst consequences of shutting up
houses. All means of putting a stop to the infection
were evidently ineffectual. Multitudes fled into
country ; many merchants, owners of ships, &c.
themselves up, on board their vessels, being supplied
with provisions from Greenwich, \\ oolwich, and single
farm houses on the Kentish side. Here however,
they were safe ; for the infection never reached below
Deptford, though the people went frequently on shore
to the country towns, villages, and farm houses, to
buy fresh provisions. As the violence of the plague
increased, the ships which had families on board re¬
moved farther off; some went quite out to sea, and
then put into such harbours and roads as they could
best get at. ... ,
In the mean time, the distemper made the most ra¬
pid advances within the city. In the last week of
July the number of burials amounted to 2010; u
the first week of August it rose to 3817; thence to
-jSSd ; then to 4237 ; the next week, to 6102 ; and at
fast to 7000 and 8'~>oo iveekly. In the last week of
September, however, the fury of the disease began
to abate; though vast numbers ivere sick, yet tie
number of burials decreased fron 7155 to 5538 ; the
next week there was a farther decrease to 4929, then
to 4327, next to 2665, then to 1421, and the next
week to 1031. , . , , j j
All this while, the poor people had been reduced
to the greatest distresses, by reason of the stagnation
of trade, and the sicknesses to which they were pe¬
culiarly liable on account of their manner of living.
The rich, however, contributed to their subsistence in
a most liberal manner. The sums collected on this
occasion are indeed almost incredible; being said to
amount to ioo,oool. per week. The king is report¬
ed to have contributed 1 oool. weekly; and in the pa¬
lish of Cripplegate alone, 17,00.0!. was distribute
the
shut
D O N.
weekly among the poor inhabitants.—By the vigilance History,
also of the magistrates, provisions continued remark- 1 v—
ably cheap throughout the whole time of this dreadful
calamity, so that all riots and tumults on that account
were prevented ; and at last, on the cessation of the
disease in the winter of 1665, the inhabitants who bad
fled returned to their habitations, and London to ap¬
pearance became as populous as ever, though it was
computed that 100,000 persons bad been carried oft
^The city was scarcely recovered from the desolation Account 0r
occasioned by the plague, when it was almost totally ^
laid in ashes by a most dreadful fire. Hus broke out
in a baker’s shop in Pudding-lane, on Saturday night,
September 2. 1666. In a few hours Billingsgate ward
was entirely burnt down ; and before morning the fire
had crossed Thames-street, and destroyed the church of
St Magnus. From thence it proceeded to the bridge,
and consumed a great pile of buildings there; but
was stopped by the want of any thing more to de¬
stroy. The flames, however, being scattered by a
strong east wind, continued their devastations in other
quarters, All efforts to stop it proved unsuccessful
throughout the Sunday. That day it proceeded up as
far as Garlick-hithe ; and destroying Canon street, in¬
vaded Cornhill and the Exchange. On Monday, the
flames having proceeded eastward against the wind
through Thames-street, invaded Tower street, Grace-
church-street, Fenchurch-street, Dowgate, Old Fish-
street, Watling-street, Threadneedle-street, and several
others, from all which it broke at once into Cheapside.
In a few hours Cheapside was all in flames, the fire
having reached it from so many places at once. The
fire then continuing its course from the river on one
side, and from Cheapside on the other, surrounded the
cathedral of St Paul’s. This building stood by itselt
at some distance from any houses ; vet such was the
violence of the flames, and the heat of the atmosphere
occasioned by them, that the cathedral took fire at
top. The great beams and massy stones broke through
into Faitfechurch underneath, which was quickly set
on fire; after which, the flames invaded Pater-noster-
row, Newgate-street, the Old Bailey, Ludgate-hill,
Fleet-street, Ironmonger-lane, Old Jewry, Laurence-
lane, Milk-street, Wood-street, Gutter-lane, loster-
lane, Lothbury, Cateaton-street; and, having destixiy-
ed Christ-church, burnt furiously through St Martin s
le Grand towards Aldersgate.
The five had now attained its greatest extent, and
was several miles in compass. The vast clouds of smoke
obscured the sun so, that he either could not be seen
at all, or appeared through it as red as blood. Ihe
flames reached an immense way up into the air, and
their reflection from the smoke, which in the night¬
time seemed also like flame, made the appearance still
more terrible. The atmosphere was illuminated to a
great extent, and this illumination is said to have been
visible as far as Jedburgh in Scotland. Some of the
fight ashes also are said to have been carried to the
distance of 16 miles. Guildhall exhibited a singular
appearance. The oak with which it was built was so
solid, that it would not flame, but burnt like charcoal,
so that the building appeared lor several hours like an
enchanted palace ot gold or burnished brass.
At last, on Wednesday morning, when every one
LON
ilistory.
23 .
alculation
the da-
age done.
expected that the suburbs as well as the city were to
have been burnt, the fire began of itself to abate by
reason of the wind having ceased, and some other
changes no doubt taken place in the atmosphere. It
was checked by the great building in Leadenhall-
street, and in other streets by the blowing up several
houses with gun-powder j and on Thursday the flames
were quite extinguished.—The following is a calcula¬
tion of the damage done by this extraordinary confla¬
gration.
Thirteen thousand two hundred houses,
at 12 years purchase, supposing the
rent of each 25I. sterling, L.
Eighty-seven parish churches, at 8000I.
Six consecrated chapels, at 2000I,
The royal exchange
The customhouse - - -
Fifty-two halls of companies, at 1500I.
each -
Three city gates, at 3000I. each
Jail of Newgate -
Four stone bridges . _ .
Sessions house - - -
Guildhall, with tire courts and offices
belonging to it
Blackwell hall - _ _
Bridewell -
Poultry compter - - - -
Woodstreet compter - - -
St Paul’s church - -
Wares, household stuff, money, and
moveable goods lost or spoiled
Hire of porters, carts, waggons, barges,
boats, &c. for removing goods
Printed books and paper in shops and
warehouses - - -
Wine, tobacco, sugar, &c. of which
the town was at that time very
full 
3,960,000
696,000
12,000
50,000
10,000
78,000
9000
i5,o°o
6000
7000
40,000
3000
yooo
500°
3000
2,000,000
2,000,000
200,000
150,000
1,500,000
L. 10,689,000
It was never certainly known whether this fire was
accidental or designed. A suspicion fell upon the Pa¬
pists ; and this gained such general credit, that it is
asserted for a truth on the monument which is erected
in memory of the conflagration. Of the truth of this
assertion, however, though there was not sufficient
proof, it had the effect of making the Papists most
violently suspected and abhorred by the Protestants,
which some time after proved very prejudicial to the
city itself.
From this calamity, great as it was, London soon
recovered itself, and became much more magnificent
than before 5 the streets, which were formerly crooked
and narrow, being now built wide and spacious ; and
the industry of its inhabitants repaired the losses they
had sustained. In 1679, ^le was again alarmed
by the discovery of a design to destroy it by fire a se-
24 cond time. Elizabeth Oxly, servant to one Rind in
> lesign I etter-lane, having set her master’s house on fire, was
fire1 aPPre^^nfied on suspicion, and confessed, that she had
3 ia, been hired to do it by one Stubbs a Papist, for a re¬
ward of 5I. Stubbs being taken into custody, ac-
D O N. 179
knowledged that he had persuaded her to it j and History.
that he himself had been prevailed upon by one Father' v ^
Gifford his confessor, who had assured him, that by
burning the houses of heretics he would do a great ser¬
vice to the church. Fie also owned that he had several
conferences with Gifford and two Irishmen on the affair.
The maid and Stubbs also agreed in declaring, that the
Papists intended to rise in London, expecting to be
powerfully supported by a French army. In conse¬
quence of this discovery, the Papists were banished
from the city, and five miles round, and five Jesuits
were hanged for the above-mentioned plot.
The Papists thought to revenge themselves by for¬
ging what was called the meal-tub plot, in which the
Presbyterians were supposed to hatch treacherous de¬
signs against the life of the king. Sir Edmondbury
Godfrey also, who had been very active in his pro-gives occa-
ceedings against the Papists, was murdered by some sion t0 a
unknown persons; and this murder, together with^j^r^e
their discovering the falsehood of the meal-tub plot, coutt
so exasperated the Londoners, that they resolved to
show their detestation of Popery, by an extraordinary
exhibition on the 17th of November, Queen Eliza¬
beth’s accession to the throne, on which day they had
usually burnt the pope in effigy. The procession be¬
gan with a person on horseback personating Sir Ed-
mondbury Godfrey, attended by a bellman proclaim¬
ing his execrable murder. He wras followed by a per¬
son carrying a large silver cross, with priests in copes,
Carmelites, and Gray-friars, followed by six Jesuits :
then proceeded divers waiters, and after them some
bishops with lawn sleeves, and others with copes and
mitres. Six cardinals preceded the pope, enthroned in
a stately pageant, attended by divers boys with pots of
incense, and the devil whispering in his ear. In this
order they marched from Bishopsgate to Fleet-street;
and there, amidst a great multitude of spectators, com¬
mitted his holiness to the flames.
This procession gave great offence to the court, at
which the duke of York, afterwards James II. had a
great influence. The breach was farther widened by
the choice of sheriffs for that year. The candidates
set up by the court were rejected by a majority of al¬
most two to one ; but this did not deter their party
from demanding a poll in their behalf, upon which a
tumult ensued. This was represented by the Popish
party in such colours to the king, that he issued out a
commission that same evening for trying the rioters ;
which, however, was so far from intimidating the rest,
that they grew more and more determined, not only to
oppose the Popish party, but to exclude the duke of
York from his succession to the crown.
In the mean time, the king prorogued the parlia¬
ment, to prevent them from proceeding in their in¬
quiry concerning the Popish plot, and the exclusion-
bill. Upon this the lord-mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council, presented a petition to his majesty, in
which they requested, that he would permit the
parliament to sit in order to complete their salutary
measures and councils. This petition was highly re¬
sented by the king; who, instead of granting it, dis¬
solved the parliament, and could never afterwards be
reconciled to the city. From this time it was deter¬
mined to seize their charter; and fresh provocations
Z 2 having
N
26
Quo
L O
havlno- been given about tlie election of sherifl's, a quo
^warranto was at last produced by the attorney gene
ral, in order to overthrow their charter, and tber y
to deprive the citizens of the power to choose shenfts.
A *uo This information set forth, “ That ‘ the mayor and
Warranto commonalty and citizens of the city of London, y
granted the ace 0f a month then last past and more, use ,
Ugainst the 1 do clalm to have and use, without any lawful
warrant or legal grant, within the city ol London
aforesaid, and the liberties and privileges of the same
city, the liberties and privileges following, viz. 1. lo
be of themselves a body corporate and politic, by the
name of mayor and commonalty and citizens oj the city
of London. 2. To have sheriffs civilat. et. com. London,
et com. Middlesex, and to name, make, and elect, and
constitute them. 3. That the mayor and aldermen of
the said city should be justices ot the peace, and hold
sessions of the peace. All which liberties, privileges
and franchises, the said mayor and commonalty, and
citizens of London, upon the king did by the space
aforesaid usurp, and yet do usurp.”
Though nothing could he more unjust than tins
prosecution, the ministry were determined at all events
to crush the Londoners j rightly judging, that it would
be an easy matter to make all other corporations
surrender their charters into the king s hands, and
that they had no other body in the nation to tear.
Accordingly they displaced such judges as would not
approve of their proceedings-, and, on the 12th o
June 1683, Justice Jones pronounced the following
sentence : “ That a city might forfeit its charter *,
that the malversations of the common-council were
acts of the whole city and that the points set forth m
the pleadings were just grounds for the forfeiting ot a
eti cir 16 r • ^ ^
Notwithstanding this sentence, however, the attor¬
ney-general, contrary to the usual custom in such cases,
was directed to move that the judgment might not he
recorded: being afraid of the consequences. Yet it
was judged that the king might seize the liberties ot
the city. A common-council was immediately sum¬
moned to deliberate on this exigency. The country
party moved to have the judgment entered j but they
were overruled by the court party, who insisted upon
an absolute submission to the king before judgment
was entered and though this was in effect a voluntary
surrender of the city-liberties, and deprived them¬
selves of the means of getting the judgment reversed,
the act of submission was carried by a great majority :
and in a petition from the lord mayor, aldermen, and
common-council, they “ acknowledged their own mis-
government, and his majesty’s lenity \ hegge ns pai
don, and promised constant loyalty and obedience *, and
humbly begged his majesty’s commands and directions.
To this his majesty answered, that he would not reject
Condkions their suit, if they would agree upon the following par-
Of™ coni ticulars. I. That no lord mayor, sheriff, recorder,
liation be- common serjeant, town clerk, or coroner, o e u y
London, or steward of the borough of Southwark,
shall be capable of, or admitted to, the exercise of their
respective offices before his majesty shall have appro¬
ved of them under his sign-manual. 2. that it his
majesty shall disapprove the choice of any person to be
lord major, and signify the same under his sign-manual
tween the
king and
city.
DON.
to the lord mayor, or in default of a lord mayor, to the Jlktory.
recorder or senior alderman, the citizens shall, within
one week, proceed to a new choice : and it his majesty
shall in like manner disapprove the second choice, Ins
majesty may, if he pleases, nominate a person to be ord
mayor for the year ensuing. 3. If his majesty shall, m
like manner, disapprove the persons chosen to be sheriffs,
or either of them, his majesty may appoint sheriffs tor
the year ensuing. 4- That the lord mayor and court
of aldermen may, with the leave of his majesty, displace
anv alderman, recorder, &c. 5- Upon the election ot
an alderman, if the court of aldermen shall judge and
declare the person presented to he unfit, the waid shall
choose again 5 and upon a disapproval of a second
choice, the court may appoint another 111 his room.
6. That the justices of the peace should be by the king s
commission 5 and the settling of those matters to he ett
to his majesty’s attorney-general and counsel learned m
To these the lord-keeper added, in the king’s name,
“ That these regulations being made, his majesty would
not only pardon this prosecution, but would confirm
their charter in such a manner as should be consistent
with them-, concluding thus: “ My lord mayor, the
term draws towards an end, and Midsummer-day is at
hand, when some of the officers used to be chosen j
whereof his majesty will reserve the approbation. 1 here-
fore, it is his majesty’s pleasure, that you return to the
city and consult the common council, that he may
speedily know your resolutions thereupon, and accord¬
ingly give his directions. That you may see the king
is m earnest, and the matter is not capable of delay, i
am commanded to let you know he hath given orders
to his attorney-general to enter upon judgment on Sa¬
turday next ; unless you prevent it by your compliance
in all these particulars.” _ . ,
A common-council was summoned, when the triends
of liberty treated those slavish conditions as they de¬
served 5 and even declared, that they were ready to sa¬
crifice all that was near or dear to them, rather than
submit to such arbitrary impositions: but when it was
put to the vote, there appeared a majority ot 18 tor
submission. .
Thus the king got the government ot the city into
his own hands, though he and his brothers entirely lost 2
the affections of the Londoners. But, not content with The
their submission, his majesty departed from his promise*, ^
commanded the judgment upon the quo warranto to
he entered-, and commissioned Sir William 1 ntchard,
the lord mayor, to hold the same office during his ma¬
jesty’s pleasure. In the same manner he appointed or
displaced the other magistrates as he thought proper j
after which Jie ministry, having nothing to fear, pro¬
ceeded in the most arbitrary manner. . 29
In this subjection to the will of the court, the city Pmiltg<
of London continued till the Revolution j hut, in of tke«
the immediate restoration ot the Londoners to their
franchises was ordered } and in such a manner and form,
as to put it out of the powers of an arbitrary ministry
and a corrupt judge and jury to deprive them of then-
chartered liberties for the time to come. Accordingly
a bill was brought into parliament, and passed, for re¬
versing the judgment of the quo warranto against the
city ofLondon, and for restoring the same to its ancient
J ' rights
4
LON
General rights and privileges. Since that time the city of Lon-
Descrip- don hath enjoyed tranquillity } its commerce hath been
tion. carried to the highest pitch j and for the politeness,
rjcjieSj and number of its inhabitants, as well as
its extent and the magnificence oi its buildings, is
inferior to no city in Europe, if not superior to every
escription That part of this immense capital which is distin-
' the city. • hed by the name of The City, stands on the north
shore of the river, from the Tower to the Temple, oc¬
cupying only tliat space formerly encompassed by the
wall, which in circumference measures but three miles
and ^ 65 feet. In this wall there were seven gates by
land, viz. Ludgate, Aldgate, Cripplegate, Aldersgate,
Moorgate, Bishopsgate, which were all taken down
in September 1760; and Newgate, the county gaol,
which was also taken down m and a massive
building erected a little south of it, which by the riot¬
ers in 1780 received damage to the amount of 8o,oool.
On the side of the water there were Dowgate and
Billingsgate, long since demolished, as well as the
postern-gate near the Tower. In the year 1670, there
was a gate erected called Teviple-Tur^ which teimi-
nates the bounds of the city westward, lire liberties,
or those parts of this great city which are subject to
its jurisdiction, and lie without the walls of London,
are bounded on the east, in hitechapel, the Aiino-
ries, and Bishopsgate, by bars, which were formerly
posts and chains, that were frequently taken away by
arbitrary power, when it was thought proper to seize
the franchises of the city of London ; on the north,
they are bounded in the same manner m 1 ickaxe-
street, at the end of Fan-alley, and in St John’s-street .
on the west, by bars in Holborn : at the east end of
Middle Row, and at the west end of Fleet-street, by
the gate called Temple-Bar, already mentioned : on the
south, we may include the jurisdiction which the city
holds on the river Thames, and over the borough of
Southwark. . ,
The city, including the borough, is at present divid-
, j ed into 26 wards.
li vision in- I. Aldersgate ward take its name from a city-gate
' wards, which lately stood in the neighbourhood. It is bound¬
ed on the east by Cripplegate ward ; on the west, by
Farringdon ward within and without j and on the
south, by Farringdon ward within. It is very large,
and is divided into Aldersgate-within and Aldersgate-
without. Each of these divisions consists of four pre¬
cincts, under one alderman, eight common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, eight con¬
stables, fourteen inquest-men, eight scavengers, and a
beadle exclusive of the officers belonging to the li¬
berty of St Martin’s le Grand, which contains 168
houses.
2. Aldgate takes its name also from a gate, which
was of great antiquity, being mentioned in Kiing Ed¬
gar’s charter to the knights of the Knighton Guild
about the year 967 and was probably of a much
more ancient foundation, for it was the gate through
which the Roman vicinal way lay to the ferry at Old-
ford. In the time of the wars betwixt King John
and his barons, the latter entered the city through this
gate, and committed great devastations among the
bouses of the religious. Aldgate was rebuilt by the
DON. 181
leaders of the party after the Roman manner. They Division
made use of stone which they brought from Caen, and mtu U aids.
a small brick called the Flanders tile, which Mr Fen-
nant thinks has been often mistaken for Roman. The
new gate was very strong, and had a deep well within
it. In 1471, this gate was assaulted by the Bastard of
Falconbridge, who got possession of it for a tew hours j
but the portcullis being drawn up, the troops which
had entered were all cut oil, and the citiz.ens, headed
by the alderman of the ward and recorder, having
made a sally, defeated the remainder with great slaugh¬
ter. In 1606, Aldgate was taken down and rebuilt; ,
and many Roman coins were found in digging the
foundations.—The ward of Aldgate is bounded on
the east by the city wall, which divides it from Port-
soke n ward ; on the north, by Bishopsgate ward j on
the west, by Lime-street and Langbourn wards ; and
on the south, by Tower-street ward. It is governed by
an alderman, six common-council men, six constables,,
twenty inquest-men, seven scavengers,, and a beadle j
besides the officers belonging to St James’s, Duke’s
Place.—It is divided into seven precincts.
3. Bassisha w or Basinghail ward, is bounded on the
east and south by Coleman-street ward, on the north
by part of Cripplegate, and on tho west by part of
the wards of Cheap and Cripplegatc. On the south,
it begins at Blackwell-hall; and runs northward to
London wall, pulled down some time ago to make
way for new buildings in Fore-street, and spreads 88
feet east, and 54 feet west against the place where that
wall stood. This is a very small ward, and consists
only of two precincts: the upper precinct contains no
more than 66, and the lower only 76 houses. It is
governed by an alderman, four common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, three con¬
stables, seventeen inquest-men, three scavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from Basinghail, the man¬
sion-house of the family of Busings, which was the
principal house in it, and stood in the place of Black¬
well-hall.
4. Billingsgate ward is bounded on the east by
Tower-street ward •, on the north, by Langbourn
ward } on the west, by the ward of Bridge-within 5
and on the south, by the river Thames. There have
been many conjectures concerning the origin of the
name of Billingsgate, none of which seems to be very
well authenticated. It is, for instance, supposed to
have derived its name from a British king named Bell¬
inis, said to have been an assistant of Brennus king of
the Gauls at the taking of Rome, and is the same with.,
the Beli-Maur mentioned in the Welsh genealogies.
The name of Ludgate is said to be derived from his son
Lud.—It is divided into 12 precincts •, and is governed
by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one of whom
is the alderman’s deputy, 11 constables, 14 inquest-men,
six scavengers, and a beadle. The situation of Billings¬
gate, on the river, gives it great advantages with re¬
spect to trade and merchandise ; so that it is web in¬
habited, and is in a continual hurry of business at the
several wharfs or quays.
5. Bis/iopsgate ward is bounded on the east by Aid-
gate ward, Portsoken ward, and part of the lower-
liberty, or Noi ton-falgate 5 on the west, by Broad-street
ward and Moorfields ; and on the south, by Langbourn
ward.
lg2 k ^ ^
Division in- ward. It Is very large, and divided into Bishopsgate-
_ ^ . • , 1 a. 'PI.u 11
DON.
to Wards, within and Bishopsgate-without. Ihe first contains all
    that part of the ward within the city-wall and gate,
and is divided into live precincts; the second lies
without the wall, and is divided into four precincts.
Bishopsgate-without extends to Shoreditch, taking its
name from one Sir John de Sorditch, an eminent aw-
yer much in favour with King Edward HE both on
account of his knowledge m the law, and oi his
personal valour. In the time of Henry VIIE one
Barlo, a citizen and inhabitant of this place, was
named duke of Shoreditch, on account of his skill in
archery ; and, for a number of years after, the tule
belonged to the captain of the London archers. 1 bis
ward is governed by an alderman, two deputies, one
within and the other without, 12 common-council men,
seven constables, 13 inquest-men, nine scavengers, and
two beadles. It took its name from the gate, which
has been pulled down to make that part of the city
more airy and commodious. This gate was built ov
Erkenwald bishop of London in 675 ; and it is said
to have been repaired by William the Conqueror soon
after the Norman conquest. In the time ol Henry II .
the Hanse merchants had certain privileges confirmed
to them, in return for which they were to support this
gate; and in consequence of this they rebuilt it ele¬
gantly in 1479- There were two statues of bishops, in
memory of the founder and first repairer; other two
were also put up, which are supposed to have been de¬
signed for Alfred and iEldred earl of Mercia, to whose
care the gate had been committed.
6. Bread-street ward is encompassed on the north
and north-west, by the ward of Farringdon-within ; on
the east by Cordwainers ward ; on the south by
Queenhithe ward ; and on the west, by Castle-Bay
nardward. It is divided into 13 precincts ; and is
naru waju. ^    j 1 f
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men, ot
whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 13 constables, 13
inquest-men, 13 scavengers, and a beadle; and yet
contains no more than 331 houses. It takes its name
from the ancient bread-market, which was kept in the
place now called Bread-street ; the bakers being obliged
to sell their bread only in the open market and not m shops.
7. Bridge-ward-within is bounded on the south by
the river Thames and Southwark; on the north, by
Langbourn and Bishopsgate ward; on the east, by
Billingsgate; and on the west, by Candlewick and
Howgate wards. It is divided into 14 precincts, three
of which were on London bridge ; and is governed by
an alderman, 15 common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, 14 constables, 15 inquest-men,
14 scavengers, and a beadle. It takes its name from
its connexion with London bridge. .
8 Broad-street ward is bounded, on the north and
east’ by Bishopsgate ward; on the south, by Cornhill
and Wallbrook ward; and on the west by Coleman-
street ward. It is divided into 10 precincts ; and go¬
verned by an alderman, 10 common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, 10 constables, 13
inquest men, eight scavengers, and a beadle, it has
its name from that part of it now distinguished by the
name of Old Broad-street; and which, before the fire
of 1666, was accounted one of the broadest streets in
London.
9. Candlewick ward, Candlewick-street, or Candle- Division in-
wright-street ward as it is called in some ancient re- ^0 Wardi
cords, is bounded on the east by Bridge ward ; on the ^
south, by Dowgate and part of Bridge ward ; on the
west, by Dowgate and Wallbrook ; and on the north,
by Langbourn ward. It is but a small ward, consist¬
ing of about 286 houses ; yet is divided into seven
precincts. It is governed by an alderman, eight
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman ?
deputy, seven constables, 13 inquest-men, seven sca¬
vengers, and a beadle. It has its name from a street,
formerly inhabited chiefly by candle-wrights or candle-
makers, both in tallow and wax : a very profitable bu¬
siness in the times of Popery, when incredible quanti¬
ties of wax candles were consumed in the churches.
That street, however, or at least its name, Candlewick,
is lost since the great conflagration, for which the
name Canon-street is substituted, the candle wnghts be¬
ing at that time burnt out and dispersed through the
city.
10. Castle-Baynard ward is bounded by Qneen-
hithe and Bread-street wards on the east; on the south,
bv the Thames ; and on the west and north by the
ward of Farringdon-within. It is divided into 10 pre¬
cincts, under the government of an alderman, 10 com¬
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman s ce-
puty, nine constables, 14 inquest-men, seven/scavengers,
and a beadle. It takes its name from a castle built
on the bank of the river by one Baynard, a soldier of
fortune, who came in with William the Conqueror, and
was by that monarch raised 10 great honours and au¬
thority. , T> J
11. Cheap ward is bounded on the east by Bioact-
street and Wallbrook wards ; on the north, by Cole-
man-street, Bassishaw, and Cripplegate; and on the
south, by Cordwainers ward. It is divided into nine
precincts ; and is governed by an alderman, 12 common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman s deputy,
11 constables, 13 inquest-men, nine scavengers, and a
beadle. It has its name from the Saxon word chepe,
which signifies a market, kept in this division of the
city, now called Cheapside: but then known by the
name of Westcheap, to distinguish it from the market
then also kept in Eastcheap, between Canon or Candle-
wick-street and Tower-street.
12. Coleman*-street ward is bounded on the east by
Bishopsgate, Broad-street, and Cheap wards ; on the
north, by Cripplegate ward, Middle Moorfields, and
Bishopsgate ; on the south, by Cheap ward ; and on the
west, by Bassishaw ward. It is divided into six pre¬
cincts ; and is governed by an alderman, six common-
council men, one of whom is the alderman s ueputy,
six constables, 13 inquest-men, six scavengers, and a
beadle. The origin of the name is not certainly
known.
13. Cordwainers ward is bounded on the east by
Wallbrook, on the south by Vintry ward, on the west
by Bread-street, and on the north by Cheap ward. It
is divided into eight precincts; and is governed by an
alderman, eight common council men, one of wiom,
is the alderman’s deputy, eight constables, 14 inquest¬
men, eight scavengers, and a beadle. Its proper
name is Cordwainers-street ward; which it has from
Cordwainers-street, now Bow-lane, formerly occupied
chiefly
L O N
chiefly by shoemakers and others that dealt or worked
s. in leather.
14. Cornhill tvard is but of small extent. It is
bounded on the east by Bishopsgate, on the north by
Broad-street, on the north by Cheap ward, and on the
south by Langbourn ward. It is divided into four
precincts, which are governed by one alderman, six
common-council men, of whom one is the alderman’s
deputy, four constables, 16 inquest-men, four scaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It takes its name from the prin¬
cipal street in it, known from the earliest ages by the
name oiCornhill, because the corn-market was kept there.
15. Cripplegate ward is bounded on the east by
Moorfields, Coleman-street ward, Bassishaw ward, and
Cheap ward; on the north by the parish of St Luke’s,
Old-street ; on the west, by Aldersgate ward ; and on
the south, by Cheap ward. It is divided into 13 pre¬
cincts, nine within and four without the wall 5 and is
governed by an alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom two are the alderman’s deputies, 13 constables,
34 inquest-men, 16 scavengers, and three beadles. It
takes its name from Cripplegate, which stood on the
north-west part of the city wall. It was an old plain
structure, void of all ornament, with one postern ; but
had more the appearance of a fortification than any of
the other gates. It was removed in order to widen the
entrance into Wood-street, which, by the narrowness
of the gateway, was too much contracted and rendered
dangerous for passengers and great waggons.
16. Dowgate ward is bounded on the east by Candle-
wick and Bridge wards, on the north by \V allbrook
ward, on the rvest by Vintry rvard, and on the south
by the Thames. It is divided into eight precincts,
under the government of an alderman, eight common-
council men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy,
eight constables, 15 inquest-men, five scavengers, and
a beadle. It has its name from the ancient water gate,
called Dourgate, which was made in the original wall
that ran along the north side of the Thames, for the
security of the city against all attempts to invade it by
water.
ly. Farringdon ward within is bounded on the east
by Cheap ward and Baynard-castle ward ; on the north,
by Aldersgate and Cripplegate wards, and the liberty
of St Martin’s le Grand; on the west by Farringdon-
without ; and on the south bv Baynard-castle ward
and the river Thames. It is divided into 18 precincts ;
and governed by one alderman, 17 common-council
men, of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 19 con¬
stables, 17 inquest men, 19 scavengers, and two
beadles. It takes its name from William Farringdon,
citizen and goldsmith of London, who, in \ 279, pur¬
chased all the aldermanry with the appurtenances,
within the city of London and suburbs of the same,
between Ludgate and Newgate, and also without these
gates.
18. Farringdon ward without is bounded on? the east
by Farringdon within, the precinct of the late priory
of St Bartholomew near Smlthfield, and the ward of
Aldersgate; on the north, by the Charter-house, the
parish of St John’s Clerkenwell, and part of St An¬
drew’s parish without the freedom; on the west, by
High Holborn and St Clement’s parish in the Strand ;
and on the south by the river Thames. It is governed
by one alderman, 16 common-council men, of whom
3
D O N. 183
two are the alderman’s deputies, 23 constables, 48 in-Division in¬
quest-men, 24 scavengers, and four beadles. It takes to Wards,
its name from the same goldsmith who gave name to v '
Farringdon within.
19. Langbourn ward is bounded on the east by Aid-
gate ward, on the north, by part of the same, and
Lime-street ward; on the south, by Tower-street, Bil-
lingsate, Bridge, and Candlewick wards ; and on the
west by Wallbrook. It is divided into 12 precincts.
It had its name from a rivulet or long bourn of fresh
water, which anciently flowed from a spring near
Magpye alley adjoining to St Catherine Coleman’s
church.
20. Lime-street ward is bounded on the east and
north by Aldgate ward, on the west by Bishopsgate ;
and on the south by Langbourn ward. It is divided
into four precincts ; and governed by an alderman, four
common-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s
deputy, four constables, 13 inquest-men, four scaven¬
gers, and a beadle. It is very small, and has its name
from some lime kilns that were formerly built in or
near Lime-street.
21. Portsoken ward is bounded on the east by the
parishes of Spitaifields, Stepney, and St George’s in
the east; on the south, by Tower-hill , on the north,
by Bishopsgate ward, and on the west by Aldgate
ward. It is divided into five precincts ; and is go¬
verned by an alderman, five common-council men, one
of whom is the alderman’s deputy, five constables, 19
inquest-men, five scavengers, and a beadle. Its name
signifies the franchise of the liberty gate. This Portsoken
was for some time a guild ; and had its beginning in
King Edgar, when 13 knights, “well beloved of the
king and realm, for services by them done,” requested
to have a certain portion of land on the east part of the
city, left desolate and forsaken of the inhabitants by
reason of too much servitude. They besought the king
to have this land, with the liberty of a guild for ever.
The king granted their request on the following condi¬
tions, viz. that each of them should victoriously accom¬
plish three combats, one above the ground, one under
ground, and the third in the water : and after this, at
a certain day, in East Smithfield, they should run with
spears against all comers. All this was gloriously per¬
formed ; upon which the king named it Knighten
Guild, and extended it from Aldgate to the places
where the bars now are on the east, and to the Thames
on the south, and as far into the water as an horseman
could ride at low water and throw his spear.
22. Queenhithe ward is bounded on the east by
Dowgate, on the north by Bread-street and Cord-
wainers wards, on the south by the Thames, and on the
west by Castle-Baynard ward. It is divided into nine
precincts ; and is governed by one alderman, six com¬
mon-council men, one of whom is the alderman’s depu¬
ty, and nine constables. It has its name from the hithe,
or harbour for large boats, barges, and lighters ; for
which, and even for ships, it was the anchoring place,
and the quay for loading and unloading vessels almost of
any burden used in ancient times. It has the name of
queen, because the queens of England usually possessed
the tolls and customs of vessels that unloaded goods at
this hithe, which were very considerable.
23. Power ward, or Power-street ward, is bounded
on the south by the river Thames, on the east bw
Tower-hill
184-
L O N
Division in
to Wards.
Tower-hill and Aklgate ward, on the north by Lang-
bourn ward, and on the west by Billingsgate ward, it
UOUin \\tlItlj ctim j o o
is eoverned by one alderman, 12 common-council men,
of whom one is the alderman’s deputy, 12 constables,
DON.
charter of King John. The present manner ot elect¬
ing a lord mayoris hythe hvery^no thc^ral
32
Govern¬
ment of
.London.
33
Declcsias
tical.
Civi
34
35
Lord
Mayor.
Ol JVIIUIU one ac    A 1 Tr
12 inquest-men, 12 scavengers, and one beadle, it
takes its name from Tower-street, so called because it
leads out of the city in a direct line to the principal
entrance ol the lower ol London,
24. Vintry ward is bounded on the east by IJow-
gate on the south by the Thames, on the west by
Queenhithe ward, and on the north by Cordvvainers
ward. It is a small ward, containing only 41b houses j
but is divided into nine precincts, and governed by an
alderman, nine common-council men, one of whom is
the alderman’s deputy, nine constables, 13 inquest-men,
three scavengers, and a beadle. It takes its name Irom
the vintners or wine-merchants of Bourdeaux, who ior-
merly dwelt in this part of the city, were obliged to
land their wines on this spot, and to sell them in 40
davs, till the 28th of Edward I.
2 r Wallbrook ward is bounded on the east by Lang-
hour n, on the south by Dowgate ward, on the west by
Cordwainers ward, and on the north by Cheap ward.
It is small, containing only 306 houses *, but is divided
into seven precincts, and governed by an alderman,
eight common-council men, of whom one is the alder¬
man’s deputy, seven constables, 13 inquest-men, six
scavengers, and a beadle. It has its name from the
rivulet Wall-brook, that ran down the street oi tins
name into the river Thames near Dowgate •, but in pro¬
cess of time it was so lost by covering it with bridges,
and buildings upon those bridges, that its channel be¬
came a common sewer. . , , , , ,
26. The ward of Bridge-without includes the borough
of Southwark, and the parishes of llotherhithe, Newmg-
ton, and Lambeth. It lias its name Irom London bridge,
with the addition of the word without, because the
bridge must be passed in order to come at it. // est-
minster is generally reckoned a part of London, though
under a distinct government •, and has long been lamous
for the palaces of our kings, the seat ol our law tri¬
bunals, and of the high court of parliament j all which
shall he described in their order.
The city and liberties of London are under an eccle¬
siastical, a civil, and a military government.
As to its ecclesiastical government, London is a bi¬
shop’s see, the diocese of which comprehends not only
Middlesex, Essex, and part of Hertfordshire, but the
British plantations in America. The bishop ol Lorn-
don takes precedency next to the archbishops ol Can¬
terbury and Arork •, but the following parishes ot tins
city are exempt from his jurisdiction, being peculiars
under the immediate government of the archbishop m
Canterbury; viz. All-hallows in Bread street, All¬
hallows, Lombard-street *, St Dionys Back-church,
St Dunstan in the East, St John Baptist St Leonard
Eastcheap, St Mary Aldermary, St Mary Lothaw,
St Mary le Bow, St Michael Crooked-lane, St Mi¬
chael Royal, St Pancras Soper-lane, and St Vedast
F°The civil government of London divides it into wards
and precincts, under a lord mayor, aldermen, and com¬
mon-council. .  •
The mayor, or lord mayor, is the supreme magi¬
strate, chosen annually by the citizens, pursuant to a
asSM in Guildhall annual* on Michael-
mas-day, according to an act of common council in
A. D. 1476, where, and when, the liverymen choose,
or rather nominate, two aldermen below the chair,
who have served the office of sheriff, to be returned to
the court of aldermen, who may choose either ot the
two-, but generally declare the senior of the two, so
returned, to he lord mayor elect. The election be¬
ing over, the lord mayor elect, accompanied by the
recorder and divers aldermen, is soon after presented to
the lord chancellor (as his majesty’s representative m
the city of London) for his approbation j and on the
0th of November following is sworn into the office oi
mayor at Guildhall; and on the day after, before the
barons of the exchequer at Westminster; the proces¬
sion on which occasion is exceedingly grand and mag¬
nificent. . .
The lord mayor sits every morning at the mansion-
house, or place where he keeps his mayoralty, to de¬
termine any difference that may happen among the
citizens, and to do other business incident to the office
of a chief magistrate. Once in six weeks, or eight
times in the year, he sits as chief judge oi oyer and
terminer, or gaol-delivery of Newgate for London and
the county of Middlesex. His jurisdiction extends all
over the city and suburbs, except some places that are
exempt. It extends also from Colneyditch, above
Staines-bridge in the west, to Yeudale, er Yenflete,
and the mouth of the river Medway, and up that river
to Upnor castle, in the east: by which he exercises the
power of punishing or correcting all persons that shall
annoy the streams, banks, or fish. For which purpose
his lordship holds several courts of conservancy in the
counties adjacent to the said river, ior its conservation,
and for the punishment of oflenders. See the article
Mayor’s Ctwrf. t .,1“
The title of dignity, alderman, is of Saxon original, Aldenm
and of the greatest honour, answering to that oi earl ;
though now it is nowhere to be found but in chartered
societies. And from hence we may account for the
reason why the aldermen and commonalty ot London
were called barons after the Conquest. These magi¬
strates are properly the subordinate governors oi their
respective wards under the lord mayor’s jurisdiction ;
and they originally held their aldermartnes either by
inheritance or purchase ; at which time the alderman¬
ries or wards changed their names as olten as their
governors or aldermen. The oppressions, to which the
citizens were subject from such a government, put them
upon means to abolish the perpetuity ot that office; and
they brought it to an actual election. But that man¬
ner of election being attended with many inconvenien¬
ces, and becoming a continual bone of contention
among the citizens, the parliament, 17 Richard 1 .
A. D. 1394, enacted, that the aldermen of London
should continue in their several offices during life or
.ood behaviour. And so it still continues though
the manner of electing has several times varied. At
present it is regulated by an act of parliament, passed
in the year 11724-5 : and the Per8on 80 ckct®d 1S S be
returned by the lord mayor (or other returning officer
in his stead, duly qualified to hold a court of wardmote)
to the court of lord mayor add aldermen, by whom the
person
u
36
L O N
fioveru- person so returned must be admitted and sworn into the
meat office of alderman before he can act. If the person
' —v'*—”' chosen refnscth to serve the office of alderman, he is
finable 500I.
These high officers constitute a second part of the
city legislature when assembled in a corporate capacity,
and exercise an executive power in their respective wards.
The aldermen who have passed the chair, or served the
high office of lord mayor, are justices of the quorum j
and all the other aldermen are not only justices of the
peace, but by the statute of 43 Eliz. entitled, An act
for the relief of the poor, “ every alderman of the city
of London, within his ward, shall and may do and
execute, in every respect, so much as is appointed and
allowed by the said act to be done or executed by one
or two justices of peace of any county within this
realm.” They every one keep their wardmote, or
court, for choosing ward officers and settling the affairs
of the ward, to redress grievances, and to present all
defaults found within their respective wards.
The next branch of the legislative power in this
city is the common-council. The many inconveniences
that attended popular assemblies, which were called
folkmote, determined the commonalty of London to
choose representatives to act in their name and for
their interest, with the lord mayor and aldermen, in all
affairs relating to the city. At first these representa¬
tives were chosen out of the several companies : but
that not being found satisfactory, nor properly the re¬
presentatives of the whole body of the inhabitants, it
was agreed to choose a certain number of discreet men
out of each ward : which number has from time to
time increased according to the dimensions of each
ward: and at present the 25 wards, into which Lon¬
don is divided, being subdivided into 236 precincts,
each precinct sends a representative to the common-
council, who are elected after the same manner as an
alderman, only with this difference, that as the lord
mayor presides in the wardmote, and is judge of the
poll at the election of an alderman, so the alderman of
each ward is judge of the poll at the election of a com¬
mon-council man.
Thus the lord mayor, aldermen, and common-
council, when assembled, may be deemed the city par¬
liament, resembling the great council of the nation.
For it consists of two houses ; one for the lord mayor
and aldermen, or the upper house ; another for the
commoners or representatives of the people, commonly
called the common-council men. And they have power
in their incorporate capacity to make and repeal bye¬
laws j and the citizens are bound to obey or submit to
those laws. When they meet in their incorporate ca¬
pacity, they wear deep blue silk gowns: and their as¬
semblies are called the court of common-council, and
their ordinances acts of common-council. No act can
be performed in the name of the city of London with¬
out their concurrence. But they cannot assemble with¬
out a summons from the lord mayor ; who, nevertheless,
is obliged to call a common-council, whenever it shall
be demanded, upon extraordinary occasions, by six re¬
putable citizens and members of that court.
rhis corporation is assisted by two sheriffs and a re¬
corder. The sheriffs are chartered officers, to perform
certain suits and services, in the king’s name, within
the city of London and county of Middlesex, chosen
VOL. XII. Part I. t
llcr-
■v 38
t 'riffs.
I) O N.
*85
by the liverymen of the several companies on Midsum- Govcrn-
mer day. Their office, according to Camden, in ge- ment
neral, is to collect the public revenues within their sc- —•''■v—
veral jurisdictions j to gather into the exchequer all
fines belonging to the crown ; to serve the king’s writs
of process j to attend the judges, and execute their or¬
ders ; to impannel juries ; to compel headstrong and
obstinate men by the posse cornitatus to submit to the de¬
cisions of the law j and to take care that all condemn¬
ed criminals be duly punished and executed. In par¬
ticular, in London, they are to execute the orders of
the common-council, when they have resolved to ad¬
dress his majesty, or to petition parliament.
The sheriffs, by virtue of their office, hold a court at
Guildhall every Wednesday and Friday, for actions
entered at Wood-street Compter } and on Thursdays,
and Saturdays, for those entered at the Poultry Comp¬
ter : of which the sheriffs being judges, each has its
assistant, or deputy, who are called the judges of those
courts ; before whom are tried actions of debt, tres¬
pass, covenant, &c. and where the testimony of any
absent witness in writing is allowed to be good evi¬
dence. To each of these courts belong four attorneys,
who, upon their being admitted by the court of alder¬
men, have an oath administered to them.
To each of these courts likewise belong a secondary,
a clerk of the papers, a prothonotary, and four clerks-
sitters. The secondary’s office is to allow and return
all writs brought to remove clerks out of the said
courts ; the clerk of the papers files and copies all
declarations upon actions; the prothonotary draws and
engrosses all declarations ; the clerk-sitters enter ac¬
tions and attachments, and take bail and verdicts. To
each of the compters, or prisons belonging to these
courts, appertain 16 Serjeants at mace, with a yeo¬
man to each, besides inferior officers, and the prison-
keeper.
In the sheriffs court may be tried actions of debt,
case, trespass, account, covenant, and all personal ac¬
tions, attachments, and sequestrations. When an er¬
roneous judgment is given in either of the sheriffs
courts of the city, the writ of error to reverse this
judgment must be brought in the court of hustings be¬
fore the lord mayor j for that is the superior court. The
sheriffs of London may make arrests and serve execu¬
tions on the river Thames. ,0
We do not read of a recorder till the 1304, who,Recorder*
by the nature of his office, seems to have been intended
as an assistant to, or assessor with, the lord mayor, in
the execution of his high office, in matters of justice
and law. He is chosen by the lord mayor and aider-
men only j and takes place in all courts, and in the
common-council, before any one that bath not been
mayor. Of whom we have the following description
in one of the books of the chamber : “ He shall be,
as is wont to be, one of the most skilful and virtuous
apprentices of the law of the whole kingdom ; whose
office is always to sit on the right hand of the mayor,
in recording pleas, and passing judgments j and by
whom records and processes, had before the loi’d mayor
and aldermen at Great St Martin’s, ought to be re¬
corded by word of mouth before the judges assigned
there to correct errors. The mayor and aldermen have
therefore used commonly to set forth all other busi¬
nesses, touching the city, before the king and his
A a council
40
Chamber-
lain.
4T
Other of¬
ficers.
LON
council, as also in certain of the king’s courts, by Mi-
Recorder, as a chief man, endued with wisdom, and.
eminent for eloquence.”—Mr Recorder is looked up¬
on to he the mouth of the city, to deliver all addresses
to the king, &c. from the corporation j and he is the
first officer in order of precedence that is paid a sa¬
lary, which originally was no more than I ok ster¬
ling per annum, with some few perquisites ; but it has
from time to time been augmented to loool. per
annum, and become the road of preferment in the
law. This office has sometimes been executed by a
deputy. . • xi
The next chartered officer of this corporation is the
chamberlain an officer of great repute and trust, and
is in the choice of the livery annually. This, officer,
though chosen annually on Midsummer-day, is never
displaced during his life, except some very great crime
can be made out against him. He has the keeping oi
the moneys, lands, and goods, of the city orphans or
takes good security for the payment thereof when the
parties come to age. And to that end ie is ceeme
in the law a sole corporation, to him and his suc¬
cessors, for orphans } and therefore a bond or a recog¬
nizance made to him and his successors, is recoverable
by his successors. This officer hath a court peculiarly
belonging to him. His office may be termed a public
treasury, collecting the customs, moneys, and yearly
revenues, and all other payments belonging to the
corporation of the city. It was customary for govern¬
ment to appoint the chamberlain receiver of the land
tax j but this has been discontinued for several years
^The other officers under the lord mayor are, i. The
common serjeant. He is to attend the lord mayor and
court of aldermen on court days, and to be in council
with them on all occasions, within or without the pre¬
cincts or liberties of the city. He is to take care of
orphans estates, either by taking account of them, or
to sign their indentures, before their passing the lord
mayor and court of aldermen. And likewise he is to
set, let, and manage the orphans estates, according o
his judgment, to tho best advantage. 2. The town
clerk; who keeps the original charter of the city, the
books, rolls, and other records, wherein are registered
the acts and proceedings of the city so that he may
not be improperly termed the city-register : he is to
attend the lord mayor and aldermen ^ at their courts,
and sio-ns all public instruments. 3. The city remem¬
brancer ; who is to attend the lord mayor on certain
days, his business being to put hisvlordship in mind of
the select days he is to go abroad with the aldermen,
&c He is to attend daily at the parliament house,
during the sessions, and to report to the lord mayor
their transactions. 4- The sword-bearer-, who is to
attend the lord mayor at his going abroad, and to cairy
the sword before him, being the emblem of justice.
This is an ancient and honourable office, representing
the state and princely office of the king’s most excel¬
lent majesty, in his representative the lord mayoi , and,
according to the rule of armory, “ He must carry
the sword upright, the hilts being holden under his
bulk, and the blade directly up the midst of Ins hi east,
and so forth between the sword-bearers brows
r. The common hunt*, whose business it is to take
care of the pack of hounds belonging to the lord mayor
D O Nr
and citizens, and to attend them in hunting in those Govern,
grounds to which they are authorized by charter. _
6. The common crier. It belongs to him and the ser¬
jeant at arms, to summon all executors and administra¬
tors of freemen to appear, and to bring in inventories
of the personal estates of freemen, within two mont is
after their decease: and he is to have notice of the
appraisements. He is also to attend the lord mayoi on
set days, and at the courts held weekly by the mayor
and aldermen. 7. The water baihll} whose office is to
look after the preservation of the river 1 hames against
all encroachments*, and to look alter the fishermen for
the preservation of the young fry, to prevent the de¬
stroying them by unlawful nets. For that end, there
are juries for each county, that hath any part of it ly¬
ing on the sides or shores of the said river; which juries*
summoned by the water bailiff at certain times, do make
inquiry of all offences relating to the river and the fish,
and make their presentments accordingly. He is also
bound to attend the lord mayor on set days in the
week.—These seven purchase their places ; except the
town clerk, who is chosen hy the lively.
There are also three serjeant carvers *, three serjeants
of the chamber *, a serjeant of the channel j four yeo¬
men of the water side ; an under water bailiff *, two
yeomen of the chamber j two meal weighters ; two yeo¬
men of the wood wharfs *, a foreign taker j city mar¬
shals. There are besides these, seven gentlemen’s men5
as the sword-bearer’s man, the common hunt’s two
men, the common crier’s man, and the carvers three
men.
Nine of the foregoing officers have liveries of the
lord mayor, viz. the sword-bearer and his man, the
three carvers, and the four yeomen of the water
side. All the rest have liveries from the chamber of
London. ... ,
The following officers are likewise belonging to the
city, farmer of the markets, auditor, clerk of the
chamber, clerk to the commissioners of the sewers*
clerk of the court of conscience, beadle of the same
court, clerk of the city works, printer to the city,
justice of the Bridge yard, clerk comptroller of the
Bridge house, steward of the Borough, baunl of the
Borough.
There is also a coroner, called so from corona, 1. e.
a crown, because he deals principally with the crown,
or in matters appertaining to the imperial crown of
England. See the article Coroner.
Besides these officers, there are several courts in this
city for the executing of justice, viz. the court of hus¬
tings, lord mayor’s court, &c. In the city there are
also two subordinate kinds of government. One exe¬
cuted by the aldermen, deputy, and common-council
men, and their inferior officers, in each ward *, under
which form are comprehended all the inhabitants, free
or not free of the city. Every ward is therefore like
a little free state, and at the same time subject f° the
lord mayor as chief magistrate of the city. Ihe
housekeepers of each ward elect their representatives,
the common-council, who join in making bye-laws for
the government of the city. The officers and servants
of each ward manage the affairs belonging to it, with¬
out the assistance of the rest *, and each has a couit ca -
led the wardmote, as has been already described, fer
the managemept of its own affairs, The other, hy the
1
1 ■»
4*
T'iitary
43
T aiiig
C‘ ■ panics.
L O N
master, Wardens, and court of assistants, of the incor¬
porate companies •, whose power reaches no farther
than over the members of their respective guilds or fra¬
ternities 5 except that in them is vested the power to
choose representatives in parliament for the city, and
all those magistrates and officers elected by a common
hall •, which companies are invested with distinct
powers, according to the tenor of their respective
charters.
The military government of the city is lodged in a
lieutenancy, consisting of the lord mayor, aldermen,
and other principal citizens, who receive their autho¬
rity by a commission from the king. Those have un¬
der their command the city trained bands, consisting
of six regiments of foot, distinguished by the names of
the white, orange, yellow, blue, green, and red, each
containing eight companies of 150 men, amounting in
all to 7200. Besides these six regiments, there is a
corps called the artillery company, from its being taught
the military exercise in the artillery ground. This
company is independent of the rest, and consists of 700
or 800 volunteers. All these, with two regiments of
foot of 800 men each, commanded by the lieutenant of
the Tower of London, make the whole militia of this
city ; which, exclusive of Westminster and the bo¬
rough of Southwaxk, amounts to about 10,000 men.
The trading part of the city of London is divided
into 89 companies ; though some of them can hardly be
called so, because they have neither charters, halls, nor
liveries. Of these 89 companies, 55 have each a hall
for transacting the business of the corporation; and
this consists of a master or prime warden, a court of
assistants and livery.—Twelve of these companies are
superior to the rest both in antiquity and wealth j and
of one of those 1 2 the lord mayors have generally made
themselves free at their election. These companies are
the mercers, grocers, drapers, fish-mongers, goldsmiths,
skinners, merchant-taylors, haberdashers, salters, iron¬
mongers, vintners, and clothworkers.—The principal
incorporated societies of the merchants of this city are,
the Hamburgh Company, the Hudson’s Bay Company,
the Russia Company, the Turkey Company, the East
India Company, the Royal African Company, the South
Sea Company, and some Insurance Companies. The
most of these companies have stately houses for trans¬
acting their business, particularly the East India and
South Sea Companies. See Company.
44
nark- The streets and public buildings in London and its
streets liberties being far too numerous for a particular de-
build- scription in this work, we shall only select the most re-
he ith" nmi'kable, beginning with London Bridge as the most
tv
D O N. 187
ancient, and proceeding in our survey through the Public
wards into which the city is divided. Buildings.
I. Remarkable Buildings, &c. in the City.—The v
original bridge, which stands in Bridge ward, was of j on^n
wood, and appears to have been first built between the bridge,
years 993 and 1016 •, but being burnt down about the
year 1136, it rvas rebuilt of \\rood in 1163. The ex-
pences, however, of maintaining and repairing it be¬
came so burdensome to the inhabitants of the city,
that they resolved to build a stone bridge a little west¬
ward of the Avooden one. This building AAras begun in
1176, and finished in 1209’, and AAras 915 feet long,
44 feet high, and 73 feet Avide ; but houses being
built on each side, the space between Avas only 23
feet.
This great Avork Avas founded on enormous piles
driven as closely as possible together: on their tops
Avere laid long planks 10 inches thick, strongly bolted }
and on them Avas placed the base of the pier, the
loivermost stones of Avhich Avere bedded in pitch, to
prevent the water from damaging the Avork: round
all Aveie the piles which Avere called the sterlings, de¬
signed for the preservation of the foundation piles.
These contracted the space betAAreen the piers so great¬
ly, as to occasion at the retreat of every tide a fall of
five feet, or a number of temporary cataracts, Avhich
since the foundation of the bridge have occasioned the
loss of many thousand lives. The number of arches
Avas 19, of unequal dimensions, and greatly deformed
by the sterlings and the houses on each side, Avhich
overhung and leaned in a most terrific name. In
most places they hid the arches, and nothing appeared
but the rude piers. Within recollection, frequent
arches of strong timber crossed the street from the tops
of the houses to keep them together, and from falling
into the river (a). Nothing but use could preserve •
the quiet of the inmates, Avho soon greAv deaf to the
noise of the falling watei’s, the clamours of watermen,
or the frequent shrieks of drowning Avretches. In
one part had been a draAvbridge, useful either by Avay
of defence or for the admission of ships into the upper
part of the river. This was protected by a strong
toAver. It served to repulse Falconbridge the Bastard
in his general assault on the city in 1471, with a set
of banditti, under pretence of rescuing the unfortunate
Henry, then confined in the ToAver. Sixty houses
Avere burnt on the bridge on the occasion. It also
served to check, and in the end annihilate, the ill-con¬
ducted insurrection of Sir Thomas Wyat, in the reign
of Queen Mary. The top of this tower, in the sad
and turbulent days of this kingdom, used to be the
shambles of human flesh, and covered Avith heads or
A a 2 quarters
(a) The gallant action of Edmund Osborne, ancestor to the duke of Leeds, when he wras apprentice to Sir
William Hewet, cloth-worker, may not improperly be mentioned in this place. About the year 1536, when
his master lived in one of those tremendous houses, a servant maid was playing Avith his only daughter in her
arms in a Avindow over the water, and accidentally dropt the child. Aoung Osborne, who Avas Avitness to the
misfortune, instantly sprang into the river, and beyond all expectation, brought her safe to the terrified la-
mily ! Several persons of rank paid their addresses to her Avhen she was marriageable, among others the earl oi
ShreAVsbury *, but Sir William gratefully decided in favour of Osborne: Osborne, says he, saved her, and Osborne
shall enjoy her. In her right he possessed a great fortune. He became sheriff of London in 1575? ani^
mayor in 1582.
t 88 L 0 N
Public quarters of unfortunate partizans. Even so late as the
Buildings, year 1598, Hentzner, the German traveller, with t>er-
'    man accuracy, counted on it above 30 heads. ic
old map of the city in 1597 represents them in a most
horrible cluster.—An unparalleled calamity happened
on this bridge within four years after it was finished.
4 fire began on it at the Southwark end ; multitudes
of people rushed out of London to extinguish it •, while
they were engaged in this charitable design, the lire
seized on the opposite end, and hemmed in the crowd.
A.bove 3000 persons perished in the flames, or were
drowned by overloading the vessels which were hardy
enough to attempt their relief. ,
The narrowness of the passage on this bridge, and
the straitness of the arches, having occasioned frequent
and fatal accidents, the magistrates of London, in 1750
and 1758, obtained acts ol parliament for improving
and widening the passage over and through the bridge.
In consequence of these acts of parliament, a tempoia-
ry wooden bridge was built, and the houses on the old
bridge were taken down. Instead ol a narrow street
23 feet wide, there is now a passage of 31 feet for
carriages, with a raised pavement of stone on each side
7 feet broad for the use of foot passengers. The sides
are secured by stone balustrades, enlightened in the
night with lamps. The passage through the bridge is
enlarged by throwing the two middle arches into one,
and by other alterations and improvements •, notwith¬
standing which, however, it is still greatly subject to
its former inconveniences.
Waterloo The Strand or Waterloo Bridge is one of the no¬
bridge. blest structures of the kind in the world, whethei we
regard the simple and chaste grandeur of its architec¬
ture, its convenience as a bridge, or the impression ot
indestructibility which it forces on the mind. It was
begun in the yc,'r 1811, and opened in 1817, on the
anniversary of the battle of Waterloo. The architect
was Mr Bennie. It cost rather more than one million
of money, all of which was raised by private subscrip¬
tion. It crosses the Thames near the Savoy to the op¬
posite shore of Lamheth-marsh. It contains 9 equal
arches, each of 127 feet span. The piers are 20 feet
high j the width within the parapets 42 feet, the foot¬
paths being 7 feet each, and the roadway 28 feet. It
is perfectly flat, and is built of granite.
Vauxhall The Vauxhall, which was begun nearly at the same
bridge. time as the Waterloo Bridge, crosses the Thames from
Milbank to the Cumberland tea-gardens near \ auxhall.
It consists of 9 arches of equal span, of cast-iron. The
soan is 78 feet, the height 29 feet, and the breadth of
the roadway 36 feet : the length is 899 feet. It was
built by private subscription, and cost nearly 300,000!.
A road is opened from it to Pimlico, and thus it is con-
c nected with Hyde Park corner,
swwirk Southwark Bridge is not yet finished. It crosses
S'e the Thames at the bottom of Queen’s Street Gheapside
to Bankside. It consists of 3 arches of cast-iron. I he
centre arch is 240 feet span, and the side ones 210
feet each. The river here is narrow, but deep and
rapid. The estimate is 287,000!. Mr Bennie is the
the architect. It is building by private subscription.
TUetlo- Near the north side of London bridge stands the
nuinent. Monument, a beautiful and magnificent fluted column
of the Doric order, built with Portland stone, and
D O N
erected in memory of the conflagration 1666.
ccvieu *i»     o  It Was PybKft-
begun "by sir Chnstopher Wrei^in 1671, and finish-
ed by him in 1677* -^3 B'0111 Bie pavement is
202 feet j the diameter of the shaft, or body of the co¬
lumn, is 15 feet} the ground-plinth, or lowest part
of the pedestal, is 28 feet square j and the pedestal is
40 feet high. Over the capital is an iron balcony en¬
compassing a cone 32 feet high, which supports a blaz¬
ing urn of gilt brass. Within is a large staircase ot
black marble, containing 345 steps, each ten inches
and a half broad, and six inches thick. 'I he west side
is adorned with a curious emblem in alt-relief, denoting
the destruction and restoration of the city. I he first
female figure represents London sitting in ruins, in a
languishing posture, with her head dejected, hei ban
dishevelled, and her hand carelessly lying on her sword.
Behind is Time, gradually raising her up : at her side
is a woman touching her with one hand, whilst a wing¬
ed sceptre in the other directs her to regard the god¬
desses in the clouds 5 one with a cornucopia, denot¬
ing Plenty; the other with a palm branch, the emblem
of Peace. At her feet is a bee-hive, showing, that by
industry and application the greatest misfortunes are to
be overcome. Behind the figure of Time are citizens
exulting at his endeavours to restore her j and beneath,
in the midst of the ruins, is a dragon, who, as the
supporter of the city arms, with his paw endeavours to
preserve the same. Opposite to the city, on an ele¬
vated pavement, stands the king, in a Boman habit,
with a laurel on his head, and a truncheon in. his
hand j and approaching her, commands three of Ins
attendants to descend to her relief. The first repre¬
sents the Sciences with a winged head and circle of
naked boys dancing thereon •, and holding Nature m
her hand, with her numerous breasts, ready to give
assistance to all. The second is Architecture, with a
plan in one hand, and a square and pair of compasses
in the other 5 and the third is Liberty, waving a hat in
the air, showing her joy at the pleasing prospect of the
city’s speedy recovery. Behind the king stands his
brother the duke of York, with a garland in one hand
to crown the rising city, and a sword in the other for
her defence. The two figures behind are Justice and
Fortitude ; the former with a coronet, and the latter
with a reined lionand under the royal pavement lies
Envy, gnawing a heart, and incessantly emitting pesti¬
ferous fumes from her mouth. On the plinth the re¬
construction of the city is represented by builders and
labourers at work upon houses. On the north, south,
and east sides, are inscriptions relating to the destruc¬
tion occasioned by the conflagration, the regulations
about rebuilding the city, and erecting the monument;
and round it is the following one “ This pillar was
set up in perpetual remembrance of the most dreadful
burning of this Protestant city, begun and carried on
by the treachery and malice ot the Popish faction, in
the beginning of September, in the year of our Lord
1666, in order to their carrying on their horrid plot
for extirpating the Protestant religion and old English
liberty, and introducing Popery and slavery.” Dr
Wendeborn, in his account of London, observes, that
the monument, though not much above 100 years old,
bears visible marks of decay already } and it will not
probably be long before it must be pulled down. Some
are
LON
,isyj0 are of opinion that tins is occasioned by the fault of
ildings. the architect, others by the continual shaking of the
ground by coaches j but the doctor inclines to the lat-
ter opinion.
Tower. Eastward of the bridge and monument stands the
Tower, which gives name to another ward. It is the
chief fortress of the- city, and supposed to have been
originally built by William the Conqueror. It ap¬
pears, however, to have been raised upon the remains
of a more ancient fortress, erected probably by the Ro¬
mans : for in 1720, in digging on the south side of
what is called Caesar's Chapel, there were discovered
some old foundations of stone, three yards broad, and
so strongly cemented that it was with the utmost dif¬
ficulty they were forced up. The first work (accord¬
ing to Mr Pennant) seems to have been suddenly flung
up in 1066 by the Conqueror, on his taking possession
of the capital ; and included in it a part of the ancient
wall.
The great square tower, called the White Tower,
was erected in the year 1078, when it arose under the
directions of Gundulph bishop of Rochester, who was a
great military architect. This building originally stood
by itself. Fitz-Stephen gives it the name of Arx Pa-
latina, “ the Palatine Tower 5” the commander of
which had the title of Palatine bestowed on him. With¬
in this tower is a very ancient chapel for the use of such
of our kings and queens who wished to pay their de¬
votion here. In iop2 a violent tempest did great in¬
jury to the Tower; but it was repaired by William
Rufus and bis successor. The first added another ca¬
stellated building on the south side between it and the
Thames, which was afterwards called St Thomas's
Tower.
The Tower was first enclosed by William Long-
champ bishop of Ely and chancellor of England, in
the reign of Richard I. This haughty prelate having
a quarrel with John, third brother to Richard, under
pretence of guarding against his designs, surrounded
the whole with walls embattled, and made on the out¬
side a vast ditch, into which, in after times, the water
from the Thames was introduced. Difl’erent princes
added other works. The present contents within the
walls are 12 acres and 5 rods, the circuit on the out¬
side of the ditch 1052 feet. It was again enclosed
with a mud Avail, by Henry III.: this was placed at a
distance from the ditch, and occasioned the taking
down part of the city-wall, which was resented by the
citizens ; who, pulling down this precinct of mud, were
punished by the king with a fine of a thousand
merks.
D O N. 189
The Lions Town' was built by Edward IV. It Avas Public
originally called the Bulwark, hut received the former Buildings,
name from its use. A menagery had very long been 1
a piece of regal state : Henry I. had bis at his manor
of Woodstock, where he kept lions, leopards, lynxes,
porcupines, and several other uncommon beasts. They
Av'eve aflenvards removed to the ToAA’er. Edward If.
Commanded the sheriffs of London to pay the keepers
of the king’s leopards sixpence a-day for the suste¬
nance of the leopards, and three halfpence a-dav for
the diet of the keeper out of the fee-farm of the city.
The royal menagery is to this day exceedingly Avell
supplied.
In 1758 the ToAver ditch Avas railed all round. Ncav
barracks Avere some years ago erected on the ToAver
wharf, which parts it from the river; and upon the
Avliarf is a line of 61 pieces of cannon, Avhich are fired
upon state holidays. On this side of the ToAver the
ditch is narroAV, and over it is a draAvbridge. Parallel
to the Avbarf, within the Avails, is a platform 70 yards
in length called the Ladies Line, because much fre¬
quented by the ladies in the summer; it being shaded
in the inside with a row of lofty trees, and Avithout
is a delightful prospect of the shipping Avith boats pas¬
sing and repassing on the river Thames. You ascend
this line by stone steps, and being once upon it you may
Avalk almost round the Avails of the Tower without in¬
terruption.
The principal entrance into the Tower is by a gate
to the Avest, lai’ge enough to admit coaches and heavy
carriages ; hut these are first admitted through an out-
Avard gate, situated Avithout the ditch upon the hill,
and must pass a stout stone bridge built over the ditch
before they can approach the main entrance. There
is, besides, an entrance near the very south-west corner
of the Tower outward Avail, for persons on foot, over
the drawbridge already mentioned to the wharf.
There is also a Avater-gate commonly called Traitor's
gate, through Avbich it has been customary to convey
traitors and other state prisoners to or from the Tower,
and which is seldom opened on any other occasion ;
but the lords committed to the ToAver in 1746 were
publicly admitted at the main entrance. Over this gate
is a regular building, terminated at each end by tAvo
round toAvers, on Avhich are embrasures for pointing
cannon. In this building there are the infirmary, the
mill, and the water-AVorks that supply the ToAver with
Avater.
In the Tdwer, the curiosities of which are more
particularly described in the note (b), are a church,
the offices of ordnance, those of the keepers of the
records
(b) In examining the curiosities of the ToAver of London, it will be proper to begin with those on the
outside of the principal gate. The first thing a stranger usually goes to visit is the wild beasts; which, from
their situation, first present themselves : for having entered the outer gate, and passed Avhat is called the spur-
guard, the keeper’s house presents itself before you, Avhich is knoAvn by a painted lion on the wall, and another
over the door Avhich leads to theii'dens. By ringing a bell, and paying sixpence each person, you may easily
gain admittance.
On passing the principal gate you see the White ToAver, built by William the Conqueror. This is a large,
square, irregular stone building, situated almost in the centre, no one side answering to another, nor any oi its
Avatch-towers, of Avhich there are four at the top, built alike. One of these towers is now converted into an ob¬
servatory. In the first story are tAvo noble rooms, one of Avhich is a small armoury for the sea-service, it hav¬
ing various sorts of arms, very curiously laid up, for above 10,000 seamen. In the other room are many closets
190
Public
Buildino'!
L 0 N
records, of tlie jewel office, of the Spanish armoury,
the horse armourv, and the new or small armoury ; with
' barracks fof the soldiers of the garrison, and handsome
houses for several officers who reside here. J he pi.n-
cipal officers of the Tower, are, a constable, a lieute¬
nant, and a deputy-lieutenant.. Belonging to this iort-
ress are 11 hamlets j the militia of which, consisting ox
400 men, are obliged, at the command of the con¬
stable of the Tower, to repair hither, and reinforce the
rj garrison.
Victualling On Little Tower-hill is the Victualling office for the
Office. navy. It is separated from Tower-hill by a wall and
gate, and contains houses for the officers, slaughtei-
D O N.
houses, store rooms, a brew-house, a salting-house, and Public
barrelling-house j under the direction of seven com- .IMiding;,
missioners and other intend officers.
The Mint was formerly within the Tower j but with-
in these few years it has been removed to an elegant
building, erected on purpose, on the north-east corner
of Tower-hill. Its area comprises 159,700 feet, ot
which '71,200 are in the buildings j it cost 22S,656!,
exclusive of the machinery. The steam engines, &c.
for coining, are of the best construction. S3
In Tower ward is also the Customhouse, a large, Cuffiom.
handsome, and commodious building of brick and stone. ‘1U!'!''''
It stands upon the banks of the Thames, and L ac¬
commodated
and presses, all filled with warlike engines spadTs” 'pickaxes, and
pally filled wnth arms 5 the other wi 1 aims a j skJns tanned hides, &c.$ and in a little room called
chtvaux d« ««. I" the upper stor, are ^ and cnatoma of the
Julius Cussar’s chapel, are deposited some recor , i ® 1 invented enrines of destruction that have from
place. In this building are also preserved the White Tower is the Spanish
time to time been presented to the go\einine t. (.al]c{1 the^Invincible Armada 5 in order to per-
V' -w •*" n •'« '■!“ ™ *• "•"i
extends 245 feet m length and 6o m b e. . ^ a nVAln\^ room called the Nev or Small Armoury,
hut ,t was hmshed by ^ng ^illmm m. who erected tha g ^ ai] ^ d
m which that prince, with Queen Mary Ins consort, d S irulres of the order of masonry. To
labourers to attend them, dressed m white gloves and Tnons ti c r be Tower chapel, which leads to a
this noble room you are led by a the work-shop, in which are
grand staircase of 50 easy steps. On the left side oi tde upf^er tbe arms. On entering the
constantly employed about 14 furbishers, 111 ^ani ^ ^falf’ (iisrosed, that at one view you behold arms for
armoury, you see what^ to behold without astonishment ,
near 80,000 men, all bright and httor service iag 16 chests shut up, each chest holding about
and besides those exposed to new, there xvere, befoie the late war^ 10 cnests J them in this
XOOO muskets. The arms were originally ^ ^ ^ ]{e ”vas a common gunsmith 5 hut
’rfile" W^IWmedThis'oA, which ffiheadmhalion of people of all nationa, he was allowed a pension from
by 20 pillars, all hung round with implements ot war. I his room, which 1. 24 1 c 0 , r 5
middle x 6 feet wide. _ . . . .... „ to the eastward of the White Tower ; and is an edifice
The horse armoury » a plain Imck bmld«fc«y vdned with a representation of those kings and heroes
rather convenient than elegant, where -P supposed he is well acquainted; some of them equipped
and shining’Ltonr they were used to wear when they performed
tlie crown jewels are depositee. • 1 c f J. jn I040 Jt is of gold, enriched with diamonds,
England cap within is of purpffi velvet, lined with white taffety turned
rubies, emerafds, sapphire^ a 1 hJ mistaken in showing this as the ancient imperial diadem
parliament, bi^ike oiMsn^ th^ 1U However^after^hc^Restoration^King^haBes II. had one made in
robes sword and sceptre, t The klen orb or gl0be, put into the king’s right hand before
imitation of it, which is that now jf t riTit upon liis return into Westminster-half
he is crowned t and ^ "hh F-h and enriched with precious stones,
after he is crowneffi It s abou ^ ^ an inch and a half in height, set with a rich cross of gold,
On the top is an amethyst • stone8. The whole height of the ball and cup is 11 inches. 3. Ihe
.goZ scI^e wUhSc^fs’et upon a large amethyst of great value, garnished round with table diamond.
LON
M)]ic commodated with large wharfs, keys, and warehouses.
Ji Mings. On this spot is the busy concourse of all nations, who
pay their tribute towards the support of Great Bri¬
tain. About the year 1559, the loss to the revenue,
by collecting it in different parts of the city, was first
discovered, and an act passed to compel people to land
their goods in such places as were appointed by the
commissioners of the revenue 5 and this was the spot
fixed on : A customhouse was erected ; which, being
destroyed by the great fire, was rebuilt by Charles II.
In 1718 it underwent the same fate, and was restored
in its present form. It was burnt a third time in
1814, and has since been rebuilt on a greater scale.
The area is 480 feet long by 100 broad, and it will
accommodate 1700 clerks, tidewaiters, &c. The long
DON.
191
room is 190 feet by 67. The lower floor consists of Public
bonding vaults. In 1268 the half years customs for Buildings.^
foreign merchandise in the city of London, came only ^
to 75I. 6s. rod. In 1700, the imports of London were
about 4,785,000!. Since the peace in 1815, the an¬
nual amount of the imports and exports, is estimated at
70,000,000!. j of which 5,ooo,oool. imports, and
8,ooo,oool. exports, are for the coasting trade ", and
30,000,000k imports, with 27,000,000k exports, are for
the foreign trade. In the course of the year there gene¬
rally arrive about 14,000 vessels, including repeated
voyages. The number of vessels belonging to London
on an average of some years, amounts to about 300c,
of about 600,000 tons, and navigated by 45,000 men.
In Water-lane, a little to the north-west of the
customhouse,
The handle of the sceptre is plain, but the pummel is set round with rubies, emeralds, and small diamonds.
The top rises into & fleur-de-lis of six leaves, all enriched with precious stones, from whence issues a mound or
ball, made of the amethyst already mentioned. The cross is quite covered with precious stones. 4. The sceptre,
with the dove, the emblem of peace, perched on the top of a small Jerusalem cross, finely ornamented with table
diamonds and jewels of great value. This emblem was first used by Edward the Confessor, as appears by his
seal ; but the ancient sceptre and dove was sold with the rest of the regalia, and this now in the Tower was
made after the Restoration. 5. St Edward’s staff, four feet seven inches and a half in length, and three inches
three quarters in circumference, all of beaten gold, which was carried before the king at his coronation. 6. The
rich crown of state, worn by his majesty in parliament $ m which is a laige emerald siwen inches round, apeail
esteemed the finest in the world 5 and a ruby of inestimable value. 7. The crown belonging to his royal high¬
ness the prince of Wales. The king Avears his crown on his head when he sits upon the throne j but that of
the prince of Wales is placed before him, to show that he is not yet come to it. 8. The late Queen Mary’s
crown, globe, and sceptre, with the diadem she wore at her coronation with her consort King William III.
9. An ivory sceptre, with a dove on the top, made for King James Il’s queen, whose garniture is gold, and the
dove on the top gold enamelled with white. 10. The curtana, or sword of mercy, which has a blade of 32 inches
lomr, and near two broad, is without a point, and is borne naked before the king at his coronation, between the
two swords of justice, spiritual and temporal. 11. The golden spurs, and the armillas, which are bracelets for
the evrists. These, though very antique, are AArorn at the coronation. 12. The ampulla, or eagle of gold, finely
engraved, Avhich holds the holy oil the kings and queens of England are anointed with •, and the golden spoon
that the bishop pours the oil into. These are two pieces of great antiquity. The golden eagle, including the
pedestal, is about nine inches high, and the Avings expand about seven inches. The Avhole weighs about ten
ounces. The head of the eagle screws off about the middle of the neck, Avhich is made hollow for holding the
holy oil } and when the king is anointed by the bishop, the oil is poured into the spoon out of the bird’s bilk
13. A rich saltseller of state, in form like the square White Tower, and so exquisitely Avrought, that the Avork-
manship of modern times is in no degree equal to it. It is of gold, and used only on the king s table at the co¬
ronation. 14. A noble silver font, double gilt, and elegantly Avrought, in which the royal family are christen¬
ed. 15. A large sik'er fountain presented to King Charles II. by the tOAvn of Plymouth, very curiously wrought;
but much inferior in beauty to the above. Besides these, which are commonly shown, there are in the jewel ot-
fice all the croAvn jeAvels worn by the princes and princesses at coronations, and a great Arariety of old curious plate.
The record office consists of three rooms, one above another, and a large round room, where the rolls are kept.
These are all handsomely vvamscotted, the Avainscot being framed into presses round each room, Avithin aaIiIcIi aie
shelves and repositories for the records ; and for the easier finding of them, the year of each reign is inscribed on
the inside of these presses, and the records placed accordingly. Within these presses, which amount to 56 in
number, are deposited all the rolls, from the first year of the reign ol King John to the beginning of the reign ol
Richard III. but those after tiffs last period are kept in the Rolls Chapel. The records in the Toiver, among
other things, contain the foundation of abbeys and other religious houses ; the ancient tenures of all the lands
in England, Avith a survey of the manors j the original of laAvs and statutes 5 proceedings oi the courts of common
law and equity ; the rights of England to the dominion of the British seas j leagues and treaties with foreign
princes •, the achievements of England in foreign Avars } the settlement of Ireland, as to laAv and dominion ; the
forms of submission of some Scottish kings for territories held in England } ancient grants of our kings to their
subjects j privileges and immunities granted to cities and corporations during the period above mentioned ; en¬
rolments of charters and deeds made before the Conquest 5 the bounds ot all the forests in England, Avith the se¬
veral respective rights of the inhabitants to common pasture, and many other important records, all regularly dis¬
posed, and referred to in near a thousand folio indexes. This office is kept open, and attendance constantly given,
from seven o’clock till one, except in the months of December, January, and February, Ayben it is open only
from eight to one, Sundays and holidays excepted. A search here is half a guinea, for Avhieh you may peruse
any one subject a year.
2
1 92
Public
Buildings.
54
Trinity
House.
55
The Mi-
nones.
India Cora
pany’s
ware¬
houses.
57
Billings¬
gate.
L O N
customhouse, is the Trinity House ; a society founded in
icic, at a period in which the British navy began to
assume a system. The founder was Sir 1 homas Spert
comptroller of the navy, and commander of the great
ship Henry Grace de Dieu. It is a corporation,
consisting of a master, four wardens, eight assist¬
ants and eighteen elder brethren j selected from com¬
manders in the navy and the merchants service-,
and now and then a compliment is paid to one or two
of our first nobility. They may be considered as
guardians of our ships, military and commercial. I heir
powers are very extensive : they examine the mathe¬
matical children of Christ’s hospital, and the masters
of his majesty’s ships ; they appoint pilots tor the river
Thames j settle the general rates ol pilotage erect
light houses and sea marks; grant licenses to poor sea¬
men, not free of the city, to row on the 1 hames pre¬
vent foreigners from serving on board our ships with¬
out license 5 punish seamen for mutiny and desertion
hear and determine complaints of officers and men in
the merchants service, but liable to appea to the judge
of the court of admiralty superintend the deepening
and cleansing of the river 1 hames,
Between Aldgate and the Tower is the street called
the Minories, from some poor ladies of the order ot
St Clare, or minorcsses. They had been invited to
London by Blanch, queen of Navarre, and wife to Ld-
mund earl of Lancaster, who founded a convent tor
them in I2Q4. On the suppression of the monasteries
it was converted into a dwelling house for some of the
nobility, and is now in the possession of the Dartmoutn
family. Till of late years, the Minories were hut a
despicable street j but have now been excellently re¬
built, and are as elegant as any in the city.
On the west side of the city walls at this place, stood
the house of the Crutched or Crossed Friars, an order
instituted at Bologna in 1169, and of which a branch
settled in England in 1244, where they were accom¬
modated with a house in this place by two citizens
named Ralph Hosier and William Sabcrnas, who became
members of their order. Henry VIII. granted their
house to Sir Thomas Wyat the elder, who built a
handsome mansion on part of the ground where it
stood. This mansion became afterwards the residence
of John Lord Lumley, a celebrated warrior in the
time of Henry VIII. * In process of time, it was con¬
verted into a navy office : hut this office being remov¬
ed to Somerset-house, the India Company have erect¬
ed in its place a most magnificent warehouse, in form
of an oblong square of about 250 feet by 160, enclos¬
ing a court of 150 by 60 feet, the entrance to which
is by an arched gateway.
Billingsgate ward is distinguished by its market.
Billingsgate was a small port for the reception of ship¬
ping, and for a considerable time the most important
place for the landing of almost every article of com¬
merce. In the time of King William, Billingsgate
began to be celebrated as a fish-market. 101699 it
was by act of parliament made a free port for fish to
be sold there every day except Sunday but Mr Pen¬
nant informs us, that the object of this has long been
frustrated, and that fish are now no longer to be had
there in perfection. The same author gives a Ikt of
the fish which in the time of Edward III. were
N.
StCil
D O
brought to the London market j the monarch himself miic I
having condescended to regulate the prices, that his Buildings
subjects might not be imposed upon by those who v~~
sold them. Among these were the conger-eel and
porpoise, neither of which is now admitted to any
table. A pike at that time cost 6s. 8d. ; whence our
author concludes, that it was an exotic fish, and brought
over at a vast expence. Some fishes are mentioned in
his list with which this naturalist owns himself unac¬
quainted, viz. the barken, bran, batrile, cropling, and
rumb. In Archbishop Nevill’s great feast is mention¬
ed also a fish named thirlc-poole, unknown at present.
Seals were formerly accounted a fish } and these, to¬
gether with the sturgeon and porpoise, were the only
fresh fish permitted by the 33d of Henry VIII. to be
bought of any stranger at sea between England, I ranee,
Flanders, and Zealand, 58
Limestreet ward is remarkable for a very large build- Leaden¬
ing of great antiquity, called Leadenhall, with flatha11-
battlements leaded on the top, and a Spacious square
in the middle. In 1309 house of Sir Hugh
Nevill, knight; in 1384, of Humphry Bohun, earl of
Hereford ; in 1408 it became the property of the ce¬
lebrated Whittington, who presented it to the mayor
and commonalty of London ; and in I419» a Pubjic
granary was erected here by Sir Simon Eyie, a citi¬
zen and draper, who built it with stone in its present
form. This granary was designed as a preservative
against famine, and to be kept always full of corn,
which design was for some time happily answered. The
house came to he used for many other purposes besides
that of a granary ; as for keeping the artillery anti arms
of the city. Preparations for any kind of pageantry
or triumph were also made here; and from its strength
the place was considered as the chief fortress within
the city in case of any popular insurrection, and was
likewise the place from whence alms were distributed.
In this edifice are warehouses for the sale ot leather, Col¬
chester baize, meal, and wool. Adjoining to Leaden¬
hall is a market, thence called Leadenhall market, con¬
sisting of five considerable squares or courts, and rec¬
koned one of the greatest markets in Europe tor
flesh, and other provisions, as well as for leather,
green hides, and wool. A little to the eastward is 59
the India House, built in 1726, on the spot occupied The Ini*
by Sir William Craven, mayor in 1610. According ouse
to Mr Pennant, this house “ is not worthy of the lords
of Indostan.” . 60
In Broad-street is the Batik of England, a stone build-
ing, which occupies one side of Threadneedle-street.
The centre, and the building behind, were founded
in the year 1733 ; the architect George Sampson.
Before that time the business was transacted in Gro-
cers-hall. The front is a sort of vestibule ; the base
rustic, the ornamental columns above Ionic. Within
is a court leading to a second elegant building, which
contains a hall and offices, where the debt of above
2 50 millions is punctually discharged. Of late years
two wings of uncommon elegance, designed by Sir
Robert Taylor, have been added, at the expence ot
a few houses, and of the church of St Christopher’s
le Stocks. “ The name of the projector of this national
glory (says Mr Pennant), was Mr James Paterson of
Scotland. This palladium of our country was m
1 *7 80
J labile
It, clings.
M iiant-
T*. fin's
Hm See.
62
St: iles’s.
LON
1780 saved from the fury of an infamous banditti
by the virtue of its citizens, who formed suddenly a
volunteer company, and overawed the miscreants 5
while the chief magistrate skulked trembling in his
mansion-house, and left bis important charge to its
fate. This important building has ever since been
very properly guarded by the military j who, in pas¬
sing through the city, have often given offence to many
busy characters who would strive to preserve the city
rights, at the expence of the national destruction. A
lord mayor was the last who interested himself by ap¬
plying to Mr Grenville, who gave him to understand,
that if the guards were not quietly permitted to dis¬
charge their dyty, the bank would be removed to So¬
merset-house.”
At the extremity of Threadneedle-street is Mcr-
chant-Taylors Ha!!. In this street also is the South
Sea House, first established in 1711 for the purpose of
an exclusive trade to the South sea, and for supplying
Spanish America with negroes.
Near the, junction of Throgmorton-street with Broad-
street stood a magnificent house built by Cromwell earl
of Essex •, after whose fall, the house and gardens were
bought by the Drapers company. The house was de¬
stroyed in the great fire, but rebuilt for the use of the
company in a magnificent manner.
Mr Pennant informs us, that St Giles"'s church in the
fields, and a few houses to the west of it, in the year
1600, were barely separated from Broad-street. The
church is supposed to have belonged to an hospital for
lepers, founded about the year 1117, by Matilda queen
to Henry I. In ancient times it was customary here
to present to malefactors, on their way to the gallows
(which, about the year 1413, was removed from
Smithfield, and placed between St Giles’s high-street
,and Hog-lane (c), a great bowl of ale, as the last
refreshment they were to receive in this life. On
the door to the churchyard is a curious piece of
sculpture, representing the last day, containing an
amazing number of figures, set up about the year
1686. This church was rebuilt in 1625. ^ie
amazing raising of the ground by filth and various
adventitious matter, the floor in the year 1730 was
eight feet below the surface acquired in the interven¬
ing time. This alone made it necessary to rebuild the
church in the present century. The first stone was
laid in 1730 j it was finished in 1734, at the expence
of io,oool.—In the churchyard is a great square pit,
with many rows of coffins piled one upon the other, all
exposed to sight and smell, the latter of which is highly
offensive if not dangerous.
On the west side of Broad-street stood the house of
the Augustines, founded by Humphry Bohun earl
Vol. XII. Part I.
DON. 193
of Somerset in 1253, for friars and hermits of the Public
Augustine order. On the dissolution of the mo- Buildings.^
nasteries, great part of the house was granted to
AVilliam Lord St John, afterwards marquis of W in- winchester
Chester, and lord treasurer, who founded a magnificent House,
house named Winchcster-housc. The west end ot the
church was granted in 1551 to John a Lasco lor the
use of the Germans and other fugitive Protestants,
and afterwards to the Dutch as a place for preaching,
A part of it was also converted into a glasshouse for
Venice glass, in which the manufacture was carried
on by artists from that city, and patronised by the
duke of Buckingham. The place was afterwards con¬
verted into Tinners-hally belonging to the company of
pinmakers. 6$
To the eastward of Winchester-street stood the house Gresham
of that very eminent merchant Sir Thomas Gresham, af- College,
terwards known by the name of Gresham college : (See
Gresham). It has been pulled down not many years
ago 5 and the Excise office, a most magnificent and at Excise
the same time simple building, rose in its place. Mr Office.
Pennant informs us, that from the 5th ol January 1786
to January 5th 1787, the payments into this office a-
mounted to no less than 5,531,114!. 6s. 10-Id. 66
The Royal Exchange, which is the meeting place of Royal Ex-
the merchants of London, stands in the ward of Corn- chanae-
hill, and is the finest and strongest fabric of the kind
in Europe. It was founded in the year 1566. Sir
Thomas Gresham, merchant in London, made an
offer to the lord mayor and citizens, to build, at his
own expence, a commodious edifice for merchants to
meet and transact business, provided the city would
find him a convenient situation for the same. Mr
Pennant informs us, that one Richard Clough a Welsh¬
man, originally Sir Thomas’s servant, first put him on
this design by a letter from Antwerp, in which he x’e-
proached the London merchants with having no place
to transact their business, but walking about in the
rain, more like pedlars than merchants. The citizens,
in compliance with Sir Thomas’s desire, purchased,
for the sum of 3532l. 80 houses in the two alleys
called Hew St Christopher's and Swan-alley, lead¬
ing out of Cornhill into Threadneedle-street. The
materials of those houses were sold for 47 81. and the
ground, when cleared, was conveyed to Sir Thomas
Gresham, who, accompanied by several aldermen, laid
the first brick of the new building on the 7th of June
that year. Each alderman also laid his brick, and
left a piece of gold for the workmen $ who set about
it with such assiduity and resolution, that the whole
fabric was roofed by the month of November 1567,
and was soon after completed under the name of the
Burse. This building was totally destroyed by the
'f B b fire
(c) This late place of execution, according to Mr Pennant, was called in the time of Edward III. when
the gentle Mortimer finished his days here, the Elms: but the original as well as the present name was Ty-
bourne; not from tye and hum, as if it were called so from the manner of capital punishments j but from bourne,
the Saxon word for a “ brook,” and Tye the name of that brook, which joined gave name to a manor before
the Conquest. Here was also a village and church denominated St John the Evangelist, which fell to decay,
and was succeeded by that of Mary-hourne, corrupted into Mary la-bonne. In 1626, Queen Henrietta Maria
was compelled by her priests to take a walk by way of penance to Tyburn. What her offence was we are not
told j but Charles was so disgusted at this insolence, that he soon after sent them and all her majesty’s French
servants out of the kingdom."
191-
Public fire in 1666 *, and in this place the present niagnificent
Buildings, structure was erected at the expence of So 000;
> v ’ which stands upon a plat of ground 203 feet in length
and 171 in breadth, containing an area in the middle,
of 6x square perches, surrounded with a substantial
and regular stone building, wrought m rustic. It has
two fronts, north and south, each of which is a piaz¬
za • and in the centre are the grand entrances into
the’ area, under a very lofty and noble arch. I he
south front in Cornhill is the principal 5 on each side
of which are Corinthian demi-colunins, supporting a
compass pediment ; and, in the intercolumniation on
each side, in the front next the street is a niche, with
the statues of King Charles I. and II, m Roman ha¬
bits and well executed. Over the aperture, on the
cornice between the two pediments, are the kings
arms in relievo', on each side of this entrance is a
range of windows placed between deim-columns and
pilasters of the Composite order, above which runs a
balustrade. This building is 56 feet high j and irom
the centre, in this front, rises a lanthorn and turret
178 feet high, on the top of which is a vane ot gilt
brass made in the shape of a grasshopper the crest
of Sir Thomas Gresham’s arms. The north front in
Threadneedle-street is adorned with pilasters ot the
Composite order; but has neither columns nor statues
on the outside-, and has triangular, instead ot com¬
pass, pediments. The inside of the area is also sur¬
rounded with piazzas, forming ambulatories for mer¬
chants, &c. to shelter themselves from the weather,
when met there upon business. Above the arches
of this piazza is an entablature with curious orna¬
ments : and on the cornice a range of pilasters with
an entablature extending round, and a compass pedi-
LONDON, . r
ment in the middle of the cornice of each of the four pub1is
sides Under the pediment on the north side are the Buildings
king’s arms-, on the south, the city’s arms; on the' ^
east Sir Thomas Gresham’s arms ; and on the west,
the mercers arms, with their respective enrichments.
In these intercolumns are 24 niches, 20 of which are
filled with the statues of the kings and queens ol Ung¬
land. Under these piazzas, within the area, are 28
niches, all vacant but that in which Sir Thomas Gre¬
sham’s statue is placed in the north-west angle, and
that in the south-west, - where the statue of Sir John
Barnard was placed in his lifetime by his fellow-citi-
zens, to express their sense of his merit. I he centre
of this area also is ornamented with a statue of King
Charles II. in a Roman habit, standing upon a marble
pedestal about eight feet high, and encompassed with
iron rails; which pedestal is enriched on the south
side with an imperial crown, a sceptre, swoid, palm-
branches, and other decorations, with a very flattering
inscription to the king. On the west side is a Cupid
cut in relievo, resting his right hand on a shield, with
the arms of France and England quartered, and hold¬
ing a rose in his left hand. On the north side is an¬
other Cupid supporting a shield, with the arms of
Ireland; and on the east side are the arms of bcot--
land, with a Cupid holding a thistle ; all done in re¬
lievo : the whole executed by that able statuary JMi
Gibbon. .
In this area, merchants, and such as have business
with them, meet every day at change hours; and for'
the more regular and readier despatch ot business, they
dispose of themselves into separate walks, according to.
the following plan :
East country
walk.
North.
Threadneedle-Street.
Irish
tualk.
Scotch
walk.
Dutch and
Jewellers.
& ?
w ^
£ §
O
Silkmens
walk.
Turkey
walk.
Clothiers
walk.
Grocers
and
Druggists
vvalk.
Hamburgh
walki
Salters
walk.
Virginia
walk.
Jamaica
walk.
Jdrokers
of Stock,
8)C. walk.
Italian
tealk.
&
Sr &
S’ >
? *-i .
Q *
■1
Spanish
walk.
Jews
walk.
Cornhill.
South.
In
'ublic
iildimrs.
57
leral
Office
68
Man-
i-house.
<1. 69
i Stephen
irch.
70
fidon-
ie.
LON
In building this expensive structure there was an eye
not only to magnificence, and to accommodate the
merchants, but also to reimburse the expcnce. For
this reason a gallery was built over the four sides of
the Royal Exchange. This was divided into 200 shops,
which were let out to haberdashers, milliners, &c. and
which for several years were well occupied. But these
shops have now for a long time been deserted, and the
galleries are let out to the Royal Exchange Assurance-
Office, the Merchant-seamen’s Office, the Marine So¬
ciety, and to auctioneers, &c. Under the whole area
there are the finest dry vaults that can be found any¬
where, which are let out to the East India Company
to deposite their pepper. In the turret is a good clock
with four dials, which is well regulated every day, so
that it becomes a standard of time to all the mercan¬
tile part of the town j and it goes with chimes at
three, six, nine, and twelve o’clock, playing upon
twelve bells. The outside of this grand fabric suffers
very much in its elegance from the shops that surround
it, and are built within its walls ; and which are occu¬
pied by booksellers, toymen, cutlers, hosiers, watch¬
makers, &c.
South of the Royal Exchange, and near the west
. extremity of Lombard-street, is the General Post Office,
which is a handsome and commodious building.
In Walbrook ward is the Mansion-house, for the re¬
sidence of the lord mayor. This edifice was begun in
1739, and finished in 1753. It is built of Portland
stone, with a portico of six fluted columns, of the
Corinthian order in the front. The basement story
is very massy, and consists of rustic work 5 in the centre
of it is the door, which leads to the kitchen, cellars,
and other offices. On each side rises a flight of steps,
leading up to the portico, in the middle of which is
the principal entry. The stone balustrade of the stairs
is continued along the front of the portico, and the
columns support a large angular pediment, adorned
with a group of figures in has relief, representing the
dignity and opulence of the city of London. It is an
extremely heavy building, of an oblong form, and its
depth is the long side, having several magnificent apart¬
ments, which are not, however, well lighted, on account
of the houses that surround it.
Behind the Mansion-house is St Stephen's Church,
in Walbrook, justly reputed the masterpiece of the
celebrated Sir Christopher Wren, and said to ex¬
ceed every modern structure in the world in proportion
and elegance.
The Mansion-house, and many adjacent buildings,
stand on the place where the Stocks-market once stood.
I bis took its name from a pair of stocks erected near
the spot in 1281 ; and was the great market of London
for provisions during many centuries.
In this ward is situated one of the most remarkable
pieces of antiquity in London. It is a great stone,
now standing in a case on the north side of Canon-
street, close under the south wall of St Swithin’s
church. It is called London-stone; and was formerly
pitched edgeways on the other side of the street, oppo¬
site to where it now stands, fixed deeply in the ground,
and strongly fastened with iron bars ; but for the con-
veniency of wheel carriages it was removed to its pre¬
sent situation. This stone is mentioned so early as
ffie time of Athelstan, king of the West Saxons, and
r95
DON.
has been carefully preserved from age to age. Of the Public;
original cause of its erection no memorial remains; but Buildings,
it is conjectured, that as London was a Roman city,' v 1
this stone might be the centre, and might serve as an
object from which the distance was computed to the
other considerable cities or stations in the province. •
In Dowgate ward is a noted academy, called Mer- Mercbant-
chant-Taylors School, from its having been founded by'Baylors
the merchant-taylors company', in the yrear 1561. ItSc*100^
was destroyed by the lire of London in 1666, but was
rebuilt, and is a very large structure, with commodi¬
ous apartments for the masters and ushers, and a fine
library. Sir Thomas White, lord mayor of this city',
having founded St John’s college in Oxford in 1557,
appointed this school as a seminary for it, and esta¬
blished at Oxford 46 fellowships for scholars elected
from this school.
The church of St Mary le Bow, in Cordwainers-,st Mary le
street ward, is the most eminent parochial-church in the Bow.
city. It was originally built in the reign of William
the Conqueror; and being the first church the steeple
of which was embellished with stone arches or bows,
took thence its denomination of le Bow. It was burnt
down in the fire of 1666, but soon afterwards rebuilt.
The steeple of this church is reckoned the most beauti¬
ful of its kind in Europe. 73
In Cheap ward is Guildhall, or the townhouse of Guildhall.
London. This was originally built in 1411, but so
damaged by the great fire already mentioned, as to
be rebuilt in 1669. fr°nt i’as a Gothic appear¬
ance ; and this character is also due to the two gi¬
gantic effigies which stand within the hall. The hall
is 153 feet long, 50 broad, and 55 high, adorned with
the royal arms, and those of the city and its compa¬
nies, as well as with several portraits of English sove¬
reigns and judges. In this building are many apart¬
ments for transacting the business of the city, besides
one for each of the judicial courts, namely, that of the
King’s Bench, the Common Pleas, and the Exchequer. ^
In the year 1246 Cheapside was an open field, Clieapside.
named Crown-field, from an inn with the sign of the
crown. At that time, and even for 200 years after¬
wards, none of the streets of London were paved ex¬
cepting Thames-street, and from Ludgate-hill to Cha-
ring-Cross. . : f ,
GoldsmitlCs Hall stands in Foster-lane, which opens Goldsmiths
into the west end of Cheapside,—In this lane also is Hall.
St Martin’s le Grand, which, though surrounded by 7^ .
the city, was yet subject, near three centuries, to^^J^j1'
Westminster Abbey. A fine college was built here
in 700 by Wythred, king of Kent; and, about the
year 1056, rebuilt and chiefly endowed by Ingelric
and Edward, two noble brothers. In 1068, it was con¬
firmed and made independent of every other ecclesiasti¬
cal jurisdiction, even that of the pope himself not ex¬
cepted ; and its privileges xvere confirmed by succeed¬
ing monarchs. It was governed by a dean, and a
number of secular canons. In this jurisdiction a mag¬
nificent church was erected, but pulled down in 1 54&>
when the college was surrendered; after which a tavern
was erected on the spot.
A little to the westward of Mary le Bow church The ^ogs
(in the adjoining ward), stood the Cross and Conduit and Coe.-
in the middle of the street. The former was built byduit.
Edward I. in 1290, in memory of his queen Eleanor,
B b 2 whose
LON
whose body was rested <m that spot in its way to be
s, buried. Originally it had the statue of the queen at
full length, resembling exactly that at Northampton.
Having at length fallen to decay, it was rebuilt in
jiii by John Hutherby mayor of the city, at the ex-
pence of several citizens, being now ornamented with
various images, as those of the Resurrection, the Vir¬
gin Mary, &c. As the magnificent processions took
this road, it was new gilt at every public entry. Alter
the Reformation, the images gave so much ottence,
that it was thought proper to substitute that ol Diana
in place of the Virgin Mary. This, however, was
resented by Queen Elizabeth, who offered a reward
for the discovery of the offenders. As she imagined
that a cross, the symbol of the Christian religion,
could not justly give offence to any professor of that
religion, she ordered a cross to he placed on the sum¬
mit and gilt *, but in 1643, llie parliament ordered the
demolition of all crosses and other marks of Romish su¬
perstition.
Splendid tournaments were held between the Cross
and Sopers-lane in the year 1331 but as Queen Phi¬
lippa and a great number of other ladies, dressed in rich
attire, were sitting on the upper scaffolding to behold
the sports, the seat gave way, and they suddenly tell
down among the knights and others who stood below }
many of whom were grievously hurt. Ihe caipentcis
were saved from punishment by the intercession of the
queen •, but the king, to prevent accidents of the like
nature, ordered a building of stone to be elected near
Bow church, from whence the queen and other ladies
might behold such spectacles in safety. J his was used
foAhe same purpose till the year 1410, when Hen¬
ry IV. granted it to certain mercers, who converted it
into shops, warehouses, and other places necessary for
their trade.
A small distance eastward from the Cross stood the
Conduit, which served to fill the lesser ones with wa¬
ter brought by pipes from Paddington.—This stood on
the spot "where the old conduit was situated, which was
founded in 1285, constructed of stone lined with lead,
and rebuilt in 1479 by Thomas Tlan, one of the she¬
riffs. On some grand occasions, these conduits have
been made to run with claret; as at the coronation of
7s Anna Bullen.
Mercers Qn tbe north side of Cheapside stood the Hospital of
St Thomas of Aeon, founded by Fitz-Theobald de Hel-
les, and his wife Agnes, sister to the famous Thomas
a Becket. The hospital was built 20 years after the
murder of Thomas } and such was his reputation for
sanctity, that it was dedicated to him even before he
was canonized, and that in conjunction with the Vir¬
gin Mary herself. The whole was granted by King
Henry VIII. to the company of mercers. It was
destroyed by the great fire in 1666 ; but rebuilt by the
mercers company, who have their hall here.—Imme¬
diately to the east is a narrow street called the O/d
©il Jewry. Jewry, which' took its name from a great synagogue
which stood here till the Jews were expelled the king-
d o n:
dom in 1291. After them an order of friars »™™ed Publii
Fratrcs dc sacca, or de penitentia, took possession ot the Biukhngj.
synagogue: and in 1305, Robert Fitzwalter, the great
banner-bearer of the city, requested that the friars
might assign it to him ; the reason of which probably
was, that it stood near to his house, which was situated
in the neighbourhood of the present Grocers-hall. Ihe
chapel was bought by the grocers from Fitzwalter m
1411 for 320 marks. 80
In Bassishaw or Basinghall ward, is Blackwell orBakewdl
Bakewell hall, which adjoins to Guildhall, and is the Hull,
greatest mart of woollen cloth in the world. It was
purchased of King Richard II. by the city j and has
ever since been used as a weekly market for broad am
narrow woollen cloths, brought out of the country.
Formerly proclamations were issued to compel people -
to bring their goods into the hall, to prevent deceit m
the manufactures, which might be productive of dis¬
credit in foreign markets, and likewise be the means
of defrauding "the poor children of Christ’s hospital of
part of the revenue which arose from the hallage ot
this great magazine. It suffered in the general deva¬
station in 1666 j but was rebuilt in 1672, and is now
a spacious edifice, with a stone front adorned with co-
lUmnS* 1,1 81
Cripplccrate ward is remarkable for a college, called Sion Col-
Sion College, founded in 1627, on the site of Elsing-lege,
hospistal (d) or prioI7> '’J Ihomas White, vicar of
St Dunstan’s in the West, for the improvement of
the London clergy •, and with alms-houses under their
care, for 20 poor persons, 10 men and 10 women. In
the year 1631, a charter was procured for incorporat¬
ing the clergy of Fondon, by which they were consti¬
tuted fellows of the college ; and out of the incumbents
are annually' elected, on Tuesday three weeks after
Easter, a president, twm deans, and four assistants, who
are to meet quarterly to hear a Latin sermon, and af¬
terwards be entertained at dinner in the college hall at
the exptnee of the foundation. John Simpson, lectoi
of St Olave’s, who superintended the building, added,
at his own expence, for the use ot the studious part of
the London clergy, a library 120 feet long, and amply
filled with books. 82
In this ward is a hall which belonged to the ccm.Ba,bers
pany of barber-surgeons, the professions of barber and Hall,
surgeon being formerly exercised by the same person.
It was built by the celebrated Inigo Jones, and trie
upper end is formed out of one of the towers or bmbi-
cans of London wall. The anatomical theatre is el¬
liptical, and very finely contrived. The hall is now
called Barbers hall; the surgeons, who disdained to be
any longer associated with their ancient brethren, hav¬
ing obtained a separate charter, and built themselves a
new hall in the Old Bailey. 83
Farringdon ward within, is distinguished by the St Paul 9
most magnificent Protestant church in the world, the^3* c ^
cathedral of St Paul. The best authority we have lor
the origin of this church, is from its great restorer Sir
Christopher W ren. His opinion, that there had been
(D) This was founded by William Flsing mercer in 1329 (on the site of a decayed nunnery), for the support
of 100 blind men. He afterwards changed it into a priory, and became himself the first prior, who tvith four
canons-regular were to superintend the miserable objects.
4
■■■■
LON
iPubue a church on' thla spot, built by the Christians in the
.ijildiugs. time of the Romans, was confirmed: when he search-
—v—~‘ ed for the foundations for his own design, he met
with those of the original presbifterium, or semicircular
chancel, of the old church. They consisted only of
Kentish rubble stone, artfully worked, and consolidated
with exceedingly hard mortar, in the Roman manner,
much excelling the superstructure. He explodes the
notion of there having been here a temple of Diana,
and the discovery of the horns of animals used in the
sacrifices to that goddess, on which the opinion had
been founded, no such having been discovered in all his
searches.
The first church is supposed to have been destroyed
in the Dioclesian persecution, and to have been re¬
built in the reign of Constantine. This was again
demolished by the pagan Saxons •, and restored, in
603, by Sebert, a petty prince, ruling in these parts,
under Ethelbert king of Kent, the lirst Christian
monarch of the Saxon race ; who, at the instance of
St Augustine, appointed Melitus the first bishop of
London. Erkenwald, the son of King Ofla, fourth
in succession from Melitus, ornamented his cathedral
very highly, and improved the revenues with his own
patrimony. He was most deservedly canonized : for
the very litter, in which he was carried in his last ill¬
ness, continued many centuries to cure fevers by the
touch ; and the very chips, carried to the sick, restored
them to health !
When the city of London was destroyed by fire, in
1086, this church was burnt j the bishop Mauritius
began to rebuild it, and laid the foundations, which
remained till its second destruction, from the same
cause, in the 17th century. Notwithstanding Mauri¬
tius lived twenty years after he had begun this pious
work, and Bishop Beauvages enjoyed the see twenty
more, yet such was the grandeur of the design, that
it remained unfinished. The first had the ruins of
the Palatine tower bestowed on him, as materials for
the building j and Henry I. bestowed on Beauvages
part of the ditch belonging to the tower, which,
with purchases made by himself, enabled him to en¬
close the whole with a walk The same monarch grant¬
ed besides, that every ship which brought stone for the
church, should be exempted from toll j he gave him
also all the great fish taken in his precincts, except the
tongues : and, lastly, he secured to him and his succes¬
sor the delicious tythes of all his venison in the county
of Essex.
The style of the ancient cathedral was a most beau¬
tiful Gothic j over the east end was an elegant cir¬
cular window } alterations were made in the ends of
DON.
the two transepts, so that their form is uot delivered Public
down to us in the ancient plans j and from the central Buildings.
tower rose a lofty and most graceful spire. The dimen-
sions, as taken in 1309, were these : The length six
hundred and ninety feet \ the breadth a hundred and
twenty j the height of the x’oof of the west part, from
the floor, one hundred and two j of the cast part, a
hundred and eighty-eight; of the towci’, two bundled
and sixty ; of the spire, which was made of wood cover¬
ed with lead, two hundred and seventy-four. The
whole space the church occupied was three acres, three
roods, and twenty-one perches.
w e may be astonished at this amazing building, and
naturally inquire what fund could supply money to
support so vast an expence. But monarchs resigned
their revenues resulting from the customs due for the
materials, which were brought to the adjacent wharfs ;
they furnished wood from the royal forests : prelates,
gave up much of their revenues \ and, what was more
than all, by the pious bait of indulgences, and remis¬
sions of penance, brought in from the good people of
this realm most amazing sums. Pope Innocent HI.
in 1252, gave a release of sixty days penance j the
archbishop of Cologne, gave, a few years before, a re¬
laxation of fifty days j and Boniface archbishop of
Canterbury, forty days.
The high altar dazzled with gems and gold, the
gifts of its numerous votaries. John king of France,
when prisoner in England, first paying his respects to
St Erkenwald’s shrine, offered four basons of gold :
and the gifts at the obsequies of princes, foreign and
British, wTere of immense value. On the day of the
conversion of the tutelar saint, the charities were pro¬
digious, first to the souls, when an indulgence of forty
days pardon was given, vere pccmtenlibus, contntis ct
confcssis ; and, by order of Henry III. fifteen hundred
tapers were placed in the church, and fifteen thousand
poor people fed in the churchyard.
The holiness of this place did not prevent thieves
and profligates of all denominations from lurking within
the precincts, and committing, under ihe favour of the
night, murders, and every sort of crime. Edward I.
gave the dean and canons permission to enclose the
whole within a wall j and to have gates, to be shut
every night, to exclude all disorderly people. M ithin
these walls, on the north-west side, was the bishop’s
palac'v Froissart tells us, that after the great tour¬
nament in Smithfield, King Edward III. and his queen
lodged here, on occasion of their nuptials (e.)—In
1561, the nnM? spire was totally burnt by lightning,
and never restored.
In consequence of the resolutions taken in 1620, by
^ James 1.
(e) Before this cathedral was the famous PauPs Cross, a pulpit formed of wood, mounted upon steps of
stone, and covered with lead, in which the most eminent divines were appointed to preach every bunday in the
forenoon. To this place, the court, the mayor and aldermen, and principal citizens, used to resort, 'ihe
greatest part of the congregation1 sat in the open air j the king and his train had covered galleries 5 and the bet¬
ter sort of people were also protected from the injury of the weather but the far greater part stood exposed in
the open air: for which reason the preacher went in very bad weather j to a place called the Shrouds j a covered
space on the side of the church, to protect the congregation in inclement seasons. Considerable contributions were
raised among the nobility and citizens, to support such preachers as were (as was often the case) called to town
from either of the universities. In particular, the lord mayor and aldernieO ordered that every preacher, w'ho
Came from a distance, should be freely accommodated, during five days, witfi swset and convenient lodgings, fire,
candle,.
ioB
LON
Public Janies I. to repair the Cathedral, the celebrated Inigo
Buildings. Jones was appointed to the work. But it was not at-
tempted till the year 1633, when Laud laid the hist
stone, and Inigo the fourth. That great architect
begun with a most notorious impropriety, giving to
the west end a portico of the Corinthian order, beau¬
tiful indeed, to this ancient Gothic pile', and to the
ends of the two transepts Gothic fronts in a most hor¬
rible style. The great fire made way for the restoring
of this magnificent pile in its present noble form by Sir
Christopher Wren, an architect worthy ot so great a
design. , . c c
It is built of fine Portland stone, in foim of a cross.
On the outside are two ranges of pilasters, consisting
of a hundred and twenty each*, the lower range of
the Corinthian order, and the upper of the Composite.
The spaces between the arches of the windows and
the architrave of the lower order, are filled with a
great variety of curious enrichments, as are also those
above. On the north side is a portico, the ascent to
which is by twelve steps of black marble, and its dome
supported by six very large columns. Over the dome
is a pediment, the face of which is engraved with the
royal arms, regalia, and other ornaments. On the
south is a portico, the ascent to which is by twenty-
five steps, and its dome supported by six columns, cor¬
responding with those on the north side. The west
front is graced with a most magnificent portico, sup¬
ported by twelve lofty Corinthian columns : over these
are eight columns of the Composite order, which sup¬
port a noble pediment, crowned with its acroteria ; and
in this pediment is the history of St Paul s conversion,
boldly carved in bas relief. The ascent to this portico
is by a flight of steps of black marble, extending the
whole length ol the portico 5 and over each corner oi
the west front is a beautiful turret. A vast dome, or
cupola, rises in the centre of the building. Twenty
feet above the roof of the church is a circular range
of thirty-two columns. with niches, placed exactly
against others within. These are terminated by their
entablature, which supports a handsome gallery, adorn¬
ed with a stone balustrade. Above the columns last
mentioned is a range of pilasters, with windows be¬
tween them: and from the entablature of these, the
diameter of the dome gradually decreases. On the
summit of the dome is an elegant balcony, from the
centre of which runs a beautiful lanthorn, adorned
with Corinthian columns. The whole is crowned
with a copper ball, supporting a cross, both finely gilt.
Within, the cupola stands on eight stupendous pillars
curiously adorned: the roof of the choir is supported
by six pillars, and that of the church by two ranges,
DON.
consisting of twenty more. The root of the church
and choir is adorned with arches and spacious periphe- ^
ries of enrichments, admirably carved in stone. Quite
round the inside of the cupola, there is a whispering
iron balcony, or gallery, the top of which is richly
painted by Hir James Ihornhill.
The first stone of this superb edifice was laid on
June 21. 16755 and the building was completed in
1710 j but the whole decorations were not finished till
1723. It was a most singular circumstance, that, not¬
withstanding it was 35 years in building, it was begun
and finished by one architect, and under one prelate,
Henry Compton bishop oi London. Ihe^ church 01
St Peter’s was 135 years in building, in the reigns ot
19 popes, and went through the hands ot twelve archi¬
tects. It is not, as often mistaken, built aitei the mo¬
del of that famous temple : it is the entire conception
of our great countryman, and has been prelened in
some respects by a judicious writer, to even the Homan
Basilica. Its dimensions are less. I he comparative
view is given in the Parentalia, and copied in London
and its Environs. The height ot St Peter’s, to the
top of the cross, is 437 foot and a half 5 that of St Paul s
340 feet 5 so that, from its situation, it is lofty enough
to be seen from the sea. The length of the first is 729
feet 5 of the latter, 500. The greatest breadth of
St Peter’s is 364 *, ot St Paul’s, 180.
In the reigns of James I. and Charles I. the body
of this cathedral was the common resort of the politici¬
ans, the news mongers, and idle in general. It was
called Paul's walk; and is mentioned in the old plays
and other books of the times.
Notwithstanding the magnificence of this noble pile,
however, it is remarked to have many defects. Its
situation is such, that it cannot be viewed at a distance-
The division of the porticos, and the whole stiuctuie,
into two stones on the outside, certainly indicates a like
division within, which is acknowledged to be a fault.
The dome, it has also been observed, bears too great a
proportion to the rest of the pile, and ought to have
been raised exactly in the centre of the building 5 be¬
sides that, there ought to have been two steeples at the
east end, to correspond with those at the west. On
entering this church, we instantly perceive an obvious
deficiency, not only ot elevation but length, to assist the
perspective 5 and the columns are heavy and clumsy,
rather encumbering the prospect than enriching it.
St Paul’s occupies an area of six acres, and is railed
all round with iron balustrades, each about five feet
and a half high, fixed on a divarf wall of hewn
stone. In the west end of this area is a marble statue
of Queen Anne, holding a sceptre in one hand, and a
globe
filhlif
EuildingS
candle, and all necessaries. And notice was given by the bishop of London, to the preacher appointed by him, of
the place he was to repair to.
We hear of this being in use as early as the year 1259. 11 was used» as Mr 1 ennant observes, not only tor
the instruction of mankind by the doctrine of the preacher, but for every purpose political or ecclesiastical 5 for
giving force to oaths, for promulging of laws, or rather the royal pleasure, for the emission of papal bulls, lor
anathematizing sinners, for benedictions, for exposing of penitents under censure of the church, for recantations,
for the private ends of the ambitious, and for the defaming of those who had incurred the displeasure of crowned
heads. f
It was demolished in 1643 by order of parliament, executed by the willing hands of Isaac Pennington the la-
natical lord mayor of that year, who died in the Tower a convicted regicide.
3
LONDON.
Ss
Wrist’s
3; spital.
Vulic globe in the other, surrounded with four emblematical
ildings. figures representing Great Britain, France, Ireland,
—v ' and America.
Besides very large contributions for carrying on
this edifice, the parliament granted a duty on sea-coal,
which, at a medium, produced 5000I. a-year j and the
whole expcnce of the building is said to have amounted
to 736,752I. 2S. 3d.
On the east side of the cathedral is St Paul's School,
founded in 1509 by Dr John Collet dean of this
church, who endowed it for a principal master, an un-
g4 der-master, a chaplain, and 153 scholars.
< lege of In W arwick-lane, in the same ward, stands the Col-
iiysicians. lege 0f Physicians, erected in 1682 by Sir Christopher
AV ren. It is built of brick, and has a spacious stone
frontispiece. Near the south extremity of the Old
Bailey, on the east side, is the hall of the Company of
Surgeons, with a theatre for dissection.
Adjoining to Christ-churcli in Newgate-street is
Christ's Hospital, which, before the dissolution of mo¬
nasteries by Henry VIII. was a house of Gray-friars.
The hospital was founded by King Edward VI. for
supporting and educating the fatherless children of
poor freemen of this city •, of whom 1000 of both
sexes are generally maintained in the house or out at
nurse, and are likewise clothed and educated. In
1673, a mathematical school was founded here by
Charles II. endowed with 320I. a-year; and a writ¬
ing school was added in 1694 by Sir John Moor, an
alderman of the city. After the boys have been seven
or eight years on the foundation, some are sent to the
university and others to sea ; while the rest, at a pro¬
per age, are put apprentices to trades at the charge of
the hospital. At first their habit wras a russet cotton,
but was soon after changed for blue, which has ever
since continued to be their colour; and on this account
the foundation is frequently called the Blue-coat hospital.
The affairs of this charity are managed by a president
and about 300 governors, besides the lord mayor and
aldermen. The fabric, which is partly Gothic and
partly modern, was much damaged by the fire of 1666,
but was soon repaired, and has been since increased
with several additions. The principal buildings, which
form the four sides of an area, have a piazza round
them with Gothic arches, and the walls are supported
by abutments. The front is more modern, and has
Doric pilasters supported on pedestals.
In Castle-Baynard ward is a large structure called
Doctor's Commons. It consists of several handsome pa¬
ved courts, in which the judges of the court of admiral¬
ty, those of the court of delegates, of the court of arches,
and the prerogative court, with the doctors that plead
causes, and the proctors of the place, all live in a col¬
legiate way; and from commoning together, as in
other colleges, the name of Doctors Commons is de¬
rived. Here courts are kept for the trial of civil and
ecclesiastical causes under the archbishop of Canterbury
and the bishop of London. The college has an excel¬
lent library, every bishop at his consecration giving
25k or 90I. towards purchasing books for it.
Near Doctors Commons, on St Bennet’s Hill, is the
College of Heralds, who were incorporated by King
Richard III. Besides the chief officer, who is the
2ar!-marshal of England, here are three kings, at arms,
86
Fetors
C imons.
s?
- kge of
Walds.
199
viz. Garter, Clarencitux, and Norroy, with six heralds, FnMie
four pursuivants, and eight proctors. Garter attends Buildings
the instalments of knights of that order, carries the
garter to foreign princes, regulates the ceremonies at
coronations, and the funerals of the royal family and
nobility : Clarencieux directs the funeral ceremonies
of those under the degree of peers south of Trent ;
and Norroy performs the like office for those north of
Trent. This building was originally the house of the
earl of Derby. It is a spacious quadrangle, built of
brick, and has convenient apartments. Here are kept
records of the coats of arms of all the families and
names in England, with an account when they were
granted, and on what occasions. gs
In Farringdon ward without, is a large building Bridewell.
called Bridewell, from a spring formerly known by the
name of St Bridget’s or St Bride’s Well. It was ori¬
ginally a royal palace, and occupied all the ground
from Fleet-ditch on the east to Water-lane on the west.
That part of it now called Salisbury-court was given to
the bishops of Salisbury for their town residence ; and
the east part, which was rebuilt by King Henry VIII.
is the present Bridewell. It was granted to the city
by Edward V f. as an hospital; and he endowed it for
the lodging of poor travellers, and for the correction
of vagabonds, strumpets, and idle persons, as well as’
for finding them work. In one part of the building
20 artificers have houses; and about 150 boys, dis¬
tinguished by white hats and blue doublets, are put
apprentices to glovers, flaxdressers, weavers, &c. and
when they have served their time are entitled to the
freedom of the city, with 10I. towards carrying on
their respective trades. The other part of Bridewell
is a receptacle for disorderly persons, who are kept at
beating hemp and other hard labour.
Near Bridewell is St Bride's Church, a stately fabric
in feet long, 57 broad, and 41 high, with a beautiful
spire 234 feet in altitude, and has a ring of 12 bells in
its tower.
Opposite to Fleet-ditch, over this part of the river, Blackfriaw-
stands Blackfriars Bridge; a most elegant structure, Bridge,
built after the design of Mr Robert Mylne. The
situation of the ground on the two shores obliged the
architect to employ elliptical arches ; which, however,
have a very fine effect. The number of arches is nine ;
of which the centre one is 100 feet wide. The whole
length is 995 feet; the breadth of the carriage wrav is
28 feet, and that of the two foot-wrays 7 each. Over
each pier is a recess ; an apology for the beautiful
Ionic pillars which support them, and which have a
most beautiful effect from the river. This bridge was
begun in 1760 ; and finished in 1768, at the expence
of 152,840!. to be discharged by a toll upon the pas¬
sengers. It is situated almost at an equal distance be¬
tween those of Westminster and London, commands a
view' of the Thames from the latter to Whitehall, and
discovers the majesty of St Paul’s in a very striking-
manner.
West Smith field. In this ward is an area containing Smiibikh,
three acres of ground, called in old records Smithfield-
Pond or Horse-Pool, it having been formerly a watering
place for horses. It was in ancient times the common
place of execution ; and at the south-west corner there
was a gallows called the Elms, from a number of elm-
trees
St Bartho¬
lomew’s
Hospital.
L ° N
...
rnii'ic trees tliat gre'tv in tlie neighbourhood. i "was l vC^
Buildings, wise the scene of public justs and tournaments, and ha,
~—v " J been a market-place for cattle above 500 years.
On the south side of this urea, and conUguous to
Cl,list’s hospital, is Si Bartholomew s HospitaL It was
originally founded soon alter the accession ol Henry ,
by IIaliere the king’s jester, as an infirmary for the
priory of St Bartholomew the Great, which then stood
near the spot. But upon the dissolution of religious
houses, Henry VIII. refounded it, and endowed it
with 500 marks a-year, on condition that the citizens
should pay the same sum annually for the relict of too
lame and infirm patients. The endowments of tins
charity have since been so much enlarged, that it now
receives the distressed of all denominations. In 1702,
a beautiful frontispiece was erected towards bmithheld,
adorned with pilasters, entablature, and a pediment ot
the Ionic order, with a statue of King Henry •
standing in a niche in full proportion, and those ot wo
cripples on the top of the pediment over it. In 1729,
a plan was formed for rebuilding the rest of this mspi-
tal, in consequence of which a magnificent edifice lias
been erected. 1 1 tj , r
Among manv other privileges granted by ni *
to the prior and canons of the monastery of bt Bar¬
tholomew the Great, and to the poor of the infirmary,
was that of keeping a fair in Smithfield °n the eve,
day, and morrow, of St Bartholomew. Ibis fair,
called Bartholomew fair, has been held annually ever
since: and by the indulgence of the magistrates ot
London, to whom the privilege of keeping it devolved
upon the dissolution of the priory, it used to continue
a fortnight. A great number of booths was erected
in it by the actors of the theatres, for the exhibition
of dramatic performances of various kinds} and it be¬
came at length a scene of so much licentiousness and
riot, that Sir John Barnard when lord mayor of Lon¬
don reduced the time of the fair to its original dura¬
tion of three days. This laudable example has been
followed ever since $ and the magistrates have likewise
prohibited all public exhibitions which had been for¬
merly accompanied with so much disorder.
In a street in this ward, called the Old Bailey, is a
hall named Justice hall, or the Session'1 s house, where a
court is held eight times a-year by the king’s com¬
mission of oyer and terminer for the trial of criminals
for offences committed within the city of London and
county of Middlesex. T-he judges of this court aie
the lord mayor, those of the aldermen that have served
that office, and the recorder; who are attended by the
sheriffs and by one or more of the national judges.
In this street is also the great criminal prison, re¬
built in 1777 in a more convenient situation, and on a
more enlarged plan, than the former prison, called
Newgate: by which name it is still distinguished. It
consists of two wings, the debtors and the felons side,
with the keeper’s house in the middle The felons aie
generally between 200 and 300. Single rooms in the
state-side of the prison, or in the governor’s house, are
let to prisoners who chuse to pay for them.
Jn this ward is likewise a prison called the Fleet
Prison, from a small river named the Fleet which for¬
merly ran by it: the building is large. It is a prison
for the confinement of debtors, and such as arc com-
D O N.
mitted for contempt of court. There are 209 rooms, lublic
14-fr feet by 12|-. The number of prisoners is general- ^^uiding^.
ly between 200 and 300. They are allowed to exer¬
cise and amuse themselves in a large court. 95
In Chancery-lane is an office consisting of a house The Itolls
and chapel, called the office and chapel of the Bolls,
from being the great repository of the modern rolls and
records of the kingdom. This building was originally
the house of an eminent Jew $ but being forfeited to
the crown, King Henry HI. in the year 1223, con¬
verted it into a hospital for the reception and accom¬
modation of Jewish and other proselytes. In 1377;
Edward III. granted this hospital and its chapel
to William Burstall, master of the rolls, to whose
successors in that office it has ever since belonged.
Hound this office there is a small district consisting ot
about 200 houses, called the Liberty oj the Lolls, over
which the magistrates of London have no authority,
it being under the government of the master of the
rolls.
In this ward are several Inns of court and chancery,
particularly the Inner and Middle Temple, Serjeants
r.KflVivd’s Inn. Barnard’s Inn. Staple’s Inn, and
OldBadey.
93
Kewffate.
94 .
Tlect-pri¬
son.
    1 1 T
Inn, Clifford’s Inn, Barnard’s Inn, Staple’s Inn, and
Furnival’s Inn. . . .. 9^
The Temple received its name from being originally The Tem
founded by the Knights Templars, who settled here in pie.
1185. It was at first called the New Temple, to dis¬
tinguish it from the former house of the Knights lem-
plars, which stood in Holborn near Chancery lane.
The original building was divided into three parts ;
the Inner, the Middle, and the Outer Temple. The
Inner and the Outer Temple were so called, because
one was within and the other was without the Bar j
and the Middle derived its name from being situated
between them. Upon the dissolution of the order of
Knights Templars, the New Temple devolved to the
Knights Hospitallers of St John ot Jerusalem, who
granted a lease of it to the students of the common law,
and converted that part of it called Inner and Middle
Temple into two inns of court for the study and prac¬
tice of the common law. The Outer Jemple became
a house for the earl of Essex.
The buildings of the Temple escaped the fire m
1666, hut were most of them destroyed by subsequent
fires, and have since been rebuilt. The two Temples
are each divided into several courts, and have pleasant
gardens on the hanks of the Thames. They are ap¬
propriated to distinct societies, and have separate halls,
where the members dine in common during term-time.
The Inner Temple hall is said to have been built m
the reign of Edward III. and the Middle J emplc hall,
which is a magnificent edifice, was rebuilt in 1572
in form of a college hall. The Middle Temple gate,
Mr Pennant informs us, was erected by kir Annas
Powlet on a singular occasion, It seems that Sir A-
mias, about the year 1501 thought fit to put Cardi¬
nal M oisey, then parson of Lymington, into the stocks.
In 1313, being sent for to London by the cardinal on
account of that ancient grudge, he was commanded
not to quit town till farther orders. In consequence,
he lodged five or six years in this gateway, which he
rebuilt j and to pacify his eminence, adorned the front
with the cardinal’s cap, badges, cognisance, and other
devices of this butcher’s son \ so low were the great
LON D O N.
! Public
lildings.
97
ks of
anccry.
98
tblehem
iVitn obliged to stoop to that meteor of the times!
Each temple has a good library, adorned with paint¬
ings, and well tarnished with books. An assembly,
called parliament, in which the affairs of the society
of the Inner Temple are managed, is held there every
term. Both Temples have one church, first founded
in 1185, by the Knights Templars j but the present
edifice is supposed to have been built in 1420. It is
supported by neat slender pillars of Sussex marble, and
is one of the most beautiful Gothic structures in Eng¬
land. In this church are many monuments, particu¬
larly of nine Knight Templars cut in marble in full
proportion, some of them seven feet and a half long •,
six are cross-legged, and therefore supposed to have
been engaged in the crusades. The minister of this
church, who is usually called the master of the Temple,
is appointed by the benchers or senior members of both
societies, and presented by a patent from the crown.
Shakespeare (whether from tradition or history) makes
the Temple garden the place in which the badge of the
white and red rose originated ; the distinctive badge of
\the houses of York and Lancaster, under which the
respective partisans of each arranged themselves in the
fatal quarrel which caused such torrents of English
blood to flow.
Near the Temple bar is the DeviTs Tavern, so called
from its sign of St Dunstan seizing the evil spirit by
the nose with a pair of hot tongs. Ben Johnson has im-
mortalized it by his Leges Conviviales, which he wrote
for the regulation of a club of wits held in a room he
dedicated to Apollo j over the chimney-piece of which
they" are preserved. The tavern was in his davs kept
by Simon Wadloe; whom, in a copy of verses over the
door of the Apollo, he dignified with the title of King
of Skinkei's.
Serjeants Inn is a small inn in Chancery-lane, where
the judges and Serjeants have chambers, but not houses,
as they had in another inn of this name in Fleet-street,
which they abandoned in 1730; but in each of them
there is a hall and a chapel. Clifford''s Inn is an inn of
chancery belonging to the Inner Temple. It was ori¬
ginally a house granted by Edward IT. to the family
of the Cliffords, from which it derived its name ; but
was afterwards let upon lease to the students of the
law, and in the reign of Edward III. sold to the mem¬
bers of this society. Bernard's Inn is likewise an inn
of chancery belonging to Gray’s Inn. It stands in Hol-
born, and was the house of John Mackworth, dean of Lin¬
coln, who gave it to the professors of the law. Staple's
Inn belongs also to Gray’s Inn, and is situated in IIol-
born. It was once a hall for the merchants of the staple
tor wool, whence it derives its name; but it was pur¬
chased by the benchers of Gray’s Inn, and has been an
inn of chancery since the year 1415. Fur nival's Inn,
is an inn of chancery belonging to Lincoln’s Inn, and
was once the house of the family of the Furnivals, by
whom it was let out to the professors of the law. It isji
large old building, with a hall and a pleasant garden.
In Coleman-street ward, on the south side of a large
square called Moorfuids, stood Bethlehem Hospital,
founded in 1675 by the lord mayor and citizens of Lon¬
don for the reception and cure of poor lunatics. It was
a noble edifice, built with brick and stone, and adorned
with pilasters, entablatures, and sculpture 5 particularly
with the figures of two lunatics over the grand gate,
Vol. XII. Part I. 4.
201
which are well executed. This building was 540 feet Public
long and 40 broad, exclusive of two wings of a later Puddings,
erection, intended for the reception of such lunatics as
were deemed incurable. This hospital contained a great
number of convenient cells or apartments, where the
patients were maintained and received all medical assist¬
ance without any other expence to their friends than
that of bedding. 'The structure was divided into two
stories, through each of which ran a long gallery from
one end of the house to the other. On the south side
were the cells, and on the north the windows that gave
light to the galleries, which were divided in the middle
by handsome iron gates, to keep the men and women
separate. This hospital being pulled down, it is intend¬
ed to erect another building for the use of the same
charity, at a short distance from the metropolis. A new
road is to be opened from the site of the old hospital to
the Royal Exchange. ^
Opposite to Bethlehem hospital stood that of St St Luke’s
Lake, a long plain building, till of late appropriated to Hospital,
the same purposes, but wholly independent of the for¬
mer. It was founded on the humane consideration
that Bethlehem tvas incapable of receiving all the mi¬
serable objects which were ofiered. Of late years the
patients were removed from the old hospital to a new
one erected under the same name in Old-street, on the
plan of the former, extending in front 492 feet. The
old hospital is now7 pulled down, and replaced by7 a
handsome row of houses. Uncured patients may be
taken in again, by a very liberal regulation, on the pay¬
ment of five shillings a week } so that their friends may,
if they choose, try a second time the force of medicine
on their unhappy relations or acquaintances.
Besides the three markets already mentioned at
Smithfield for cattle and hay, at Leadenhall for but- markets,
chers meat, wool, hides, and Colchester baize, and
at Billingsgate for fish ; there are in this city the fol¬
lowing other markets, which are all very considerable,
vi?.. Honey lane, Newgate, and Fleet-market, chiefly
for flesh, though with separate divisions for fish, butter,
eggs, poultry, herbs, and fruit j and the Three-Cranes
market, for apples and other fruit. The principal corn-
market is held in a neat exchange situated in Market-
lane, and that for flour at Queenhithe. In Thames-
street, near Billingsgate, there is an exchange for dealers
in coals and masters of vessels in that trade to transact
their business. I0I
II. The borough of Southwark. It was called 2. Borough
by the Saxons Suth, or the “ South work,” in respect °f South-
to some fort or fortification bearing that aspect from )va.rk’lts
London. It was also called the Borough, or Burg, f j
probably from the same reason. It was long inde-
pendent of the city of London : but, in consideration
of the inconveniences arising from the escape of ma¬
lefactors from the great capital into this place, it was
in 1327 granted by Edward III. to the city, on pay¬
ment of 10I. annually. It wras then called the village
of Southwark 5 it was afterwards styled the bailiwick
of Southwark, and the mayor and commonalty of Lon¬
don appointed the bailiff. This power, however, not
being sufficient to remedy the evil, a more intimate
connexion was thought necessary j and in the reign of
Edward VI. on a valuable consideration paid to the
crown, it was formed into a 26th ward, by the title oi
Bridge Ward Without; with a reservation of certain
C c privileges
TOO
Diflerent
202
LON
Public
Buildings,
&c.
102
Courts,
103
Prisons.
104
King’s
Bench.
privileges enjoyed there by the archbishop of Canter¬
bury and some other ecclesiastics In consequence of
thi/ it was subjected to the lord mayor ot London,
'with the steward and bailiff. But Southwark being
divided into two parts, this is to be understood ol the
division called the Borough Liberty which consists of
three of the parishes belonging to the town, with the
treater part of a fourth parish. For the city division
the lord mayor by his steward holds a court of record
every Monday at the sessions house on St Margaret
Hill in this borough, for all debts, damages, and ics-
passes within the limits of his jurisdiction. Ihe other
division is called the Clink, or the Manor of Southwark,
and is subdivided into the Great Liberty, the Guild¬
hall, and the King’s Manor 5 for each of which subdi¬
visions a court-leet is held, where the constables ale¬
conners, and flesh-tasters, are chosen, and other b si-
ness of this kind transacted. A court-house, called
Union Hall, has lately been built m the new street
called Union-street, which leads in a direct line hom
the high-street in the Borough to Great Surry-street
Blackfriars road. The Clink liberty is under the ju¬
risdiction of the bishop of Winchester who, besides a
court-leet, keeps here a court of record on the Bank-
side near St Saviour’s church, by his steward or bailitt,
for pleas of debts, damages, and trespasses. Court-Ieets
are also kept at Lambeth, Bermondsey, and Rother-
hithe, three small districts adjoining to the Borough.
There is a compter for the imprisonment ot offenders
in the bailiwick, and another for the Clink liberty}
to which may be added the Surry workhouse tor va-
grants. Besides these, there is the Marshalsea prison,
which is the county gaol for felons, and the admiralty
gaol for pirates (g) •, in which is a court, first erected
for trials of causes between the king’s domestics or
menial servants, of which the knight-marshal is presi¬
dent, and his steward judge, to whom belong our
counsellors and six attorneys 5 and the court is held
every Friday, by him, or his deputy, for debt, damages,
■% • .     T»rmnn W nitpha.lL
DON.
Christ-church, though contiguous to the Borough, is in
the county of Surry. , . f
The principal church m Southwark is that ot bt ba-
™bbh was formerly a priory of regular canons
Public
Buildings,
&c.
viour, which was formerly a priory of regula
Being dedicated to the Virgin Mary, and situated near
the bank of the Thamas, it was called St^ Mary Over
Bee, or Overy, by which appellation it is commonly
known. This church is built in the manner ot a ca¬
thedral, with three aisles from east to west, and a cross
aisle. It is reckoned the largest parish-church in
land, the three aisles first mentioned measuring 269
feet in length, and the cross aisle 109 feet Ibe height
within is 47 feet, and it has a tower with four spires
I5Not far from St George’s church stood the magnifi¬
cent palace of Charles Brandon duke of Suttolk, the
deserved favourite of Henry VHI. After his death,
in 1 C4 f, it came into the king’s hands, who established
here a royal mint. It at that time was called W/'-
wark Place, and in a great measure preserved its dig¬
nity. Edward VI. once dined in it. His sister and
successor presented it to Heath, archbishop ot York,
as an inn or residence for him and his successors when¬
ever they repaired to London. As to the Mint, it
became a sanctuary for insolvent debtors *, but at length
becoming the pest of the neighbourhood, by giving
shelter to villains of every species, that awakened the
attention of parliament *, which by the statutes 8 and
9 Will. III. 9 George I. and 11 George!, entirely
took away its abusive privileges. 106
In the parish of Christ-church, near the water on Ancient
Bankside, stood Paris-garden, one of the ancient p'ay-P^esef
houses of our metropolis. Ben Johnson is reproached
by one Decker, an envious critic, with his ill success
on the stage, and in particular with having performed
the part of Zuliman. at Paris-garden. It seems to
have been much frequented on Sundays. This pio-
fanation (Mr Pennant observes) ivas at length lully
punished by the dire accident which hefel the specta-
I ^
Vi
every Friday, by tom. or b.s ^” ?8V Ivl „Vhe scaffolding suddenly fell, and
and trespasses, in causes for JO ro d « « ^5*-, _ ^ « miserabL .aimed.
5°5
Parishes,
Sec.
excepting London. In this quarter is also the King s
Bench prison, the rules of which are above two miles
in circuit, and comprise the greatest part ot St George’s
Eields. Here was committed Henry prince of Males,
afterwards King Henry V. by the spirited and honest
Judge Gascoigne, for striking or insulting him on the
bench. It is a very extensive and commodious build-
inc. There are 224 rooms about 14 or 16 feet by
12 or 13: eight of these are state-rooms that are let
unfurnished at 2s. 6d. a-week. Within the walls of
this prison are several shops, and the whole has the ap¬
pearance of a small village. ,Jt is surrounded by walls
30 feet high. The rules 01 w -ties of this prison are
very extensive, comprehending a circuit of nearly thiee
miles round it. r c. m
Southwark consists of the parishes ot &t Ulave,
St Saviour, St George, and St Thomas j the parish of
multitudes of people were killed or miserably maimed.
The omen seems to have been accepted j tor in the
next century the manor of Paris-garden was erected
into a parish, and a church founded under the name of
Christ’s.
Beyond this place of amusement were the Bear-gar¬
den and place for baiting of bulls, the British circi;
“ Herein (says Stow) ivere kept beares, bulls, amt
other beasts to be bay ted •, as also mastives in several
kennels nourished to bayt them. These beares and
other beasts are there kept in plots of ground scafloldcd
about for the beholders to stand safe.’’ Ihis was then
an amusement for persons of the first rank : our great,
if not good, Elizabeth caused the French ambassadois
to be carried to this theatre, to divert them with these
bloody spectacles.
Not far from these scenes of cruel pastime was the The Saw
* Bordello
107
fG! In 1277 this prison was broken open by a mob of sailors, who murdered a gentleman confined in it for
killing one of their comrades, and who had been pardoned by the court. It was again broken open by YVat
Tyler and his followers in 1381. It escaped in the infamous riots of 1780, while the King’s Bench, the Bo-
rough Prison, and the Clink Prison, were nearly at the same instant sacrificed to their fury.
LON
riiWic Bordello or Stars, permitted and openly licensed by
ildings, government, under certain laws or regulations. They
| were farmed out. Even a lord mayor did not disdain
v_r™J to own them : but rented them to the Froes, that is,
“ the bawds,’1' of Flanders, Among other singular
regulations, no stewholder was to admit married wo¬
men ; nor were they to keep open their houses on Sun¬
days ; nor were they to admit any women who had on
them the perilous infirmity of burning. These infamous
houses were very properly suppressed in the reign of
Henry VIII.
ri he bishop of Winchester had formerly a palace
here with a park (the same that is now called South-
mark-paj'k), which is since converted into warehouses
and tenements, held by lease from the bishops of that
10S see,
Thomas's Besides several alms-houses, there are here St T/io-
spital. mas's and Guy's Hospital, two of the noblest endow¬
ments in England. The former was first erected in
1215 by Peter de Rupibus, bishop of Winchester, who
endowed it with land to the amount of 343!. a-vear ;
irom which time it was held of the abbots of Bermond¬
sey, one of whom in 1428 granted a right to the master
of the hospital to hold all the lands it was then in pos¬
session of belonging to the said abbot and convent, the
whole revenue of which did not exceed 266I. 17s. 6d.
per annum. In the year 1551, after the citizens of
Eondon had purchased of Edward I. the manor of
Southwark and its appurtenances, of which this hos¬
pital was a part, they expended nool. in repairing
and enlarging the edifice, and immediately received
into it 260 patients \ upon which the king in 1553
incorporated this hospital with those of Christ.church
and Bridewell in the city of London. The building
being much decayed, three beautiful squares adorned
with colonnades were erected by voluntary subscription
in 1693, to which in 1732 the governors added a mag¬
nificent building, consisting of several wards with pro¬
per offices. The annual disbursements of this hospital
haVe for many years amounted to 8000I. The house
is divided into 19 wards, and is said to contain 474
| 109 beds.
i y s Hos- Adjoining to St Thomas’s stands G?/y's Hospital, per¬
haps the most extensive charitable foundation that ever
was established by one man in private life. The found¬
er of this hospital was Thomas Guy, a bookseller in
Lombard-street, London, who lived to see the edifice
roofed in j and at his death, in 1724, left 238,292!.
16s. including the expence of the building, to finish
and endow it. rIhis hospital consists of two capacious
squares, containing 12 wards and 433 beds. It was
incorporated by charter from parliament, and the first
governors were appointed in 1725.
In St George’s Fields, westward of the King’s Bench
prison, is the Magdalen Hospital for the reception of
penitent prostitutes ; a little farther is situated the Asy¬
lum for orphan girls ; and not far distant is the West¬
minster Lying-in Hospital: Institutions, of which the
following feeling and animated account is given by
tiq ^ 6nnA.nt«
m Asy- The Asylum is an institution of a most heavenly
1L nature, calculated to save from perdition of soul and
body the brighter part of the creation ; such on whom
Bievidence hath bestowed angelic faces and elegant
iorms, designed as blessings to mankind, but too often
BON. 203
debased to the vilest uses. The hazard that these inno- Public
cents constantly are liable to from a thousand tempta- Buildings,
tions, from poverty, from death of parents, from the ^'c’ .
diabolical procuress, and often from the stupendous
wickedness of parents themselves, who have been known
to sell their beauteous girls for the purpose of prostitu¬
tion, induced a worthy band to found in the year
1758 the Asylum, or House of Refuge. Long may it
flourish, and eternal be the reward of those into whose
minds so amiable a conception entered ! i!t
“ To afford means of salvation to those unhappy The Mag-
beings who had the ill fortune to lose the benefits ofdalcn
this divine institution, the Magdalen Hospital was insti-pital'
tuted for the reception of the penitent prostitutes. To
save from vice, is one great merit. To reclaim and re¬
store to the dignity of honest rank in life, is certainly
not less meritorious. The joy at the return of one sin¬
ner to repentance is esteemed by the highest authority
worthy of the heavenly host. That ecstasy, I trust, this
institution has often occasioned. Since its foundation in
the same year with the former, to December 25. 1786,
not fewer than 2471 have been admitted. Of these (it
is not to he wondered that long and evil habits are often
incurable) 300 have been discharged, uneasy under con¬
straint; 45 proved lunatics, and afflicted with incurable
fits; 60 have died; 52 never returned from hospitals
they were sent to ; 338 discharged for faults and irre¬
gularities. How to be dreaded is the entrance into the
bounds of vice, since the retreat from its paths is so
difficult! Finally, 1608 prodigals have been returned
to their rejoicing parents; or placed in reputable ser¬
vices, or to honest trades, banes to idleness, and securi¬
ties against a future relapse.” Into this charity, every
woman who has been seduced (and is not pregnant or
diseased), whether recommended or not, may apply for
admission to the committee, who meet for that purpose
on the first Tuesday in every month. 112
Akin to those charities is that of the Lying-in-Hospi- Tying in
ta/, which is not intended merely for the reception 0f1IosPital-
“ the honest matron who can deposite her burden with
the consciousness of lawful love, but also for the un¬
happy wretches whom some villain in the unguarded
moment has seduced, and then left a prey to desertion
of friends, to poverty, want, and guilt.—Lest such
‘ may be driven to despair by such complicated misery,
and he tempted to destroy themselves and murder their
infants,’ here was founded in 1765 this humane preven¬
tive, the Westminster New Lying-in Hospital, in which
every assistance and accommodation requisite in such si¬
tuations are provided in the most attentive and liberal
manner. To obviate all objection to its being an en¬
couragement to vice, no one is taken in a second time :
but this most excellent charity is open to the worthy
distressed matron as often as necessity requires. None
are rejected who have friends to recommend. And of
both descriptions upwards of 4000 have experienced its
salutary effect.” IT^
St George’s Fields are now almost covered with new St George’s
erected buildings, from the ditch at the end of Great Gelds.
Surry-street, or Burrow’s Buildings, to the Fishmong¬
ers alms-houses, in one direction ; and from the Mar-
shalsea prison to the Dog and Duck, in the other direc¬
tion ; with several irregular indentions in its circumfe¬
rence : And where the principal roads meet, an obelisk
has been erected, pointing out the distance it stands
C c 2 ' from
204
L O N
114
Lambeth
Palace,
Public from different parts of London, Westminster, and Black-
filiUliigs, friars bridges. Among the buildings tvlnch serve to
embellish and improve this entrance to London, Uia-
1   ' tham-square and Bridge-street-Blackfnars may be par¬
ticularly specified. „ _ . . .1
At Lambeth, the archbishops of Canterbury have had
a palace. According to Mr Pennant, it was in the
earlier times a manor, possibly a royal one: tor the
great Hardiknut died here in 1042, in the midst ot the
iollity of a wedding dinner-, and here, without any tor-
mality, the usurper Harold is said to have snatched the
crown and placed it on his own head. At that period
it was part of the estate of Goda, wife to Walter earl
of Mantes, and Eustace earl of Boulogne •, who pre¬
sented it to the church of Rochester, but reserved to
herself the patronage of the church. It became in
1197 the property of the see of Canterbury, by ex¬
change transacted between Glanville bishop ot Roches¬
ter and the archbishop Hubert Walter. The building
was improved by Langton the successor of \V alter out
it was afterwards neglected and became ruinous. “No
pious zeal (says Mr Pennant) restored the place, but
the madness of priestly pride. Bonilace, a wrathful and
turbulent primate, elected in 1244) took it into hm
head to become a visitor of the priory of St Bartholo¬
mew, to which he had no right. 1 he monks met him
with reverential respect, but assured him the oltice did
not belong to the bishop. The meek prelate rushed on
the sub-prior, knocked him down, kicked, beat, ami
buffeted him, tore the cope oft his back, and stamped
on it like one possessed, while bis attendants paid the
same compliments to all the poor monks. The people
enraged at his unpriestly conduct would have torn him
to pieces \ when he retired to Lambeth, and, by way
of expiation, rebuilt it with great magnificence. At a
subsequent period it was very highly improved by the
munificent Henry Chichely, who enjoyed the primacy
from 1414 to 1443. I lament to find so worthy a man
to have been the founder of a building so reproachful
to his memory as the Lollards tower, at the expence ot
near 280I. Neither Protestants or Catholics should
omit visiting this tower, the cruel prison of the unhappy
followers ot Wicklifte. Hie vast staples and rings to
which they were chained before they were brought to
the stake, ought to make Protestants bless the hour
During puWj9
D Q N.
which freed them from so bloody a-religion.”
the civil wars of the last century, this palace suneied
greatly but at the Restoration, the whole was repaired t
by Archbishop Juxton. ~ . . 115
The parish church of Lambeth (h), which is at aandcllurA
small distance from the palace, has a plain tower j and
the architecture is of the Gothic o, the time ot Ed¬
ward IV. It has very little remarkable in it, except
the figure of a pedlar and his dog, painted m one ot
the windows and tradition says, that the parish was
obliged to this man for the bequest ot a piece 01 lam,
which bears the name of the Pedlar's Jcre. In the
churchyard is the tomb of old Tradescant Both la¬
ther and son were great travellers J and the former is
supposed to have visited Russia and most parts ot Eu¬
rope, Turkey, Greece, many of the eastern countries,
Egypt, and Barbary j out of which he introduced mul¬
titudes of plants and flowers, unknown before in our
gardens. The monument is an altar tomb j embellish¬
ed with emblematical sculptures 5 and bearing the to -
lowing inscription, which is both singular and histo¬
rical :
if!
1 5
Know, stranger, ere thou pass, beneath this stone
Lve John Tradescant, grandsire, father, son j
The last dy’d in his spring } the other two
Liv’d till they had travel!’d Art and Nature through,
As by their choice collections may appear,
Of what is rare, in land, in sea, in air }
Whilst they (as Homer’s Iliad in a nut)
A world of wonders in one closet shut.
These famous Antiquarians, that had been
Both gardeners to the Rose and Lily Queen,
Transplanted now themselves, sleep here *, and when
Angels shall with their trumpets waken men,
And fire shall purge the world, these hence shall rise,
And change this garden for a paradise.
116
From Lambeth, eastward along the river side, Lambeth
was once a long tract ol dreary marsh, and sti Mars .
in parts called Lambeth Marsh; about the year
1560, there was not a house on it from Lambeth pa- ^
lace as far as Southwark. In a street called 0C*t;reatnm-
row-wall (from one of the ancient embankments) isnufactone
Mrs Conde’s noted manufactory of artificial stone (1) :
And at a small distance, Mess. Beaufoy’s (k) great
work
( h) In describing this church, Mr Pennant takes occasion to mention the sad example of fallen majesty in the
person of Mary d’Este, the unhappy queen of James II. ; who, flying with her infant prince from the rum im¬
pending over their house, after crossing the Thames from the abdicated W hitehall, took ^ j
cient walls of this church a whole hour, from the rain of the inclement night ot December 6. 16S8. Were sne
waited with aggravated misery, till a common coach, procured from the next inn, arrived, and conveyeit Her to
Gravesend, from whence she sailed, and bade an eternal adieu to these kingdoms.
(0 Her repository consists of several very large rooms filled with every ornament, which can e usee 1
architecture. The statue, the vase, the urn, the rich chimney pieces, and, in a few words, every ling
which could be produced out of natural stone or marble by the most elegant chisel, is here to be 0 ame< a
(k)^44 Where (says Mr Pennant) the foreign wines are most admirably mimicked. Such is the prodigality
and luxury of the age, that the demand for many sorts exceeds in a great degree the produce of the native vine¬
yards. We have skilful fabricators, who kindly supply our wants. It has been estimated, that halt 0 ie
port, and five-sixths of the white wines consumed in our capital, have been the produce of our home wine
mrm
L O N D O N.
ilubHc work for making .\u;es, and that for making vine-
:ildings, gar (l).
This ground, so profitable to the proprietors, and
v "' ' so productive of revenue to the state, was within me ¬
mory tiie scene of low dissipation. Here stood Caper’s
garden, noted for its fireworks, and the great resort ol
the profligate of both sexes. This place was ornament¬
ed with several of the mutilated statues belonging to
Thomas earl of Arundel, which had been for that pur¬
pose begged from his lordship by one Boyder Cuper, a
gardener in the family. The great timber yards be¬
neath which these antiquities were found, are very well
worthy of a visit. One would fear that the forests of
Norway and the Baltic would be exhausted, to supply
the wants of our overgrown capital, were we not assured
that the resources will successively be increased equal to
the demand of succeeding ages.—In this parish are also
vast distilleries, formerly the property of Sir Joseph
Mawbey where are seldom less than 2000 hogs, which
uS are fed entirely on grains.
/ity and JIT. City and Liberties of Westminster. The city
Ijierties of 0f Westminster derives its name from a minster, or ab-
Bistmin- |jey^ an([ weSf_i on account of its situation with respect
to St Paul’s cathedral, which wras formerly called East-
minster. In ancient times this district stood upwards
of a mile from the city of London, and contained only
two parishes, which were those of St Margaret and St
John, with two chapels of ease j but at present it has
seven other parochial churches, viz. St Clement’s
Hanes, St Paul’s Covent-garden, St Mary’s le Strand,
St Martin’s in the Field’s, St Anne’s, St James’s, and
St George’s Hanover-square.
Westminster was anciently called Thorny Island,
from its having been covered with thorn bushes, and
encompassed by a branch of the Thames, which is said
to have run through the ground now called St James'1 s
Park, from west to east, and to have rejoined the river
at Whitehall.
Till the general dissolution of religious houses, West¬
minster was subject to the arbitrary rule of its abbot
and monks j but in 1541, upon the surrender of Wil¬
liam Benson the last abbot, Henry VIII. not only
turned it into an honour, but created it the see of a
bishop, and appointed for a diocese the whole coun¬
ty of Middlesex, except Fulham, which belonged to
the bishop of London. This bishoprick, however,
soon after its institution, was dissolved by Edward
119 VI.
rcra- 'Phe city of Westminster is governed by a high
Vstmin-
205
C
steward, an office of great dignity, who is usually one pui)iic
of the first peers in the realm } and is chosen for life Buildings,
by the dean and chapter of the collegiate church of St &c-
Peter. There is also a deputy steward and a high v
bailiff, who also hold their offices for life j being no¬
minated by the dean and chapter, and confirmed bv the
high steward.
The dean ami chapter are invested with an ecclesias¬
tical and civil jurisdiction within the liberties of West¬
minster, St Martin’s le Grand, near Cheapside, in the
city of London, and some towns in Essex, which are
exempted from the jurisdiction of the bishop of London
and the archbishop of Canterbury. 120
St Margaret's Church was founded by Edward the Churches.
Confessor, since which time it has been frequently re¬
built. In the east end of this church is a window cu¬
riously painted, with the history of the crucifixion,
and with the figures of several apostles and saints finely
executed. It formerly belonged to a private chapel at
Copt-hall, near Epping in Essex, and was purchased
by the olficer-s of this parish, some years ago for 400
guineas. In this church the house of commons attends
divine service on state holidays.
The church of St John the Evangelist was erected in
1728, and having sunk considerably whilst it was build¬
ing, occasioned an alteration of the plan. On the north
and south sides are magnificent porticoes, supported by
vast stone pillars, as is also the roof of the church j at
each of the four corners is a beautiful stone tower and
pinnacle, which were added with the view of making
the whole structure sink equally. The parts of this
building are held together by iron bars, which run
across even the aisles. 121
The most remarkable structure in Westminster is
the abbey-church of St Peter. On its site stood once
a temple of Apollo, which according to tradition was chapels,
thrown down by an earthquake in the time of Antoni¬
nus Pius •, and from the ruins of which Sebert king of
the West Saxons raised a Christian church, which was
ruined by the Hanes, It was repaired bv Edward the
Confessor, and given to a few monks ; and this spot he
chose for his burial-place. Henry III. 160 years after,
took down this fabric of Edward’s, and erected a new
church, which was 50 years in building. It suffered
much by fire in 1274, but was repaired by Edward I.
Edward II. and the abbots. In 1700 this church being
much decayed, the parliament granted money for re¬
pairing it, and has frequently repeated the bounty since
that time. The form of the abbey is that of a long
cross :
Frontiniac, to the more elegant tables j the Madeira, the Calcavella, and the Lisbon, into every part of the
kingdom.”
(l) “ There is a magnificence of business (our author remarks) in this ocean of sweets and sours that cannot
fail exciting the greatest admiration •, whether we consider the number of vessels or their size. The boasted tun
at Heidelberg does not surpass them. On first entering the yard, two rise before you, covered at the top with a
thatched dome j between them is a circular turret, including a winding staircase, which brings you to their sum¬
mits, which are above 24 feet in diameter. One of these conservatories is full of sweet wine, and contains
58,109 gallons, or 1815 barrels of Winchester measure. Its superb associate is full of vinegar, to the amount of
5^,799 gallons, or 1774 barrels of the same standard as the former. The famous German vessel yields even to
the last by the quantity of 40 barrels.—Besides these, is an avenue of lesser vessels, which hold from 32,500 to
16,974 gallons each. After quitting this Brobdignagian scene, we pass to the acres covered with common bar¬
rels : we cannot diminish our ideas so suddenly, but at first we imagine we could quaff them oft as easily as Gul¬
liver did the little hogsheads of the kingdom of Lilliput.”
2o6
L O N
cross : its greatest length is 489 feet, and the breadth
r . 1 e. * • t'np iono-th ot the cross ai-’le
A ,a.Wh«f£<*»^.t
&c. is 189 feet, and the height ot the roof 92 teet. At
l—^ 1 the west end are two towers : the nave and cross ais e
are supported by 50 slender pillars ot Sussex marble
exclusive of pilasters. In the upper and lower ranges
there are 94 windows, all winch, with the arches, roofs
and doors, are in the Gothic taste. 1 be inside o. this
church is much better executed than the outside . and
the perspective is good; particularly that ot tne grand
aisle. The choir, from which there is an ascent by se¬
veral steps to a fine altar-piece, is paved with black and
white marble; having 28 stalls on the north, the same
number on the south, and eight at the west end. ihe
altar is made of a beautiful piece of marble, the gut
of Queen Anne, enclosed by a curious balustrade, aim
upon a pavement of porphyry, jasper, Lydian, and
serpentine stones, laid in the mosaic style, at the ex¬
pence of Abbot Ware, A. D. 1272 ; and is said to be
one of the most beautiful of its kind in the world.
On each side of this altar a door opens into bt Kd-
ward’s chapel ; round which are xo other chapels,
ran nine from the north to the south cross aisles, and
are dedicated, 1. To St Andrew. _ 2. To St Michael,
q. To St John Evangelist. 4. Ishp’s chapel. 5. J o
St John Baptist. 6. To St Paul. ?• ^enrv \ . s elm-
pel. 8. To St Nicholas. 9. To St Edmund. 10. lo
St Benedict.
In St Edward’s chapel are still to he seen the remains
of his shrine ; which, though now in obscurity, and
robbed of all its riches and lustre, was once esteemed
the glory of England, so far as art and riches could
make it. Here are the tombs of King Edward I. and
several other kings and queens of England ; and here
also is shown the famous chair in which the kings ot
Scotland used to be crowned at Scone. Henry V .’s
chapel is divided from St Edward’s by an iron screen,
on each side of which are statues as big as life.—St
Andrew’s chapel, which is next the north cross, and
the others which surround the choir, are ciowded with
the monuments of noble personages, worthy the atten¬
tion of the curious.—At the corner of St Benedict s
chapel, an iron gate opens into the south cross aisle ;
which from the number of monuments erected therein
to celebrated English . poets, has obtained the name of
the Poets corner : though here we find a most magnifi¬
cent monument erected at the south end in memory of
the. late John duke of Argyle and Greenwich ; another
to William Camden the antiquarian ; and others to
the celebrated divine Dr Isaac Barrow, to Thomas
Parr who died at the .age of 152 years, &c.—The
south aisle is adorned with 19 curious monuments ot the
pious, the brave,- and the learned ; and’turning north¬
ward from the west door, we view a great number
more.
Henry2 0n the east of the abbey, and which, though sepa-
VIL’s clia- rate from the other chapels in the choir, seems to be
pel.
one and the same building with the abbey, stands the
chapel of King Henry VII. which that king founded
in the year 1502, and was at that time styled the won¬
der of the world, and is now one of the most expensive
remains of the ancient English taste and magnificence.
There is no looking upon it without admiration: it
conveys an idea of the fine taste of Gothic architec¬
ture in that age ; and the inside is so noble, majestic,
2
D O N.
and of such curious workmanship, tnat it would >.ake buMc
a volume to describe each part with justice and pro- Bui^ss>
priety. . c ,
Its orioinal intention was to he a dormitory tor the
royal blood: and so far the will of the founder has
been observed, that none have been interred theiem
but such as have traced their descent from ancient
kings. The tomb of King Henry VII. is most magni¬
ficent, enclosed with a screen ot cast brass, mest admi¬
rably designed, and as well executed. Within the 5ails
are the figures ot that king and his royal consort, in
their robes of state, on a tomb ot black marble : and
at the head of this tomb he the remains of Edward \ L
In different parts of this chapel are the monuments of
Lewis Stewart duke of Rich mend, George Villars duke
of Buckingham, John Sheffield duke of Buckingham,
Charles Montague marquis ot Halifax, Edward N . and
his brother Richard ; the vault of James I. and his
queen Anne and daughter Mary, on which is a smalt
tomb adorned with the figure ot a child; a i°hy mo¬
nument of Queen Elizabeth, and another of Mary
queen of Scots ; the monuments for Margaret Douglas
daughter of Margaret queen of Scots, Margaret coun¬
tess of Richmond mother to Henry \11. the vault of
King Charles II. and -William HI. Queen Mary his
consort, Queen Anne, and Prince George. Over these
royal personages are their effigies (except that ot
Prince George) in wainscot presses, made of wax to
resemble life, and dressed in their coronation robes.
And at the corner of the great east window, in another
wainscot press, stands the effigy of Mary duchess of
Richmond, daughter to James duke of Richmond and
Lenox, dressed in the very robes she wore at the coro¬
nation of Queen Anne. On leaving the aisle, you are
shown another press, containing the effigy ot General
Monk, who, on account of his loyalty, and the part
he took in the restoration of King Charles II. had a
vault appropriated to him and his family amongst the
royal blood.
In a fine vault under Henry the VII.’s chapel, is
the burying place of the present royal family, erected
by his late majesty King George H, Adjoining to
the abbev are the cloisters, built in a quadrangular
form, with piazzas towards the court, where several ot
the-prebendaries have their houses. 113
Near the abbey church is the King’s school, usually Westrnm-
called Westminster school. It was originally founded in ste»'Se oo
1070, and a second time by Queen Elizabeth in 1560,
whence it is sometimes called the Qiieen's College ; and
is at present one of the greatest schools in the king¬
dom. The learned antiquary Mr Camden was once
master of it, and Ben Johnson one of his scholars.
Dr Busby, who was master upwards of 50 years,
greatly contributed to keep up its reputation, formed
its museum, and improved both the master’s and his
prebendal house.—This school, instead of one master
and one usher as at first, has now an upper and under
master, and five ushers, who have about 400 youths
under their tuition. A plan was set on foot when the
present archbishop of York was master, for building
a college for the use of the students, but this did not
succeed.
114
On the north-east side of the abbey is an old Go- V estnui
• , 11 1 rrr . * . , ,, p i v . -turn StC
thic building called Westminster-hall, first built by Wil-stcr ^
Ham Rufus as an addition to a royal palace, and after¬
wards
125
Ihse of
Oamons.
n5
Jiise of
lids.
LON
'ublic wards rebuilt by Richard II. in the year 1597. It
11 Wings, j3 reckoned one of the largest rooms in Europe, being
200 feet long, 70 broad, and 90 high, supported
only by buttresses. The roof is of timber, and was
some years ago slated, the old covering of lead being
reckoned too heavy. It is paved with stone. In this
spacious room the kings of England have generally
held their coronation and other solemn feasts; and it
is used for the trial of peers. Since the reign of
Henry III. the three great courts of Chancery, King’s
Bench, and Common Pleas, have been held in separate
apartments of this hall; and the court of Exchequer
above stairs.
Adjoining to the south-east angle of Westminster-
hall is a building formerly called St Stephen's Chapel,
from its having been dedicated to that saint. It was
founded by King Stephen j and in 1347 was rebuilt
by King Edward III. who converted it to a collegiate
church 5 but since it was surrendered to Edward VI.
it has been used for the assembly of the representatives
of the commons of England, and is now generally
called the House of Commons. The benches, which
ascend behind one another as in a theatre, are covered
with green cloth; the floor is matted ; and round the
room are wainscot galleries, supported by cantilevers
adorned with carved work, in which strangers are often
permitted to sit and hear the debates.
On the south side of the hall is the House of Lords,
so called from being the place where the peers of
Great Britain assemble in parliament. It is an oblong
room, not quite so large as the house of commons ;
and is hung with fine old tapestry, representing the
defeat of the Spanish Armada in 1500. The design
was drawn by Cornelius Vroom, and the tapestry exe¬
cuted by Francis Spiering. It was not put up till
the year 1650, two years after the extinction of mo¬
narchy, when the house of lords was used as a com¬
mittee room for the house of commons. The heads
of the naval heroes who commanded on the glorious
day, form a matchless border round the work, animat¬
ing posterity to emulate their illustrate example.
Here is a throne for the king, with seats on the right
and left for such peers of the realm as are of the
blood royal. Before the throne are three broad seats}
on the first of which, next the throne, sits the lord
chancellor, or keeper of the great seal, who is speaker
of the house of peers ; and on the other two sit the
judges, the master of the rolls, or the masters in chan-
cery, who attend occasionally to give their opinions on
points of law. The two archbishops sit at some di¬
stance from the throne on the right hand, and the
other bishops in a row under them. All the benches
are covered with red cloth stuffed with wool. Here
likewise, by an order of the house, a gallery for stran¬
gers has been erected.
Adjoining to the house of lords is the Prince''s
Chamber, where the king is robed when he comes to
the parliament. On the other side is the Painted
Chamber, which is said to have been Edward the Con¬
fessor’s bed chamber, and the room in which the par¬
liaments were anciently opened. Hei’e conferences
are often held between the two houses, or their com¬
mittees. Contiguous to those is an apartment called
the Court of Requests, where such as have business in
either house may attend,
P ce's
€ linbcr,
£>
DON. 207
Near these buildings is a bridge over the Thames, Public
called Westminster B/ idge, accounted one of the most Buildings,
complete and elegant structures of the kind in the , k0,
known world. It is built entirely of stone, and ex- I2g
tends over the river at a place where it is 1223 feet Westmin-
broad : which is above 380 feet bi'oader than at Lon-stcr Bridge,
don bridge. On each side is a fine balustrade of
stone, with places of shelter from the rain. The width
of the bridge is 44 feet, having on each side a fine'
foot w'ay for passengers. It consists of 14 piers, and
13 large and two small arches, all semicircular, that
in the centre being 76 feet wide, and the rest decreas¬
ing four feet each from the other, so that the two
least arches of the 13 great ones are each 52 feet.
It is computed that the value of 40,000!. in stone
and other materials is always under water. This
magnificent structure was begun in 1739, and finished
in 1750, at the expence of 389,000!. defrayed by the
parliament. It wras built after the design of M. Labelye,
au ingenious architect, a native of France. 129
On the bank of the Thames, at the east confines of Whitehall.
St Margaret’s parish, was a palace called Whitehall,
originally built by Hubert de Burgh, earl of Kent, be¬
fore the middle of the 13th century. It aftenvards
devolved to the archbishop of York, whence it receiv¬
ed the name of York Place, and continued to be the
city residence of the archbishops till it was purchased
by Henry VIII. of Cardinal Wolsey in 1530. At
this period it became the residence of the court; but
in 1697 was destroyed by accidental fire, all except
the Banqueting-house, which had been added to the
palace ol Whitehall by James I. according to a design
of Inigo Jones. This is an elegant and magnificent
structure of hewn stone, adorned with an upper and
lower range of pillars, of the Ionic and Composite or¬
ders 5 the capitals are enriched wuth fruit and foliages,
and between the columns of the windows. The roof is
covered with lead, and surrounded with a balustrade.
The building chiefly consists of one room of an oblong
form 40 feet high, and a proportionable length anti
breadth. The ceiling is painted by the celebrated Sir
Peter Paul Rubens. It is now7 used only as a chapel-
royal, and the other part of the house is occupied with
state offices. r,0
Opposite the Banqueting-house stands the /Tom’Horse
Guards, so called from being the station where that^uar^s‘'
part of his majesty’s troops usually do duty. It is a
strong building, of hewn stone, consisting of a centre
and two wings. In the former is an arched passage
into St James’s Park j and over it, in the middle, rises
a cupola. In a part of the building is the War Office.
Near the Horse-guards is the Treasury; a large build¬
ing, which fronts the Parade in St James’s Park } and
where the board of treasury is kept. v
Eastward of the Horse-guards is the Admiralty Office, Admiralty
a large pile, built with brick and stone. The front °^ce‘
towards Whitehall has two deep wings, and a lofty
portico supported by four large stone pillars. A piazza,
consisting of beautiful columns, runs almost from one
end to the other.. The wall before the court has been
lately built in an elegant manner, and each side of the
gate is ornamented with naval emblems. Besides a hall,
and other public apartments, here are spacious ^houses
for seven commissioners of the admiralty.
At a little distance from the Admiralty, where three
capital
o8
L O N
Public capital streets terminate, is a large opening cal'e^
liuildings, C/iarifig-cross, from one of the crosses wlnch^ King Kc -
&c
I.32
t'.liarinc
cross.
133
Queen’s
Palace.
134
St James’s.
ward I. caused to be erected m memory ot his queen
Eleanor, and Charing the name of a village in which
it was built. The cross remained till the civil wars 111
the reign of Charles I. when it was destroyed by the
fanatics, as a monument of popish superstition } but
after the Restoration, an equestrian statue ol Charles 1.
was set up in its stead. This, which is of brass, and
finely executed, continues to be an ornament to the
place. It was made in 1633, at the expence of the
Howard-Ai-undel family. The parliament sold it to a
brazier in Holborn, with strict orders to break it to
pieces $ but he concealed it under ground till the Re¬
storation, when it was set up in 1678.
At the west end of the Moll, in St James s park,
which begins near Charing-cross, stands the Qneui's
Palace. It was originally known by the name of Ar¬
lington House ; but being purchased by the late duke of
Buckingham’s father, who rebuilt it from the ground
in 1703, it was called Buckingham House, till the year
1762, when it was purchased by his majesty for a
royal residence. It is built ot brick and stone, having
in the front two ranges of pilasters of the Corinthian
and Tuscan orders. It has a spacious court yard, en¬
closed with iron rails, fronting St James’s park, with
offices on each side, with two pavilions, separated liom
the mansion house by colonnades ot the Tuscan, Do¬
ric, and Ionic orders. His majesty has here built a
fine library, in an octagonal form, besides several other
additions. ?
Eastward of the queen’s palace stands St James s,
an old building, which, till the former was purchased
by the crown, had been the town residence of the
royal family since the burning of Whitehall in 1697-
This palace was built by Henry VIII. and obtained
its name from an hospital which formerly stood on the
spot. It is an irregular building, of a mean appearance
without, but contains several magnificent apartments.
Here the court and levees are still kept, and most of
the persons belonging to the household have their re¬
sidence. The chapel of the hospital was converted to
the use of the royal family, as it now remains, and is
a royal peculiar, exempted from all episcopal jurisdic¬
tion. When this palace was built, it abutted in the
south-west upon an uncultivated swampy tract of
ground, which the king enclosed and converted into
a park, called from the palace St James's park. He
also laid it out into walks, and collected the water into
one body. It was afterwards much enlarged and im¬
proved by King Charles II. who planted it with lime
t rees, and formed a beautiful vista, near half a mile in
length, called the Mall, from its being adapted to a
play at howls distinguished by that name. He also
formed the water into a canal 100 feet broad and
2800 feet long ; and furnished the park with a decoy,
and other ponds for water-fowl •, but these have lately
been destroyed, on account of the unwholesome vapours
which they excited.
In a line with St James’s palace, on the east side,
is Marlborough-house, which belongs to the duke ot
Marlborough, and is a large brick edifice, ornamented
with stone.
The Strand, Eastward from Charing-cross, runs that fine street
when first the Strand, which terminates at Temple-bar. In the
formed. r
&c.
I35
The Park
tnd Mall.
136
D O N. •
year 13 the whole of it was an open high way, with ividi,
gardens to the water side. In that year it was so Building*,
ruinous, that Edward III. by an ordinance directed a ^
tax to be raised upon wool, leather, wine, and goods
carried to the staple at Westminster, from lemple-bar
to Westminster abbey, for the repair of the road 5 and
that all owners of houses adjacent to the high way
should repair as much as lay before their doors.
Before the above period, it entirely cut oft YYestmnv-
ster from London-, nothing intervened except the
scattered houses, and a village which afterwards gave
name to the whole *, and St Martin’s stood literally in
the fields. But about the year 1560 a street was form¬
ed, loosely built for all the houses on the south side
had great gardens to the river, were called by their
owners names, and in after-times gave name to the
several streets that succeeded them, pointing down to
the Thames} each of them had stairs for the con-
veniency of taking boat, of which many to this day
bear the names of the houses. As the court was foi
centuries either at the palace of Westminster or White¬
hall, a boat was the customary conveyance of the great
to the presence of their sovereign. Ihe north side
was a mere line of houses from Charing-cross to
Temple-bar-, all beyond was country. The gardens
which occupied part of the site of Covent-garden were
hounded by fields, and St Giles’-* was a distant country
village. Our capital found itself so secure m the vigo¬
rous government of Queen Elizabeth, that, by the
year 1600, most considerable additions were made to
the north of the long line of street just described. St
Martin’s-lane was built on both sides. St Giles s
church was still insulated : but Broad-street and Hoj-
born wrere completely formed into streets with houses
all the wray to Snow-hill. Covent-garden and Lin¬
coln’s inn-fields were built, but in an irregular manner.
Drury-lane, Clare-street, and Long-acre, arose in the
same period. . -
Almost contiguous to Charing-cross, and upon the Jsorthur
south side of the Strand, is that noble palace called
Northumberland House, which stands on the site of
the hospital of St Mary Rounceval. Henry V III.
granted it to Sir Thomas Caverden. It was aftei-
wards transferred to Henry Howard carl of iSortiiamp'
ton -, who, in the time of James I. built here a house,
and called it after his own name. He left it to hrs
kinsman the earl of Suilolk, lord treasurer and by t if
marriage of Algernon Percy Earl of Northumber¬
land, with Elizabeth daughter of Theophilus earl of
Suffolk, it passed into the house of the present noble
owner. The greater part of the house was built by
Bernard Jansen, an architect in the reign of James 1.
The front next the street was begun by Algernon in
1748, and finished by the present duke, who manic
his daughter. Two additional wings to the front next
the Thames, and a variety of other improvements both
in building and furniture, have contributed to render
this house the largest and most magnificent in London.
It contains a gallery of 106 feet long by 26 wide, most
superbly furnished. _
A short way eastward, on the same side, stood Dwr-Durm
ham Yard, which took its name from a palace built ori- aI
ginally by the illustrious Thomas de Hatfield, elected
bishop of Durham in 1345: designed by him for the
town residence of him and his successors. At this place,
in
LONDON.
133
3 Adei-
139
merset
ause.
Ipui,iic in 1540, was held a most magnificent feast, given by
buildings, the challengers of England, who had caused to be
—v—; proclaimed, in France, Flanders, Scotland, and Spain,
a great and triumphant justing to be holden at West¬
minster, for all comers that would undertake them.
But both the challengers and defendants were Eng¬
lish.
Durham-yard is now filled with a most magnificent
mass of building, called the Adelphi, in honour of two
brothers, the ingenious Adams, its architects. Be¬
sides its fine lodgings, it is celebrated for its enchant¬
ing prospect, the utility of its wharfs, and its subter¬
raneous apartments answering a variety of purposes of
general benefit.
A little to the eastward stood Somerset-House, a pa¬
lace built by Somerset the protector in the time of
Edward VI.; and to make way for which he demo¬
lished a great number ol buildings without making any
recompense to the owners. Fart of the church of St
John of Jerusalem and the Tower were blown up for
the sake of the materials; and the cloisters on the north
side of St Paul’s, with the charnel house and chapel,
underwent the same fate; the tombs being destroyed,
and the bones thrown into Finsbury-fields. This hap¬
pened in 1549; b11*- it is probable that he did not live
to inhabit the palace he built, as he was executed in
the year 155:2. After his death the palace fell to the
crown; and it became an occasional place of residence,
first to Queen Elizabeth, and afterwards to Catherine
queen to King Charles II. It was built in a style of
architecture compounded of the Grecian and Gothic;
and the back, front, and water-gate, were done from
a design of Inigo Jones, about the year 1623. A
chapel was begun the same year by that architect, and
finished some time after. The whole of this structure
was demolished in 1775* in consequence of an act of
parliament ; and a most magnificent edifice, from a
design by Sir William Chambers, has been erected
for the accommodation of all the public offices,—those
of the Treasury, the Secretary of State, the Admi¬
ralty, the War, and the Excise, excepted. The
Royal Society, and the Society of Antiquarians, hold
their meetings here, in apartments which have been
allotted to them by royal munificence ; and here also
are annually exhibited the works of the British painters
and sculptors. The terrace on the south side is a walk
bounded by the Thames, and unparalleled for grandeur
and beauty of view.
The church of St Martin is distinguished by the
name of St Martin's in the Fields, from its situation,
which was formerly a field, with only a few scattered
houses. The church being decayed, was rebuilt by
Henry \ III. and again by James I. but not being
large enough to accommodate the inhabitants of the
parish, it was augmented in 1607, at the charge of
Prince Henry, eldest son of James I. and several of
the nobility. After many expensive reparations, how¬
ever, it was entirely taken down in 1720, and a
new church begun, which was finished in 1726. This
is an elegant edifice, built of stone. On the west front
is a noble portico of Corinthian columns, supporting a
pediment, in which are represented the royal arms in
bas relief. The ascent to the portico is by a flight of
very long steps. The length of this church is about
*40 feet, the breadth 60, and height 45. It has a fine
Vol. XII. Part I. ’
209
140
Martin’s
other
I'ches.
arched roof sustained by stone columns of the Corin- pjblic
thian order. The steeple has a beautiful spire, and Buildings,
one of the best rings of bells in London. 1—y——<
St James's Church was built in the reign of Charles
II. at the expence of Henry earl of St Alban’s, and
other neighbouring inhabitants. The building is of
brick and stone, about 85 feet long, 60 broad, and
45 feet high, with a handsome steeple 150 feet in
height.
St Geoi'ge's Church, near Hanover-square is a beau¬
tiful structure. This was one of the fifty new churches
erected within the reign of Queen Anne. The ground
for the edifice was given by the late Lieutenant-general
Stewart, who also left 400cl. to the parish, towards
erecting and endowing a charity school; which, by
additional benefactions and subscriptions, is become
very considerable. 141
The greater part of the parish of St Paul's Covcnt- <'ovcnr
garden, was anciently a garden, belonging to the ab- <''anlen'
bot and convent of Westminster, and was then called
Convent garden, a name corrupted into Covent, and
more generally Common-garden. In 1552, Edward VI.
gave it to the earl of Bedford, with an adjoining field,
formerly called the Seven Acres, but now, being turned
into a long street, called Long-acre. The church ol'
St Paul’s, Covent-garden, was built by Inigo Jones*
and was esteemed one of the most simple and perfect
pieces of architecture in England. It was burnt by
accident a few years ago ; but has since been rebuilt in
a veiy plain style. In the area before the church, of about
three acres of ground, is Covent garden market, which
is the best in England for herbs, fruit, and flowers.
On the north, and part of the east side, is a magnificent
piazza, designed by Inigo Jones. t^2
Next to the parish of St Paul, Covent-garden, is St Mary
that of St Mary le Strand. This is also one of the fifty le Strand,
new churches built in the reign of Queen Anne, and Scc’
is a handsome piece of architecture, though not very
extensive. At the entrance, on the west side, is an
ascent by a flight of steps, in a circular form, which
leads to a similarly shaped portico of Ionic columns,
covered with a dome, that is crowned with a vase.
The columns ai’e continued along the body of the
church, with pilasters of the same order at the corners;
and in the intercolumniations are niches handsomely
ornamented. Over the dome is a pediment supported
by Corinthian columns, which are also continued round
the body of the structure, over those of the Ionic order.
A handsome balustrade is carried round the top of the
church, and adorned with vases.
A little eastward from the preceding church is that*
of St Clement's Danes, situated likewise in the Strand.
A church is said to have stood in this place since about
the year 700; but the present structure was begun in
1680, designed by Sir Christopher Wren. It is built
of stone, with two rows of windows, the lower plain,
but the upper ornamented ; and the termination is by
an attic, the pilasters of w hich are covered with vases.
On the south side is a portico, covered with a dome,
supported by Ionic columns ; and opposite to this is
another. The steeple is beautiful, and of a great
height.
The church of St Geotge, Bloomsbury, is also one of
the fifty new churches erected by act of parliament.
It is distinguished from all the rest by standing south
•}• 1) d and
210
Public
Buildings,
&c.
T43
Foundling
and other
Hospitals.
LON
[ing George I. at
144
Gray's Inn
MS
Lincoln’s
Inn.
146
Charter-
House.
and north, and by the statue of 1
the top of its pyramidal steeple.
In Lamb’s Conduit-fields, on the north side of the
town, is a large and commodious structure called the
Foundling; Hospital, for the reception of exposed and
deserted children. This laudable charity was project¬
ed by several eminent merchants in the reign of ^ueen
Anne ; but was not carried into execution till many
years afterwards, when a charter for its establishment
was obtained, through the indefatigable assiduity of
Mr Thomas Coram, the commander of a merchant
vessel who spent the remainder of his life in promoting
this design. From the time of its institution, the par¬
liament has occasionally granted considerable sums for
its support •, and in some years upwards of 6000 in¬
fants have been received. . , r .t. o ji
Not far from hence is an Hospital for the Smallpox ;
and in different parts of the town there are others, either
for the sick of all kinds, or those in particular circum¬
stances. Of the latter are several Lying-in hospitals,
and the Lock Hospital for female patients in the venereal
disease. Of the former are St George's and Middle¬
sex Hospitals, besides several infirmaries.
Gray's Inn is one of the four principal inns of court j
which, though situated within the limits of the parish
of St Andrew, Holborn, is yet without the liberties
of the city of London. It took its name from an
ancient family of the name of Gray, which formerly
resided here, and in the reign of Edward III. demised
it to some students in the law j but it is said to have
been afterwards conveyed to the monks of Shene, near
Richmond in Surry, who leased it to the society of the
Inn. It was held by this tenure till the dissolution 01
the monasteries, when Henry VIII. granted it to the
society in fee-farm. This inn consists chiefly of two
quadrangles, and has an old hall well built of timber,
with a chapel in the Gothic style. Here is also a good
library, and the inn is accommodated with a spacious
garden. .... c
Lincoln's Inn, another of the four principal 11ms ot
court, was originally the palace of Ralph Neville bishop
of Chichester, and chancellor of England about the
year 1226. It afterwards devolved to the earl of Lin¬
coln, who converted it into a court for the students of'
law about the year 1310. From him it received the
name of Lincoln's Inn, and consisted only of what is
now called the old square, which is entered from Chan¬
cery-lane. At present this square contains, besides
buildings for the lawyers, a large hall where the lord
chancellor hears causes in the sittings after term. 1 o-
this inn belongs likewise a fine garden, which has lately
been diminished by the building of some large and
commodious offices, for the use of the six clerks in the
court of chancery, &c.
In the parish of St James, Clerkenwell, is an hospi¬
tal called the Charter-house, which is a corruption of
the word chartreux, a name formerly used for a con¬
vent or priory of the Carthusians, which this place
formerly was. After the dissolution of monasteries it
fell to the earl of Suffolk, who disposed of it to Tho¬
mas Sutton, Esq. a citizen of London, in the time ol
King James I. for 13,000!. The purchaser intend¬
ing it for an hospital, applied to the king for a patent,
which he obtained in 1611, and the grant wa.s con¬
firmed by parliament in i623- Mr Sutton having ex-
D O N.
pended 7000I. in fitting up the buildings, gave it Public
[he name of King James's Hospital, and endowed 1 BuiWings,
with lands to the amovint of near 4500k a-year, for
the maintenance of 80 gentlemen, merchants or sol¬
diers, who should be reduced to indigent circumstances ,
and 40 boys, to be instructed in classical learning.
The men are provided with handsome apartments, and
all the necessaries of life except clothes 5 instead ol
which each of them is allowed a gown, and 7I. a-yeai .
Of the boys, 29 are at a proper time sent to the uni¬
versity, where each has an allowance o 20 •
eight years. Others, who are judged more fit for trade,
are put out apprentices, and the sum of 40I. is given
with each of them. As a farther encouragement to
the scholars, there are nine ecclesiastical pieteimen *
in the gift of the governors. It is also by the recom¬
mendation of the latter that all pensioners and youths
are received into the hospital. Ibey consist ol 16 ot
which number the king is always one, and the others
are generally noblemen of the first rank. lo this
hospital belong a master, a preacher, two schoolmasters,
a physician, a register, a receiver, a treasurer, a stew¬
ard, an auditor, and other officers} and the annual re¬
venues of it being now increased to upwards ot 6000I.
five men and four boys have been added to the original
1U In the parish of St Luke stands the Haberdashers Aske?
alms-houses, or Aske's Hospital, so called from having Hospital
been erected by the company of haberdashers, pursuant
to the will of Robert Aske, Esq. one of the mem¬
bers, who left 30,000k for the building and the re¬
lief of 20 poor members of the company ^ besides tie
maintenance and education ot 20 boys, sons ot decay¬
ed freemen of the same company. This is a large edi¬
fice of brick and stone, 400 feet long, with a piazza
in front 340 feet in length, consisting ot stone columns
of the Tuscan order. In the middle of the building
chapel, adorned with columns, entablatures and
pediment, of the Ionic order ; under the pediment is a
niche with a statue of the founder. In the same parish
is the Ironmongers hospital, likewise a large building.
In the parish of St Mary, Whitechapel, stands the
London Hospital, for the reception of the sick. It is a
large building, and was erected a few years since by
voluntary contribution. Here are also some consider¬
able alms-houses. r4s
Within the precincts of Westminster are several state-Houses 0.
ly houses belonging to the nobility, some of which have ^ n
been already mentioned. Of the others, the most re¬
markable at present are, Burlington-house, Devonshire-
house, Egremont-house, and Bedford-house } Carleton-
house, the magnificent abode of the prince ol Wales j
and the superb residence erected by the duke ol lor
between the Treasury and the Horse-guards. ^
To these may be added, Montagu-house (now theBnto^
British Museum) } which was built on a Irench plan
by the first duke of Montagu, who had been ambassa¬
dor in France. The staircase and ceilings were paint¬
ed by Rousseau and La Fosse : the apotheosis of liis,
and tbe assembly of the gods, are by the last. It was
purchased of the duke’s heirs by parliament, for uniting
together the Royal, Cottonian, Harleian, Sloanian,
and other collections of books, MSS. coins, antiqui¬
ties, subjects in natural history, &c. &c. for the public
use, for which it is excellently adapted. The first of
LONDON.
21 I
Public these libraries contains the books and MSS. of our
buildings, princes from Henry VII. to Charles II. *, the second
&c- the MSS. collected by Sir John Cotton, his son, and
”"*"v grandson Sir John, which last gave it to the public by
act 12 and 13 Will. III. c. 7. The Harleian collec¬
tion of MSS. was formed by Edward earl of Oxford,
and purchased by government in 1753, at the same
time with the library, MSS. and natural curiosities, of
Sir Hans Sloane. This last cost Sir Hans 50,000!. }
and he left it by will, to the use of the public, on con¬
dition that the parliament would pay 20,00cl. to his
executors. It comprehends an amazing number of cu¬
riosities : among which are, the library, including books
of drawings, MSS. and prints, amounting to about
50,000 volumes ; medals and coins, ancient and mo¬
dern, 20,000 •, cameos and intaglios, about 700 j seals,
268 5 vessels, &c. of agate, jasper, &c. 542’, antiqui¬
ties, 1 i 25 j precious stones, agates, jasper, &c. 2256 j
metals, minerals, ores, &c. 2725 j crystal, spars, &c.
1864) fossils, flints, stones, 1275*, earths, sands, salts,
1035 j bitumens, sulphurs, ambers, &c. 399; talcs,
micae, &.c. 388 ; corals, sponges, &c. 1421 ; testacea,
or shells, &c. 5843 *, echini, echinitae, &c. 659; aste-
riae, trochi, entrochi, &c. 241 5 crustaceae, crabs, lob¬
sters, &.c. 363; stellae marinae, star-fishes, &c. 173 $
fish, and their parts, &c. 1555 *, birds, and their parts,
eggs, and nests of different species, 1172 •, quadrupeds,
&c. 1886 ; vipers, serpents, &c. 521 ; insects, &c.
5439 j vegetables, 12,506 j hortus siccus or volumes of
dried plants, 334; human!, as calculi, anatomical pre¬
parations, 756; miscellaneous things, natural, 2098 j
mathematial instruments, 55. A catalogue of all the
above is written in a number of large volumes. It is
a large and magnificent building j and has behind it a
garden, consisting nearly of nine acres. It has of late
been very much enriched by an accession of Egyptian
curiosities, chiefly taken from General Menou at Alex¬
andria ; by the splendid collection of minerals be¬
longing to the Hon. C. Greville, which was purchased
by parliament at the expence of 13,000 sterling 5 and
by the Elgin marbles. All parts of the museum, ex¬
cept the library and coins, may be seen every Monday,
Wednesday, and Friday (except during August and
September, and in Christmas, Easter, and Whitsun
Aveeks), betiveen the hours of ten and four, without any
difficulty or other form than the visitor entering his
name, $tc. in a book. This regulation was adopted
only in 1810, previous to which there was much trouble
and delay in procuring admission.
Besides a great number of spacious streets, Avhich are
daily increasing, this part of the metropolis is ornament¬
ed Avith several magnificent squares, viz. Grosvenor-
square, Berkeley-square, Portman-square, Cavendish-
square, Hanover-square, St James’s-squarejSoho-square,
Bloomsbury-square, Queen’s-square, Lincoln’s Inn-
omlon Fields, Leicester-square, Red-Lion-square, &c.
ently hu. Before the conflagration in 1666, London (which
mveuient like most other great cities, had arisen from small he¬
ld un- ginnings) was totally inelegant, inconvenient, and un¬
healthy, of Avhich latter misfortune many melancholy
proofs are authenticated in history, and which, without
doubt, proceeded from the narrowness of the streets,
and the unaccountable projections of the buildings, that
confined the putrid air, and joined Avith other circum¬
stances, such as the Avant of water, rendered the city
General
Descrip¬
tion.
! ^s0
rincipal
;uares,
lalthy.
*52
lan
seldom free from pestilential devastation. The fire
Avhich consumed the greatest part of the city, dreadful
as it was to the inhabitants at that time, Avas produc¬
tive of consequences Avhich made ample amends for the
losses sustained by individuals} a new city arose on the
ruins of the old ; but, though more regular, open, con¬
venient, and healthful, than the former, yet it by no
means ansAvered to the characters of magnificence or
elegance, in many particulars j and it is ever to be la¬
mented (such was the infatuation of those times), that
the magnificent, elegant, and useful plan of the great
Sir Christopher Wren, Avas totally disregarded, and sa¬
crificed to the mean and selfish views of private pro¬
perty j vieAVs which did irreparable injury to the citi¬
zens themselves, and to the nation in general : for had
that great architect’s plan been folloAved, what has of¬
ten been asserted must have been the result} the me¬
tropolis of this kingdom Avould incontestably have been
the most magnificent and elegant city in the universe j
and of consequence must, from the prodigious resort of
foreigners of distinction and taste Avho would have vi¬
sited it, have become an inexhaustible fund of riches
to this nation. But as the deplorable blindness of that
age has deprived us of so valuable an acquisition, it is
become absolutely necessary that some efforts should be
made to render the present plan in a greater degree
ansAverable to the character of the richest and most
powerful people in the world.
The plan of London, in its present state, Avill in Its pi
many instances appear to vrery moderate judges to be still defec-
as injudicious a disposition as can easily be conceived t^ve‘
for a city of trade and commerce, on the borders of so
noble a river as the Thames, The Avharfs and quays
on its banks are extremely mean and inconvenient;
and the Avant of regularity and uniformity in the
streets of the city of London, and the mean avenues
to many parts of it, are also circumstances that greatly
lessen the grandeur of its appearance. Many of the
churches and other public buildings are likewise thrust
up in corners, in such a manner as might tempt fo¬
reigners to believe that they were designed to be con¬
cealed. The improvements of the city of London for
some years past have, however, been very great; and
the neAv streets, which are numerous, are in general
more spacious, and built with greater regularity and
elegance. j
The streets, with the exception of a feAV on the south Great im-
side of the river which are little frequented, are allProve-
well paved j and on each side are flag stones forimnts’
foot passengers. Underneath the pavements are large
vaulted channels, called sewers, which communicate
Avith each house by smaller ones, and Avith every street
by convenient openings and gratings, to carry olf all
filth that can be conveyed in that manner into the river,
A great part of London is notv lighted Avith gas. In
the beginning of 1817 the number of gas lights supplied
was 76,500, in producing which 28 chalders of coals
A\rere consumed daily.
London, then, in its large sense, including West- Wealth
minster, Southwark, and part of Middlesex, forms
one great metropolis, of vast extent and of prodi-^ vast
gious Avealth. When considered Avith all its advan-metropolis,
tages, it is noAV what ancient Rome once Avas 3 the
seat of liberty, the encourager of arts, and the admi¬
ration of the Avhole Avorld. It is the centre of trade j
I) d 2 ■ has
212
N
General
Descrip¬
tion.
L O
has an intimate connexion with all the counties m the
kingdom •, and is the grand mart oi the nation
which all parts send their commodities, from whence
they are again sent back into every town in the nation
•ruUo every part of the world. From hence innumer-
'„i,le carriages by land and water are constantly em¬
ployed: and from hence arises that cucnla ion !„ the
national body which renders every part healthful, v go
r0Us and in a prosperous condition •, a circulation that
b equally beneficial to the head and the most distant
members. Merchants are here as rich as noblemen •,
witness their incredible loans to government: and
there is no place in the world where the shops ot trades¬
men make such a noble and elegant appearance, or arc
better stocked. „ . . , T i
Its excel- The Thames, on the hanks of which London is si¬
lent situa- tuated, is a river which, though not the largest, is
tion for t|ie richest and most commodious tor conamerce ot any
commerce.
in the world. It is continually filled with fleets sail¬
ing to or from the most distant climates •, and its banks,
from London-hridge to Blackwall, form almost
continued great magazine of naval stores*, containing
numerous wet docks, dry docks, and yards for the
building of ships, for the use of the merchant j besides
the places allotted for the building of boats and lighters,
and the king’s yards lower down the river tor the build¬
ing of men of war. _ A A
One of the greatest modern improvements to the
port of London was the erection of docks, which are
justly deemed the most wonderful works of the kind in
the world. The first, the West India docks, were be-
irun in 1800, and completed in 1802. The several ba¬
sins of which they consist, and the canal connecting
them with the river, cover 60 acres. They are kept
always full by locks. The northern or import dock is
2600 by 510 feet, and 29 feet deep. It will hold be¬
tween 200 and 300 ships. The export dock on the
south side is 2600 by 400 feet, and 29 feet deep. An
open shed along the ivliole line of the water in front ot
the warehouses, receives the cargoes, which are hoisted
up to the warehouses by cranes. In these docks 460
vessels have been discharged in the space of 6 months.
The East India docks, which are situated a little below
Blackwall, were built in 1805. The discharging dock
is 14x0 feet long and 560 wide, containing 180- acres.
The loading dock is 780 feet long and 520 wide, con¬
taining 9^ acres : the depth ot both is 30 feet. the
London dock, erected in 1803, is built in the angle of
the river below Wapping, between Ratclift highway
and the Thames: it covers 20 acres. Its length is
1262 feet, and width 690 : its depth is 27 feet. It is
capable of receiving 230 vessels of 300 tons. The ware¬
houses for storing tobacco and wine cover 5 acres j
and the whole is surrounded by a walk
As the city is about 60 miles distant from the sea, it
enjoys, by means of this beautiful river, all the bene¬
fits of navigation, without the danger of being sur¬
prised by foreign fleets, or of being annoyed by the
moist vapours of the sea. It rises regularly from the
water-side, and, extending itself on both sides along its
banks, reaches a prodigious length from east to west in
a kind of amphitheatre towards the north, and is con¬
tinued for near 20 miles on all sides, in a succession of
magnificent villas and populous villages, the country-
seats of gentlemen and tradesmen 3 whither the latter
4
D ON.
retire for the benefit of fresh air, and to relax their Genera!
minds from the hurry of business. .
The irregular form of London makes it dilhcult to ,
ascertain its extent. However, its length from east to ^
west is o-enerally allowed to be above seven miles ironiits grcat
Hyde-park corner to Poplar*, and its breadth in some extent
places three, in others two, and in others again not
much above half a mile. But taking in the villages
included in the population returns, it is supposed to
cover 30 square miles. . , ,
The population of London, though much enlarged
during the last century, did not increase quite so last
as the population of the country parts ot England.
London, according to the population abstract, contain¬
ed in 1700, 674,350 inhabitants, which was nearly
one-eighth of the population of England 3 but in i8ox
it contained 900,000, which is rather less than one-
tenth of the population of England. In 1811 the po¬
pulation of the capital, including that of the villages
actually adjoining or closely connected with it, was by
the returns 1,071,662. During the period between
1801 and 1811, the population of London increased
between 12 and 13 per cent, while that of England in¬
creased 144- per cent. The population of what is call¬
ed properly the «Yy, has diminished since 17003 tins
arises from buildings formerly occupied as dwelling-
houses, being now used as warehouses, &c. and also
from a greater space being occupied by wider streets,
and the houses being larger.
The mortality in London has considerably diminish¬
ed since 1700. In that year it was 19,443, or 1 in
2C 3 since 1801 it has been about I in 38. In 1817
there were buried 19,968, of which 10,033 were males
and 9935 females 3 and in the same year there were
christened 24,129, of which 12,624 were males, and
11,505 females. * „
The mean annual temperature of London is 51 .
The temperature of May on an average of eight
years is 56.61, of July 66.3, of September 59.63.
The greatest usual cold is 20°, and occurs in January.
The greatest usual heat is 8i°, and occurs in July.
The mean height of the barometer is 29.88 at the
house of the Royal Society. There are about 209 days
in the year without rain, and 156 in which it rains or
snows. The average depth of rain during the four last
years of the last century was 19 inches. The prevail¬
ing winds are the south-west and north-east, the for¬
mer of which blows on an average 112 days in the
year, and the latter 58.
Pauperism has increased greatly in London. Ihe
number of persons receiving relief in 1813 was about
double of the number in 1803. The average annual
expenditure tor the poor for the years 1813J i8i4j
1815, was 720,0001.3 the annual number ot persons
receiving permanent relief was 36,034, and of persons
receiving occasional relief 81,282. i3,
Beside St Paul’s cathedral and the collegiate church General
at Westminster, there are 114 parish-churches and 62 enum^ra
chapels of the established religion 3 17 foreign Pro- cliul.e]1es,
testant chapels 3 11 chapels belonging to the Germans, ciiapels,6:
Dutch, Danes, &c. 3 26 Independent meetings 3 34
Presbyterian meetings 3 20 Baptist meetings 3 11 Po¬
pish chapels, and meeting-houses for the use of foreign
ambassadors and people of various sects 3 and 6 Jews
synagogues. So that there are above 300 places devo¬
ted
Jeneral
descrip¬
tion.
iS3
LON
ted lv> religious worship in the compass of this vast pile
of buildings, without reckoning the 21 out-parishes
, usually included in the bills of mortality, and a great
number of Methodist tabernacles.
There are also in and near this city IOO alms-houses,
>spitals, ahout 20 hospitals and infirmaries, 3 colleges, 10 public
:ool3,&cc. pr[gons? 15 flesh-markets ; one market for live cattle j
two other markets more particularly for herbs 5 and 23
other markets for corn, coals, hay, &c. 5 15 inns of
court *, 27 public squares, besides those within single
buildings as, the Temple &c. 5 3 bridges, 55 halls
for companies, 8 public schools, called free schools •,
and 131 charity-schools, which provide education for
5034 poor children •, 207 inns, 447 taverns, 551 cof¬
feehouses, 5975alehouses5 1000 hackney-coaches; 400
ditto chairs; 7000 streets, lanes, courts, and alleys,
and 160,000 dwelling-houses.
The following was the computed weekly consump¬
tion of provisions some years ago, when the population
was estimated at one million.
i59
imber
1 inhabi-
: Us.
160
cekly
; isunipt
t provi-
; ns.
1000 Bullocks, at 61. a-piece - L.6oco o o
6000 Sheep, at 12s. a-piece - 3600 0 O
2000 Calves at il. 4s. a-piece - 2400 0 0
3000 Lambs, at 8s. a-piece for six
months, - - - 1200 o o
1500 Hogs in pork and bacon, at
20s. for six months - 1500 o o
2000 Pigs, at 2s. 6d. a-piece - 250 o o
1000 Turkeys, at 3s. 6d. a piece for
six months - 175 o o
1000 Geese, at 2s. 6d. a-piece, for six
months, . - _ I2J o o
2000 Capons, at is. 8d. a-pieee - 166 13 2
500 Dozens of chickens, at 9s. per
dozen - 225 O o
4300 Ducks, at 9d. a-piece - 161 5 o
1500 Dozens of rabbits, at 7s. per
dozen,, for eight months - 525 o O
2000 Dozens of pigeons, at 2s. per
dozen, for eight months - 200 o o
700 Dozens of wild fowl, of several
sorts, for six months - - 250 o O
In salt and fresh fish, at id. a-day, for
half a million of people for a week 14,583 6 8
In bread of all sorts, white and brown,
at id. a-day, for one million of
people for a week - - 29,166 13 4
300 Tons of wine, of all sorts, at 50I.
a ton, one sort with another, for
one week _ _ . 15,000 o o
In milk, butter, cheese. 8tc. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
a week _ _ - 29,166 13 4
In fruit of all sorts, at one farthing
a-day, for a million of people for a
week - _ . . 7291 13 4
In eggs of hens, ducks, geese, &c. at
hall a farthing a-day, for a million
ol people for a week - - 3645 16 4
In beer and ale, strong and small, at
2d. a-day, for a million of people
for a week ... 58,333 6 8
In sugar, plums, and spice, and all sorts
of grocery; at a halfpenny, a-day,
for a million of people for a week . 14,583 6 8
D O N.
In wheat-flour, for pies and pud¬
dings, oat-meal and rice, &c. at hall
a farthing a-day, for a million ol
people for a week.
In salt, oil, vinegar, capers, olives,
and other sauces, at half a farthing
a-day, for a million of people for a
week
In roots and herbs of all sorts, both
for food and physic, at half a far¬
thing a-day, for a million of people
for a week -
In sea-coal, charcoal, candles, and
fire-wood of all sorts, at id. a-day
for a million of people for a week
In paper of all sorts (a great quantity
being used in printing) quills, pens,,
ink, and wax, at a farthing a-day,
for a million of people for a week
In tobacco, pipes, and snuff, at half
a farthing a-day, for a million of
people for a week
In clothing, as linen and woollen,
for men, women, and children,
shoes, stockings, &c. at 3s. 6d. per
week, for a million of people for
a week
Expences for horse-meat, in hay, oats,
beans, 1000 load of hay, a-week, at
40s. a load, comes to 2000I. in oats,
and beans the like value, 2000].
which is in all, for one week
Cyder, mum, brandy, strong waters,
coffee, chocolate, tea, &c. at id.
a-day, for a million of people for
one week -
L.3645 16
3645 16
3645 16
29,166 13
7291 13
3645 16
175,000 o
4000 o
29,166 13
213-
General
Descrip¬
tion.
8
8
8
4
4
8
o
o
4
161
The common firing is pit coal, commonly called Firing, poi-
coa/, of which there are consumed upwards of 766,880 ter, See-
chaldrons every year. The annual consumption of oil
in London and Westminster for lamps, amounts to
400,000!. In 1787, the quantity of porter brewed in
London for home consumption and foreign exportation,
amounted to 1,176,856 barrels. In 1805 it amounted
to 1,200,000 barrels of 36 gallons each.
The above was the weekly consumption of the arti¬
cles specified a few years ago. The following is the
annual consumption of some of them estimated since
the year 1800. Bullocks 110,000: sheep and lambs
776,000: calves 210,000: hogs 210,000: sucking-
pigs 60,000 : milk in gallons 6,980,000 ; for which
the inhabitants pay 481,666!. and this is the produce
of 8500 cows : vegetables and fruit 3,000,000!.: spi¬
rituous liquors and compounds 11,146,782 gallons:
wine 32,500 tons ; butter 16,600,000 pounds : cheese
21,100,000 pounds.
This great and populous city is happily supplied SuppIy0f
with abundance of fresh water from the Thames andwater.
the New River; which is not only of inconceivable
service to. every family, but by means of fire plugs
everywhere dispersed, the keys of which are deposited
with the parish officers, the city is in a great measure
secured from the spreading of fire : for these plugs are
no sooner opened, than there are vast quantities of wa¬
ter to supply the engines. This plenty of water has
been attended with another advantage, it has given
rise
214-
163
Insurance
companies.
164
Places of
diversion,
LON
rise to several companies, who ensure houses and
goods from fire •, an advantage that is not to be met
with in any other nation on earth J the premium i*
small j and the recovery in case of loss is easy and cer¬
tain Every one of these offices keeps a set of men m
pay, who are ready at all hours to give their assistance
in case of fire j and who are on all occasions ex remely
.bold, dexterous, and diligent: but though al their la-
bours should prove unsuccessful, he person who suffers
by this devouring element has the comfort that must
arise from a certainty of being paid to the value (upon
oath) of what he has ensured. „ ,
The places for diversion are, \ auxhall, lianelagh-
gardens, the two play-houses, the Pantheon, and he
little theatre in the Hay-Market, with Sadler s-wells,
Hughes’s Circus, and Astley’s Royal-Grove, &c. Co¬
vent-Garden Theatre was burnt down in 1808 and re¬
built in 1809-, and Drury-Lane Theatre was burnt
down in 1809 and rebuilt in 1811. _
The Royal Institution owed its origin to a number ol
noblemen and gentlemen, who held meetings for the
avowed purpose of ameliorating the condition ot the
poor. They first projected the plan of its foundation,
which was matured by the exertions and talents ot the
indefatigable Count Rumford. The meetings began m
1800, shortly before which his majesty granted the
proprietors a charter of incorporation by the name ot
the Royal Institution of Great Britain, for the purpose
don.
of facilitating the general introduction of useful mccha- General
nical inventions and improvements, and for teaching, Descnp.
by courses of philosophical lectures and experiments,
the application of science to the common purposes of
life. The government of the society consists of the pre¬
sident, 15 managers, and the secretary, chosen by and
from among the proprietors. Of the 15 managers, one-
third is elected annually, on the first of May. Ihe
house is situated in Albemarle-street, is extremely spa¬
cious, and well adapted to the purposes to which it is
applied. .
The London Institution was formed m the autumn
of 1805, by the indefatigable exertions of a few spirit¬
ed individuals. The house in the mean time is in the
Old Jewry, till the managers can procure a more suitable
place. The design of it is to promote the dissemination
of science, literature, and the arts : its view at present
being confined to three objects, viz. the acquisition of
a valuable and extensive library, the diffusion of usetul
knowledge by the means of lectures and experiments *,
and the establishment of a reading room, where the
foreign and domestic journals are provided for the use
of the proprietors and subscribers. The government ot
the Institution is vested in a president, four vice-presi¬
dents, twenty managers, and the secretary. The num¬
ber of proprietors is limited to 1000, each of whom
paid 75 guineas for a share, and the life subscribers pay
25 guineas.
LON
London- LONDONDERRY, or COLERAIN, a county of
derry. Ireland, in the province of Ulster. It is bounded on
   ' the south and south-west by the county of Tyronne •,
by Antrim on the east, from which it is parted by the
river Bann : by Donegal on the west} and that coun¬
ty and the Deucalcedonian ocean on the north. Its
length is about 32^ miles, its breadth 25, containing
about 511,688 acres. In 1813 it contained 186,000
inhabitants. The bogs and heaths of this county are
manured with sea-shells, as those of Donegal. Like
that, too, it is pretty champaign, and not unfruitful. It
is particularly noted for a very clear river called the
Bann, abounding with salmon, a fish said to delight
in limpid streams. This river, to distinguish it from a
lesser of the same name, is called the Greater or Lower
Bann. In order to cultivate, settle, and civilize this
county, King James I. granted it by letters patent, to
a society, by the name of the Governor and Assistants
at London of the new plantation of ^ Ulster in the realm
of Ireland. It contains four baronies •, and besides the
two knights of the shire, sends to parliament one mem¬
ber for the city of Londonderry, and one for Colerain.
See Londonderry, Supplement.
Londonderry, oy Derry, the capital of the county,
and the see of a bishop, stands at the bottom of Lough-
Foyle. This city has a very good port, to which ships
of the greatest burden have access, and a considerable
trade. It will be ever famous for the gallantry and
perseverance with which it defended itself in three
memorable sieges, in defiance of the greatest hardships
and discouragements, namely, 1st, In 1641, when the
rebels could not reduce it either by fraud or force.
LON
2dly, In 1649, when it: was befleged by tbe Lord Ardes’ LdTndY0.1'
and reduced almost to extremity by famine, till at last
relieved by troops sent from England. 3diy> ’'hen
it held out against the French and Irish from the 7th
of December 1688, to the last day of July 1689,
though it was neither well fortified nor provided with
a garrison or stores of pi'ovision and ammunition, and
hardly any attempt made to relieve it during so long a
time. Though the city is 20 miles up the river, yet
very large ships can come up to the quay, where there
are four or five fathoms of water. It is now well for¬
tified with a strong wall, besides outworks j and along
the banks of the river are several castles and a foit.
This city is of no great antiquity, having been built
and planted in the reign of James I. by a colony sent
by the society above mentioned. The trade of the
town is very considerable, having not only a large
share in the herring fishery, but sending ships also to
the West Indies, New England, and Newfoundland,
for which they are so advantageously situated, that a
vessel bound fropi thence to America often arrives
there before a London ship can get clear of the sound¬
ings, or arrive in the latitude of Londonderry. I hough
there are many shallows in Lough-Foyle, which serves
it instead of a road j yet they are easily avoided. There
is in the town an Infirmary, a Theatre, and a Linen-
Hall. There is also a large and commodious Jail, and
an elegant Court-house. The inhabitants of this city
are almost all Protestants. It gave the title of earl
and baron to a branch of the family of Pitt, which be¬
came extinct in 1764 but part of the title was reviv¬
ed in Robert Stewart, who was created Baron London¬
derry
LON l 2:
ndon- deny in 1789. A late traveller says, “ Derry is, per-
erry, haps, the cleanest, best built, and most beautifully si-
Long. tuated town in Ireland j and excepting Cork, as con-
1 venient as any for commerce, foreign and domestic.”
The lake almost surrounds it; and the whole ground-
plot both of it and its liberties belongs to the 12 great
companies of London. The imports are flax seed,
hardware, iron, timber, and West India goods. The
exports are yarn, linen, salmon salted and barrelled,
&c. It contains 18,500 inhabitants, and has a wooden
bridge 1068 feet long, which was erected in I791*
Long. 70 5' W. 5 Lat. 550 4' N.
LONG, an epithet given to whatever exceeds the
usual standard of length.
LoNG-Boat, the largest and strongest boat belonging
to any ship. It is principally employed to carry great
burdens, as anchors, cables, ballast, &c. See Boat.
Long, Roger, D. D. master of Pembroke-hall in
Cambridge, Lowndes’s professor of astronomy in that
university, rector of Cherryhinton in Huntingdonshire,
and of Bradwellyawta mare in Essex, was author of a
well known and much improved treatise of astronomy,
and the inventor of a remarkably curious astronomical
machine, thus described by himself. “ I have, in a
room lately built in Pembroke-hall, erected a sphere of
18 feet diameter, wherein above 30 persons may sit con¬
veniently 5 the entrance into it is over the south pole by
six steps $ the frame of the sphere consists of a number
of iron meridians, not complete semicircles, the north¬
ern ends of which are screwed to a large round plate of
brass, with a hole in the centre of it j through this
hole, from a beam in the ceiling, comes the north pole,
a round iron rod, about three inches long, and supports
the upper parts of the sphere to its proper elevation for
the latitude of Cambridge 5 the lower part of the sphere,
so much of it as is invisible in England, is cut off j and
the lower or southern ends of the meridians, or trunca¬
ted semicircles, terminate on, and are screwed down to
a strong circle of oak, of about 13 feet diameter 5
which, when the sphere is put into motion, runs upon
large rollers of lignum vitae, in the manner that the
tops of some windmills are made to turn round. Upon
the iron meridians is fixed a zodiac of tin painted blue,
whereon the ecliptic and heliocentric orbits of the pla¬
nets are drawn,,and the constellations and stars traced :
the Great and Little Bear and Draco are already paint¬
ed in their places round the north pole 5 the rest of the
constellations are proposed to follow 5 the whole is
turned round with a small winch, with as little labour
as it takes to wind up a jack, though the weight of the
iron, tin, and wooden circle, is about 1000 pounds.
When it is made use of, a planetarium will be placed in
the middle thereof. The whole, with the floor, is well
supported by a frame of large timber.” Thus far Dr
Long, before this curious piece of mechanism was per¬
fected. Since the above was written, the sphere has
been completely-finished •, all the constellations and stars
of the northern hemisphere, visible at Cambridge, are
painted in their proper places upon plates of iron joined
together, which form one concave surface. Dr Long
published a Commencement Sermon 1728; and an an¬
swer to Dr Galley’s pamphlet on Greek Accents *, and
* or i7S3, died December 16th, 1770, at the age of 91. As the
^ 83- materials for this article are scanty, we shall subjoin,
from the Gentleman’s Magazine*, a few traits of him,
5 3 LON
as delineated in 1769 by Mr Jones. “ He is now in j.ong,
the 88th year of his age, and for his years vegete and Longevity.
active. He was lately (in October) put in nomination  '
for the office of vice-chancellor. He executed that
trust once before, I think in the year 17375 a very in"
genious person, and sometimes very facetious. At the
public commencement in the year 1613, Dr Greene
(master of Bennet college, and afterwards bishop of
Ely) being then vice-chancellor, Mr Long was pitched
upon for the tripos-performance j it was witty and hu¬
morous, and has passed through divers editions. Some
that remembered the delivery of it, told me, that in
addressing the vice-chancellor (whom the university
wags usually styled Miss Greene'), i\\e tripos-orator, be¬
ing a native of Norfolk, and assuming the Norfolk dia¬
lect, instead of saying, Domine Vice-Cancellarie, did
very archly pronounce the words thus, Domini Vice-
Canccllari-d.; which occasioned a general smile in that
great auditory. His friend the late Mr Bonfoy of Bip-
ton told me this little incident, ‘ That he and Dr Long
walking together in Cambridge in a dusky evening,
and coming to a short post fixed in the pavement, which
Mr B. in the midst of chat and inattention, took to be
a boy standing in his way, he said in a hurry, ‘ Get
out of my way, boy.’ ‘ 'That boy, Sir, said the doc¬
tor very calmly and slily, is a post-boy, iv/10 turns out
of his way for nobody.'1—I could recollect several other
ingenious repartees if there were occasion. One thing
is remarkable, he never was a hale and hearty man,
always of a tender and delicate constitution, yet took
great care of it. His common drink water. He al¬
ways dines with the fellows in the hall. Of late years
he has left off eating flesh-meats; in the room thereof,
puddings, vegetables, &c. sometimes a glass or two of
wine.”
LONGEVITY, length of life.
From the different longevities of men in the begin¬
ning of the world, after the flood, and in these ages,
Mr Derham draws an argument for the interposition of
a divine Providence.
Immediately after the creation, when the world was
to be peopled by one man and one woman, the ordinary
age was 900 and upwards.—Immediately after the
flood, when there were three persons to stock the world,
their age was cut shorter, and none of those patriarchs,
but Shem, arrived at 500. In the second century we-
find none that reached 240 : in the third, none but Te-
rah that came to 200 years 5 the world, at least a part
of it, by that time being so well peopled, that they had
built cities, and were cantoned out into distant nations.
—By degrees, as the number of people increased, their
longevity dwindled, till it came down at length to 7°
or 80 years : and there it stood, and has continued to
stand ever since the time of Moses.—This is found a-
good medium, and by means hereof the world is neither
overstocked, nor kept too thin j but life and death keep
a pretty equal pace.
That the common duration of man’s life has been the
same in all ages since the above period, is plain both
from sacred and profane history. To pass by others,
Plato lived to 81, and was accounted an old man : and
the instances of longevity produced by Pliny, lib. vii.
c. 48. as very extraordinary, may most of them be
matched in modern histories.—In the following Jables
are collected into one point of view the most memorable
instances
L O N
[
instances of long-lived persons of whose age we have an y
authentic records. The first and second are extracted
from Mr Whitehurst's Inquiry into the ™
Strata of the Earth, with some additions by Dr I other-
216 j L ° N
gill • who inserted them, accompanied by a third,^to-Lon
f ether with a number of useful observations, in the first'
volume of the Memoirs of the Manchester Literary So¬
ciety.
Names of the Persons. jA-ge
Thomas Parre
Henry Jenkins
Robert Montgomery
James Sands
His Wife
Countess of Desmond
  Ecleston
J. Sagar
— Laurence
Simon Sack
Col. Thomas Winslow
Francis Consist
Christ. J. Drakenberg
Margaret Forster
her daughter
Francis Rons
John Brookey
James Bowels
John Tice
John Mount
A. Goldsmith
Mary Yates
John Bales
William Ellis
Louisa Truxo, a Negress
Margaret Patten
Janet Taylor
Richard Lloyd
Susannah Hilliar
Ann Cockbolt
James Hayley
52
169
126
140
120
140
143
112
140
141
146
I5°
146
136
104
121
134
I52
125
136
140
128
126
130
J75
138
108
r33
too
112
Places of Abode.
Shropshire
Yorkshire
Ditto
Staflordshire
Ditto
Ireland
Ditto
Lancashire
Scotland
Trionia
Ireland
Yorkshire
Norway
Cumberland
Ditto
France
Devonshire
Killingworth
Worcestershire
Scotland
F ranee
Shropshire
Northampton
Liverpool
Tucomea, S. America
Lockneugh near Paisley
Fintray, Scotland
Montgomery
Piddington, Northampsh.
Stoke-Bruerne, lb.
ey 112 Middlewich, Cheshire
William Walker, aged 112, not mentioned above, who was a soldier
at the battle of Edgehill.
Living or Dead.
C Died November 16. 1635.
| Phil. Trans. N° 44.
C Died December 8. 1670.
| Phil. Trans. N° 221.
Died in 1670.
S Do. Fuller’s Worthies,
t P- 47-
Raleigh’s Hist. p. 166.
Died 1691.
1668.
Living — —
Died May 30. 1764.
... Aug. 26. 1766.
 Jan. — 1768.
- June 24. I770,
^j. Both living 1771*
Died Feb. 6. 1769.
Living I777*
Died Aug. 15. 1656
  March 1774-
  Feb. 27. 1766.
■— June — 1776*
  1776.
  April 5. 1776.
— - Aug. 16. 1780
Living Oct. 5. 1780.
Lynche’s Guide to Health.
Died Oct. 10. 1780.
Lynche’s Guide to Health.
Died Feb. 19. 1781. (o)
  April 5. 1775. (p)
March 17* 1781. (^)
(A)
(B)
(C)
(?)
(E)
O)
(G)
(«)
(0
(K)
(L)
(M)
00
If we look back to an early period of the Christian
era, we shall find that Italy has been, at least about
that time, peculiarly propitious to longevity. Lord Ba¬
con observes that the year of our Lord 76* in the reign
of Vespasian, Avas memorable j for in that year was a
taxing which afforded the most authentic method of
knowing the ages of men. From it there was lound
in that part of Italy lying between the Apennine moun¬
tains and the river Po, 124 persons who either equalled
or exceeded 100 years of age, namely—
54 persons of 100 years each.
In Parma
In Brussels
In Placentia
57
2
4
4
3
3
2
1
no
125
13°
136
140
120
130
125
131
In
(a) Fuller’s Worthies, p. 140.
(b) Phil. Trans, abridged by Lowthorp, vol. iii.
p, 30. 6.
(c) Derham’s Physico-Theology, p. 173.
(d) Annual Register.
(e) Daily Advertiser, Nov. 18. 1777*
(f) Warwickshire.
(g) Daily Advertiser, March 1774*
(h) Morning Post, Feb. 29. 1776.
(1) Daily Advertiser, June 24. 177^*
(k) Daily Advertiser, Aug. 22. 1776.
(l) See Inscription in the portico of All-Saints
church.
(m) London Even. Post, Aug. 22. 1780.
(n) London Chronicle, Oct. 5. 1780.
(o) Northamp. Mercury, Feb. 19. 1781.
(p) Well known to persons of credit in Northampton.
(q) Gen. Evening Post, March 24. 1781.
jmgevity.
LON [ :
In Faventia I person of 132 years.
1 6 - no
4 - 120
In Rimino x - 150 years, viz.
Marcus Aponius.
Mr Carew, in his Survey of Cornwall, assures us,
that it is no unusual thing with the inhabitants of that
county to reach 90 years of age and upwards, and
even to retain their strength of body and perfect use
of their senses. Besides Brown, the Cornish beggar,
who lived to 120, and one Polezew to 130 years of
17 ] LON
age, he remembered the decease of four persons in his Longevity,
own parish, the sum of whose years, taken collectively, y—J
amounted to 340. Now, although longevity evident¬
ly prevails more in certain districts than in others, yet
it is by no means confined to any particular nation or
climate j nor are there wanting instances of it in al¬
most every quarter of the globe, as appears from the
preceding as well as the subsequent Table j which
might have been considerably enlarged, had it appear¬
ed necessary; but we have only added, in the last,
three recent instances that are peculiarly remark¬
able.
Names of the Persons.
Hippocrates, Physician
Democritus, Philosopher
Galen, Physician
Albuna, Marc
Dumitur Raduly
Titus Fullonius
Abraham Paiba
L. Tertulla
Lewis Cornaro
Robert Blackeney, Esq.
Margaret Scott
W. Gulstone
J. Bright
William Postell
Jane Reeves
W. Paulet, Marquis 1
of Winchester j
John Wilson
Patrick Wian
M. Laurence
Evan Williams
John Jacobs (r)
Matthew Tait (s)
Donald Macleod (x)
We.
104
109
140
15°
140
I5°
142
I37
100
114
140
i°5
120
103
106
116
115
140
M5
x 21
123
104
Places of Abode.
Island of Cos
Abdera
Pergamus
Ethiopia
f Haromszeck, Transylva-
L
Bononia
Charlestown, South Carol.
Ariminum
Venice
Armagh, Ireland
Dalkeith, Scotland
Ireland
Ludlow
France
Essex
Hampshire
Suffolk
Lesbury, Northumberland
Orcades
J Caermarthen work-
\ house, still alive
Mount Jura
Auchinleck* Ayrshire
\ Isle of Sky. Alive Jan.
| 1792.
Where recorded.
Lynche on Health, chap. 3.
Bacon’s History, 1095.
Voss. Inst. lib. iii.
Hakewell’s Ap. lib. i.
Died Jan. 18. 1782. General
Gazetteer, April 18.
Fulgosus, lib. viii.
General Gazetteer.
Fulgosus, lib. viii.
Bacon’s Hist, of Life, p. 134.
General Gazetteer.
Inscription on her tomb there.
Fuller’s Worthies.
Lynche on Health.
Bacon’s History, p. 134.
St James’s Chron. June 14.1781.
Baker’s Cliron. p. 502.
Gen. Gaz. Oct. 29. 1782.
Plemp. Fundam. Med. § 4. c. 8.
Buchanan’s Hist, of Scotland.
General Gazetteer, Oct. 12th
1782.
All the public prints, Jan. 1790.
V Died Feb. 19. 1792. Ed in.
\ Even. Cour. Mar. 8. 1792.
All the public prints at the end
of 1790 j and Memoirs, &c.
Vol. XII. Part I.
E e
(r) This man, in 1789, at the age of 120, quitted his native hills, and from the summit of Mount Jura un¬
dertook a journey to Versailles, to behold and return thanks to the national assembly for the vote which had
freed him and his poor countrymen from the feudal yoke. In the early part of his life, he was a servant in
the family of the prince de Beaufremont. His memory continued good to the last day of his life j and the
principal inconveniences which he felt from his great age were, that his sight was weakened, and the natural
heat of his body was so diminished, that he shivered with cold in the middle of the dog-days if he was not sit¬
ting by a good fire. This old man was received in the body of the house by the national assembly, indulged
with a chair, and directed to keep on his hat lest he should catch cold if he was to sit uncovered. A collection
was made for him by the membei’s, which exceeded 500I. sterlings but he lived not to return to Mount Jura.
Fie was buried on Saturday the 31st of January 1790, with great funeral pomp, in the parish-church ol St
Eustace at Paris.
(s) He served as a private at the taking of Gibraltar in 1704.
(x) Memoirs of the Life and gallant Exploits of the Old Highlander, Serjeant Donald Macleod, &c. published
I79L in the 103d year of his age.—This old gentleman, for it appears that he really is a gentleman both
by birth and by behaviour, was born in the year of the Revolution, in the parish of Bracadill, in the isle of
Sky, and county ol Inverness, North Britain. He is a cadet of the family of Ulinish in Sky j and descended,
through his mother, from Macdonald of Slate, the ancestor of the present Lord Macdonald. The earlier
|>art of his life coincided with the famine of seven years in Scotland ; which was so great as to suggest, even
Longevity.
LON [ 21
A certain author mentions a list collected by him¬
self of 107 persons, who all died at the age ot 120 am
upwards. Two of them attained the age of 150, three
of 152, one of 154, one of 169, and another ot 175.
1762 there were found in Sweden 988 females above
no years of age. We have seen a list of 104 persons
none of whom died under 120 years of age, and one ot
them, it is said, lived to the prodigious age ot 180.
Forty-one of them belonged to England, 16 to Scotland,
and 24 to Ireland. . .
The antediluvians are purposely omitted, as bearing
too little reference to the present race of mortals, to af¬
ford any satisfactory conclusions ; and as they have been
already taken notice of in a separate article } see An¬
tediluvians). As the improbable stories of some
persons who have almost rivalled them in modern
times, border too much upon the marvellous to find
a place in these tables, the present examples are a-
bundantly sufficient to prove, that longevity does not
depend, *so much as has been supposed, .on any par¬
ticular climate, situation, or occupation in life : for
we see, that it often prevails in places where all
these are extremely dissimilar 5 and it would, moreover,
be very difficult, in the histories of the several persons
above mentioned, to find any circumstance common to
them all, except, perhaps, that of being born of heal¬
thy parents, and of being inured to daily labour, tem¬
perance, and simplicity of diet. Among the inferior
ranks of mankind, therefore, rather than among the
sons of ease and luxury, shall we find the most numer¬
ous instances of longevity •, even frequently, when o-
ther external circumstances seem extremely unfavour¬
able y as in the case of the poor sexton at Peterbo¬
rough, who, notwithstanding his unpromising occupa¬
tion among dead bodies, lived long enough to bury two
crowned heads, and to survive two complete genera-
8 ]
LON
tions. The livelihood of Henry Jenkins and old Longevity.
Parre is said to have consisted chiefly of the coarsest v—J
fare, as they depended on precarious alms. To which
may be added the remarkable instance of Agnes Mil-
bourfle, who, after bringing forth a numerous off¬
spring, and being obliged, through extreme indigence,
to pass the latter part of her life in St Luke’s work¬
house, yet reached her 106th year m that sordid and
unfriendly situation. The plain diet and invigorating
employments of a country life are acknowledged on
all hands to be highly conducive to health and longevi¬
ty while the luxuries and refinements of large cities are
allowed to be equally destructive to the human species 5
and this consideration alone, perhaps, more than coun¬
terbalances all the boasted privileges of superior ele¬
gance and civilization resulting from a city life.
From country villages, and not from ciowded ci¬
ties, have the preceding instances of longevity been
chiefly supplied. Accordingly it appears from the
London bills of mortality, during a period of 30 years,
viz. from the year 1728 to 1758, the sum ot the
deaths amounted to 750,322, and that in all this
prodigious number, only 242 persons survived the
1 ooth year of their age ! rlhis overgrown metropo¬
lis is computed by 13r Price to contain a ninth
part of the inhabitants of England, and to con¬
sume annually 7000 persons, who remove into it
from the country every year, without increasing it.
He moreover observes, that the number of inhabitants
in England and Wales has diminished about one-fourth
part since the Revolution ; and so rapidly of late, that
in 11 years, near 200,000 of cur common'people have
been lost. If the calculation be just, however alarming
it may appear in a national view, there is this conso
lation, when considered in a philosophical light, that
without partial evil, there can be no general good;
and
to the patriotic Mr Fletcher, the idea of the people selling themselves as slaves for immediate subsistence. He
was bred in the midst of want and hardships, cold, hunger, and for the years of his apprenticeship with a
mason and stone-cutter in Inverness, in incessant fatigue. He inlisted, when a boy, in ie co is _ »
in the town of Perth in the last year of the reign of King William. Ihe regiment into, which he inlisted
was the Scots Royals, commanded by the earl of Orkney. That old military corps, at that time used bows and
arrows as ivell as swords, and wore steel caps. He served in Germany and I* landers under the du e o . ai oroug 1 mT
under the duke of Argyle, in the rebellion 1715 } in the Highland Watch, or companies raise 01 en orcin&
the laws in the Highlands j in the same companies when, under the name of the 42d regiment, t ley were
sent abroad to Flanders, to join the army under the duke of Cumberland j in the same regiment in reiam ^
and on the breaking out of the French war, I757> in America. From the 42d he. was draughte to act as
a drill serjeant in the 78th regiment, in which he served at the reduction of Louisburg and ^ue ec . - ex
this he became an out-pensioner of Chelsea Hospital. But such was the spirit of this brave an 'ar y 'e-
teran, that he served in 1761 as a volunteer in Germany under the marquis of Granby 5 and 0 terei ns
services in the American war to Sir Henry Clinton ; who, though he declined to employ the old man in tne
fatigues and dangers of war, treated him with great kindness, allow'ed him a liberal weekly pension out 0 ns
own pocket, and sent him home in a ship charged with despatches to government. The seijeant, ^.3 us
memory, according to the observation of his biographer, is impaired, does not pretend to make an exact enume¬
ration of all his offspring : but he knows of 16 sons now living, 14 of whom are in the army and navy, besides
daughters j the eldest of whom by his present wife is a mantuamaker at Newcastle.—His eldest son.is now. 3
years old, and the youngest only nine. Nor, in all probability, would this lad close the rear of his. immediate
progeny, if his present wife, the boy’s mother, had not attained to the 49^1 year of her age.” In his piime, he
did not exceed five feet and seven inches. He is now inclined through age to five feet five inches. He has an
interesting physiognomy, expressive of sincerity, sensibility, and manly courage. His biographer very properly
submits it to the consideration of the Polygraphic Society, whether they might not do a thing.worthy of them¬
selves and their ingenious art, if they should multiply likenesses of this living antiquity, and circulate them at
an easy rate throughout Britain and Europe. They would thus gratify a very general curiosity j a curiosity not
confined to the present age.
LON [2
JUnsevfty. fuid Uiat what a nation loses in the scale of population
at one period, it gains at another j and thus, probably,
the average number of inhabitants on the surface of the
globe continues at all times nearly the same. By this
medium, the world is neither overstocked with inhabi¬
tants nor kept too thin, but life and death keep a
tolerably equal pace. The inhabitants of this island,
comparatively speaking, are but as the dust in the ba¬
lance } yet instead of being diminished, we are assured
by other writers, that within these 30 years they are
greatly increased.
The desire of self-preservation, and of protracting
the short span of life, is so intimately interwoven with
our constitution, that it is justly esteemed one of the
first principles of our nature, and, in spite even of pain
and misery, seldom quits us to the last moments of our
existence. It seems, therefore, to be no less our
duty than our interest, to examine minutely into the
various means that have been considered as conducive
to health and long life; and, if possible, to distinguish
such circumstances as are essential to that great end
from those which are merely accidental. But here it
is much to be regretted, that an accurate history of
the lives of all the remarkable persons in the above
table, so far as relates to the diet, regimen, and the
use of the non-naturals, has not been faithfully handed
down to us j without which it is impossible to draw
the necessary inferences. Is it not then a matter of
astonishment, that historians and philosophers have hi¬
therto paid so little attention to longevity ? If the pre¬
sent imperfect list should excite others, of more leisure
and better abilities, to undertake a full investigation
of so interesting a subject, the inquiry might prove not
only curious but highly useful to mankind. In or¬
der to furnish materials for a future history of longe¬
vity, the bills of mortality throughout the kingdom
ought first to be revised, and put on a better footing,
agreeable to the scheme of which Manchester and Ches¬
ter have already given a specimen highly worthy of our
imitation. The plan, however, might be farther im¬
proved with very little trouble, by adding a particular
account of the diet and regimen of every person who
dies at 80 years of age or upwards ; and mentioning
whether his parents were healthy, long-lived people,
&e. An accurate register, thus established through-
out the British dominions, would be productive of
many important advantages to society, not only in a
medical and philosophical, but also in a political and
moral view.
All the circumstances which are most essentially ne¬
cessary to life, may be comprised under the six follow¬
ing heads ; 1. Air and climate $ 2. Meat and drink j
3. Motion and rest} 4. The secretions and excretions &
5. Sleep and watching $ 6, Affections of the mind.
These, though all perfectly natural to the constitu¬
tion, have by writers been styled the non-naturals, by
a strange perversion of language j and have been all
copiously handled under that improper term. How.
ever, it may not be amiss to offer a few short observa¬
tions on each, as they are so immediately connected
with the present subject.
I. Airt &e. ft has long been known that fresh air is
more immediately necessary to life than food \ for a man
may live two or three days without the latter, but not
many minutes without the former. The vivifying
19 1 LON
principle contained in the atmosphere, so essential to Loneevity
the support of flame, as well as animal life, concern-
ing which authors have proposed so many conjectures,
appears now to be nothing else but that pure dephlo-
gisticated fluid lately discovered by that ingenious phi¬
losopher Hr Priestley. The common atmosphere may
well be supposed to be more or less healthy in propor¬
tion as it abounds with this animating principle. As
this exhales in copious streams from the green leaves
of all kinds of vegetables, even from those of the most
poisonous kinds, may we not, in some measure account
why instances of longevity are so much more frequent
in the country than in large cities $ where the air, in¬
stead of partaking so largely of this salutary impregna¬
tion, is daily contaminated with noxious animal effluvia
and phlogiston ?
With respect to climate, various observations con¬
spire to prove, that those regions which lie within the
temperate zones are best calculated to promote long
life. Hence, perhaps, may be explained, why Italy
has produced so many long livers, and why islands in
general are more salutary than continents ; of which
Bermudas and some others afford examples. And it
is a pleasing circumstance that our own island ap¬
pears from the above table (notwithstanding the sud¬
den vicissitudes to which it is liable) to contain far
more instances of longevity than could well be imagin¬
ed. The ingenious Mr Whitehurst assures us, from
certain facts, that Englishmen are in general longer
lived than North Americans j and that a British con¬
stitution will last longer, even in that cilmate, than a
native one. But it must be allowed in general, that
the human constitution is adapted to the peculiar state
and temperature of each respective climate, so that no
part of the habitable globe can he pronounced too hot
or too cold for its inhabitants. Yet, in order to pro¬
mote a friendly intercourse between the most remote
regions, the Author of nature has wisely enabled the
inhabitants to endure great and surprising changes of
temperature with impunity.
2. Foods and drink. Though foods and drink of
the most simple kinds are allowed to be the best Cal¬
culated for supporting the body in health, yet it can
hardly be doubted but variety may he safely indulged
occasionally, provided men would restrain their appe¬
tites within the hounds of temperance : for bounti¬
ful Nature cannot be supposed to have poured forth
such a rich profusion of provisions, merely to tantalize
the human species, without attributing to her the part
of a cruel stepdame, instead of that of the kind and
indulgent parent. Besides, we find, that by the won¬
derful powers of the digestive organs, a variety of ani¬
mal and vegetable substances, of very discordant prin¬
ciples, are happily assimilated into one bland homoge¬
neous chyle j therefore it seems natural to distrust those
cynical writers, who would rigidly confine mankind to
one simple dish, and their drink to the mere water of
the brook. Nature, it is true, has pointed out that mild
insipid fluid as the universal diluent, and therefore most
admirably adapted for our daily beverage. But expe- *
science has equally proved, that vinous and spirituous
liquors, on certain occasions, are no less salutary and
beneficial, whether it he to support strength against . •»
sickness or bodily fatigue, or to exhilarate the mind
under the pressure of heavy misfortunes. But, alas !
. E e a what
Longevity.
LON [
what Nature meant for innocent and useful cordials, to
be used only occasionally, custom and caprice have by
degrees rendered habitual to the human frame, and 1.able
to the most enormous and destructive abuses. 1 encc
it may be lastly doubted, whether gluttony and intem¬
perance have not depopulated the world more than even
the sword, pestilence, and famine. True, therelore, is
the old maxim, “ Modus utendi ex veneno facit medi-
camentum, ex medicamento venenwn. See Dietetics,
Supplement. t
o and 4. Motion and rest, sleep and watching. It
is allowed on all hands, that alternate motion and rest,
and sleep and watching, are necessary conditions to
health and longevity 5 and that they ought to be adapt¬
ed to age, temperament, constitution, temperature ot
the climate, &c.; but the errors which mankind daily
commit in these respects become a fruitful source or
diseases. While some are bloated and relaxed with
ease and indolence, others are emaciated, and become
rigid through hard labour, watching, and fatigue.
5. Secretions and excretions. Where the animal
functions are duly performed, the secretions go on re¬
gularly; and the different evacuations so exactly cor¬
respond to the quantity of aliment taken in, in a given
time, that the body is found to return daily to nearly
the same weight. If any particular evacuation happen
to be preternaturally diminished, some other evacua¬
tion is proportionally augmented, and the equilibrium
is commonly preserved ; but continued irregularities,
in these important functions, cannot but terminate in
disease.
6. Affections of the mind. The due regulation ot
the passions, perhaps, contributes more to health and
longevity than that of any other of the non-naturals.
The animating passions, such as joy, hope, love, &c.
when kept within proper bounds, gently excite the ner¬
vous influence, promote an equable circulation, and are
highly conducive to health ; while the depressing affec¬
tions, such as fear, grief, and despair, produce the con¬
trary effect, and lay the foundation of the most formi¬
dable diseases.
From the, light which history affords us, as well as
from some instances in the above table, there is great
reason to believe, that longevity is in a great measure
hereditary ; and that healthy long-lived parents would
commonly transmit the same to their children, were it
not for the. frequent errors in the non-naturals, which
so evidently tend to the abbreviation of human life.
Where is it, but from these causes, and the unnatu¬
ral modes of living, that, of all the children which are
horn in the capital cities of Europe, nearly one half
die in early infancy ? To what else can we attribute
this extraordinary mortality ? Such an amazing pro¬
portion of premature deaths is a circumstance unheard
of among savage nations, or among the young of other
animals ! In the earliest ages, we are informed, that
human life was protracted to a very extraordinary
length ; yet how few person^, in these latter times,
arrive at that period which nature seems to have de¬
signed ! Man is by nature a field animal, and seems de¬
stined to rise with the sun, and to spend a large por¬
tion of his time in the open air, to inure his body to
robust exercises and the inclemency of the seasons,
and to make a plain homely repast only when hunger
dictates. But art has studiously defeated the kind
220 ] LON
intentions of nature; and by enslaving him tu all the J.ongctity
blandishments of sense, has left him, alas ! an easy vie- II
tim to folly and caprice. To enumerate the various
ahuses which take place from the earliest infancy, and <  —,
which are continued through the succeeding stages of
modish life, would carry us far beyond our present in¬
tention. Suffice it to observe, that they prevail more
particularly among people who are the most highly
polished and refined. To compare their artificial mode
of life with that of nature, or even of the long-livers
in the list, would probably afford a very striking con¬
trast ; and at the same time supply an additional reason
why, in the very large cities, instances of longevity are
so very rare.
LONGFORD, a county of Ireland, in the province
of Leinster, bounded by the counties of Leitrim and
Cavan on the north, Meath on the east and south, and
Roscommon on the west. It contains 143,700 Irish
plantation acres, 24 parishes, and above 50,000 inha¬
bitants ; and returns two members to the imperial par¬
liament. It is small, and much encumbered with bog, in¬
termixed with a tolerable good soil; and is about 25 miles
long, and 24 broad. See Longford, Supplement.
Longford, a town of Ireland, situated on the river
Cromlin, in the county of Longford and province of
Leinster, 64 miles from Dublin ; which river falls a
few miles below this place into the Shannon. It is a
borough, post, market, and fair town ; and formerly
returned two members to parliament. 1 atron Lord
Longford. It gave title of earl to the family of Aun-
gier ; of viscount, to the family of Micklethwaite ; and
now gives that of baron to the family of 1 ackenham.
Within a mile and a half of the town is a charter-school
for above 40 children. TJiis place has a barrack for a
troop of horse. It is large and well built; and in a
very early ag® an abbey was founded here, of which
St Idus, one of St Patrick’s disciples, was abbot. In
the year 1400, a fine monastery was founded to the
honour of the virgin Mary, for Dominican friars, by
O’Ferral prince of Annaly. This monastery being de¬
stroyed by fire, Pope Martin V. by a bull in the year
1429, granted an indulgence to all who should contri¬
bute to the rebuilding ot it. In I433> T°Pe Eugene
IV. granted a bull to the same purpose ; and in 1438
he granted another to the like effect. The church of
this friary, now the parish church, is in the diocese of
Ardagh. The fairs are four in the year.
LONG-island, an island of North America, be¬
longing to the state of New York, which is separated
from the continent by a narrow channel. It extends
from the city of New York east 140 miles, terminat¬
ing with Montauk point; and is not moi’e than ten
miles in breadth on a medium. It is divided into
three counties, King’s, Queen’s, and Suffolk. The
south side of the island is flat land, of a light, sandy
soil, bordered on the sea-coast with large tracts ol salt
meadow, extending from the west point of the island
to Southampton. This soil, however, is well calcu¬
lated for raising grain, especially Indian corn. The
north side of the island is hilly, and of a strong soil,
adapted to the culture of grain, hay, and fruit. A
ridge of hills extends from Jamaica to South-hold.
Large herds of cattle feed upon Hampstead plain and
on the salt marshes upon the south side of the island.
Hampstead plain in Queen’s county is a curiosity. It
is
LON
r
jonr,_ is 16 miles in length, east and west, and 7 or 8 miles
Island wide. The soil is black and to appearance rich, and
II yet it Avas never known to have any natural growth,
Longinus.^ a kJuj 0f WJU grass and a few shrubs. It is fre-
quented by vast numbers of plover. Rye grows toler¬
ably Avell on some parts of the plain. The most of
it lies common for cattle, horses, and sheep. As there
is nothing to impede the prospect in the whole length
of this plain, it has a curious but tiresome effect upon
the eye, not unli-.e that of the ocean. The island
contained 48,752 inhabitants in 1810.
. LONGIMETRY, the art of measuring lengths,
both accessible and inaccessible. See Glomktry and
Trigonometry.
LONGING, a preternatural appetite in pregnant
women, and in some sick persons when about to recover.
It is called pica, from the bird of that name, which is
said to be subject to the same disorder. The disorder
consists of both a desire of unusual things to eat and
drink, and in being soon tired of one and wanting
another. It is called malaria, from f^xXa>c»s, “ weak¬
ness.” In pregnant women it is somewhat relieved by
bleeding, and in about the fourth month of their preg¬
nancy it leaves them. Chlorotic girls, and men who
labour under suppressed hemorrhoids, are very subject
to this complaint, and are relieved by promoting the
respective evacuations. In general, whether this dis¬
order is observed in pregnant women, in persons re¬
covering from an acute fever, or those who labour un¬
der obsructions of the natural evacuations, this craving
of the appetite should be indulged.
LONGINICO, a torvn of Turkey in Europe, in
the Morea, anciently called Olympia, famous for being
the place where the Olympic games were celebrated,
and for the temple of Jupiter Olympus, about a mile
distant. It is now but a small place, situated on the
river Alpheus, 10 miles from its mouth, and 50 south
of Lepanto. E. Long. 22. o. N. Lat. 37. 30.
LONGINUS, Dionysius, a celebrated Greek cri¬
tic of the third century, was probably an Athenian.
His father’s name is unknown, but by his mother he
was allied to the celebrated Plutarch. His youth was
spent in travelling with his parents, which gave him an
opportunity to increase his knowledge, and improve
his mind. After his travels, he fixed his residence at
Athens, and with the greatest assiduity applied to study.
Here he published his Treatise on the Sublime } which
raised his reputation to such a height, and gave the
Athenians such an opinion of his judgment and taste,
that they made him sovereign judge of all authors, and
every thing was received and rejected by the public
according to his decisions. He seems to have staid at
Athens a long time ; here he taught the academic jdn-
losophy, and among others had the famous Porphyry
for his pupil. But it was at length his fortune to be
drawn from Athens, and to mix in more active scenes 5
to train up young princes to virtue and glory j to guide
the busy passions of the great to noble objects ; to
struggle for, and at last to die in the cause of liberty.
Zenobia, queen of the East, prevailed on him to un¬
dertake the education of her sons j and he soon gained
an uncommon share in her esteem: she spent the vacant
hours of her life in his conversation, and modelled her
sentiments and conduct by his instructions. That prin¬
cess was at war with Aurelian 5 and being defeated by
21 ] ' LON
him near Antioch, was compelled to shut herself up in xj0nsrjnus
Palmyra, her capital city. The emperor wrote her a jj
letter, in which he ordered her to surrender ; to which Longitude,
she returned an answer, drawn up by Longinus, which ~J
filled him with resentment. The emperor laid siege to
the city 5 and the Palmyrians were at length obliged
to open their gates and receive the conqueror. The
queen and Longinus endeavoured to fly into Persia 5
but were unhappily overtaken and made prisoners when
they were on the point of crossing the Euphrates. The
queen, intimidated, weakly laid the blame of vindicat¬
ing the liberty of her country on its true author ; and
the brave Longinus, to the disgrace of the conqueror,
was carried away to immediate execution. The writ¬
ings of Longinus were numerous, some on philosophi¬
cal, but the greater part on critical subjects. Dr
Pearce has collected the titles of 25 treatises, none of
which, excepting that on the Sublime, have escaped
the depredations of time and barbarians. On this im¬
perfect piece the great fame of Longinus is raised,
who, as Pope expresses it—“ is himself the great su¬
blime he draws.” The best edition of his works is
that by Tollius, printed at Utrecht in 1694, cum notis
variorum. It has been translated into English by Mr
Smith.
LONGISSIMUS dorsi. See Anatomy, Table
of the Muscles.
LONGITUDE, in Geography and Navigation, is
the distance of any place from another eastward or west-
ward, counted in degrees upon the equator : but when
the distance is reckoned by leagues or miles and not in
degrees, or in degrees on the meridian, and not of the
parallel of latitude, in which case it includes both lati¬
tude and longitude, it is called departure.
To find the longitude at sea, is a problem to which
the attention of navigators and mathematicians has
been drawn ever since navigation began to be improv¬
ed.—The importance of this problem soon became so
well known, that, in 1598, Philip III. of Spain of¬
fered a reward of 1000 crowns for the solution y and
his example was soon followed by the States General,
who offered 10,000 florins. In 1714 an act was passed
in the British parliament, empowering certain com¬
missioners to make out a bill for a sum not exceeding
2000I. for defraying the necessary expences of expe¬
riments for ascertaining this pointy and likewise grant¬
ing a reward to the person who made any progress in
the solution, proportionable to the degree of accuracy
with which the solution was performed : io,oool. was
granted if the longitude should be determined to one
degree of a great circle, or 60 geographical miles y
15,000!. if to two-thirds of that distance; and 20,ocol.
if to half the distance.
In consequence of these proffered rewards, innumer¬
able attempts were made to discover this important se¬
cret. The first was that of John Morin professor of ma¬
thematics at Paris, who proposed it to Cardinal Riche¬
lieu : and though it was judged insufficient on account
of the imperfection of the lunar tables, a pensiop of
2000 livres per annum was procured for him in 1645
by Cardinal Mazarine. Gemma Frisius had indeed, in
1530, projected a method of finding the longitude by
means of watches, which at that time were newly in¬
vented : but the structure of these machines was then
by far too imperfect to admit of any attempt; nor even
LON [2
^ oncitude in I^T, ivhen Mctius made an attempt to this purpose
,vere they advanced in any considerable degree. About
the year 1664, Dr Hooke and Mr Huygens made a
very great improvement in watchmaking, by the appli¬
cation of the pendulum spring. Dr Hooke having
quarrelled with the ministry, no experiment was made
with any of his machines ; but many were made with
those of Mr Huygens. One experiment particularly,
made by Major Holmes, in a voyage from the coast ot
Guinea in 1665, answered so well, that Mr Huygens
was encouraged to improve the structure of his watches :
but it was found that the variations of heat and cold
produced such alterations in the rate ot going of the
watch, that unless this could be remedied, the watches
could be of little use in determining the longitude.
In 1714 Henry Sully, an Englishman, printed a
small tract at Vienna upon the subject of watchmaking.
Having afterwards removed to Paris, he applied himselt
to the improvement oi time-keepers lor the discovery ot
the longitude. He taught the famous Julian de Roy ;
- and this gentleman, with his son, and M. Berthoud,
are the only persons who, since the days ot Sully, have
turned their thoughts this way. But though expeii-
ments have been made at sea with some of then watch*
/6s, it does not appear that they have been able to ac¬
complish any thing of importance with regard to the
main point. The first who succeeded in any consider¬
able degree was Mr John Harrison j who, in 1726,
produced a watch which went so exactly, that for ten
years together it did not err above one second in a
month. In 1736 it was tried in a voyage to Lisbon
and back again, on board one of his majesty’s snips ;
during which it corrected an error of a degree and a
half in the computation of the ship’s reckoning. In
consequence of this he received public encouragement
to go on: and by the year 1761 had finished three
time-keepers, each of them more accurate than the
former. The last turned out so much to his satisfaction,
that he now applied to the commissioners of longitude
for leave to make an experiment with his watch in a
voyage to the West Indies. Permission being granted,
jiis son Mr William Harrison set out in his majesty’s
ship the Deptford for Jamaica in the month of Novem¬
ber 1761. This trial was attended with all imaginable
success. The longitude of the island, as determined by
the time-keeper, differed from that found by astrono¬
mical observations only ohc minute and a quarter of the
equator; the longitudes of places seen by the way be¬
ing also determined with great exactness. On the ship’s
return to England, it was found to have erred no more
during the whole voyage than P 54V' in time, which
is little more than 28 miles in distance *, which being
within the limits prescribed by the act, the inventor
claimed the whole 20,0001. offered by government.
Objections to this, however, were soon started. Doubts
were pretended about the real longitude of Jamaica,
as well as the manner in which the time had been
found both there and at Portsmouth. It was alleged
also, that although the time-keeper happened to be
right at Jamaica, and after its return to England, this
was by no means a proof that it had always been so
in the intermediate times ; in consequence of which al¬
legations, another trial was appointed in a voyage to
Barbadoes. Precautions were now’ taken to obviate
ras many of these objections as possible. The commis-
1 2
2 2 J LON
sioners sent out proper persons to make astronomical Longitatft
observations at that island : which, when compared —
wbh others in England, would ascertain beyond a doubt
its true situation. In 1764 then, Mr Harrison junior
set sail for Barbadoes •, and the result of the experi¬
ment was, that the difference of longitude betwixt
Portsmouth and Barhadoes was shown by the time¬
keeper to be 3b. 55' 3"> aml b7 astronomical obser¬
vations to be 3b. 54' 20", the error being now only
43" of time, or'1 o' 45" of longitude. In consequence
of this and the former trials, Mr Harrison received one
half of the reward promised, upon making a discovery
of the principles upon which his time-keeper was con¬
structed. He was likewise promised the other half of
the reward as soon as time-keepers should be construct¬
ed by other artists which should answer the purpose as
well as those of Mr Harrison himself. At this time he
delivered up all his time-keepers, the last of which was
sent to Greenwich to be tried by Mr Nevil M askelyne,
the astronomer-royal. On trial, however, it was found
to go with much less regularity than had been expect¬
ed i but Mr Harrison attributed this to his having
made some experiments with it .which he had not time
to finish when he was ordered to deliver up the watch.
Soon after this, an agreement was made by the com-(
missioners with Mr Kendall to construct a watch upon
Mr Harrison’s principles j and this upon trial was found
to answer ,the purpose even better than any that Har¬
rison himself had constructed. This watch was sent
out with Captain Cook in 1772 j and during all the
time of his voyage round the world in 1772, I773»
1774, and 1775, never erred quite 14^ seconds per
day: in consequence of which, the house of commons,
in 1774, ordered the other I0,00ol. to he paid to
Mr Harrison. Still greater accuracy, however, has
been attained. A watch was lately constructed by
Mr Arnold, which, during a trial of 13 months, from
February 1779 to February 1780, varied no more
than 6.69" during any two days j and the greatest
difference between its rates of going on any day and
the next to it was 4.11". The greatest error it would
have committed therefore in the longitude during any
single day would have been very little move than one
minute of longitudeand thus might the longitude be
determined with as gi’eat exactness as the latitude ge¬
nerally can.-—This watch, however, has not yet been
tried at sea.
Thus the method of constructing time-keepers tor
discovering the longitude seems to be brought to as
great a degree of perfection as can well be expected.
Still, however, as these watches are subject to acci
dents, and may thus alter the rate of their going with¬
out any possibility of a discovery, it is necessary that
some other method should be fallen upon, in order to
correct from time to time those errors which may aviso
either from the natural going of the watch, or from
any accident which rnay happen to it. Methods of
this kind are all founded upon celestial observations of
some kind or other ^ and for these methods, or even
for an improvement in time-keepers, rewards are still
held out by government. After the discoveries made
by Mr Harrison, the act concerning the longitude
was repealed, excepting so much of it as related to the
constructing, printing, publishing, Skc. of nautical al¬
manacks and other useful tables. It was enacted also,
that
t
LON [ 223 ] LON
ougitude. that any person who shall discover a method for find-
" —ing the longitude by means of a time-keeper, the prin¬
ciples of which have not hitherto been made public,
shall be entitled to a reward of 5000I. if, after cer¬
tain trials made by the commissioners, the said method
shall enable a ship to keep her longitude, during a voy¬
age of six months, within 60 geographical miles, or a
degree of a great circle. If the ship keeps her longi¬
tude within 40 geographical miles for that time, the
inventor is entitled to a reward of aHt^ 1°
io,oool. if the longitude is kept within half a de¬
gree. If the method is by improved astronomical
tables, the author is entitled to 5000I. when they
show the distance of the moon from the sun and stars
within 15 seconds of a degree, answering to about
7 minutes of longitude, after allowing half a degree for
errors of observation and under certain restrictions,
and after comparison with astronomical observations
for a period of 18,j years, during which the lunar ir¬
regularities are supposed to be completed. The same
rewards are offered to the person who shall with the
like accuracy discover any other method of finding the
longitude.
These methods require celestial observations 5 and
any of the phenomena, such as the different apparent
places of stars with regard to the moon, the beginning
and ending of eclipses, &c. will answer the purpose:
only it is absolutely necessary that some variation should
be perceptible in the phenomenon in the space of two
minutes $ for even this short space of time will pro¬
duce an error of 40 miles in longitude. The most
proper phenomena therefore for determining the lon¬
gitude in this manner are the eclipses of Jupiter’s sa¬
tellites. Tables of their motions have been construct¬
ed, and carefully corrected from time to time, as the
mutual attractions of these bodies are found greatly to
disturb the regularity of their motions. The difficulty
here, however, is to observe these eclipses at sea 5 and
this difficulty has been found so great, that no person
seems able to surmount it. The difficulty arises from
the violent agitation of a ship in the ocean, for which
no adequate remedy has ever yet been found, nor pro¬
bably will ever be found. Mr Christopher Irwin in¬
deed invented a machine which he called a marine
chair, with a view to prevent the effects of this agita¬
tion •, but on trying it in a voyage to Barbadoes, it
was found to be totally useless.
A whimsical method of finding the longitude was
proposed by Messrs Whiston and Ditton from the re¬
port and flash of great guns. The motion of sound is
known to be nearly equable, from whatever body it pro¬
ceeds or whatever be the medium. Supposing there-
iore a mortar to be fired at any place the longitude of
which is known, the difference between the moment
that the flash is seen and the report heard will give
the distances between the two places •, whence, if we
know the latitudes of these places, their longitudes
must $lso be known. If the exact time of the explo¬
sion be known at the place where it happens, the
difference of time at the place where it is heard will
likewise give the difference of longitude. Let us next
suppose the mortar to be loaded with an iron shell
filled with combustible matter, and fired perpendicu¬
larly upward into the air, the shell will be carried to
the height of a mile, and will be seen at the distance of
near 100 ; whence, supposing neither the flash of the Longitude,
mortar should be seen nor the report heard, still the v '■'l
longitude might be determined by the altitude of the
shell above the horizon.
According to this plan, mortars were to be fired at
certain times and at proper stations along all frequented
coasts for the direction of mariners. This indeed might
be of use, and in stormy weather might be a kind of
improvement in lighthouses, or a proper addition to
them; but with regard to the determination of longi¬
tudes, is evidently ridiculous.
We shall now proceed to give some practical direc¬
tions for finding the longitude at sea by proper ce¬
lestial observations ; exclusive of those from Jupiter’s
satellites, which, for reasons just mentioned, cannot
be practised at sea. In the first place, however, it Avill
be necessary to point oilt some of those difficulties
which stand in the way, and which render even this
method of finding the longitude precarious and uncex*-
tain. These lie principally in the reduction of the ob¬
servations of the heavenly bodies made on the surface of
the earth to similar observations supposed td be made at
the centre ; which is the only place where the celestial
bodies appear in their proper situation. It is also very
difficult to make proper allowances for the refraction of
the atmosphere, by which all objects appear higher than
they really are1, and another difficulty arises from their
parallaxes, which make them, particularly the moon,
appear lower than they would otherwise do, excepting
when they are in the very zenith. It is also well known,
that the nearer the horizon any celestial body is, the
greater its parallax will be ; and as the parallax and
refraction act in opposite ways to one another, the for¬
mer depressing and the latter raising the object, it is
plain, that great difficulties must arise from this circum¬
stance. The sun, for instance, whose parallax is less
than the refraction, must always appear higher than he
really is j but the moon, whose parallax is greater than
her refraction, must always appear lower.
To render observations of the celestial bodies more
easy, the commissioners of longitude have caused an
Ephemeris or Nautical Almanack to be published an¬
nually, containing every requisite for solving this im¬
portant problem which can be put into any form of ta¬
bles. But whatever may be done in this way, it will
be necessary to make the necessary preparations concern¬
ing the dip of the horizon, the refraction, semidiame¬
ters, parallax, &c. in order to reduce the apparent to
the true altitudes and distances ; for which we shall
subjoin two general rules.
The principal observation for finding the longitude
at sea is that of the moon from the sun, or from
some remarkable star near the zodiac. Jo do this^
the operator must be furnished with a watch which
can be depended upon for keeping time within a mi¬
nute for six hours and with a good Hadley’s qua¬
drant, or, which is preferable, a sextant: and this last
instrument will still be more fit for the purpose if it be
furnished with a screw for moving the index gradually j
likewise an additional dark glass, but not so dark as
the common kind, for taking off the glare of the moon s
light in observing her distance from a star. A small
telescope, which may magnify three or four times, is
also necessary to render the contact of a star with the
moon’s limb more discernible. A magnifying glass of
one
I
Longitude.
L O N
a half or two inches focus will likewise assist
in reading oft his observations with the
one and
the operator
greater facility. ,T . • j i
i. To make the observation. Having examined and
adjusted his instrument as well as possible, the observer
is next to proceed in the following manner : If the di¬
stance of the moon from the sun is to be observed, turn
down one of the screens •, look at the moon directly
through the transparent part of the horizon-glass ; and
keeping her in view, gently move the index till the
sun’s image be brought into the silvered part ot that
glass. Bring the nearest limbs of both objects into
contact, and let the quadrant librate a little on the lu¬
nar ray j by which means the sun will appear to rise
and fall by the side of the moon ; in which motion the
nearest limbs must be made to touch one another exact¬
ly by moving the index. The observation is then
made *, and the division coinciding with that on the
Vernier scale, will show the distance of the nearest
limbs of the objects.
When the distance of the moon from a star is to be
observed when the moon is very bright, turn down the
lightest screen, or use a dark glass lighter than the
screens, and designed for this particular purpose j look
at the star directly through the transparent part of the
horizon-glass •, and keeping it there, move the index
till the moon’s image is brought into the silvered part
of the same glass. Make the quadrant librate gently
on the star’s ray, and the moon will appear to rise and
fall by the star : move the index between the libratione,
until the moon’s enlightened limb is exactly touchedi
by the star, and then the observation is made. In
these operations, the plane of the quadrant must always
•pass through the two objects, the distance of which is
to be observed : and for this purpose it must be placed
in various positions according to the situation of the
objects, which will soon be rendered easy by prac¬
tice.
The observation being made, somebody at the veiy
instant that the operator calls must observe by the
watch the exact hour, minute, and quarter minute, if
there be no second hand, in order to find the apparent
time $ and at the same instant, or as quick as possible,
two assistants must take the altitudes of those objects
the distance of which is observed •, after which the ob¬
servations necessary for finding the longitude are com¬
pleted.
The Ephemeris shows the moon’s distance from the
sun, and likewise from proper stars, to every three
hours of apparent time for the meridian of Greenwich *,
and that the greater number of opportunities of observ¬
ing this luminary may be given, her distance is gene¬
rally set down from at least one object on each side of
her. Her distance from the sun is set down while it is
between 40 and 120 degrees ^ so that, by means of a
sextant, it may be observed for two or three days after
her first and before her last quarter. When the moon
is between 40 and 90 degrees from the sun, her distance
is set down both from the sun and from a star on the
contrary side : and, lastly, when the distance is above
120 degrees, the distance is set down from two stars,
one on each side of her. The distance of the moon
from objects on the east side of her is found in the Ephe-
meris in the 8th and 9th pages of the month •, and her
1
224. ] LON
distance from objects on the west is found in the loth Longitude
and ix th pages of the month. ' *
When the Ephemeris is used, the distance ol the
moon must only be observed from those stars the di¬
stance of which is set down there j and these aft'ord a
ready means of knowing the star from which her di¬
stance ought to be observed. 1 he observer has then
nothing more to do than to set his index to the di¬
stance roughly7" computed at the apparent time, esti
mated nearly for the meridian at Greenwich j after
which he is to look to the east or west of the moon,
according as the distance ot the star is found in the
8th or 9th, or in the 10th or nth, pages of the
month j and having found the moon upon • the hori¬
zon-glass, the star will easily be found by sweeping
with the quadrant to the right or left, provided the air
be clear and the star be in the line ol the moon’s short¬
est axis produced. I he time at Greenwich is esti¬
mated by turning into time the supposed longitude
from that place, and adding it to the apparent time
at the ship, or subtracting it from it as occasion re¬
quires. The distance of the moon from the sun, or a
star, is roughly found at this time, by saying, As 180
minutes (the number contained in three hours) is to
the difference in minutes between this nearly estimated
time and the next preceding time set down in the
Ephemeris \ so is the difference in minutes between the
distance in the Ephemeris for the next preceding and
next following times, to a number of minutes: which
being added to the next preceding distance, or sub¬
tracted from it, according as it is increasing or de¬
creasing, will give the distance nearly at the time the
observation is to be made, and to which the index must
be set.
An easier method of finding the angular distance is
By bringing the objects nearly into contact in the
common way, and then fixing the index tight to a
certain degree and minute j waiting until the objects
are nearly in contact, giving notice to the assistants to
get ready with the altitudes, and when the objects are
exactly in contact to call for the altitudes and the exact
time by the watch. The observer may then prepare
for taking another distance, by setting his index three
or four minutes backwards or forwards, as the objects
happen to be receding from or approaching to each
other j thus proceeding to take the distance, altitudes,
and time by the watch, as before. Thus the observer
may take as many distances as he thinks proper \ but
four at the distance of three minutes, or three at the
distance of four minutes, will at all times be sufficient.
Thus not only the eye of the observer will be less fa¬
tigued, but he will likewise be enabled to manage his
instrument with much greater facility in every direc¬
tion, a vertical one only excepted. If in taking the
distances the middle one can be taken at any even di ¬
vision on the arch, such as a degree, or a degree and
20 or 40 minutes, that distance will be independent oi
the Nonius division, and consequently free of those
errors which frequently arise from the inequality of
that division in several parts of the graduated arch.
The observation ought always to be made about two
hours before or after noon ; and the true time may be
found by the altitude of the sun taken at the precise
time of the distance. If three distances are taken,
then
LON [ 225 ] L O N
itude. then find the tune by the altitude corresponding with
1 the middle distance*, and thus the observation will be
secured from any error arising from the irregularity of
the going of the watch. As the time, however,
found by the altitude of a star cannot be depended up¬
on, because of the uncertainty of the horizon in the
night, the best way of determining the time for a night
observation will be by two altitudes of the sun ; one
taken on the preceding afternoon, before he is within
six degrees of the horizon } and the othef on the next
morning, when he is more than six degrees high. It
must be observed, however, that in order to follow
these directions, it is necessary that the atmosphere
should be pretty free from clouds 5 otherwise the ob¬
server must take the observations at such times as he
can be^t obtain them.
2. 'To reduce the observed Distance of the Sun or a
Star from the Moon to the true Distance. 1. Turn the
longitude into time, and add it to the time at the ship
if the longitude be west, but subtract it if it be east,
which will give the supposed time at Greenwich •, and
this we may call reduced time. 2. Find the nearest
noon or midnight both before and after the reduced
time in the seventh page of the month in the Ephemeris.
3. Take out the moon’s semidiameter and horizontal
parallaxes corresponding to these noons and midnights,
and find their differences. Then say, As 12 hours is
to the moon’s semidiameter in 12 hours, so is the redu¬
ced time to a number of seconds j which, either added
to or subtracted from the moon’s semidiameter at the
noon or midnight just mentioned, according as it is in¬
creasing or decreasing, will give her apparent semidia¬
meter } to which add the correction from Table VIII.
of the Ephemeris, and the sum will be her true semidia¬
meter at the reduced time. And as 12 hours is to the
difference of the moon’s horizontal parallax in 12 hours,
so is the reduced time to a fourth number 5 which be¬
ing added to or subtracted from the moon’s horizontal
parallax at the noon or midnight before the reduced
time, according as it is increasing or decreasing, the
sum or difference will be the moon’s horizontal parallax
at the reduced time. 4. If the reduced time be nearly
any even part of 12 hours, viz. -^tb, |th, &c. these
parts of the difterence may be taken, and either added
or subtracted according to the directions already given,
without being at the trouble of working by the rule of
proportion. 5. To the observed altitude of the sun’s
lower limb add the difference betwixt the semidiameter
and dip 5 and that sum will be his apparent altitude.
6. From the sun’s refraction take his parallax in alti¬
tude, and the remainder will be the correction of the
sun’s altitude. 7. From the star’s observed altitude take
• the dip of the horizon, and the remainder will be the
apparent altitude. 8. The refraction of a star will be
the correction of its altitude. 9. Take the difference
between the moon’s semidiameter and dip, and add it
to the observed altitude if her low'er limb was taken, or
subtract it if her upper limb was taken *, and the sum or
difference will be the apparent altitude of her centre.
10. From the proportional logarithm of the moon’s ho¬
rizontal parallax, taken out of the nautical almanack
(increasing its index by 10), taking the logarithmic co¬
sine of the moon’s apparent altitude, the remainder w ill
be the proportional logarithm of her parallax in alti-
Vol. XII. Part I. f
tude 5 from which take her refraction, and the remain¬
der will be the correction of the moon’s altitude. 11.
To the observed distance of the moon from a star add
her semidiameter if the nearest limb be taken, but sub¬
tract it if the farthest limb was taken, and the sum or
difference will be the apparent distance. 12. To the
observed distance of the sun and moon add both their
semidiameters, and the sum will be the apparent di¬
stance of their centres.
3. To find the true Distance of the Objects, having
their apparent Altitudes and Distances. 1. To the pro¬
portional logarithm of the correction of the sun or
star’s altitude, add the logarithmic cosine of the sun
or star’s apparent altitude 5 the logarithmic sine of the
apparent distance of the moon from the sun or star j
and the logarithmic cosecant of the moon’s apparent,
altitude. The sum of these, rejecting 30 from the
index, will be the proportional logarithm of the first
angle. 2. To the proportional logarithm of the cor¬
rection of the sun or star’s altitude, add the loga¬
rithmic cotangent of the sun or star’s apparent alti¬
tude, and the logarithmic tangent of the apparent
distance of the moon from the sun or star. The sum
of these, rejecting 20 in the index, will be the pro¬
portional logarithm of the second angle. 3. Take
the difference between the first and second angles,
adding it to the apparent distance if it be less than
90, and the first angle be greater than the second ;
but subtracting it if the second be greater than the
first. If the distance be greater than 90, the sum of
the angles must be added to the apparent distance,
which will give the distance corrected for the refrac¬
tion of the sun or star. 4. To the proportional lo¬
garithm of the correction of the moon’s altitude add
the logarithmic cosine of her apparent altitude 5 the
logarithmic sine of the distance corrected for the sun
or star’s refraction and the logarithmic cosecant of
the sun’s or star’s apparent altitude. The sum, reject¬
ing 30 in the index, will be the proportional loga¬
rithm of the third angle. 5. To the proportional
logarithm of the correction of the moon’s apparent
altitude, add the logarithmic cotangent of her appa¬
rent altitude, and the tangent of the distance cor¬
rected for the sun or star’s refraction 5 their sum, re¬
jecting 20 in the index, will be the proportional lo¬
garithm of the fourth angle. 6. Take the difference
between the third and fourth angles, and subtract it
from the distance corrected for the sun or star’s re¬
fraction if less then 90, and the third angle be great¬
er than the fourth 5 or add it to the distance if the fourth
angle be greater than the third: but if the distance be
more than 90, the sum of the angles must be subtract¬
ed from it, to give the distance corrected for the sun
or star’s refraction, and the principal eftects of the
moon’s parallax. 7. In Table XX. of the Ephemeris,
look for the distance corrected for the sun and star’s
refraction, and the moon’s parallax in the top column,
and the correction of her altitude in the left-hand side
column ; take out the number of seconds that stand
under the former, and opposite to the latter. Look
again in the same table tor the corrected distance in
the top column, and the principal effects of the moon’s
parallax in the left-hand side column, and take out the
number of seconds. The difference between these two
F f numbers
L ON C 2
I,ongitU;lc. numbers mast be added to the corrected distance .Hess
than 90
uiuii yw, but subtracted from it if greater, and
sum or difference will be the true distance.
4. To determine the Longitude after having obtain-
ed the true Distanee.-hodk in the Ephemens among
the distances of the objects for the computed distance
betwixt the moon and the other object observed on
the given day. If it be found there, the time at
Greenwich will be at the top of the column;, but if
it falls between two distances in the Ephemens win
stand immediately before and after it, and also the
difference between the distance standing before and
the computed distance 5 then take the proportional
logarithms of the first and second differences, and the
difference between these two logarithms wall be the
proportional logarithm of a number of hours, minutes,
and seconds j which being added to the time standing
over the first distance, will give the true time at Green¬
wich. Or it may be found by saying, As the first
difference is to three hours, so is the second diflerence
to a proportional part of time : which being added as
above directed, will give the time at Greenwich. .1 he
difference between Greenwich time and that at the
ship, turned into longitude, will be that at the time
the observations wxre made •, and will be east it the
time at the ship is greatest, but west if it is least.
Having given these general directions, we shall next
proceed to show some particular examples of finding the
longitude at sea by all the different methods in which
it is usually tried. 7 07 •
x. To find the longitude by Computation Jrom the ship s
Cmrse. Were it possible to keep an accurate account
of the distance the ship has run, and to measure it ex-
* See Log actly by the log* or any other me^ps, then both lati-
Perpetml. ’ tude and longitude would easily be found by settling
the ship’s account to that time. For the course and
distance being known, the difference of latitude and
departure is readily found by the Traverse Table : and
the difference of longitude being known, the true
longitude and latitude will also be known. A variety
of causes, however, concur to render this computa¬
tion inaccurate; particularly the ship’s continual de¬
flection from the course set by her playing to the
right and left round her centre of gravity : the un¬
equal care of those at the helm, and the distance sup¬
posed to be sailed being erroneous, on account of
stormy seas, unsteady winds, currents, &c. for which
it seems impossible to make any allowance. The place
of the ship, however, is judged of by finding the la¬
titude every day, if possible, by observations ; and if
the latitude found by observation agrees with that by
the reckoning, it is presumed that the ship’s place is
properly determined ; but if they disagree, it is con¬
cluded that the account of the longitude stands in need
of correction, as the latitude by observation is always
to be depended upon.
Currents very often occasion errors in the compu¬
tation of a ship’s place. The causes of these in the
great depths of the ocean are not well known, though
many of the motions near the shore can be accounted
for. It is supposed that some of those in the great
oceans are owing to the tide following the moon, and
a certain libration of the water’s arising from thence j
likewise that the unsettled nature of these currents
may be owing to the changes in the moon’s declina-
4
26 ] L 0 N .
tion. In the torrid zone, however, a considerable cur-Longitude,
rent is occasioned by the trade winds, the motion be-' '
ing constantly to the west, at the rate of eight or ten
miles per day. At the extremities of the trade winds,
or near the 30th degree of north or south latitude,
the currents are probably compounded of this motion
to the westward, and of one towards the equator 5
whence all ships sailing within these limits ought to
allow a course each day for the current.
When the error is supposed to have been occasioned
by a current, it ought if possible to be tried whether
the case is so or not", or we must make a reasonable
estimate of its drift and course. Then with the set¬
ting and drift, as a course and distance, find the dif¬
ference of latitude and departure with which the
dead reckoning is to be increased or diminished 5 and
if the latitude thus corrected agrees with that by ob¬
servation, the departure thus corrected may be safely
taken as true, and thus the ship’s place with regard to
the longitude determined.
Exam. Suppose a ship in 24 hours finds, by her
dead reckoning, that she has made 96 miles of dif¬
ference of latitude north and 38 miles of departure
west ^ but bv observation finds her difference of lati¬
tude 112, and on trial that there is a current which
in 24 hours makes a difference of 16 miles latitude
north, and 10 miles of departure east: Required the
ship’s departure.
Miles.
Diff. lat. by account 96 N.
Diff. lat. by current 16 N.
Departure by
account j
Departure by 1
current j
4 liIcs.
38 W
10
True diff. lat. H2 \y
Here the dead reckoning corrected by the current gives
the diflerence of latitude 112 miles, which is the same
as that found by observation j whence the depaituxe 2S
is taken as the true one.
When the error is supposed to arise from the courses
and distances, we must observe, that if the difleience
of latitude is much more than the departure, or the
direct course has been within three points of the me¬
ridian, the error is most probably in the distance. But
if the departure be much greater than the diflerence
of latitude, or the direct course be within three points
of the parallel, or more than five points from the me¬
ridian, the error is probably to be ascribed to the
course. But if the courses in general are near the mid¬
dle of the quadrant, the error may be either in the
course, or in the distance, or both. This method ad¬
mits of three cases.
1. When, by the dead reckoning, the difference of
latitude is more than once and a half the departure j
or when the course is less than three points : linn
the course to the difterence of latitude and departure.
With this course and the meridional difference of la¬
titude by observation, find the diflerence of longitude.
2. When the dead reckoning is more than once
and a half the difference of latitude y or when the
course is more than five points : Find the course and
distance, with the difference of latitude by observation,
and departure by account •, then with the co-middle
latitude by observation, and departure by account, find
the diflerence of longitude.
3. When
LON [ 227 ] L O N
longitude. 3* ^ I if 11 the difference oi latitude and departure shown at London by the Ephemerisj from which take
*■ v 'by account is nearly equal, or the direct course is be- also the daily difference of declination at that time j
tween three and five points of the meridian : Find the then say, as the daily difference of declination is to the
course with the difference of latitude and departure by above found difference, so is 360 degrees to the dif-
account since the last observation. With this course ference of longitude. In this method, however, a small
and the diflercnce ol latitude by observation find ano- error in the declination will make a great one in the
ther departure. Take half the sum of these departures longitude.
for the true one. W7ith the true departure and differ- 4. Tofind the Longitude by the Moon's culminating.—
encc of latitude by observation find the true course j Seek in the Lphemeris for the time ol her coming to
then with the true course and meridional difference of the meridian on the given day and on the day follow-
latitude find the difference of longitude. ing, and take their difference; also take the difference
2. Tojind the Longitude at Sea by u Variation-chart.— betwixt the times oi culminating on the same day as
l)r Halley having collected a great number of obser- found in the ephemeris and as observed ; then say, as
rations on the variation of the needle in many parts of the daily difference in the ephemeris is to the difference
the world; by that means was enabled to draw’ certain between the ephemeris and observation; so is 360 de
lines on Mercator’s chart, shewing the variation in all grees to the difference of longitude. In this method
the places over which they passed in the year 1700, at also a small difference in the culmination will occasion
which time he first published the chart; whence the a great one in the longitude.
longitude of those places might be found by the chart, 5. By Eclipses of the Moon.—This is done much in
provided its latitude and variation were given. The the same manner as by the eclipses of Jupiter’s satel
mle is, Draw a parallel of latitude on the chart through lites : For if, in two or more distant places where an
the latitude found by observation; and the point where eclipse of the moon is visible, we carefully observe the
it cuts the curved line mniked with the variation that times of the beginning and ending, the number of di-
was observed will be the ship s place. gits eclipsed, or the time when the shadow touches some
Exam. A ship finds by observation the latitude to remarkable spot, or when it leaves any particular spot
he 18° 20' north, and the variation of the compass to on the moon, the difference of the times when the ob-
be 40 west. Required,the ship’s place.—Lay a ruler servations were made will give the difference of longi-
over 18° 2c/ north parallel to the equator ; and the tude. Phenomena of this kind, however, occur too
point where its edge cuts the curve of 40 west varia- seldom to be of much use.
tion gives the ship’s place, which will be found in about 6. In the 76th volume of the Philosophical Trans-
27r west from London. actions, Mr Edward Pigot gives a very particular ac-
Ihis method of finding the longitude, however, is count of his method of determining the longitude
attended with two inconveniences. 1. That when the and latitude of York ; in which he also recommends
variation lines run east or west, or nearly so, it cannot the method of determining the longitude of places by
be applied ; though as this happens only in certain parts observations of the mooli's transit over the meridian.
of the world, a variation chart may be of great use for The instruments used in his observations were a gridiron
the rest. Even in those places indeed where the varia- pendulum clock, a two feet and a half reflector, an
tion curves do run east or west, they may be of con- eighteen inch quadrant made by Mr Bird, and a transit
siderable use in correcting the latitude when meridian instrument made by Mr Sisson.
observations cannot be had ; which frequently happens By these instruments an observation was made, on
on the northern coasts of America, the Western ocean, the 10th of September 1783, of the occultation of a
and about Newfoundland ; for if the variation can be star of the ninth magnitude by the moon, during an
found exactly, the east and west curve answering to it eclipse of that planet, at York and Paris. Besides
will show the latitude. But, 2. The variation itself is this, there were observations made of the immersions
subject to continual change; whence a chart, though of Aquarii and $ Piscium; the result of all which
ever so perfect at first, must in time become totally use- was, that between Greenwich and York the difference
less ; and hence the charts constructed by Dr Halley, of meridians was 4' 27".
though of great utility at their first publication, became 1111783, Mr Pigot informs us, that he thought of
at length almost entirely useless. A new one was pub- finding the difterence of meridians by observing the
lished in 1746 by Messrs Mountaine and Dodson, meridian right ascensions of the moon’s limb. This lie
which was so well received, that in 1756 they again thought had been quite original: but he found it after.-
drew variation lines for that year, and published a third wards in the Nautical Almanack for 1769, and in
chart the year following. Ihey also presented to the 17^4 J’cad a pamphlet on the same subject by the abbe
Royal Society a curious paper concerning the variation Toaldo ; but still found that the great exactness of this
of the magnetic needle, with a set of tables annexed con- method was not suspected ; though he is convinced that
taining the result of more than 50,000 observations, in it must soon be universally adopted in preference to that
six periodical reviews from the year 1700 to 1756 in- from the first satellite of Jupiter,
elusive, adapted to every five degrees of latitude and After giving a number of observations on the satel-
longitude in the more frequented oceans ; all of which lites of J upiter, he concludes, that the exactness ex-
were published in the Philosophical Transactions for pected from observations, even on the first satellite, is
I757* much overrated. “ Among the various objections
3- To find the Longitude by the Sun's-Declination.— (says he), there is one I have often experienced, and,
Having made such observations on the sun as may which proceeds solely from the disposition of the eye,
enable us to find his declination at the place, take the that of seeing more distinctly at one time than another,
difference between this computed declination and that Itmsy not be improper also to mention, that the obser-
F f 2 vation
Lou situ dc.
LON [2
vat ion I should have relied on as the best, that of
1 August 30. 1785, marked excellent, is one of those most
distant from the truth.” . ..
After givincr a number of observations on the eclipse
of the moon September 10. 1783, our author concludes,
that the eclipses of the moon’s spots are in general too
much neglected, and that it might be relied upon much
more were the following circumstances attended to :
1. To be particular in specifying the clearness ot the
sky. 2. To choose such spots as are well dehned, and
leave no hesitation as to the part eclipsed. 3. lhat
every observer should use, as far as possible, telescopes
equally powerful, or at least let the magnifying powers
be the same. “ A principal objection (says he) may
still be urged, viz. the difficulty of distinguishing the
true shadow from the penumbra. Was this obviated,
I believe the results would be more exact than from Ju¬
piter’s first satellite : Undoubtedly the shadow appears
better defined if magnified a little ; but I am much in¬
clined to think, that, with high magnifying powers,
there is greater certainty of choosing the same part ot
the shadow, which perhaps is more than a sufficient
compensation for the loss ot distinctness.
The following rule for meridian observations ot the
moon’s limb is next laid down: “ The increase of the
moon’s right ascension in twelve hours (or any given
time found by computation) is to 12 hours, as the
increase of the moon’s right ascension between two
places found by observation is to the difference of me¬
ridians.
Example.
November 30. 1782.
h. ' "
13 12 Meridian transit of moon’s
second limb
13 13 29.08 Ditto of ot
1
By clock at
Greenwich.
31.46 Difference of right ascension.
13 14 8.05 Meridian transit of moon’sT g clock
second limb > at York,
13 14 30.13 Ditto OI «4 115. J
32.08 Difference at York
31.46 Difference at Greenwich,
The clocks
going near-
rectionisrer
quired.
9.38 Increase of the moon’s ap- V
parent right ascension
between Greenwich and
York, by observation.
141" in seconds of a degree, ditto, ditto, ditto.
T1 ic increase of the moon’s right ascension for 12 hours,
by computation, is 23,340 seconds ; and 12 hours re¬
duced into seconds is 43,200. Therefore, accord¬
ing to the rule stated above,
23,340" : 43,200" : diff. of merid.=:26l"
“ These easy observations and short reduction (says
Mr Bigot) are the whole of the business. Instead of
computing the moon’s right ascension lor 12 hours,
I have constantly taken it from the Nautical Alma¬
nacks, which give it sufficiently exact, provided some
attention be paid to the increase or decrease of the
moon’s motion. Were the following circumstances
28 ] LON
attended to, the results would be undoubtedly much Longitude.
more exact. -v——'
“ 1. Compare the observations with the same made
in several other places. 2. Let several and the same
stars be observed at these places. 3* Such stais as aie
nearest in right ascension and declination to the moon
are infinitely preferable. 4. It cannot be too strongly
urged, to get, as near as possible, an equal number of
observations of each limb, to take a mean of each set,
and then a mean of both means. This will in a great
measure correct the error of telescopes and sight.
5. The adjustment of the telescopes to the eye of the
observer before the observation is also verj necessary,
as the sight is subject to vary. 6. A principal error
proceeds from the observation of the moon’s limb,
which may be considerably lessened, if certain little
round spots near each limb were also observed in settled
observatoriesin which case the libiation of the moon
will perhaps be a consideration. 7* M hen the. diiler-
ence of meridians, or of the latitudes of places is very
considerable, the change of the moon’s diameter be¬
comes an equation.
“ Though such are the requisites to use tills method
with advantage, only one or two of them have been em¬
ployed in the"observations that I have reduced. Two-
thirds of these observations had not even the same stars
observed at Greenwich and A ork and yet none of the
results, except a doubtful one, differ 15" from the
mean j therefore I think we may expect a still greater
exactness, perhaps within 10", if the above particulars
be attended to.
“ When the same stars are not observed, it is neces¬
sary for the observers at both places to compute their
right ascension from tables, in order to get the appa¬
rent right ascension of the moon’s limb. Though
this is not so satisfactory as by actual observation, still
the difference will be trifling, provided the star’s right
ascensions are accurately settled. I am also of opi¬
nion, that the same method can be put in practice by
travellers with little trouble, and a transit instrument,
constructed so as to fix up with facility in any place.
It is not necessary, perhaps, that the instrument should
be perfectly in the meridian for a few seconds of time,
provided stars, nearly in the same parallel of declina¬
tion with the moon, are observed ; nay, I am inclined
to think, that if the instrument deviates even a quarter
or half a degree, or more, sufficient exactness can be
attained ; as a table might be computed, showing the
moon’s parallax and motion for such deviation j which
last may easily be found by the well-known method of
observing stars whose difference of declination is con¬
siderable.
“ As travellers very seldom meet with situations to
observe stars near the pole, or find a proper object for
determining the error of the line of collimation, I
shall recommend the following method as original.—
Having computed the apparent right ascension of
four, six, or more stars, which have nparly the same
parallel of declination, observe half of them with the
instrument inverted, and the other half when in its
right position. If the difference of right ascensions
between each set by observation agrees with the com¬
putation, there is no error j but if they disagree, half
that disagreement is the error of the line of collima¬
tion. The same observations may also serve to deter¬
mine,
LON [2
ngituile. vniiic, whether the distances of the corresponding wires
— are equal. In case of necessity, each limb of the sun
might be observed in the same manner, though proba¬
bly with less precision. By a single trial I made above
two years ago, the result was much more exact than
I expected. Mayer’s catalogue of stars will prove of
great use to those that adopt the above method.—I
am rather surprised that the immersions of known stars
of the sixth and seventh magnitude, behind the dark
limb of the moon, are not constantly observed in fixed
observatories, as they would frequently be of great
use,”
The annexed rule for finding the ship’s place, with
the miscellaneous observations on different methods,
were drawn up by Mr John M‘Lean of Edinburgh.
1. With regard to determining the ship’s place by the
help of the course and distance sailed, the following rule
may be applied.—It will be found as expeditious as any
of the common methods by the middle latitude or meri¬
dional parts ; and is in some respects preferable, as the
common tables of sines and tangents only are requi¬
site in applying it.—Let a and b be the distances of
two places from the same pole in degrees, or their com¬
plete latitude 5 c the angle which a meridian makes
with the rhumb line passing through the places 5 and L
the angle formed by their meridians, or the difference
of longitude in minutes : then A and B being the lo¬
garithmic tangents of -J o, and the sine of C, and
S the sine of (C-f-i'), we shall have the following e-
tAcz>B,n . ,, ,
- quation : Lrr-^—kt (aj. Also, irom a well known
property of the rhumb line, we have the following
equation :
S-|-E=R-f D, where S is the logarithmic cosine of
C, E the logarithm of the length of the rhumb line, or
distance, D the logarithm of the minutes difference of
latitude, and It the logarithm of the radius.
By the help of these two equations, wre shall have
an easy solution of the several cases to which the
middle latitude, or meridional parts, are commonly ap¬
plied.
Exam. A ship from a port in latitude 56° N. sails
S. W. by W. till she arrives at the latitude of 40° N:
Required the dift’erence of longitude P
Here 0 = 34°, 6=J00, c-560 15', A=9.48534,
11=9.56107, S':i=9.9199308,. 8=9.91984645 there¬
fore, L=|^CL^ — —897 the minutes differ-
8'—8 844
ence of longitude. Also, 8=9.74474, 0=2.98227 j
therefore E=R-}-D—S—3-23753> to which the na¬
tural number is 1728, the miles in the rhumb line sail¬
ed over.
2. The common method of finding the difference
of longitude made good upon several courses and di¬
stances, by means of the difference of latitude and de¬
parture made good upon the several courses, is not ac¬
curately true.
For example: If a ship should sail due south 600
miles, from a port in 6o° north latitude, and then due
west 600 miles, the difference of longitude found by the
29 ] LON
common methods of solution would be 1053: whereas Longitude
the true difference of longitude is only 933, less than' 1—'
the former by 120 miles, which is more than one-eighth
of the whole. Indeed every considerable alteration in
the course will produce a very sensible error in the dif¬
ference of longitude. Though, when the several rhumb
lines sailed over are nearly in the same direction, the
error in longitude will be but small.
I he reason of this will easily appear from the annexed
figure, in which the ship is supposed to sail from Z to
A, along the rhumb lines ZB, BA 5 for if the meri¬
dians PZ,PkoeBL be drawn 5 and very near the latter
other two meridians PhD, Pmn 5 and likewise the pa¬
rallels of latitude Bn, De, mo, hk 5 then it is plain
that De is greater than hk, (for De is to hk as the
sine of DP to the sine of hP) : and since this is the
case everywhere, the departure corresponding to the
distance BZ and course BZC, will be greater than
the departure to the distance oZ and course oZC.
And in the same manner, we prove that nB is greater
than mo : and consequently, the departure correspond¬
ing to the distance AB, and course ABL, is greater
than the departure to the distance Ao, and course
AoL. Wherefore, the sum of the two departures cor¬
responding to the courses ABL and BZC, and to the
distances AB and BZ, is greater than the departure
corresponding to the distance AZ and course AZC :
therefore the course answering to this sum as a de¬
parture, and CZ as a difference of latitude, (AC be¬
ing the parallel of latitudes passing through A), will
be greater than the true course AZC made good upon
the whole. And hence the difference of longitude
found by the common rules will be greater than the
true difference of longitudes 5 and the error will be
greater or less according as BA deviates more or less
from the direction of BZ,
’P ’
3. Of determining the ship’s longitude by lunar ob¬
servations.
Several rules for this purpose have been lately pub¬
lished, the principal object of which seems to have been
to
(a) A «/j B signifies the difference between A and B,
LON [
5 .cm ntuJe. to abbreviate the computations requisite for determm-
L^v the true distance of the sun or star from the moon s
centre. This, however, should have certainly been
less attended to than the investigation of a solution, in
which considerable errors in the data may produce a
small error in the required distance. \\ hen either ot
the luminaries has a small elevation, its altitude will
be affected by the variableness of the atmosphere;
likewise the altitude, as given by the quadrant, will
be affected by the inaccuracy of the instrument, and
the uncertainty necessarily attending all observations
made at sea. The sum of these errors, when they all
tend the same way, niay be supposed to amount to at
least one minute in altitude j which, in many cases,
according to the common rules for computing the true
distance, will produce an error of about 3° minutes in
the longitude. Thus, in the example given by Mons.
Callet, in the Tables Portatives, if we suppose an error
of one minute in the sun’s altitude, or call it 6° 26'
34", instead of 6° 27' 34" j we shall find the alteration
in distance according to his rule to be 54", producing
an error of about 27 minutes m the longitude j for the
angle at the sun will be found, in the spherical triangle
whose sides are the complement of the sun’s altitude,
complement of the moon’s altitude, and observed di¬
stance, to be about 26° and as radius is to the cosine
of 26°, so is 16 the supposed error in altitude, to 54"
the alteration in distance. Perhaps the only method
of determining the distance, so as not to be affected by
the errors of altitude, is that by first finding the angles
at the sun and moon, and by the help of them the cor¬
rections of distance for parallax and refraction. The
rule is as follows :
Add together the complement of the moon’s appa¬
rent altitude, the complement of the sun’s apparent al¬
titude, and the apparent distance of centres j ‘from half
the sum of these subtract the complement of the sun’s
altitude, and add together the logarithmic cosecant
of the complement of the moon’s altitude, the loga¬
rithmic cosecant of the apparent distance of centres,
the logarithmic sine of the half sum, and the logarith¬
mic sine of the remainder', and half the sum of these
four logarithms, after rejecting 20 from the index,
230 ] O N
is the logarithmic cosine of half the angle at
the
Cosec.-
-o.o 2512-
Cosec.——o. 11479-
-*,s co. alt.-
])’s co. alt.-
-obs. dist.—
-70
-34
'5°
42'
4-
9“
moon
As radius is to the cosine of the angle at the moon j
so is the difference between the moon’s parallax and
refraction rn altitude to a correction of distance j ^\1ik1i
is to be added to the apparent distance of centres when
the angle at the moon is obtuse j but to be subtracted
when that angle is acute, in order to have the distance
once corrected.
In the above formula, if the word sun be changed
for moon, and vice versa, wherever these terms occur,
we shall find a second correction of distance to be ap¬
plied to the distance, once corrected by subtraction
when the angle at the sun is obtuse, but by addition
when that angle is acute, and the remainder or sum is
the true distance nearly.
In applying this rule, it will be sufficient to use the
complement, altitude, and apparent distances of cen¬
tres, true to the nearest minute only, as a small error
in the angles at the sun and moon will very little affect
the corrections of distances.
If D be the computed distance in seconds, d the
difference between the moon’s parallax and refraction
in altitude, S the sine of the angle at the moon, and
i/* S*
R the radius; then -r^rr will be the third correction
2DU
of distance, to be added to the distance twice correct¬
ed : But it is plain from the nature of this correction,
that it may be always rejected, except when the dis¬
tance D is very small, and the angle at the moon near¬
ly equal to 90°.
This solution is likewise of use in finding the true
distance of a star from the moon, by changing the word
sun into star, and using the refraction of the star, in¬
stead of the difference between the refraction and pa¬
rallax in the altitude of the sun, in finding the second
correction of distance.
Ex. Given the observed distance of a star trom the
centre of the moon, 50°8/4l,/j the moon’s altitude,
55° 5%' 5" ’ the star’s altitude, 190 18' 5"$ and the
moon’s horizontal parallax, i° o’ 5": Required the true
distance.
-Cosec.-
-Cosec.-
-0.25169
-O.11479
2)i54 55
Sine—9.98950    — 77 27——Sine 9.98950
Rem. 6 45-■ ■■ ■■.■■ Sine 9.076x8
Bine—9.83688 — Rem. 43 23 2)19.42616
2)19.96629 - n «. 1 •. nCosec.--' »■ -9.71308--*—-586 54'
Cosec.— - -9.98314    150 54'-;—.
2 117 48= ’s angle.
31 48=*’s angle.
Rad. : Cosec. I170 48' : : l’s diff. parall & refract,’1980" : 923'^ist correct, of distance.
Rad. : Cosec. 310 48' : : star’s refract. 162" : 138"=^ correct, of distance.
Here
itiicic
L O N
Here the first correction of distance is
since the angle at the moon is obtuse ; and the se¬
cond correction is also additive, since the angle at the
star is acute: therefore their sum 923"-j-i38/,:= 1061"
— 17' 41", being added to 50° 8' 41", the apparent
distance of the star from the moon’s centre, gives
50° 26' 2i" for the true distance of centres nearly ;—
and 2 x hi (d + S)—L (2 L R-f L 2+LD)=L8"
which, being added to the distance twice corrected,
gives 50° 26' 29" for the true distance. By compar¬
ing this distance with the computed distances in the
Ephemeris, the time at Greenwich corresponding to
that of observing the distance will be known ; and the
dilference of those times being converted into degrees
and minutes, at the rate of 15 degrees to the hour,
will give the longitude of the place of observation ;
which will be east if the time at the place be greater
than that at Greenwich, but west if it he less.
LONGITUDINAL, in general, denotes something
placed lengthwise : thus some of the fibres in the ves¬
sels of the human body are placed longitudinally, others
transversely or across.
LONG6bARDI. See Lombards.
LONGOMONTANUS, Christian, a learned a-
stronomer, born in a village of Denmark in 1562. He
was the son of a ploughman j and was obliged to sufi’er
during his studies all the hardships to which he could
be exposed, dividing his time, like the philosopher Cle-
anthes, between the cultivation of the earth and the
lessons he received from the minister of the place. At
last, when he was 15, he stole away from his family,
and went to Wiburg, where there was a college, in
which he spent 11 years j and though he was obliged
to earn a livelihood, he applied himself to study with
such ardour, that among other sciences he learned the
mathematics in great perfection. He afterwards went
to Copenhagen •, where the professors of that university
in a short time conceived so high an opinion of him,
that they recommended him to the celebrated Tycho
Brahe. Longomontanus lived eight years with that
famous astronomer, and was of great service to him in
his observations and calculations. At length, being
extremely desirous of obtaining a professor’s chair in
Denmark, Tycho Brahe consented, though with some
difficulty, to deprive himself of his service j gave him
a discharge, filled with the highest testimonies of his
esteem; and furnished him with money for the expence
of his long journey. He obtained a professorship of
mathematics in the university of Copenhagen in 1605;
and discharged the duty of it worthily till his death,
which happened in 1647. -^e wrote many learned
works; amused himself with endeavouring to square the
circle, and pretended that he had made that discovery ;
but Dr John Pell, an English mathematician, attack¬
ed him warmly on that subject, and proved that he
was mistaken.
LONGTOWN, a towm of Cumberland, on the Scots
borders, near the conflux of the Esk and Kirksop,
9 miles from Carlisle, and 313 miles from London. It
has a market on Thursday, and a charity school for
60 children. The population in 1811 was estimated
at 1579.
LONGUEVILLE, a town of France, in the de¬
partment of Lower Seine, and in the territory of Caux,
f 231 ] l o o
additive, seated on the small river Lee, 17 miles north of Rouen.
It has the title of a duchy. E. Long. 1. 10. N. Lat.
49. 46.^
LONGWY, a town of France, in the department of,
Moselle, with a castle, divided into the old and new
towns. This last was built and fortified by Louis XIV.
It is seated on an eminence. It "was taken by the
king ol Prussia in 1792, but retaken two months after.
E. Long. 5. 58. N. Lat. 49. 32.
LONGUS, a Greek sophist, author of a book en¬
titled TleifiivMct, or Pastorals, or a romance containing
the loves of Daphnis and Cbloe. Huetius, bishop of-
Avranches, speaks very advantageously of this work;
but he censures the obscene touches with which it is in¬
terspersed. None of the ancient authors mention him,
so that the time when he lived cannot be certainly fixed.
There is an English translation of this author, which is
ascribed to Mr J. Craggs, once secretary of state.
LONIGERA, Honeysuckle, a genus of plants be¬
longing to the pentandria class. See Botany Index.
LONSDALE, or Kirkby Lonsdale, a town of
Westmoreland, seated on the river Lon, in a pleasant
and rich valley of the same name. It is a large well
built town, has a handsome church, and a fine stone
brid ge over the river. It contained 1368 inhabitants
in 1811, and is the best town in the county except
Kendal. It gives title of earl to the Lowther family.
W. Long. 2. 27. N. Lat. 54. 10.
LOO, a town of the United Provinces, in Guelder-
land, eight miles west of Deventer, where the prince
of Orange has a fine palace. E. Long. 6. o. N. Lat.
52. 18.
LOOP, the after part of a ship’s bow; or that part
of her side forward where the planks begin to be incur-
vated into an arch as they approach the stem.
Loof, or Luff'. See Luff.
LOOK-OUT, in the sea-language, a watchful at¬
tention to some important object or event which is ex¬
pected to arise from the present situation of a ship, &c.
It is principally used in navigation when there is a
probability of danger from the real or supposed proxi¬
mity of land, rocks, enemies, and, in short, whatever
peril she may encounter through inattention, which
might otherwise have been avoided by a prudent and
necessary vigilance.
There is always a look-out kept on. a ship’s fore¬
castle at sea, to watch for any dangerous objects lying-
near her track, and to which she makes a gradual ap¬
proach as she advances : the mate of the watch accord¬
ingly calls often from the quarter-deck, “ Look out afore
there !” to the persons appointed for this service.
LOOKING-GLASSF.S, are nothing but plain mir¬
rors of glass, which, being impervious to the light, ,
reflect the images of things placed before them. See
the articles Mirror and Optics.
For casting, grinding, and polishing looking-glasses,
see the article Glass.
For foliating looking-glasses, see the article Fo¬
liating.
LOOL, in Metallurgy, a vessel made to receive the
washings of ores of metals. The heavier or more me¬
talline parts of the ores remain in the trough in which
they are washed; the lighter and more earthy run oft
with the water, but settle in the Icol.
LOOM,.
Longui- ■
•ville
II
Lool.
LOR t 2:
Loom LOOM, tlie weaver’s frame; a maclime wliercuy
II several distinct threads are woven into one piece.
i^d. Looms are 0f various structures, accommodated to
 ' the various kinds of materials to be woven, and the va¬
rious manner of weaving them ; viz. tor woollens, silks,
linens, cottons, cloths of gold, and other works, as
tapestry, ribbands, stockings, &c. divers ol which will
be found under their proper heads. See VVeavinG.
The weaver’s loom engine, otherwise called the
Dutch loom-engine, was brought into use from Holland
to London, about the year 1676.
Heir-LooM, in Law. See HEiR-Loom.
Loom, at sea. If a ship appears big, when at a
distance, they say she looms, or appears a great sail .
the term is also used to denote the indistinct appear¬
ance of any other distant objects.
LoOM-galc, at sea, a gentle easy gale ol wind, in
which a ship can carry her top-sails a-tnp.
LOOP, in the iron works, is a part of a sow or
block of cast iron broken or melted oil from the rest,
and prepared for the forge or hammer. The usual
method is, to break off the loop of about three quar¬
ters of a hundred weight. This loop they take up
with their slinging-tongs, and beat it with iron sledges
till they bring it to a four-square mass, of about two
feet long, which they call a bloom.
LOPEZ de vega. See Vega.
Lopez, or Indian Root, in the Materia Medica.
The plant to which this article belongs is unknown.
Neither the woody nor cortical part of the root has
any remarkable sensible quality. A slight bitterness
is perceptible} and it is recommended, like simarouba,
in diarrhoeas, even of the colliquative kind, in half¬
dram doses four times a-day. Little of this root has
been brought to Europe; but some of those who have
had an opportunity of employing it, speak in very high
terms of the effects obtained from it.
LOPHIUS, Fishing-frog, Toad-fish, or Sea
devil; a genus of the branchiostegous order of fishes.
See Ichthyology Index.
LORANTHUS, a genus of plants belonging to the
hexandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 48th order, Aggregate. See Botany
Index.
LORARII, among the Romans, officers whose busi¬
ness it was, with whips and scourges, to compel the
gladiators to engage. The lorarii also punished slaves
who disobeyed their masters.
LORCA, a town of Spain, in the province of Mur¬
cia, containing about 30,000 inhabitants. It is divid¬
ed into the upper and lower towns. The streets in the
former are narrow, crooked, and steep, and the houses
poor and ill-built *, but the lower town is better laid out
and built. The town has a collegiate chapter, eight
parish churches, seven monasteries, two nunneries, two
hospitals, and a college. There is also a saltpetre
manufactory here. On the 30th April 1802, the burst¬
ing of an artificial basin of water above the town, swept
away 600 houses, two hospitals, two convents, mills, &c.
and destroyed 6000 people in the town and the adjacent
country, over which its ravages extended for the space
of 16 leagues. The total loss was estimated at more
than two millions sterling.
LORD, a title of honour given to those who are
noble either by birth or creation. In this sense, it
3
2 ] LOR
amounts to much the same as peer of the realm, or L0r4
lord of parliament. The title is by courtesy also given 1 J
to all the sons of dukes and marquises, and to the
eldest sons of cai’ls: and it is also a title ol honour be¬
stowed on those who are honourable by their employ¬
ments j as lord advocate, lord chamberlain, lord chan¬
cellor, tfc. The word is Saxon, but abbreviated from
two syllables into one; for it was originally Hlaford,
which by dropping the aspiration became Laford,
and afterwards by contraction Lord. “ The etymo¬
logy of the word (says J. Coates) is well worth ob¬
serving j for it was composed of hlaf “ a loaf of
bread,’’ and ford, “ to give or afford j” so that Hla¬
ford, now Lord, implies “ a giver of bread because,
‘in those ages, such great men kept extraordinary
houses, and fed all the poor j for which reason they
were called givers of bread, a thing now much out of
date, great men being fond of retaining the title, but
few regarding the practice lor which it wras first given.
See Lady.
House of Lords, one of the three estates of parlia¬
ment, and composed of the Lords Spiritual and .Tem¬
poral.
1. The Spiritual Lords consist of two archbishops and
24 bishops •, and, at the dissolution of monasteries by
Henry VIII. consisted likewise of 26 mitred abbots
and two priors; a very considerable body, and in
those times equal in number to the temporal nobility.
All these hold, or are supposed to hold, certain ancient
baronies under the king: for W illiam the C onqueror
thought proper to change the spiritual tenor of frank¬
almoign or free alms, under which the bishops held
their lands during the Saxon government, into the
feodal or Norman tenure by barony, which subjected
their estates to all civil charges and assessments, from
which they were before exempt j and in right of suc¬
cession to those baronies, which urere unalienable from
their respective dignities, the bishops and abbots were
allowed their seats in the house of lords. But though
these lords spiritual are in the eye of the law a distinct
estate from the lords temporal, and are so distinguished
in most of our acts of parliament j yet in practice they
are usually blended together under the name of the lords:
they intermix in their votes, and the majority of such
intermixture joins both estates. And from this want
of a separate assembly, and separate negative of the
prelates, some writers have argued very cogently', that
the lords spiritual and temporal are now in reality only
one estate : which is unquestionably true in every ef¬
fectual sense, though the ancient distinction between
them still nominally continues. For if a bill should
pass their house, there is no doubt of its validity,
though every lord spiritual should vote against it; of
which Selden and Sir Edward Coke give many in¬
stances j as, on the other hand, doubtless it would be
equally good, if the lords temporal present were infe¬
rior to the bishops in number, and every one of those
temporal lords gave his vote to reject the bill j though
this Sir Edward Coke seems to doubt of.
2. The Temporal Lords consist of all the peers of the
realm (the bishops not being in strictness held to be
such, but merely lords of parliament), by whatever
title of nobility distinguished j dukes, marquises, earls, * See V*
viscounts or barons*. Some of these sit by descent,
as do all ancient peers j some by creation, as do all
new
LOB, [a
Lord, new made ones others, since the union with Scotland,
—v—' by election, which is the case of the 16 peers who
represent the body of the Scots nobility. Their num¬
ber is indefinite, and may be increased at will by the
power of the crown: and once, in the reign of Queen
Anne, there was an instance of creating no less than
12 together 5 in contemplation of which, in the reign
of King George I. a bill passed the house of lords, and
was countenanced by the then ministry, for limiting
the number of the peerage. This was thought by
some to promise a great acquisition to the constitution,
by restraining the prerogative from gaining the ascen¬
dant in that august assembly, by pouring in at plea¬
sure an unlimited number of new-created lords. But
the bill was ill relished, and miscarried in the house of
commons, whose leading members were then desirous
to keep the avenues to the other house as open and easy
as possible.
The distinction of ranks and honours is necessary in
every well governed state : in order to reward such as
are eminent for their services to the public, in a manner
the most desirable to individuals, and yet w'ithout burden
to the community 5 exciting thereby an ambitious yet
laudable ardour and generous emulation in others. And
emulation, or virtuous ambition, is a spring of action
which, however dangerous or invidious in a mere repu¬
blic or under a despotic sway, will certainly be attended
with good effects under a free monarchy 5 where, with¬
out destroying its existence, its excesses may be conti¬
nually restrained by that superior power from which
all honour is derived. Such a spirit, when nationally
diffused, gives life and vigour to the community 5 it
sets all the wheels of government in motion, which,
under a wise regulator, may be directed to any bene¬
ficial purpose ; and thereby every individual may be
made subservient to the public good, while he prin¬
cipally means to promote his own particular views.
A body of nobility is also more particularly necessary
in our mixed and compounded constitution, in order to
support the rights of both the crown and the people,
by forming a barrier to withstand the encroachments
of both. It creates and preserves that gradual scale
of dignity which proceeds from the peasant to the
prince j rising like a pyramid from a broad founda¬
tion, and diminishing to a point as it rises. It is this
ascending and contracting proportion that adds stabi¬
lity to any government j for when the departure is
sudden from one extreme to another, we may pro¬
nounce that state to be precarious. The nobility
therefore are the pillars, which are reared from
amorig the people, more immediately to support the
throne ; and, if that falls, they must also be buried
under its ruins. Accordingly, when in the last cen¬
tury the commons had determined to extirpate mo¬
narchy, they also voted the house of lords to be useless
and dangerous. And since titles of nobility are thus
expedient in the state, it is also expedient that their
owners should form an independent and separate
branch of the legislature. If they were confounded
with the mass of the people, and like them had only
a vote in electing representatives, their privileges would
soon be borne down and overwhelmed by the popular
torrent, which would effectually level all distinctions.
It is therefore highly necessary that the body of nobles
should have a distinct assembly, distinct deliberations,
VOL. XII. Part I. f
33 J LOR
and distinct powers from the commons. See also King, Lord
Nobility, Parliament, Commons, and Common- (!
ALTY. Loretto.
As to the peculiar law's and customs relating to the r "
house of lords : One very ancient privilege is that de¬
clared by the charter of the forest, confirmed in parlia¬
ment 9 Hen. III. j viz., that every lord spiritual or
temporal summoned to parliament, and passing through
the king’s forests, mav, both in going and returning,
kill one or two of the king’s deer without warrant j
in view of the forester if be be present, or on blowing
a horn if he be absent •, that he may not seem to take
the king’s venison by stealth.
In the next place, they have a right to be attended,
and constantly are, by the judges of the court of
king’s bench and common pleas, and such of the
barons of the exchequer as are of the degree of the
coif, or have been made serjeants at law 5 as likewise
by the king’s learned counsel, being serjeants, and by
the masters of the court of chancery ; for their ad¬
vice in point of law, and for the greater dignity of
their proceedings. The secretaries of state, with the
attorney and solicitor general, were also used to attend
the house of peers, and have to this day ' (together
with the judges, &c.) their regular writs of summons
issued out at the beginning of every parliament, ad trac-
tandum et cansilium impendendum, though not adconsen-
tiendvm, but, whenever of late years they have been
members of the house of commons, their attendance
here hath fallen into disuse.
Another privilege is, that every peer, by license
obtained from the king, may make another lord of
parliament his proxy, to vote for him in his absence:
A privilege, which a member of the other house can
by no means have, as he is himself but a proxy for a
multitude of other people.
Each peer has also a right, by leave of the house,
when a vote passes contrary to his sentiments, to en¬
ter his dissent on the journals of the house, with the
reasons for such dissent j which is usually styled his
protest.
Ail bills likewise, that may in their consequences any
wTay aftect the rights of the peerage, are by the custom
of parliament to have their first rise and beginning in
the house of peers, and to suffer no changes or amend¬
ments in the house of commons.
There is also one statute peculiarly relative to the
house of lords 5 6 Ann. c. 23. which regulates the
election of the 16 representative peers of North Britain,
in consequence of the 22d and 23d articles of the Union:
and for that purpose prescribes the oaths, &c. to be
taken by the electors 5 directs the mode of balloting;
prohibits the peers electing from being attended in an
unusual manner j and expressly provides, that no other
matter shall be treated of in that assembly, save only
the election, on pain of incurring a praemunire. See
also the articles Nobility and Peers.
LORDOSIS, (of AogSos, bent inwards), in the me¬
dical writings, a name given to a distempered state of
the spine, in which it is bent inwards, or towards the
anterior parts. It is used in opposition to gibbous, or
hump-backed. See Surgery.
LORETTO, a town of Italy, in the Marca or
Marche of Ancona, with a bishop’s see. It is small
but fortified j and contains the famous casa santa, or
G g holy
LOR
holy chapel, so much visited by pilgrims,
pel, according to the legend, was originally a small
house in Nazareth, inhabited by the virgin Mary, in
which she was saluted hy the angel, and where she
bred our Saviour. After their deaths, it was held in
great veneration by all believers in Jesus, and at length
consecrated into a chapel, and dedicated to the \ irgm j
upon which occasion St Luke made that identical
image, which is still preserved here, and dignified with
the name of our Lady of Loretto. This sanctified
edifice was allowed to sojourn in Galilee as long as that
district was inhabited by Christians *, but when infidels
got possession of the country, a band of angels, to save
it from pollution, took it in their arms, and conveyed
it from Nazareth to a castle in Dalmatia.. Ibis tact
might have been called in question by incredulous
people, had it been performed in a secret manner*,
but, that it might be manifest to the most short-sighted
spectator, and evident to all who were not perfectly
deaf as well as blind, a blaze of celestial light, and
a concert of divine music, accompanied it during the
whole journey *, besides, when the angels, to rest them¬
selves,' set it”down in a little wood near the road, all
the trees of the forest bowed their heads to the ground,
and continued in that respectful posture as long as the
sacred chapel remained among them. But not having
been entertained with suitable respect at the castle above
mentioned, the same indefatigable angels carried it o\ ei
the sea, and placed it in a field belonging to a noble
lady called Lauretta, from whom the chapel takes its
name. This field happened unfortunately to be fre¬
quented at that time by highwaymen and murderers:
a circumstance with which the angels undoubtedly were
not acquainted when they placed it there. After they
were better informed they removed it to the top of a
hill belonging to two brothers, where they imagined
it would be perfectly secure from the dangers of rob¬
bery or assassination •, but the two brothers, the pro¬
prietors of the ground, being equally enamoured of
their new visitor, became jealous of each other, quar¬
relled, fought, and fell by mutual wounds. After
this fatal catastrophe, the angels in waiting finally
moved the holy chapel to the eminence where it now
stands, and has stood these 400 years, having lost all
relish for travelling.
The sacred chapel stands due east and west, at the
farther end of a large church of the most durable stone
of Istria, which has been built around it. This may
be considered as the external covering, or as a kind
of great coat to the casa santa, which has a smaller
coat of more precious materials and workmanship
nearer its body. This internal covering, or case, is of
the choicest marble, after a plan of San Savino’s, and
ornamented with basso relievos, the workmanship of
the best sculptors which Italy could furnish in the reign
of Leo X. The subjects of these basso relievos are
the history of the Blessed Virgin, and other parts of
the Bible. The whole case is about 50 feet long, 30
in breadth, and the same in height: but the real house
itself is no more than 32 feet in length, 14 in breadth,
and at the sides about 18 feet in height *, the centre
of the roof is four or five feet higher. The walls of
this little holy chapel are composed of pieces of a
reddish substance, of an oblong square shape, laid one
upon another, in the manner of brick. At first sight, on
1
[ 234 ] LOR
This cha- a superficial view, these red-coloured oblong substances Loretta
appear to be nothing else than common Italian bi icks ,
and, which is still more extraordinary, on a second and
third view, with all possible attention, they still have
the same appearance. Travellers, however, are assured
with great earnestness, that there is not a single par¬
ticle of brick in their whole composition, being entire¬
ly of a stone, which, though it cannot now be found in
Palestine, was formerly very common, particularly in
the neighbourhood of Nazareth.
The holy house is divided within into two unequal
portions, by a kind of grate-work of silver. The di¬
vision towards the west is about three-fourths of the
whole; that to the east is called the Sanctuary. In
the larger division, which may be considered as the
main body of the house, the walls are left baie, to
show the true original fabric of Nazareth stone 5 for
they must not be supposed to be bricks. At the
lower or western wall there is a window, the same
through which the angel Gabriel entered at the An¬
nunciation. The architraves of this window are co¬
vered with silver. There are a great number of gold¬
en and silver lamps in this chapel: one of the former,
a present from the republic of Venice, is said to weigh
37 pounds, and some of the silver lamps weigh from
120 to 130 pounds. At the upper end of the largest
room is an altar, but so low, that from it yori may
see the famous image which stands over the chimney
in the small room or sanctuary. Golden and silver
angels, of considerable size, kneel around her, some
oft’ering hearts of gold, enriched with diamonds, and
one an infant of pure gold. The wall of the sanc¬
tuary is plated with silver, and adorned with cruci¬
fixes, precious stones, and votive gifts of various kinds.
The figure of the Virgin herself by no means corre¬
sponds with the fine furniture of her house : She is a
little woman, about four feet in height, with the fea¬
tures and complexion of a negro. Of all the sculp¬
tors that ever existed, assuredly St Luke, by whom
this figure is said to have been made, is the least of a
flatterer j and nothing can be a stronger proof of the
Blessed Virgin’s contempt for external beauty than
her being satisfied writh this representation ot her.
The figure of the infant Jesus, by St Luke, is of a piece
with that of the Virgin : he holds a large golden globe
in one hand, and the other is extended in the act of
blessing. Both figures have crowns on their heads, en¬
riched with diamonds: these were presents from Ann
of Austria, queen of France. Both arms of the Air-
gin are enclosed within her robes, and no part but her
face is to be seen } her dress is most magnificent, but
in a wretched bad taste : this is not surprising, for she
has no female attendant. She has particular clothes
for the different feasts held in honour of her, and, which
is not quite so decent, is always dressed and undressed
by the priests belonging to the chapel j her robes are
ornamented with all kinds of precious stones down to
the hem of her garment.
There is a small place behind the sanctuary, in
which are shown the chimney, and some other furni¬
ture, which they pretend belonged to the Virgin when
she lived at Nazareth 5 particularly a little earthen
porringer, out of which the infant used to eat. The
pilgrims bring rosaries, little crucifies, and agnus
dei’s which the obliging priest shakes for half a mi-
LOR [ 23S J
Loretto. nute in this dish ; after which it is believed they ac- begin
quire the virtue of curing various diseases, and prove
an excellent preventive of all temptations of Satan.
The gown which the image had on when the chapel
arrived from Nazareth is of red camblet, and carefully
kept in a glass shrine.
Above 100 masses are daily said in this chapel, and
in the church in which it stands. The jewels and
riches to be seen at any one time in the holy chapel
are of a small value in comparison of those in the trea¬
sury, which is a large room adjoining to the vestry of
the great church. In the presses of this room are
kept those presents which royal, noble, and rich bigots
of all i*anks, have, by oppressing their subjects and
injuring their families, sent to this place. To enume¬
rate every particular would fill volumes. They consist
of various utensils and other things in silver and gold ;
as lamps, candlesticks, goblets, crowns, and crucifixes 5
lamps, eagles, saints, apostles, angels, virgins, and
infants : then there are cameos, pearls, gems, and preci¬
ous stones, of all kinds and in great numbers. What
is valued above all the other jewels is, the miraculous
pearl, wherein they assert that Nature has given a faith¬
ful delineation of the Virgin sitting on a cloud with
the infant Jesus in her arms. There was not room in
the presses of the treasury to hold all the silver pieces
which had been presented to the Virgin. Several other
presses in the vestry are completely full. It is said
that those pieces are occasionally melted down by his
holiness for the use of the state: and also that the
most precious of the jewels are picked out and sold for
the same purpose, false stones being substituted in their
room.
Pilgrimages to Loretto are not so frequent with
foreigners, or with Italians of fortune and distinction,
as formerly; nineteen out of twenty of those who
make this journey now are poor people, who depend
for their maintenance on the charity they receive on
the road. To those who are in such a rank in life as
precludes them from availing themselves of the cha¬
ritable institutions for the maintenance of pilgrims,
such journeys are attended with expence and inconve-
niency ; and fathers and husbands, in moderate or con¬
fined circumstances, are frequently brought to disagree¬
able dilemmas, by the rash vows of going to Loretto
which their wives or daughters are apt to naake on any
supposed deliverance from danger. To refuse, is con¬
sidered by the whole neighbourhood as cruel, and even
impious ; and to grant, is often highly distressing, par¬
ticularly to such husbands as, from affection or any
other motives, do not choose that their avives should
be long out of their sight. But the poor, who are
maintained during their whole journey, and have no¬
thing more than a bai-e maintenance to expect from
their labour at home, to them a journey to Loretto
is a party of pleasure as well as devotion, and by much
the most agreeable road they can take to heaven. The
greatest concourse of pilgrims is at the seasons of Easter
and Whitsuntide. The rich travel in their carriages ;
A great number come on hoi’seback or on mules;
or, what is still more common, on asses. Great num¬
bers of females come in this manner, with a male
iriend walking by them as their guide and protector :
but the greatest number of both sexes are on foot.
The pilgrims on foot, as soon as they enter the suburbs,
L O 11
a hymn in honour of the Virgin, which they Loretto
continue till they reach the church. The poorer sort—y-—
are received into an hospital, where they have bed and
board for three days.
The only trade of Loretto consists of rosaries, cru¬
cifixes, little madonas, agnus dei’s, and medals, which
are manufactured here, and sold to pilgrims. There
are great numbers of shops full of these commodities,
some of them of a high price j but infinitely the
greater part are adapted to the purses of the buyers,
and sold for a mere txifle. The evident poverty of
those manufacturers and traders, and of the inhabitants
of this town in general, is a sufficient proof that the
reputation of our Lady of Loretto is greatly on the de¬
cline.
In the great church which contains the holy chapel
are confessionals, where the penitents from evei'y coun¬
try of Europe may be confessed in their own language,
priests being always in waiting for that purpose ; each
of them has a long white rod in his hand, with which
he touches the heads of those to whom lie thinks it
pi’oper to give absolution. They place themselves on
their knees in groups around the confessional chair ;
and when the holy father has touched their heads with
the expiatory rod, they retire, freed from the burden
ot their sins, and with x-enewed courage to begin a fresh
account.
In the spacious area before this church there is an
elegant marble fountain, supplied with water from an
adjoining hill by an aqueduct. Few even of the most
inconsiderable towns of Italy are without the useful
oimament of a public fountain. The embellishments
of sculptux-e and architecture axe employed, with great
propriety on such works, which ai’e continually in the
people’s view ; the air is refreshed and the eye delight¬
ed by the streams of water they pour forth •, a sight
peculiai'ly agx*eeable in a warm climate. In this ax*ea
there is also a statue of Sixtus V. in bronze. Over
the portal of the church itself is a statue of the Vir¬
gin ; and above the middle gate is a Latin inscription,
importing that within is the house of the mother of
God, in which the Word was made flesh. The gates
of the church are likewise of bronze, embellished tvith
basso relievos of admirable workmanship : the subjects
taken partly from the Old and partly from the New
Testament, and divided into diftefent compartments.
As the gates of this church are shut at noon, the pil¬
grims who ari’ive after that time can get no nearer the
santa casa than these gates, which are by this means
sometimes exposed to the first violence of that holy ar¬
dour which was designed for the chapel itself. All the
sculpture upon the gates Which is within reach of the
mouths of those zealots, is in some degree effaced by
their kisses.
There are also several paintings to be seen here,
some of which are highly esteemed, particularly two
in the treasury. The subject of one of these is the
Virgin’s Nativity, by Annibal Cai’acci ; and ot the
other, a Holy Family by Raphael. T here are some
others of considei’able merit which ornament the altai’s
of the great church. These altars, or little chapels,
of which this fabric contains a great number, are lined
with marble and embellished by sculpture 5 but nothing
within this church interests a traveller of sensibility so
much as the iron grates before those chapels, which
G g 2 were
LOR
[ 236 3
LOR
Lore t to
II
Lome.
were made of the fetters and chains of the Christian
slaves, who were freed from bondage by the glorious
victory of Lepanto. ■,
The palace where the governor resides stands near
the church,' and the ecclesiastics who are employed m
it lodge in the same palace, where they receive the
pilgrims of high distinction. The environs of this
town are very agreeable, and in fine weather the high
mountains of Croatia may be seen from hence it is
seated on a mountain, in E. Long. 13. 50. IN. Lat.
^LQRICA, was a cuirass, brigantine, or coat of
mail, in use among the Homan soldiers. It was gene¬
rally made of leather, and is supposed to be derived
from lorum.—The loricie were set with plates of metal
in various forms : sometimes in hooks or rings like a
chain, sometimes like feathers, and sometimes like the
scales of serpents or fishes, to which plates of gold
were often added. There were other lighter cuirasses,
consisting only of many folds of linen cloth, or “ax
made strong enough to resist weapons. Such soldiers
as were rated under 1000 drachms, instead of thelonca
now described, wore a pec tortile.—The Homan lonca
was made like a shirt, and defended the wearer both
before and behind, but was so contrived that the back
part could be occasionally separated from the front.
Some of the loricse were made of cords of hemp or flax,
close set together j whence they are called thoraces
bih'ces, ti'dices^ &c. from the number of the cords fixed
one upon another j but these were used rather in Hunt¬
ing than in the field of battle.
LORIS, in Zoology, See Lemur, Mammalia
Index.
LORIMERS, one of the companies of London,
that make bits for bridles, spurs, and such like small
iron ware. 'I hey are mentioned in statute I Rich. II.
c, j 2. The word seems derived from the Latin word
lorum, “ a thong.”
LORME, Philibert de, one of the most celebra¬
ted architects in the 16th century, was born at Lyons.
Queen Catherine de Medicis gave him the superintend¬
ance of buildings j_and he had the direction of those of
the Louvre, the Thuilleriea, the castle of St Anet,
St Germains, and other edifices erected by her orders.
He also wrote several books on architecture. He died
about the year 1577'
LORNE, a division of Argyllshire in Scotland,
which gives the title of marquis to the duke of Argyll.
It extends above 30 miles in length from north to
south, and about nine at its utmost breadth; bounded
on the east by Braidalbin j on the west by the islands j
on the north by Lochaber j and is divided from Knap-
dale on the south by Loch Etive, on the banks of
which stands the castle of Beregonium, wherein the
courts of justice were anciently held. This district,
abounding with lakes, is the most pleasant and fertile
part of Argyllshire, producing plenty of oats and
barley. It once belonged to the ancient family of
Macdougal, still residing on the spot 5 but devolved to
the lords of Argyll in consequence of a marriage with
the heiress, at that time a branch of the Stuart family.
The chief place of note in this district is the castle of
Dunstafthage, a seat of the Scottish kings previous to
the conquest of the Piets in 843 by Kenneth II. In
this place was long preserved the famous stone, the pal¬
ladium of North Britain •, brought, says legend, out of Lome,
Spain, where it wras first used as a seat of justice by s -
Gathelus, coeval with Moses. It continued here as the
coronation chair till the reign of Kenneth 1L. who re¬
moved it to Scone, in order to secure his reign j for,
according to the inscription,
JVi fallat fatum, Scott qmeunque locahmi,
Invenient lapidem, regnare teneantur ibidem.
Some of the ancient regalia were preserved till the pre¬
sent century, when the keeper’s servants, during his
infirm years, embezzled them for the silver ornaments ;
and left only a battleaxe, nine feet long, of beautiful
workmanship, and ornamented with silver.
The castle is square ’r the inside only 87 feet j partly
ruinous, partly habitable. At three of the corners
are round towers ; one of them projects very little.,
The entrance is towards the sea at present by a stair¬
case, in old times probably by a drawbridge, which
fell from a little gateway. The masonry appears very
ancient j the tops battlemented. This pile is seated on
a rock at the mouth of Loch Etive, whose waters
expand within to a beautiful bay, where ships may
safely ride in all weather. Of this building, the found¬
er of which is unknown, nothing remains except the
outer walls, which though roofless, are still in good
order-, and within which some buildings have been
erected, which serve as the residence of the laird.
The duke of Argyll is hereditary keeper under the
crown.—At a small distance from the castle is a ruined
chapel, once an elegant building ; and at one end an
enclosure, a family cemetery. Opposite to these is a
high precipice, ending abrupt, and turning suddenly
towards the south-east. A person concealed in the re¬
cess of the rock, a little beyond the angle, surprises
friends stationed at some distance beneath the precipice
with a very remarkable echo of any word, or even sen¬
tence, he pronounces; which reaches the last distinct
and unbroken. The repetition is single, but remark¬
ably clear.
In 1307, this castle was possessed by Alexander
Macdougal lord of Argyll, a friend to the English : but
was that year reduced by Robert Bruce, when Mac¬
dougal sued for peace with that prince, and was recei¬
ved into favour.
We find, about the year 1455, this to have been a
residence of the lords of the isles 5 for here James last
earl of Douglas, after his defeat in Annandale, fled to
Donald, the Regulus of the time, and prevailed on him
to take arms and carry on a plundering war against his
monarch James II.
The situation of this regal seat was calculated for
pleasure as well as strength. The views of mountains,
valleys, waters, and islands, are delightful. On the
north side of Loch Etive stood the town of Berego¬
nium, supposed to have been the capital of the West
Highlands. It seems from certain mounds, excava¬
tions, and other appearances, to have been a strong
fortress, to prevent invasion, or to secure a retreat, as
occasions might require. On the bank of the same
loch is the site of Ardchattan, a priory of monks of
Valliscaullium in Burgundy, founded in 1230 by
Donald Maccoul, ancestor of the Macdougalsof Lome.
Here Robert Br uce, who remained master of this country
before he got entire possession of Scotland, held a par¬
liament
LOT [ 237 ] LOT
Lome Hament or council.—The country abounds in Druidical,
|| Danish, and other monuments.
Loten. LQRRAIN, a sovereign state of Europe, bounded
on the north by Luxemburg and the archbishopric of
Treves, on the east by Alsace and the duchy of Deux
Fonts, on the south by Franche Compte, and on the
west by Champagne and the duchy of Barr. It is about
100 miles in length, and 75 in breadth 5 and abounds
in all sorts of corn, wine, hemp, flax, rape-seed, game
and fish, with which it carries on some trade, and in
general all the necessaries of life. There are fine mea¬
dows and large forests, with mines of iron, silver, and
copper, as also salt pits. There are a great number of
rivers 5 of which the principal are the Maese or Meuse,
the Moselle, the Scille, the Meure, and the Sarre. It
is divided into three parts ; the duchy of Lorrain, pro¬
perly so called, which was heretofore a sovereign state;
the duchy of Barr, which formerly belonged to the
dukes of Lorrain, but afterwards came under the go¬
vernment of France; and the third comprehends the
three bishoprics of Metz, Toul, and Verdun, which
have belonged to France ever since the year 1552. In
1733, the emperor of Germany being at war with
France, this last got possession of the duchy of Lor¬
rain : and when there was a peace made in 1735, it
was agreed, that Stanislaus king of Poland, father-in-
law to the king of France, should possess these duchies,
and that after his death they should be united for ever
to the crown of France. It was also then agreed, that
Francis Stephen, duke of Lorrain, and the emperor’s
son-in-law, should have the grand duchy of Tuscany as
an equivalent for Lorrain. After the death of the great
duke of Tuscany, in 1737, King Stanislaus and the
duke of Lorrain took possession of their respective do¬
minions, and the cession was confirmed and guaran¬
teed by a treaty in 173S. The trade consists in corn
and linen cloth. Nanci is the capital town.
Lorrain, Robert le, an eminent sculptor, born at
Paris in 1666. From his infancy, he made so rapid a
progress in the art of designing, that at the age of 18
the celebrated Girardon intrusted him with the care of
teaching his children and correcting his disciples. He
committed to him also, in conjunction with Noulisson,
the execution of the famous tomb of Cardinal Richelieu
in the Sorbonne, and his own tomb at St Landres in
Paris. On his return from Rome, he finished several
pieces at Marseilles, which had been left imperfect by
the death of M. Puget. He w'as received into the aca¬
demy of sculpture in 1701. His chef cPotuvre is Ga¬
latea, a work universally admired. Lorrain afterwards
made a Bacchus for the gardens at Versailles, a Faun
for those of Marly ; and several bronzes, among which
is an Andromeda ; all in an excellent taste. This ar¬
tist succeeded chiefly in heads ; and more particularly
in that of young girls, which he performed with incom¬
parable delicacy and truth.
Lorrain, Claude. See Claude.
LOTEN, John, a good landscape painter of the
English school; though a native of Switzerland. His
taste led him to solemn and dreary scenes, as land-
storms accompanied with showers of rain, &c. and he
seldom omitted to introduce oak trees in his prospects:
his landscapes are generally large ; and he painted with
nature, truth, and force. But the effect of his compo¬
sition had been much greater if he had been less cold
in his colouring ; for the judicious eye is not pleased
with the darkish tint that predominates in it. He died
in London about 1681.
LOTHIAN, a name given to three counties of
Scotland, viz. Haddingtonshire, Edinburghshire, and
Linlithgowshire ; otherwise called Rust, Mid, and fFcst,
Lothians.
1. East Lothian, or Haddingtonshire, is bounded on
the north-west by the frith of Forth ; and on the east by
the German sea; on the south-east by Berwickshire ;
and on the west by the county of Edinburgh. It ex¬
tends about 25 miles from east to west, and where broad¬
est, nearly 15 from north to south ; the area is about
297 square miles. Of the whole county about 64 parts
in the hundred are arable, 16 meadows or low lying
ground, and 20 hills and wastes. This is one of the
most fruitful counties in Scotland, producing great quan¬
tities of wheat and all sorts of grain, well watered,
and plentifully supplied with fish, fowl, fuel, and all the
necessaries of life. It abounds with towns, villages,
and farms, interspersed with a great number of agree¬
able houses belonging to persons of rank and fortune.
Beside farming, which is successfully carried on, the
people towards the sea-coast employ themselves in the
fishery, salt-making, and in foreign trade ; and some
of the more inland inhabitants engage in the linen and
w’oollen manufactures. Limestone and coal are found
in most parts of the county, and great numbers of sheep
are fed on the hills of Lammermuir.. See Hadding ¬
tonshire, Supplement.
2. Edinburghshire, or Mid Lothian, is about 35
miles long, but varies in its breadth in different places
from five to 16 miles ; area 358 square miles. It is
bounded on the east by Haddingtonshire ; on the west
by the shire of Linlithgow; on the south, by Peebles¬
shire ; and on the north, by part of West Lothian and the
frith of Forth. The aspect of the country is in general
level and pleasant, interspersed with a few hills, that
help to exhibit agreeable prospects. It is well watered
with rivers, and shaded with woods. It produces plenty
of coal, limestone, a soft black marble, and some cop¬
per ore. The soil, of itself fertile, is finely cultivated,
and yields as plentiful harvests of excellent wheat as are
found in any part of Great Britain. T.he whole shire is
interspersed with noble houses and plantations belonging
to noblemen and gentlemen of fortune. The farmers,
in general, are skilful and wealthy. The country is
well inhabited, and presents us with a good number of
towns and populous villages. Along the sea coast the
common people subsist by fishing, and traffic in coals
and salt, and some few carry on a smuggling com¬
merce. Those in the inland are employed in farming,
and some branches of the weaving manufacture. Edin¬
burgh is a county within itself. See Edinburgh¬
shire, Supplement.
3. The shire of Linlithgow, or West Lothian, is
bounded on the north by the frith of Forth. The small
river Almond divides it from Edinburghshire on the
east. On the south-west it joins the county of Lanark;
ami on the west, it is parted from Stirlingshire by
Avon, a small river. Its form, though irregular, ap¬
proaches to a parallelogram. It measures from north¬
east to south-west, 20 miles. It breadth, except on
the shore of the frith, does not exceed 12.—The coun¬
try is pleasant and fertile, abounding with corn and
pasturage..
Loten,
Lothian,
Lothian pasturage
LOT t 238
Here is- found plenty of coal, limestone,
,, and lead ore *, nay, in the reign of James % I. it produ
Lottery. ceil a ric]i mine of silver. See LINLITHGOWSHIRE,
“ v Supplement. .
LOTION is, strictly speaking, such washing as con¬
cerns beautifying the skin, by cleansing it ol those de¬
formities which a distempered blood throws upon it.
' Medicines of this kind, however, are for the most part
insignificant, and sometimes very dangerous 5 the only
proper method of treating these disorders is, by admini¬
stering such medicines as tend to correct the moibid
state of the constitution from whence they arise.
Lotion, in Pharmacy, denotes a preparation of me¬
dicines, by washing them in some liquid, either made
very light, so as to take away only the dregs j or sharp,
so as to penetrate them, in order to clear them of some
salt or corrosive spirit, as is done to antimony, piecipi-
t.ates, magisteries, &c. or intended to take away some
foulness or ill quality, or to communicate some good one.
LOTOPHAGI, in Ancient Geography, a people of
the llegio Syrtica (so called from their living on the
lotus) ; inhabiting between the two Syrtes, from the Ci-
nyphus to the Triton. The lotus was said to be a food
so luscious, as to make strangers forget their native
country. A sweet wine was expressed from it, which
did not keep above ten days, (Pliny).
Lotophagi of Homer. See MeniNx.
LOTTERY, a kind of public game at hazard, fre¬
quent in Britain, France, and Holland, in order to raise
money for the service of the state*, being appointed with
us by the authority of parliament, and managed by
commissioners appointed by the lords ot the treasury for
that purpose. It consists of several numbers of blanks
and prizes, which are draivn out of wheels, one of
which contains the numbers, and the other the corre¬
sponding blanks or prizes.
The Romans invented lotteries to enliven their Sa¬
turnalia. This festival began by the distribution of
tickets which gained some prize. Augustus made
lotteries which consisted of things of little value *,
but Nero established some for the people, in which
1000 tickets were distributed daily, and several of
those who were favoured by fortune got rich by them.
Heliogabalus invented some very singular : the prizes
were either of great value or of none at all: one gain¬
ed a prize of six slaves, and another of six flies $ some
got valuable vases, and others vases of common earth.
The first English lottery we find mentioned in history
Was drawn A. 13. 1569. It consisted of 40,000 lots,
at 1 os. each lot: the prizes were plateand the profits
were to go towards repairing the havens of this king¬
dom. It was drawn at the west door of St Paul’s ca¬
thedral. The drawing began on the nth of January
1569, and continued incessantly, day and night, till the
6th of May following *, as Maitland, from Stowe, in¬
forms us in his history, vol. i. p. 257. There were
then only three lottery offices in London. The propo¬
sals for this lottery were published in the years 1567
and 1568. It was at first intended to have been drawn
at the house of Mr Dericke, her majesty’s servant, i. e.
her jeweller, but was afterwards drawn as above men¬
tioned.
Dr Rawlinson showed the Antiquarian Society, 1748,
44 A proposal for a very rich lottery general without
-any blankes, contayning a great number of good prizes,
2
. ] LOT
as well of redy money as of plate and certain sorts 01 Lottery,
merchandizes," having been valued and prised by the Lotus^
commandment of the queene’s most excellent majestic »
order, to the intent that such commodities as may
chance to arise thereof after the charges borne may be
converted towards the reparations of the havens and
strength of the realme, and towards such other public
good workes. The number of lotts shall be foure hun¬
dred thousand, and no more *, and every lott shall be
the summe of tenne shillings sterling, and no more. To
be filled by the feast of St Bartholomew. The shew of
prizes are to be seen in Cheapside, at the sign of the
Queene’s Armes, the house of Mr Dericke, goldsmith,
servant to the queene. Some other orders abou. it in
1567-8. Printed by Hen Bynneyman.”
In the reign of Queen Anne, it was thought neces¬
sary to suppress lotteries, as nuisances to the public.
Since that time, however, they have been licensed oy
an act-of parliament, under various regulations. The
act passed in 1778 restrains any person from keeping
an office for the sale of tickets, shares, or chances, or for
buying, selling, ensuring, or registering, without a li¬
cense ", for which license each office-keeper must ^pat
50I. to continue in force tor one year, and the produce
to be applied towards defraying the expence of the lot-
terv. And no person is allowed to sell any share or
chance less than a sixteenth, on the penalty of y^l*
All tickets divided into shares or chances are to he de¬
posited in an office, to be established in London by the
commissioners of the treasury, who are to appoint a
person to conduct the business thereof j and all shares
are to be stamped by the said officer, who is to give a
receipt for every ticket deposited with him. Hie num¬
bers of all tickets so deposited are to be entered in a
book, with the names of the owners, and the number
of shares into ivliich they are divided. All tickets de¬
posited in the office are to remain there three days
after the drawing. And any person keeping an office,
or selling shares, or who shall publish any scheme for
receiving moneys in consideration of any interest to be
granted in any ticket in the said lottery, &c. without
being in possession ot such ticket, shall forfeit fool.
and suffer three months imprisonment. And no busi¬
ness is to be transacted at any of the offices after eight
in the evening, except on the evening ot the Saturday
preceding the drawing. No person is to keep any of¬
fice for the sale of tickets, &c. in Oxford or Cam¬
bridge, on penalty of 20I. Before this regulating sta¬
tute took place, there were upwards of 400 lottery
offices in and about London only $ but the whole num¬
ber afterwards, for all Britain, as appeared by the list
published by authority, amounted to no more than 51.
They have, however, increased greatly again.
Some farther regulations to prevent the frauds com¬
mitted by insurances were made in 1793* -^n I^o8
the reports of a committee of the house of commons
disclosed a dreadful scene of vice and misery brought
on by lotteries, and recommended their abolition, or at
least that they should be put under other regulations.
Their suggestions, however, have had but little effect
hitherto. The gross sum received by government
from the lottery, is estimated to be 750,000!. per annum,
of which 500,000k is for tickets, and the remainder for
postages, stamps, &c.
LOTUS, or Bird’s-foot Trefoil j a genus of
plants
L O V
Lotus plants belonging to the diadelphia class j and in the
|| natural method ranking under the 3 2d order, Papilio-
Love. nacecc. See Botany Index.
Lotus of Homer. See Diospyros,'!
Egyptian Lotus. See Nympilea, (Botany
Libyan Lotus. See Rhamnus, J I?idex.
LOVAGE. See Ligusticum, j
LOVE, in a large sense of the word, denotes all
those affections of the pleasing kind which objects and
incidents raise in us j thus we are said to love not only
intelligent agents of morally good dispositions, but also
sensual pleasures, riches, and honours. But
Love, in its usual and more appropriate signification,
may be defined, “ that affection which, being com¬
pounded of animal desire, esteem, and benevolence, be¬
comes the bond of attachment and union between indi¬
viduals of the different sexes ; and makes them feel in
the society of each other a species of happiness which
they experience no where else.” We call it an affec¬
tion rather than a passion, because it involves a desire of
Jthe happiness of its object: And that its constituent
parts are those which have been just enumerated, we
shall first endeavour to prove, and then proceed to trace
its rise and progress from a selfish appetite to a gener¬
ous sentiment.
Animal desire is the actual energy of the sensual ap¬
petite : and that it is an essential part of the complex
affection, which is properly called love, is apparent
from this consideration, that though a man may have
sentiments of esteem and benevolence towards women
who are both old and ugly, he never supposes himself
to be in love of any woman, to whom he feels not the
sensual appetite to have a stronger tendency than to
other individuals of her sex. On the other hand, that
animal desire alone cannot be called the affection of love
is evident 5 because he who gratifies such a desire with¬
out esteeming its object, and wishing to communicate
at the same time that he receives enjoyment, loves not
the woman, but himself. Mere animal desire has nothing
in view but the species and the sex of its object j and
before it make a selection, it must be combined with
sentiments very different from itself. The first senti¬
ment with which it is combined, and by which a man
is induced to prefer one woman to another, seems to
be that by which we are delighted with gracefulness
of person, regularity of features, and beauty of com¬
plexion. It is not indeed to be denied that there is
something irresistible in female beauty. The most se¬
vere will not pretend that they do not feel an imme¬
diate prepossession in favour of a handsome woman:
but this prepossession, eveu when combined with ani¬
mal desire, does not constitute the whole of that af¬
fection which is called love. Savages feel the influ¬
ence of the sensual appetite, and it is extremely pro¬
bable that they have some ideas of beauty j but among
savages the affection of love is seldom felt. Even among
the lower orders of civil society it seems to be a very
gross passion, and to have in it more of the selfishness
of appetite than of the generosity of esteem. To
L O V
these observations many exceptions will no doubt be Love,
found (a) : but we speak of savages in general, and ofv—■“*
the great body of the labouring poor, who in the choice
of their mates do not study—who indeed are incapable
of studying, that rectitude of mind, and those delicacies
of sentiment, without which neither man nor woman
can deserve to be esteemed.
In the savage state, and even in the first stages of
refinement, the bond of union between the sexes seems
to consist of nothing more than mere animal desire
and instinctive tenderness for their infant progeny.
The former impels them to unite for the propagation
of the species ; and the latter preserves the union, till
the children, who are the fruit of it, be able to provide
for their own subsistence. That in such unions, whe¬
ther casual or permanent, there is no mutual esteem and
benevolence, is apparent from the state of subjection in
which women are held in rude and uncultivated na¬
tions, as well as from the manner in which marriages
are in such nations contracted.
Sweetness of temper, a capital article with us in the
female character, displays itself externally in mild looks
and gentle manners, and is the first and perhaps the
most powerful inducement to love in a cultivated
mind. “ But such graces (says an ingenious writer*) * Sketches
are scarce discernible in a female savage 5 and even of the His-
in the most polished woman would not be perceived °f
by a male savage. Among savages, strength and bold- ^an'
ness are the only valuable qualities. In these, females
are miserably deficient; for which reason they are con¬
temned by the males as beings of an inferior order.
The North American tribes glory in idleness : the
drudgery of labour degrades a man in their opinion,
and is proper for women only. To join young persons
in marriage is accordingly the business of the parents y
and it would be unpardonable meanness in the bride¬
groom to show any fondness for the bride. In Guiana
a woman never eats with her husband, but after every
meal attends him with water for washing ; and in the
Caribbee islands she is not even permitted to eat in the
presence of her husband. Dampier observes in general,
that among all the wild nations with which he was ac¬
quainted, the women carry the burdens, while the men
walk before and carry nothing but their arms ; and
that women even of the highest rank are not better
treated. In Siberia, and even in Russia, the capital
excepted, men till very lately treated their wives in
every respect like slaves. It might indeed be thought,
that animal desire, were there nothing else, should have
raised women to some degree of estimation among men}
but male savages, utter strangers to decency and refine¬
ment, gratify animal desire with as little ceremony as
they do hunger or thirst.
“ Hence it was that in the early ages of society a
man piu'chased a woman to be his wife, as one purchases
an ox or a sheep to be food; and valued her only as
she contributed to his sensual gratification. Instances
innumerable might be collected from every nation of
which we are acquainted with the early history; but
we
C 239 ]
(a) Such as the negroes whose story is so pathetically told by Addison in N° 215. of the Spectator ; the two
lovers who were killed by lightning at Staunton-Harcourt, August 9. 1718, (pee Pojye's Letters); and many
others which will occur to every reader.
Love.
* Gen. xxiv.
f Gen. xxix.
J i Sam.
xviii. 28.
§ Lib. ix.
Sect. 32
L O V t Ho
we shall content ourselves with mentioning a few. A-
hraham bought Rehekah, and gave her to b ^n Isaac
for a wife*. Jacob having nothing else to give, served
Laban X4 years for two wives'^ To David denia^d-
ing Saul’s daughter in marriage, it was said, i
king desireth not any dowry, but an hundred foreskins
of the Philistines f In the Iliad Aganiemnon offers
his daughter to Achilles for a wife-, mid ^ys that he
would not demand for her any price §. By the laws
of Ethelbert king of England, a man who committe
adultery with his neighbour’s wife was obliged to pay
the husband a fine, and to buy him another wife\\. But
it is needless to multiply instances ; the practice has
prevailed universally among nations emerging from the
savage sate, or in the rudest stage of society : and
wherever it prevailed, men could not possibly liaveJ°£
the fair sex any of that tender regard and esteem which
constitute so essential a part of the complex attection ol
^Accordingly we find the magnanimous Achilles an
absolute stranger to that generous affection, though his
'heart was susceptible of the warmest and purest tnend-
chip His attachment to Patroclus was so heroically
disinterested, that he willingly sacrificed his own hie to
revenge the death of his friend ; but when Agamemnon
threatened to rob him of his favourite female captive,
though he felt the insult ofl'ered to his pride, he never
spoke of the woman but as a slave whom he was con¬
cerned to preserve in point of honour, and as a testimo¬
ny of his glory. Hence it is that we never hear him
mention her but as his spoil, the reward of war, or the
gift which the Grecians gave him.
j L O V
“ The gods command me to forgive tne past j
“ But let this first invasion be the last: -
“ For know, thy blood, when next thou dar st invade,
“ Shall stream in vengeance on my reeking blade.”
Pope has made the language of this rough warrior less
inconsistent with the peculiar resentment natural to an
injured lover than it is in the original (b) j but from
the last quoted passage, even as translated by him, it is
apparent that Achilles would have been equally hurt
had Agamemnon threatened to deprive him of any
other part of his plunder. Accordingly he yields up
Briseis, not in grief for a mistress whom he loses, but in
sullenness for an injury that is done him. Nor let it
be imagined, that this coldness proceeded from the pride
of the hero, which would not permit him to acknow ledge
his love of a captive. With the generous affection of
love captives and princesses were equally incapable oi
inspiring him. He repeatedly affirmed indeed that he
delighted in his fair Lyrnessian slave, but it was only
as an instrument of sensual gratification j for as to
every thing else in a woman, he was so totally indiffer¬
ent, that he declared he would not, when he should be
disposed to marry, give himself the trouble to make a
choice, but leave the whole matter to his father.
“ If heav’n restore me to my realms with life,
“ The rev’rend Peleus shall elect my wife.”
Even Agamemnon, of whom Pope and Madame Da-
cier think more favourably as a lover, speaks the very
same language when mentioning his favourite captive
Chryseis^ In his furious debate with Achilles he calls
Love,
“ And dar’st thou threat to snatch my prize away,
“ Due to the deeds of many a dreadful day ?
A prize as small, O tyrant! match d with thine,
u As thy own actions if compar’d with mine.
“ Thine in each conquest is the wealthy prey,
“ Tho’ mine the sweat and danger of the day.
Some trivial present to my ships I bear,
“ Or barren praises pay the wounds of w-ar.”
And again, after upbraiding the general with his ty¬
ranny and want of regard to merit, he adds, with the
greatest indifference as to the charms of the woman,
“ Seize on Briseis, whom the Grecians doom’d
« My prize of rear, yet tamely see resum'd ;
« And seize secure j no more Achilles draws
« His conquering sword in any woman’s cause.
“ A maid, unmatch’d in manners as in face,
“ Skill’d in each art, and crown’d with ev’ry grace.”
And adds,
“ Not half so dear were Clytemnestra’s charms,
“ When first her blooming beauties blest my arms.’
But this was said merely to enhance the value of the
prize, which for the public good he was about to re¬
sign ', for that she was dear to him only as ministering to
his pleasure, is past dispute from the language which he
had previously-held with her father, as well as from his
requiring grateful Greece to pay a just equivalent, and
to repair his private loss. A man who really loves
would have thought nothing an equivalent for the object
of his love ; much less would he have insinuated to her
father
(b) The original passages are:
K«t< a vie; cKpetigwritrOcit uttuXus,
“12 stti ttoXX’ i(ioy/i<rx, h pot via
Ov trot troll trov iy,u ytg*S, o%Trvr Kyyuoi
Tgvtiv actri^truir ivwiopivcv ifloXni^oy.
AXKx TO p.iv TTtelOV tro\VXl>COf Trotepoio
Xii^a <i‘i7rovcr‘ mtxq troll ^xo-pog Ikt^xi,
2#< to yeg«s wohv |W«£#v, iyo> ohiyov ti QtXov rs
Etyof r>%u* itti I7r»y Kix.xy,a ttoXiui^uv.
Iliad, lib. i.
And, AXAo Se rei igo), <rv §’ evt /2xX*io o-ntri'
Xsgcs /wey ovti tyuyi px%ri<rop.xi} unxx kov^s,
1
Outs <roi, ovh tu xK^u, itru xtfiiXiTffi ye ^eylej.
Twy S’xXXevv, x /xoi eel* trxgx y»i< (tiXxivi),
T<vv ovk xt ti Oi^oa «yeA»y, xwcoilos iy.uo'
E< «ye f«]y, Tru^a-xi, vx yiuuvi xxi o’l^i.
Ar^x Tot xiyx Kihxnov wegi oov^i.
In this latter passage the hero says expressly, “ I wnl
not fight with you or with any other man for the sake
of a girl; but you shall not rob me of any other part
of my propertywhich is surely the language of a
man to whose heart love must have been an utter
stranger.
i
L O V [ 241 ] L O V
3 ove father a possibility of his dismissing from his embrace a
woman whom he esteemed, when time should have rob¬
bed her of every youthful grace.
Since, then, it is so apparent, that in the heroic age
of Greece even princes and kings were strangers to
the generous affection of love, it needs not occasion
much surprise that the same affection has very little
influence upon mankind in the lowest ranks of the most
polished societies of modern Europe. That this is
actually the case, that among the generality of une¬
ducated men and women there is no other bond of at¬
tachment than the sensual appetite, every year furnishes
multiplied proofs, We daily see youths, rejected by
their mistresses, paying their addresses without delay
to girls who, in looks, temper, and disposition, are
diametrically opposite to those whom so lately they
pretended to love : We daily see maidens, slighted by
their lovers, receiving the addresses of men, who, in
nothing but their sex, resemble those to whom a week
before they wished to be married : and we believe it
is not very uncommon to find a girl entertaining seve¬
ral lovers together, that if one or more of them should
prove false, she may still have a chance not to be
totally deserted. Did esteem and benevolence, placed
on manners and character, constitute any part of vul¬
gar love, these people would act very differently ; for
they would find it impossible to change their lovers and
their mistresses with the same ease that they change
their clothes.
To this account of love, as it appears in savage
nations, some one may perhaps oppose the paintings
of the softer passion in the poems of Ossian. That
bard describes the female character as commanding re¬
spect and esteem, and the Caledonian heroes as cherish¬
ing for their mistresses a flame so pure and elevated as
never was surpassed, and has seldom been equalled, in
those ages which we commonly call most enlightened.
This is indeed true : and it is one of the many reasons
which have induced Johnson and others to pronounce
the whole a modern fiction. Into that debate we do not
enter. We may admit the authenticity of the poems,
without acknowledging that they furnish any exception
to our general theory. They furnish indeed in the man¬
ners which they describe a wonderful anomaly in the
general history of man. All other nations of which we
read were in the hunter state savage and cruel. The
Caledonians, as exhibited by Ossian, are gentle and mag¬
nanimous. The heroes of Homer fought for plunder,
and felt no clemency for a vanquished foe. The heroes
of Ossian fought for fame ; and when their enemies
were subdued, they took them to their bosoms. The
first of Greeks committed a mean insult on the dead
body of the first of Trojans. Among the Caledonians
insults offered to the dead, as well as cruelty to the
living, were condemned as infamous. The heroes of
Ossian appear in no instance as savages. How they
came to be polished and refined before they were ac¬
quainted with agriculture and the most useful arts of
life, it is not our business to inquire 5 but since they
unquestionably were so, their treatment of the female
sex, instead of opposing, confirms our theory ; for we
never conceived rich clothes, superb houses, highly-
dressed food, or even the knowledge of foreign tongues,
to be necessary to the acquisition of a generous senti¬
ment. Luxury indeed appears to be as inimical to love
Vol. XII. Part I.
as barbarism : and we believe, that in modern nations, Love,
the tender and exalted affection which deserves that -y——^
name is as little known among the highest orders of life
as among the lowest. Perhaps the Caledonian ladies
of Ossian resembled in their manners the German ladies
of Tacitus, who accompanied their husbands to the
chase, fought by their sides in battle, and partook
with them of every danger. If so, they could not fail
to be respected by a race of heroes among whom cou¬
rage took place of all other virtues: and this single;
circumstance, from whatever cause it might proceed,
will sufficiently account for the estimation of the fe¬
male character among the ancient Germans and Cale¬
donians, so different from that in which it has been
held in almost every other barbarous nation.
But if among savages and the vulgar, love be un¬
known, it cannot possibly be an instinctive affection ;
and therefore it may be asked, How it gets possession
of the human heart j and by what means we can judge
whether in any particular instance it he real or imagi¬
nary? These questions are of importance, and deserve
to be fully answered j though many circumstances con¬
spire to render it no easy task to give to them such an¬
swers as shall be perfectly satisfactory. Love can sub¬
sist only between individuals of the different sexes.
A man can hardly love two women at the same time -y
and we believe that a woman is still less capable of lov¬
ing at once more than one man. Love, therefore, has
a natural tendency to make men and women pair, or,
in other words, it is the source of marriage : but ia
polished society, where alone this affection has any
place, so many things besides mutual attachment are
necessary to make the married life comfortable, that
we rarely see young persons uniting from the impulse
of love, and have therefore but few opportunities of
tracing the rise, progress, and consequences of the af¬
fection. We shall, however, throw together such re-
llections as have occurred to us on the subject, not
without indulging a hope, that they may be useful to
the younger part of our readers when forming the most
important connexion in life.
We have said, that the perception of beauty, com¬
bined with animal desire, is the first inducement which
a man can have to prefer one woman to another. It
may he added, that elegance of figure, a placid mas¬
culine countenance, with a person which indicates
strength and agility, are the qualities which first tend
to attach any woman to a particular man. Beauty
has been defined *, “That particular form, which is * By Perc
the most common of all particular forms to be met Buffier in
with in the same species of beings.” Let us apply his First
this definition to our own species, and try, by means and
of it, to ascertain what constitutes the beauty of the
human face. It is evident, that of countenances wetjie
find a number almost infinite of difterent forms, of
which forms one only constitutes beauty, whilst the
rest, however numerous, constitute what is not beauty,
but deformity or ugliness. To an attentive observer,
however, it is evident, that of the numerous particular
forms of ugliness, there is not one which includes so
many fates as are formed alter that particular cast
which ct n litutes beautif. Every particular species of
the anin al as well as the vegetable creation, may be
said to have a fixed or determinate form, to which, as
to a centre nature is continually inclining. Or it may
t ’ H h he
Love.
* Sketches
of Man.
L O V [
he compared to pendulums vibrating in different di¬
rections over one central ■point j and as they all ci oss
the centre, though only one passes through any other
point; so it will be found that perfect beauty is oftener
produced by nature than deformity : we do not mean
than deformity in general, but than any one. kind and
degree of deformity. To instance in a particular part
of a human feature \ the line which forms the ridge of
the nose is deemed beautiful when it is straight; but
this is likewise the central form, which is oltener found
than -tiny one particular degree of concave, convex, or
any other irregular form that shall be proposed. As we
are then more accustomed to beauty than deformity,
we may conclude that to be the reason why we approve
and admire it, just as we approve and admire fashions
of dress for no other reason than that we are used to
them. The same thing may be said of colour as of
form : it is custom alone which determines our prefer¬
ence of the colour of the Europeans to that of the Ethio¬
pians, and which makes them prefer their own colour
to ours 5 so that though habit and custom cannot be the
cause of beauty (see Beauty), they are certainly the
cause of our liking it.
That we do like it cannot be denied. Every one is
conscious of a pleasing emotion when contemplating
beauty either in man or woman \ and when that plea¬
sure is combined with the gratification of the sensual
appetite, it is obvious that the sum of enjoyment must
be greatly increased. The perception of beauty,
therefore, necessarily directs the energy of the sensual
appetite to a particular object; but still this combina¬
tion is a mere selfish feeling, which regards its object
only as the best of many similar instruments ol pleasure.
Before it can deserve the name of love, it must be com¬
bined rvith esteem, which is never bestowed but upon
moral character and internal worth j for let a woman
be ever so beautiful, and-of course ever so desirable as
an instrument of sensual gratification, if she be not
possessed of the virtues and dispositions which are pe¬
culiar to her sex, she will inspire no man with a gene¬
rous affection. With regard to the outlines, indeed',
whether of internal disposition or of external form,
men and women are the same 5 but nature, intending
them for mates, has given them dispositions, which
though concordant, are, however, different, so as to
produce together delicious harmony. “ The man,
more robust, is fitted for severe labour, and for field
exercise; the woman, more delicate, is fitted for se¬
dentary occupations, and particularly for nursing chil¬
dren. The man, bold and vigorous, is qualified for
being a protector *y the woman, delicate and timid,
requires protection.. Hence it is, that a man never
admires a woman for possessing bodily strength or per¬
sonal courage j and 'women always despise men who are
totally destitute of these qualities. The man, as a pro¬
tector, is directed by nature to govern •, the woman,
conscious of inferiority, is disposed to obey. Their in¬
tellectual powers correspond to the destination of na¬
ture. Men have penetration and solid judgment to fit
them for governing; women have sufficient understand¬
ing to make a decent figure under a good government:
a greater proportion would excite dangerous rivalship
between the sexes, which nature has avoided by giving
them different talents. Women have more imagination
and sensibility than men, which make all their enjoy-
242 ] L O V
ments more exquisite 5 at the same time that they are Love*,
better qualified to communicate enjoyment. Add an-v-—J
other capital difference of disposition : the gentle and
insinuating manners of the female sex tend to soften
the roughness of the other sex j and wherever women
are indulged with any freedom, they polish sooner than
“ These are not the only particulars that distinguish
the sexes. With respect to the ultimate end of love,
it is the privilege of the male, as superior and protec¬
tor, to make a choice: the female, preferred, has no
privilege but barely to consent or to refuse. Whether
this distinction be the immediate result of the original¬
ly different dispositions of the sexes, or only the effect
of associations inevitably formed, may be questioned •, .
but among all nations it is the practice for men to
court, and for women to be courted: and were the
most beautiful woman on earth to invert this practice,
she would forfeit the esteem, however by her external
grace she might excite the desire, of the man whom
she addressed. The great moral virtues which may
be comprehended under the general term integrity, are
all absolutely necessary to make either men or women
estimable •, but to procure esteem to the female charac¬
ter, the modesty peculiar to their sex is a very essential
circumstance. Nature hath provided them with it as
a defence against the artful solicitations of the other
sex before marriage, and also as a support of conjugal
fidelity.
A woman, therefore, whose dispositions are gentle,
delicate, and rather timid than bold, who is possessed
of a large share of sensibility and modesty, and whose
manners are soft and insinuating, must, upon moral
principles (see Moral Philosophy), command the
esteem and benevolence of every "ndiviffual of the other
sex who is possessed of sound understanding 5 but it
her person be deformed, or not such as to excite some
degree of animal desire, she wrill attract no man’s love.
In like manner, a man whose moral character is good,
whose understanding is acute, and whose conversation
is instructive, must command the esteem of every sen¬
sible and virtuous woman j but if his figure be dis¬
agreeable, his manner unpolished, his habits slovenly,
and, above all, if he be deficient in personal courage,
he wrill hardly excite desire in the female breast. It is
only when the qualities which command esteem are, in
the same person, united with those which excite desire,
that the individual so accomplished can be an object
of love to one of the other sex ; but when these qua¬
lities are thus united, each of them increases the other
in the imagination of the lover. The beauty of his
mistress gives her, in his apprehension, a greater share
of gentleness, modesty, and every thing which adorns
the female character, than perhaps she really possesses }
whilst his persuasion of her internal worth makes him,
on the other hand, apprehend her beauty to be abso¬
lutely unrivalled.
To this theory an objection readily offers itself,
which it is incumbent upon us to obviate. Men and
women sometimes fall in love at first sight, and very
often before they have opportunities of forming a just
estimate ol each other’s moral character: How is this
circumstance to be reconciled with the progressive ge¬
neration ot love? We answer, By an association of
ideas, which is formed upon principles of physiogno-
roy»
L O V [ 243 ] L O V
Love. my. Every passion and habitual disposition of mind
J gives a particular cast to the countenance, and is apt
to discover itself in some feature of the face. This we
learn by experience j and in time, without any effort
of our own, the idea of each particular cast of counte¬
nance comes to be so closely associated in our minds
with the internal disposition which it indicates, that
the one can never afterwards be presented to our view
without instantly suggesting the other to the imagi¬
nation. See Metaphysics and Physiognomy).
Hence it is that every man, who has been accustomed
to make observations, naturally forms to himself, from
the features and lineaments of a stranger’s face, some
opinion of his character and fortune. We are no
sooner presented to a person for the first time, than we
are immediately impressed with the idea of a proud, a
reserved, an affable, or a good-natured man j and upon
our going into a company of absolute strangers, our
benevolence or aversion, our awe or contempt, rises
instantly towards particular persons, before we have
heard them speak a word, or know so much as their
names or designations. The same thing happens
when we are presented to the fair sex. If a woman,
seen for the first time, have that particular cast of
countenance, and that expression of features, to which
we have associated notions of gentleness, modesty, and
other female virtues, she instantly commands our esteem ;
and if she have likewise so much beauty as to make her
an object of particular desire, esteem and desire become
suddenly combined j and that combination constitutes
the affection of love. Such, too, is the nature of all
mental associations, that each part of which they are
composed adds strength and vividness to the other parts 5
so that, in the present instance, desire makes us imagine
virtues in the woman which her countenance perhaps
does not indicate j and the virtues which are there ac-
'ctekes
■Han.
tnally visible, make us apprehend her beauty as more
perfect than it is.
The affection thus generated is more or less pure,
and will be more or less permanent, according as the
one or the other part of which it is compounded pre¬
dominates. “ Where desire of possession* prevails over
our esteem of the person and merits of the desirable
object, love loses its benevolent character : the appe¬
tite for gratification becomes ungovernable, and tends
violently to its end, regardless of the misery that must
iollow. In that state love is no longer a sweet agree¬
able affection : it becomes a selfish, painful passion,
which, like hunger and thirst, produceth no happi¬
ness but in the instant of fruition j and when fruition
is over, disgust and aversion generally succeed to desire.
On the other hand, where esteem, founded on a virtu¬
ous character and gentle manners, prevails over animal
desire, the lover would not for the world gratify his
appetite at the expence of his mistress’s honour or
peace of mind. He wishes, indeed, for enjoyment;
and to him enjoyment is more exquisite than to the mere
sensual lover, because it unites sentiment with the gra¬
tification of sense 5 at the same time that, so far from
being succeeded by disgust or aversion, it increases his
benevolence to the woman, whose character and man¬
ners he esteems, and who has contributed so much to
his pleasure. Benevolence to an individual, having a
general end, admits of acts without number, and is sel¬
dom fully accomplished. Hence mutual love, which is
composed chiefly of esteem and benevolence, can hard- Love,
ly be of a shorter duration than its objects. Frequent ——v~-~
enjoyment endears such lovers to each other, and makes
constancy a pleasure ; and when the days of sensual en¬
joyment are over, esteem and benevolence will remain
in the mind, making sweet, even in old age, the socie¬
ty of that pair, in whom are collected the affections of
husband, wife, lover, friend, the tenderest affections of
human nature.”
From the whole of this investigation, we think it
appears, that the affection between the sexes which
deserves the name of love, is inseparably connected
with virtue and delicacy j that a man of loose morals
cannot be a faithful or a generous lover j that in the
breast of him who has ranged from woman to woman
for the mere gratification of his sensual appetite, de¬
sire must have effaced all esteem for the female charac¬
ter ; and that, therefore, the maxim too generally re¬
ceived, “ that a reformed rake makes the best hus¬
band,” has very seldom a chance to be true. We
think it mdy likewise be inferred, that thousands fan¬
cy themselves in love who know not what love is, or
how it is generated in the human breast: and there¬
fore we beg leave to advise such of our readers as may
imagine themselves to be in that state, to examine their
own minds, with a view to discover, whether, if the ob¬
jects of their love were old and ugly, they would still
esteem them for the virtues of their character, and the
propriety of their manners. This is a question which
deserves to be well weighed by the young and the
amorous, who in forming the matrimonial connexion,
are too often blindly impelled by the mere animal desire
inflamed by beaufy. “It may indeed happen f, after f EtemenU
the pleasure of gratifying that desire is gone (and if°f Criti-
not refined by esteem and benevolence, go it must withcism'
a swift pace), that a new bond of attachment may be
formed upon more dignified and more lasting princi¬
ples 5 but this is a dangerous experiment. Even sup¬
posing good sense, good temper, and internal worth of
every sort, yet a new attachment upon such qualifica¬
tions is rarely formed 5 because it commonly or rather
always, happens, that such qualifications, the only solid
foundation of that indissoluble connexion, if they did not
originally make esteem predominate over animal desire,
are afterwards rendered altogether invisible by satiety
of enjoyment creating disgust.”
Love, in Medicine. The symptoms produced by
this passion as a disease, according to medical writers,
are as follow: The eyelids. often twinkle ; the eyes
are hollow, and yet appear as if full with pleasure:
the pulse is not peculiar to the passion, but the same
with that which attends solicitude and care. When
the object of this affection is thought of, particularly
if the idea is sudden, the spirits are confused, the pulse
changes, and its force and time are very variable : in
some instances, the person is sad and watchful j in
others, the person, not being conscious of his state,
pines away, is slothful, and regardless of food ; though
the wiser, when they find themselves in love, seek
pleasant company and active entertainments. As the
Force of love prevails, sighs grow deeper j a tremor af¬
fects the heart and pulse j the countenance is alternate¬
ly pale and red ; the voice is suppressed in the fauces j *
the eyes grow dim j cold sweats break out ; sleep ab¬
sents itself, at least until the morning; the secretions •
H h 2 become
T,ove.
L 0 ^ ^ 244-
beconve disturbed j and a loss of appetite, a hectic fe¬
ver, melancholy, or perhaps madness, it not death, con¬
stitutes the sad catastrophe. On this subject the cun
ous may consult iEgineta, lib. hi. cap. 17. Oribat. y-
non. lib. viii. cap. 9. or a treatise professedly written on
love, as it is a distemper, by James lerrard, Oxiord,
printed 1640. . .
The manners of the Greeks and Romans were simi¬
lar to each yther in the affairs of love. They general¬
ly made a discovery of their passion by writing upon
trees, walls, doors, &c. the name of their beloved.
They usually decked the door of their dulcinca with
flowers and garlands, made libations of wine before their
houses, sprinkling the posts with the same liquor, as it
the object of their affection was a real goddfcss. F or a
man’s garland to he untied, and for a woman to com¬
pose a garland, were held to be indubitable indications
of their love.
When their love was without success, they used se¬
veral arts to excite affection in the object of their de¬
sire. They had recourse to enchantresses, of whom the
Thessalian were in the highest estimation. The means
made use of were most commonly philtres or love po¬
tions, the operation of which was violent and dangerous,
and frequently deprived such as drank them ol their
reason. Some of the most remarkable ingredients of
which they were composed were, the hippomanes, the
jynx, insects bred from putrefaction, the fish remora,
the lizard, brains of a calf, the hairs on the tip ot a
wolf’s tail, his secret parts, the bones of the left side of
a toad eaten with ants, the blood of doves, hones of
snakes, feathers of screech-owls, twisted cords of wool
in which a person had hanged himself, rags, torches,
reliques, a nest of swallows buried and famished in the
earth, hones snatched from hungry bitches, the marrow
of a boy famished in the midst of plenty, dried human
liver; to these may be added several herbs growing
out of putrid substances. Such were the ingredients
that entered into the composition of that infernal
draught a l(>ve 'potion.
But, besides the philtres, various other arts were
used to excite love, in which the application of certain
substances was to have a magical influence on the per¬
son against whom they levelled their skill. A hyrena’s
udder worn under the left arm, they fancied would
draw the affections of whatever woman they fixed
their eyes upon. That species of olives called Tr/lug^,
and barley-bran made up into a paste, and thrown into
the fire, they thought would excite the flame of love.
Flour was used with the same intention. Burning lau¬
rel, and melted wax, were supposed to have the like
effect. When one heart was to he hardened, and ano¬
ther mollified, clay and wax were exposed to the same
fire together. Images of wax were frequently used, re¬
presenting the persons on whom they wished to make
an impression ; and whatever was done to the substitute
ef wax, they imagined was felt by the person repre¬
sented. Enchanted medicaments were often sprinkled
on some part of the house where the person resided.
Love-pledges were supposed to be of singular use and
efficacy; these they placed under their threshold, to
preserve the affections of the owner from wandering.
Love-knots were of singular powder, and the number
three was particularly observed in all they did. But
llo good effect w'as expected, if the use of these things
] LOU
was not attended with charms or magical verses and
forms of words. See Magic.
Having mentioned their arts of exciting love, it
may not be amiss to take notice, that the ancients ima-
<lined, that love excited by magic may be allayed by
more powerful spells and medicaments, or by applying
to demons more powerful than those who had been
concerned in raising that passion. But love inspired
without magic had no cure } Apollo himself could find
no remedy, hut cried out
Hei mi hi quod nullis amor est mcdicabilis herbis.
The antidotes against love were generally agnus castas,
which has the power of weakening the generative facul¬
ty *, sprinkling the dust in which a mule had rolled her¬
self ; tying toads in the hide of a beast newly slain ; ap¬
plying amulets of minerals or herbs, w'lucli w’eie sup¬
posed of great efficacy in other cases ; and invoking the
assistance of the inferior deities. Another cure for love
w'as bathing in the waters of the river Selemnus •, to
which we may add the lover’s leap, or jumping down
from the Leucadian promontory.
Love-Apple. Sec Solanum, Botany Jnde.v.
LOVENTINUM, or Luentinum, ill Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a town of the Demetae in Britain, near the
mouth of the Tuerobis or Tivy. Supposed to have
been afterwards swallowed up by an earthquake, and
to have stood wdiere is now the lake called LUn Sata-
tan in Brecknockshire.
LOUGHBOROUGH, a town of Leicestershire in
England, no miles from London. It is the second
town in the county, and was in the Saxons time a
royal village. Its market is on Thursday j the num¬
ber of inhabitants in 1811 w'as 5400. It has a large
church, and a free school; besides a charity school for
80 boys, and another for 20 girls. It has been very
much reduced by fires *, but is still a very agreeable
town, with rich meadow-ground, on the fosse, which
runs here almost parallel with the river Soar. The
new canal lias made the coal trade here very exten-
Love
Lough,
Neagh,
sive.
LOUGHBRICKLAND, a town of Ireland, situ¬
ated in the county of Down, and province of Ulster, 58
miles from Dublin. The name signifies the lake of
the speckled trout; and it was so called from a lake near
it, which abounds with those fish. It consists of one
broad street, at the end of which is the parish church,
said to have been built by Dr Taylor when bishop of
Dromore, soon after the Restoration. The linen ma¬
nufacture is carried on here very extensively ; and the
town is a great thoroughfare, the turnpike road from
Dublin to Belfast passing near it.
LOUGH-DERG, anciently Dcrg-ahhan, i. e. “ the
river of the woody morasss,” from a river which issues
out of this lake. This lough is situated in the county
of Donegal and province of Ulster in Ireland, and is
famous for having in it the island that contains St
Patrick’s purgatory, which is a narrow little cell,
hewn out of the solid rock, in which a man could
scarce stand upright. There is also a lake of this
name situated between the counties of Galway and
Tipperary.
LOUGH-NEAGH, a loch or lake of Ireland, si¬
tuated in the counties of Armagh, Down, Derry, and
Antrim, and province of Ulster. This lake is 20 miles
in
L O U [ 24s } L O IT
Uoaj?U' i11 length, and varies from 8 to 12 miles in breadth.
Neagh, The area of this lake is computed to be ioo,oqo acres.
Lough- jt is remarkable for a healing virtue j and likewise
hangfoid. f01, petrifying wood, which is not only found in tire wa-
ter but in the adjacent soil at a considerable depth. On
its shores several beautiful gems have been discovered.
Its ancient name was Loch-Eacha, or Loch-Neac/i, from
/oik, “ a lake,” and Neack, “ wonderful, divine, or emi¬
nent.” Its petrifying powers are not instantaneous, as
several of the ancients have supposed, but require a
long series of ages to bring them to perfection, and
appear to be occasioned by a fine mud or sand, which
insinuates itself into the pores of the wood, and which
in process of time becomes hard like stone. On tbe
borders of this lake is Shane’s castle, the elegant seat
of Lord O’Neil. Dr Smyth seems to doubt whether
the healing quality in this lake is not to be confined to
one side of it, called the fisking-bcink; and he informs
us, that this virtue was discovered in the reign of Charles
II. in the instance of the son of one Mr Cunningham,
who had an evil which run on him in eight or ten
places; and notwithstanding all applications, seemed
incurable : at length he was perfectly healed, alter
bathing in this lough about eight days. Hence that wri¬
ter gives us another derivation of tbe name Lock-iScack,
which (he says) seems to him to hint at this quality j
Ncufg or Neas, in Irish, signifying “ a sore or ulcer,”
which might not improbably be corrupted into ISkiic/i :
Hence he apprehends, this lake was remarked at a much
earlier period for its healing property. As to its petri¬
fying power, it is mentioned by Nenius, a writer of tbe
yth century, who says, “ Est aliud stagnum quod facit
ligna durescere in lapides. Homines autem findunt lig-
na, et postquam formaverunt, projiciunt in stagnum, et
manent in eo usque ad caput anni, et in eapitc anni lapis
invenitur •, et vocatur stagnum Luch-Echack.’’ Lough-
Neagh gives title of baron to the family of Skejjing-
ton.
LOUGH-STKANGFORD, a lake of Ireland, si¬
tuated in the county of Down and province of Ul¬
ster. It takes its present name from a small port-
town called Strangford, seated on the west side of the
narrow entrance into the sea. It was formerly known
by the name of Lough-Cone or Lough Coyne. It is a
deep bay or inlet of the sea, about 17 miles long and
four or five broad •, it goes west as far as Downpatrick,
and north as far as Comber and Newton, and by
computation covers 25,775 acres, Irish plantation
measure. It abounds with excellent fish, particularly
smelts *, and off the bar there is a periodical herring
fishery in or about August. The bar or entrance
into the lough is about three miles below Strang-
ford. There is a long rock at the entrance in the
middle of the passage, dangerous to strangers on ac¬
count of the current ; yet there is a broad passage on
either side, and deep water. The current here is very
strong and rapid, running at the rate of six or seven
miles an hour. There are but few vessels that go
higher up than Strangford. A good many vessels
hound up the channel put in here, if the wind is un¬
favourable to their passage. The islands in this lake
afe numerous; Dr Boat enumerates them at 260.
But from an actual survey, made at the time Dr Smyth
Wrote his history of that county, it appears, there are
54 islands small and great) known by particular names,
4
and many others nameless •, the contents of these 54 .
islands added together amount to 954 acres and a 0U4
half. The great and profitable manufacture carried Louisiana,-
on in these islands, and the flat stony coasts surrounding u-—^^
the lake, is the burning of sea-weed into kelp, which
employs a number of hands, and has been computed
to produce to the several proprietors a neat profit of
1000I. per annum and upwards. Four of the islands
here arc called Swan, inlands, from the number of swans
that frequent them.
LOUIS, or St Louis, Knights of, the name of a
military order in France, instituted by Louis XIV-. in.
1693. Their colours were of a flame colour, and pass
from left to right; the king was their grand master.
There were in it eight great crosses, anti 24 comman¬
ders ; the number of knights was not limited. At the
time of their institution, the.king charged his revenue
with a fund of 900,000 livres for the pensions of the
commanders and knights.
Louis, Lewis, Louis d'or, or Lcwidore, a French
coin, first struck in 1640, under the reign of Louis XIII.
and which has now a considerable currency. See
Money-Table.
LOUISIANA, an extensive country of North Ame¬
rica, lying between Mexico and the river Mississippi,
and now forming one of the united states of the North
American republic. The name was originally given
to a region extending from the gulf of Mexico, north¬
ward and westward to an unknown distance, but is now
confined to the southern part of this territory. Loui¬
siana was originally discovered and settled by the
French 5 and, after remaining in their hands for about
a century, it was transferred to Spain by treaty in
1762. In 1801 Spain gave up the colony again to France,
by whom it was sold to tbe United States in 1803 for
sixty millions of francs. In 1812 Louisiana was erect¬
ed into a state, and admitted as a member of the union.
It extends between 290 and 330 of north latitude, and
between the river Sabine on the west, and the Perdido
on the east, embracing an area of 45,860 square miles. .
The greater part of the country is a level plain, and
that part which reaches from the sea-shore, 20 or 30
miles inward, is a morass on a level with high water,
without trees or shrubs. The Mississippi flows through
the eastern part of it j and as its waters have generally
a higher level than the adjoining country, the culti¬
vated parts are protected from inundation by embank¬
ments. This great river sends oft part of its waters
by lateral courses to the sea, and forms a kind of delta.
A considerable part of the country is overflowred during
the annual swell of the river in May and June, which
then rises 50 feet in the upper part of its course; but
at New Orleans, within 100 miles of the sea, the rise
is only 12 feet. The richest soil is along the banks of
the Mississippi and its branches ; the other parts are
either swampy, or light and sandy. It abounds with
a great variety of wood, and the wild vine is extremely
common. The settlements are confined chiefly to the
banks of the streams. The population in 1810 was
86,556 but in 1814 was estimated at. 101,700. Of
this population 30,000 reside, in the capital, New
Orleans, which is situated about 100 miles from the
mouth of the river, and carries on a very extensm
trade. It has now become the centre of trade for the
states situated oa the western side of the Alleghany
mountain;’, *
L O U
[ H6 ]
LOU
Louisiana, monfltaiiis, and lias increased more rapid!)- witlim the
'——y— last ten years than any ether town in the United beaten.-.
The produce received from the upper country is im¬
mense ; between 300 and 400 sea vessels arrive and
depart annually, and about 900 flat-bottomed boats and
barges descend the river from the western territories.
The river communication has been much improved bv
the use of steam-boats, which are now numerous upon
the Mississippi and Ohio. These have also been em¬
ployed as drag-boats to assist loaded vessels in ascend¬
ing from the sea to New Orleans. I he principal ex¬
ports are cotton, tobacco, sugar, and flour. The ex¬
ports of Louisiana in 1817 amounted to 9,024,812
dollars, of which 8,24I)254 ''vere domestic produce,
and 783,558 foreign produce. The tonnage belonging
to New Orleans in 1815 was 17,204. (Warden's
Account of the United States.}
The agricultural productions of Louisiana are the
same with those of the other southern states j but sugar
is now cultivated to a greater extent here than in any
" other part of the union. The cane is planted in Jan¬
uary, February, or March, and ripens in October. I he
average produce is estimated at 800 or 1000 pounds
per acre. The quantity made on the Mississippi alone
in 1812 was estimated at ten millions of pounds. It
is computed that there are one million of acres in the
state adapted to the culture of sugar. Tobacco and
cotton are also cultivated to a considerable extent.
Of the latter 20,000 bales were exported in 1812.
Rice is cultivated in swampy places unfit for any other
species of grain, and the produce is estimated at 15
barrels per acre, each weighing 200 pounds. Maize
is raised, but this plant, as well as wheat, rye, barley
and oats, do not thrive so well as in states farther
north, and a£re not very much cultivated. Figs and
olives succeed, and it is believed that silk would be
found profitable. The sweet orange, the citron, lemon,
and lime, are cultivated below the 30th parallel. Im¬
mense herds of cattle are raised in the natural meadows
of Opelousas and Atakapas. The mutton is consider¬
ed to be superior to that of the northern states, the
other kinds of flesh inferior. In the richest and most
populous parts of the country plantations bring from 40
to 50 dollars an acre, exclusive of slaves and buildings.
The profits of a slave are estimated at 140 dollars per
annum. Negro tradesmen are let or hired at from 20
to 30 dollars a month. Some planters have a yearly
income of 20,000 dollars, and possess from 10,000 to
20,000 head of cattle.
There are no manufactures of much importance in
this state. Salt is made at two or three places. With¬
in 60 miles above, and an equal distance below New
Orleans, there are 36 saw mills, some of which are
driven by steam, and others by water let oft' by small
openings in the banks of the Mississippi. Pitch and
tar are manufactured, and of the cane or reed are made
hats, sieves, baskets, mats, &c. Candles are made of
’he vegetable wax derived from the Myrtica cerifera.
Louisiana is in many parts rather unhealthy. Bili-
ons fever prevails generally in autumn, and the yellow
fever has several times made its appearance. Sore
throat, tetanus, and dysentery are also not uncommon.
The most sickly season at New Orleans is August.
The births in that city in the year ending March 1808
were 456, the deaths 769. Snow seldom falls in this
3
state, and frost is only experienced in December and Louisdaita
January. In summer the thermometer sometimes rises |j
to 93 in the shade. The mean temperature of spring , Loutll'_
water is said to be 65°. About the 1st of February v
peach and plum trees are in blossom.
The most considerable rivers are the Mississippi,
which has generally a breadth of 880 yards in this
state. Its depth near New Orleans exceeds 150 feet.
The Red river falls into the Mississippi near Fort
Adams. The Sabine river falls into the gulf of Mexi¬
co. The Lafourche, Atchafalaga, and Ibberville, are
outlets of the Mississippi. There are also several lakes,
of which those of Ponchartrain and Chetimache are the
most considerable. Lake Borgne is an arm of the
sea. By its rivers and lakes Louisiana enjoys an in¬
land navigation of 4600 miles.
A mass of native iron weighing 3000 pounds was
lately discovered on the banks of Red river. Iron ore,
silver, alum, coal, and potter’s earth, are found in the
state. There are also salt springs at different places.
The constitution of this state was framed by a con¬
vention at New Orleans in 1812. The legislature con¬
sists of a senate chosen for four years, and house of re¬
presentatives for two. All free white male citizens of
21 years of age, and paying taxes, are electors. The
members of both houses receive four dollars a day for
their services. The governor is elected for four years.
The judges of all the courts hold their offices during
good behaviour. The militia consists of all the free
white citizens.
This country was invaded by a British force in
December 1814. It advanced to within six miles of
New Orleans, but was defeated there on the 8th Ja¬
nuary 1815, with the loss of its commander General
Packenham and 2600 men in killed and wounded.
The Americans, who were commanded by General Jack-
son, and fought behind an entrenchment, lost according
to their own account, only 7 killed and 8 wounded.
Soon after Louisiana was ceded to the United States,
there were two societies established for the promotion
of science and literature, one of them at New Orleans,
and another at Natchez. The former designs to pub¬
lish a monthly magazine for the purpose of diffusing a
knowledge of the country, and to amuse the readers
of it with a variety of useful subjects. The latter,
which was established in 1803, called the Mississippi
Society for the Acquirement and Dissemination of use¬
ful Knowledge, consists of near 40 members, and has
correspondents in various parts of the United States.
The American government has granted it a charter ol
incorporation.
LOUSE. See Pediculus, Entomology Index.
LOUSY disease. See Medicine Index.
LOUTH, a towm of Lincolnshire in England, 156
miles from London. It is a town corporate, contained
4728 inhabitants in 1811, and has two weekly mar¬
kets. Here are several handsome houses. From hence
there is a canal to the sea at Tilney, about eight miles.
Besides a charity school for 40 children, it has a free
school founded hy Edward VI. with a large church,
and a fine steeple, which some think is as high as
Grantham spire, which is 288 feet. Louth is 156 miles
north from London.
Louth, a county in the eastern part of Ireland,
which extends in the form of a bow or half-moon, on
the
L O U [ 247 j L O W
Louth, the side of the ocean, being much Jonger than it is
ouvain. broad 5 it is hounded on the south and south-west by
; the county of East Meath, on the north-west by Mo¬
naghan, on the north by Armagh, and on the north¬
east by the bay of Carlingford, which parts it from the
county of Down : it is watered by several small rivers ;
and its south frontiers are watered by the river Boyne.
Its chief towns are Dundalk and Carlingford ; unless
we include Drogheda, a part whereof is in this county.
It is the smallest county in the kingdom j but very fer¬
tile and pleasant, and abounding with many remains of
antiquities, of which Mr Wright, in his Louthiana, has
given a very ample description. It contains 111,180
Irish plantation acres, 50 parishes, live baronies, and
five boroughs*, and formerly returned 10 members to
the Irish parliament: it is about 22 miles long, and 14
broad. See Louth, Supplement.
Louth, a town in the above county, having a year¬
ly fair.
LOUVAIN, a city in the kingdom of the Nether¬
lands, in the province of Brabant, pleasantly seated on
the river Dyle, in a plentiful and agreeable country.
The walls are about eight or nine miles in circumfe¬
rence ; but they include several fields and vineyards.
The castle stands on a high hill, surrounded with fine gar¬
dens, and has a charming prospect all over the'country.
This town contains nine market places, 14 water-mills,
126 streets, 16 stone bridges, and several handsome
palaces. The town-house is a venerable old building,
adorned with statues on the outside; and the churches
are very handsome, particularly the collegiate church
of St Peter ; but the principal ornament is the univer¬
sity, founded only in ] 426 by John IV. duke of Brabant,
with the concurrence of Pope Martin V. It contains
about 40 colleges, four of which are called Pedos^ogia,
There is in the number also an English college of friars-
preachers, which owes its establishment'to the liberali¬
ties of Cardinal Philip Howard, brother to the duke
of Norfolk, who, before he was raised to the purple,
had been private chaplain to Queen Catherine, con¬
sort to Charles II. The Irish have likewise a semi¬
nary, erected in part under the care of Eugenius Mat-
theus, titular archbishop of Dublin, anno 1623, which
receives its appointments from the Propaganda at
Home. Besides the above, there are two convents for
the Irish, one of Recollects and the other of Domini¬
cans, where divinity and the mathesis are taught. In the
last century the number of scholars exceeded 4000 ; but
in the year 1744 ^)e inhabitants amounted to 12,000,
including 2000 students only.—At the beginning of
the 14th century, under John HI. it flourished con¬
siderably in the manufacture of woollen cloth : 400
houses were then occupied by substantial clothiers, who
gave employment to an incredible number of weavers,
so great, it is said, that a bell was rung to prevent any
injuries which the children in the street might receive
from the crowd and hurry on their returning from work.
In 1382, these weavers, however, took up arms, and
rebelled against their sovereign Prince Wenceslaus*
throwing from the windows of the town hall 17 of the
aldermen and counsellors, and afterwards proceeded to
lay waste great part of Brabant ; but being besieged
ami reduced to great extremities, they submissively
implored his clemency ; which was granted after the
execution of some of the principal ringleaders. The
weavers, the chief instigators to this revolt, were
banished, the greater part of whom took refuge in Louvhui
England; where they first introduced, or at least ||
augmented very much, the woollen manufacture. The
town, by this circumstance, being almost depopulated, v _
the university was established to supply in some measure
the loss of the rebellious clothiers. Since that time-
the manufacture gradually declined, no cloth of any
account being made there at present. This impolitic-
step of the duke Wenceslaus sent treasures to England*.
through the hands of those exiled people : an import¬
ant lesson to governors, that they should deal with
great precaution respecting such useful members of the
community. Upon the ruins of these looms was form¬
ed the cloth manufacture of Limbourg, which is car¬
ried on with good advantage to this day. There is yet
standing at Louvain part of the old drapers-hall, now
converted into four public schools, where lectures in
divinity, philosophy, law, and physic, are given, and
the public acts are made. Adjoining to the schools
is the university library which altogether compose
a large pile of building. Over the door of the chief
entrance Ave read these Avords, Sapicntia (edificavit sibi
domum. The principal church is collegiate, dedicated
to St Peter, which had formerly three very large towers
Avith elevated spires, one considerably higher than the
tAvo collaterals ; these Avere bloAvn doAvn in the year
recorded by this chronogram, oMnlaCaDVnt. From
the name of this church, the burghers have acquired
the nickname of Petermen, whose ancestors having
clothed the back by a noble AAroollen manufacture, the
modern Petermen noAv compose an ignoble mixture for
the belly, called after them Peterman beer, a sort of
Avhitish muddy ale, wliich they notwithstanding send in
large quantities to all parts of the country, as Avell as
to Holland, by the canals. Louvain Avas anciently the
capital of the province, long before Brussels had any
claim to that title. It was taken by the French in
1792, afterwards lost, and retaken in 1794. E. Long.
4. 40. N. Lat. 51. 12.
LOUYS, or Louis, John, an engraver of consider¬
able eminence, who flourished about the middle of the
16th century. According to Basan he was a native
of Flanders. He learned the art of engraving from
Peter Soutman, at the time that Suyderhoef studied
under the same master; and his usual style of engra¬
ving bears some resemblance to that of his master’s.
One of his best prints is Diana, with her nymphs, re¬
posing after the chase ; a middling-sized plate, length¬
wise, from Rubens.
LOW -bell, in birding, a name given to a bell, by
means of Avhich they take birds in the night, in open
champaign countries, and among stubble, in Octo¬
ber. The method is to go out about nine o’clock at
night in a still evening, Avhen the air is mild and the
moon does not shine. The low-bell should be of a deep
and holloAV sound, and of such a size that a man may
conveniently carry it in one hand. The person Avho
carries it is to make it toll all the Avay he goes, as
nearly as may be, in that manner in which the bell on
the neck of a sheep tolls as it goes on and feeds.
There must also be a box made like a large lanthorn,
about a foot square, and lined with tin, but Avith one
side open. Two or three great lights are to be set in
this; and the box is to be fixed to the person’s breast,
Avith the open side forwards, so that the light may be
cast forward to a great distance. It will spread as ife
goes .
liOW-beli
II
Lower.
LOW [
goes out of the box; Smd wiUdistioetly show to the per¬
son that carries it whatever there .s m the large space
of ground over which it extends, and consequently all
the8 birds that roost upon the ground. Two persons
must follow him who carries the box and bell, one
each side, so as not to be within the reach of the light
to show themselves. Each of these is to have a hand-
net of about three or four feet square, fastened to a long
stick or pole; and on whichever side any bud is seen
at roost, the person who is nearest is to lay his net
over it, and take it with as little noise as possible.
When the net is over the bird, the person who laid it
is not to be in a hurry to take the bird, but must stay
till he who carries the light is got beyond it, that the
motions may not be discovered. The blaze of the
light and the noise of the bell ternly and amaze the
birds in such a manner that they remain still to be
taken ; but the people who are about the work must
keep the greatest quiet and stillness that may be.
Some people are fond of going on this scheme
alone. The person then fixes the light box to his
breast, and carries the bell in one hand and the net
in the other ; the net in this case may be somewhat
smaller, and the handle shorter. When more than one
are out at a time, it is always proper to carry a gun;
as it is no uncommon thing to spy a hare when on this
expedition. „ . r' i i
LOW, East, a town of Cornwall in Lngland,
231 miles from London, in the post road fiom Ply¬
mouth. It is an ancient borough by prescription,
made a corporation by charter of Queen Elizabeth,
consisting of nine burgesses (one of whom is yearly
chosen mayor), a recorder, aldermen, &c. ; and the
mayor, magistrates, and freemen, who are about 68,
choose the members of parliament. This being a ma¬
nor of the duchy of Cornwall, wras settled by King
William on Lord Somers, and is now held by the cor¬
poration at the fee-farm rent of 20s. a-year. It is seat¬
ed pretty commodiously on a creek of the sea, over
which there is a large stone bridge, supported by 15
arches, which leads to West Low. I he duel benefit
which the inhabitants have is in their fishery. Here is
a battery of four guns, and a small chapel. It contain¬
ed 608 inhabitants in 1811.
Low, Went, called also Port Pigham, a town of
Cornwall, divided from East Low by a stone bridge
of 15 arches over the river Low, from whence both
towns receive their name, as the river does from the
lowness of its current between its high banks. The
corporation, by charter of Queen Elizabeth, consists
of 12 burgesses, one of whom is annually chosen
mavor, and, with the other burgesses, has power to
choose a steward. Its members, whom it has sent to
parliament ever since the 6th of Edward VI. are elect¬
ed by the corporation and freemen, who are about
60. There was a chapel of ease here in the reign of
Henry VIII. which was afterwards converted into a
town-hall; and the town lying in the parish of Talland,
the people go thither to church. There is a pretty
little harbour here ; near the mouth of which is a
small island called St George's, which abounds with sea
pies. The river here is navigable for vessels of 100
tons. Population in 1811, 433*
LOWER, Richard, an eminent English physician
in the 17th century, was born in Cornwall, and edu¬
cated at Westminster school and Oxford ; after which
248 1 L 0 w T„
he studied medicine, and practised under Dr Thomas
Willis whom he instructed in some parts oi anatomy,
especially when the latter was writing his Cerebri Ana- _
tome. He, with Dr Willis, in 1674, discovered the
medicinal waters at Ashop in Northamptonshire ;
which, upon their recommendation, became very much
frequented. In 1666, he followed Dr Wilbs to Lon¬
don ; practised physic under him ; and became fellow
of the Royal Society, and of the College d* Physicians.
In 1669 he published his Tractatus de Lordc; and al¬
ter the death of Dr Willis in 1675, he was esteemed the
most eminent physician in London. Upon the break¬
ing out of the Popish plot in 1678, says Mr Wood
in his Athena Oxonicnsis, he closed with the \. Inga,
supposing that party would carry all before them ; but,,
being mistaken, he lost his credit and practice. He
died in 1691. ,
LOWERING, among distillers, a term used to
express the debasing tbe strength of any spirituous
liquor, by mixing water with it. The standard anu
marketable price of these liquors is fixed m regard to
a certain strength in them called proof; this is that
strength which makes them, when shaken in a phial or
poured from on high into a glass, retain a troth or
crown of bubbles for some time. In this state, spint>
consist of about half pure or totally inflammable spirit,
and half water ; and if any foreign or home spirits are
to be exposed to sale, and are found to have that
proof wanting, scarce any body will buy it till it Iras
been distilled again and brought to that strength ; anu
if it is above that strength, the proprietor usually adus
water to it to bring it down to that standard, bee the
article Proof. ,
There is another kind of lowering among the re¬
tailers of spirituous liquors to the vulgar, by reducing
it under the standard proof. Whoever has the art of
doing this without destroying the bubble proof, which
is easily done by means of some addition that gi\es a
greater tenacity to the parts of the spirits, will de¬
ceive all that judge by this proof alone. In this case,
the best way to judge of liquors is by the eye and
tongue, and especially by the instrument called HY¬
DROMETER.
LOWTH, William, D. D. a learned divine, born
at London in 1661, was the son of an apothecary, and
Lower
Low.
took his degrees at Oxford.
His eminent worth and
learning recommended him to Dr Mew bishop of
Winchester, who made him his chaplain, gave um
two livings in Hampshire, and conferred on him a
prebend in the cathedral of Winchester. He acquire
an unusual share of critical learning. Thus situated
in life, the labours of Mr Lowth appear to have been
strictly confined within the limits of his own prownce,
and applied solely to the peculiar duties of his
tions ; yet, in order that lie might acquit himself the
better in theology, he had pursued his studies with a
more general and extensive view. Few were more
deeply versed in critical learning ; there being scarcely
any ancient author, Greek or Latin, profane or eccle¬
siastical, especially the latter, but what he had read
with accuracy, constantly accompanying his reading
with critical and philological remarks. Of his col¬
lections in this way he was upon all occasions very
communicative. Hence his notes on Clemens Ale.van-
drinus, which are to be met with in Potter’s edition
of that father. Hence his remarks on Josephus, com¬
municated
Jsowth.
LOW
nranicated to Hudson for his edition, and
i ledged in the preface; as also those lai'ger and more
  4-1, _ 17 _ _ I * . V 1 T T • ,
numerous annotations on the Ecclesiastical Historians,
inserted in Reading's edition of them at Cambridge.
The author of Bibliotheca Biblica was indebted to him
for the same kind of assistance. Chandler, late bishop
of Durham, while engaged in his “ Defence of Christi¬
anity, from the Prophecies of the Old Testament,
against the Discourse of the Grounds and Reasons of
the Christian Religion,” and in his “ Vindication of
the Defence, in answer to The Scheme of Literal
Prophecy considered,” held a constant correspondence
with him, and consulted him upon many difficulties
that occurred in the course of that work. The most
valuable part of his character was that which least ap¬
peared in the eyes of the world, the private and re¬
tired part, that of the good Christian and the useful
parish priest. His piety, his diligence, his hospitali¬
ty and beneficence, rendered his lilc highly exem¬
plary, and greatly enforced his public exhortations.
He married Margaret, daughter of Robert Pitt, Esq.
of Blandford, ^ by whom he had two sons and three
daughters. (See the next article). He died in 1732,
and was buried by his own orders in the churchyard
of Buriton. He published, 1. A Vindication of the
Divine Authority and Inspiration of the Old and New
Testaments 5 2. Directions for the profitable reading
of the Holy Scriptures 5 3. Commentaries on the Pro¬
phets } and other works.
Lowth, Robert, D. D. second son of the preced¬
ing Dr William Lowth, and bishop successively of
St David s, Oxford, and London, was born on the
29th of November 1710, probably at Buriton in the
county of Hants. He received the rudiments of his
education at Winchester college, where his school ex¬
ercises were distinguished by uncommon elegance ; and
having resided the requisite number of years in that
seminary, 111 173® ^ie succeeded on the foundation at
New College, Oxford. He took the degree of M. A.
June 8. 1737. Though his abilities must have been
known to those with whom he w'as connected, he was
not forward to appear before the world as a writer. At
Oxford he continued many years improving his talents,
with little notice from the great, and with preferment
so small as to have at present escaped the distinct re¬
collection of some of his contemporaries.
He was not, however, suffered to languish for ever
111 obscurity. His genius and his learning forced them¬
selves upon the notice of the illustrious society of
which he was a member ; and he was placed in a sta¬
tion where he was eminently qualified to shine. In
1741 he was elected by the university to the profes¬
sorship of poetry, re-elected in 1743, and whilst he
held that office he read his admirable lectures De sacra
poesi Ilebrteorum. In 1744 Bishop Hoadley collated
mm to the rectory of Ovington in the county of
Hants j added to it, nine years afterwards, the rectory
of Last W eedhay in the same county 5 and in the in¬
terim raised him to the dignity of archdeacon of Win¬
chester. These repeated favours he some years after¬
wards acknowledged in the following manly and re¬
spectful terms of gratitude : “ This address, my Lord,
is not more necessary on account of the subject, than
it is in respect of the author. Your Lordship, unso¬
licited and unasked, called him from one of those col-
Vol. XII. Part I. +
t 249 ] L O W
acknow- leges to a station of the first dignity in vour diocese,
and took the earliest opportunity of accumulating your
favour upon him, and of adding to that dignity a 'suit¬
able support. These obligations he is now the more
ready thus publicly to acknowledge, as he is removed
out of the reach of further favours of the like kind.
And though he hath relinquished the advantages so
generously conferred on him, yet he shall always esteem
himself highly honoured in having once enjoyed the
patronage of the great advocate of civil and relisnous
liberty.” 0
On the 8th of July 1754 the university of Oxford
conferred upon him the degree of D. D. by diploma ;
an honour which, as it is never granted but to distin¬
guished merit, was probably conferred on Mr Lowth
in consequence of his prelections on the Hebrew poetry,
which had then been lately published. Having in 1749
travelled with Lord George and Lord Frederick Ca¬
vendish, he had a claim upon the patronage of the
Devonshire family; and in 1755, the late duke being
then lord lieutenant of Ireland, Dr Lowth went to
that kingdom as his grace’s first chaplain. Soon after
this appointment he was offered the bishopric of Li¬
merick j but preferring a less dignified station in his
own country, he exchanged it with Dr Leslie, pyeben-
dary of Durham and rector of Sedgefield, for these pre¬
ferments. In November 17^5 ^ie was chosen F. R. S.
In June 1 766 he was, on the death of Dr Squire, pre¬
ferred to the bishopric of St David’s ; which, in the
October following, he resigned for that of Oxford, va¬
cant by the translation of Bishop Hume to Salisbury.
In April 1777, he was translated to the see of London,
vacant by the death of Bishop Terrick j and in 1783
he declined the ofl’er of the primacy of all England.
Having been long afflicted with the stone, and having
long borne the severest sufferings of pain and sickness
with the most exemplary fortitude and resignation, this
great and good man died at Fulham, Nov. 3. 1787 ;
and on the 12th his remains were privately interred in
a vault at T ulham church, near those of his predeces¬
sor. He had married in 1752, Mary, the daughter of
Laurence Jackson of Christ-church, Hants, Esq. by
whom he had two sons and five daughters. His lady
and two children only survived him.
His literary character may be estimated from the
value and the importance of his works ; in the account
of which we may begin with his Rrelcctions on the He¬
brew Poetry. The choice of so interesting a subject
naturally attracted general attention ; and the work
has been read with equal applause abroad and at home.
In these 1 relections the author has acquitted himself
in the most masterly manner, as a poet, a critic, and
a divine 5 and such is the classic purity of his Latin
style, that though we have read the work with the
closest attention, and with no other view than to dis¬
cover, if possible, an Anglicism in the composition,
we never found a single phrase to which, wre believe,
a critic of the Avgustan age could possibly have ob¬
jected. This is an excellence to which neither Milton
nor Johnson has attained; to which indeed no other
English writer of Latin w ith wrhom we are acquainted
has attained, unless perhaps Atterbury must be ex¬
cepted. To the Prelections was subjoined a short con¬
futation of Bishop Hare’s system of Hebrew metre ;
which occasioned a Latin letter from Dr Edwards of
I i Clare-hall,
Lowtli.
LOW
i nwth Clare-liall, Cambridge, to Dr Loevth, in
„f the Harian metre. To this the author of the pre-
lections replied in a larger confutation in winch bi¬
shop Hare’s system is completely overthrown, and tl e
fallacy upon which it was built accurately investigated
Afte/much attentive consideration, Bishop Lowth has
pronounced the metre of the Hebrews to be perfectly
irricoverable. ^ ^ ^ imklm of WyU-
ham, bishop of Winchester, with a dedication to Bishop
Hoadley ; which involved him in a dispute concerning
a- decision which that bishop had lately made respecting
the wardenship of Winchester-college. Hus contro¬
versy was on both sides carried on -with such abilities,
that, though relating to a private concern, it may yet
be read,if not with pleasure, at least with improvement.
The life of Wykeham is drawn from the most authentic
sources •, and affords much information concerning the
manners, and some of the public transactions of the pe¬
riod in which Wykeham lived, whilst it displays some
private intelligence respecting the two literary societies
of which he was the founder. In these two societies
Dr Lowth was educated, and he gratefully expresses his
obligations to them.
In i'762 was first published his Short Introduction to
English Grammar, which has since gone through many
editions. It was originally designed only for private
and domestic use : but its judicious remarks being too
valuable to be confined to a few, the book was given to
the world j and the excellence of its method, which
teaches what is right by showing what is wrong, has
insured public approbation and very general use. In
1765 Dr Lowth was engaged with Bishop arburton
in a controversy, which made much noise at the time,,
which attracted the notice even oi royalty7, and.of
which the memory is still recent. If w7e do not wish
to dwell on the particulars of this controversy, it is
because violent literary contention is an evil, which
though like other war it may sometimes be unavoid¬
able, is yet always to be regretted •, and because the
characters of learned, ingenious, and amiable men,
never appear to less advantage than under the form
which that state of hostility obliges them to assume.
The two combatants indeed engaged with erudition
and ingenuity, such as is seldom brought into conflict 5
but it appears that, in the opinion of Dr Johnson,
Warburton had the most scholastic learning, and that
Lowth was the most correct scholar 5 that, in their con¬
test with each other, neither of them had much argu¬
ment, and that both were extremely abusive. We have
heard, and w7e hope it is true, that they were afterwards
reconciled, and expressed mutual regret for the violence
of their past conduct.
In 1778 Bishop Lowth published his last great work,
A Translation of Isaiah. To his literary and theological
abilities, the translator joined the most critical know¬
ledge of the character and spirit of the eastern poetry
and, accordingly, the prophecies of Isaiah (which,
though almost always sublime or elegant, are yet some¬
times obscure) were translated in a manner adequate
to the highest expectations of the public. Several
occasional discourses, which the bishop, by his station,
was at different times called upon to deliver, were of
course published, and are all rvorthy of their excellent
author; but there is one on the kingdom of God, on the
[ 250 ] LOW
vindication extension and progressive improvement of Christ’s re- LowtL
ligion, and on the means of promoting these by the v
advancement of religious knowledge, by freedom of
inquiry, by toleration, and mutual charity, winch may
be distinguished above the rest, as exhibiting a most
comprehensive view of the successive states of the Cluis-
tian church, and containing the truest principles of
Christianity.
Of the bishop’s poetical pieces, none display greater
merit than Verses on the Genealogy of Christ, and the
Choice of Hercules, both written very early in his life.
He wrote a spirited Imitation of an Ode of Horace,
applied to the alarming situation of this country in
1745 ; and likcivise some verses on the death ot irede-
ric prince of Wales, with a few smaller poems. The
following inscription on the tomb ot his daughter,
beautifully displays his patenial affection and classic
taste. As it is short, and, in our opinion, has all the
merit of the ancient epitaph, the reader will probably
be pleased Avith such a specimen of his lordship’s Lati-
nity.
Cara, vale, ingehio preestems, pietate, pudorc,
Et plusquam natce nomine cara,yale.
Cara Maria, vale. At veniet felicius etvum,
Qitando iterum tecum, sun modo digntis, ero.
Cara, redi, Iceta turn dicam voce, pater nos,.
Eja, age in amplcxus, cara Maria, redi.
Learning and taste, hoii’eA'er, did not constitute Bishop
Lowth’s highest excellence. Eulogium itself can scarce¬
ly ascend to extravagance ivhen speaking ot him ei¬
ther as a private man, or as a pastor ot the church of
Christ. His amiable manners rendered him an orna¬
ment to his high station, AA'hilst they endeared him to
all Avith Avhom he conversed j and his zeal tor the in¬
terests of true religion made him eager to promote to
places of trust and dignity such clergymen as he kneAV
Avere best qualified to fill them. Of his modesty,
gentleness, and pleasing conversation, Ave have the testi¬
mony of one Avhose decision Avill hardly be disputed.
“ It Avould ansAver no end (says Bishop V» arburton) to
tell you Avhat I thought of the author ol Hebrerv poe¬
try, before I saw him. But this I may say, I was never
more surprised, Avhen I did see him, than to find him of
such amiable and gentle manners, of so modest, sensible,
and disengaged a deportment.” He united, indeed,
in an eminent degree, the qualities of the gentleman
Avith those of the scholar : he conversed Avith elegance,
as he Avrote with accuracy. As a husband, a father,
or the master of a family, he Avas as nearly faultless as
the imperfections of humanity will easily permit. His
temper, Avhen roused by what he thought improper con¬
duct Avas indeed susceptible of considerable warmth 5
but if he could be highly offended, upon a slight con¬
cession he could likeAvise forgive. His heart Avas ten¬
der and sympathetic. He possessed a mind which felt
its own strength, and decided on Avhatever came before
it Avith promptitude and firmness. In those trials
Avbere affliction Avas to be suffered or subdued, he be¬
haved as a man and a Christian. His piety had no
tincture of moroseness 5 his charity no leaven of osten¬
tation. To his whole diocese he aaus endeared by
his laudable discretion and his useful zeal. To the
Avorld he Avas a benefit by his exemplary life and his
splendid abilities. And AA'hilst virtue and learning are
reverenced
L U B [ iji ] L U B
reverenced among men, the memory of Lowth will be
respected and admired,
LOXIA, a genus of birds of the order of passeres.
See Ornithology Index.
LOYOLA, Ignatius. See Ignatius.
LOZENGE, in Heraldry, a four-cornered figure,
resembling a pane of glass in old casements. See He¬
raldry. Though all heralds agree that single ladies
are to place their arms on lozenges, yet they differ with
respect to the causes that gave rise to it. Plutarch says,
in the life of Theseus, that in Megara, an ancient town
of Greece, the tomb stones under which the bodies of
the Amazons lay, were shaped after that form j which
some conjecture to be the cause why ladies have their
arms on lozenges. S. Petra Sancta will have this
shield to represent a cushion, whereupon women used
to sit and spin, or do other housewifery. Sir J. Feme
thinks it is formed from the shield called tessei'a, which
the Komans finding unfit for w^ar, did allow to women
to place their ensigns upon, with one of its angles always
uppermost.
Lozenges, among jewellers, are common to bril¬
liant and rose diamonds. In brilliants, they are form¬
ed by the meeting of the skill and star facets on the
bezil 5 in the latter, by the meeting of the facets in the
horizontal ribs of the crown. See Facets.
Lozenge is also a form of medicine, made into
small pieces, to be held or chewed in the mouth till they
are melted there : the same with what are otherwise
called trochisci, “ troches.”
LUBEC, a city and port-town of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony and duchy of Holstein, in
E. Long. 10. 50. N. Lat. 53. yy. It stands at the
conflux of several rivers, the largest of which is the
Trave, 12 miles from the Baltic, where it has a fine
harbour, and 40 north-east of Hamburgh. By the Stec-
kenitz, another of those rivers, it has a communica¬
tion with the Elbe, and consequently with the Ger¬
man ocean. The city lies on the side of a hill, with
the Trave, increased by the Steckenitz on the one side,
and the Wakenitz on the other; and is strongly for¬
tified with bastions, moats, walls, and ramparts; the
last of which are planted with trees, and form an a-
greeable walk. Lubec being formerly the chief of the
Hanse towns, was very powerful in consequence of
the vast trade carried on ; but a great part of that
trade is now transferred to Hamburgh ; however, it is
still said to employ 150 of its own ships, and has a
great share of the Baltic trade. It is about two miles
in length, and more than one in breadth. The houses
are all of stone, but old fashioned. Several of the
streets have on each side rows of lime trees, with canals
in the middle, like those of Holland. The public
structures consist of the ancient cathedral of the bishop¬
ric of Lubec, and several other Lutheran churches 5 a
nunnery for 22 ladies, with an abbess and prioress j a
poor-house, an alms-house, and house of correction;
an orphan-house ; an hospital dedicated to the Holy
Ghost 5 a house in which poor travellers are entertain¬
ed three days, and then sent forward with a passy the
city armoury, a grammar-school of seven classes, the
Calvinist church, and the Popish chapel. The depu¬
ties of the Hanse-towns used to meet here formerly in
the townhouse. An alliance still subsists between Lu¬
bec, Hamburgh, and Bremen j and these cities, under
the name of Hanse Towns, negociate treaties with
foreign powers. Here are divers manufactures, and
the city’s territory is about 60 miles in compass. In the
diet of the empire Lubec is possessed of the third seat
among the Rhenish imperial cities ; and among those of
the circle, has the first. In the matricula, its assess¬
ment is 480 florins, and to the chamber of Wetzlar it
Pays SSI rix-dollars and 88 kruitzers. The city is a
republic within itself, and both makes and executes laws
in regard to civil and criminal matters, &c. A father
and son, or two brothers, cannot be in the regency at
the same time. The famous league of the Hanse-towns
was begun here in 1164. This city had its charter of
privileoes from the emperor Frederic II. Formerly it
carried on wars, both offensive and defensive, for se¬
veral years, not only against the dukes of Mecklen-
burg, but against the kings of Sweden and Denmark ;
particularly in 1428, when it fitted out 250 ships of
force against Eric X. king of Denmark. There are
about 20 churches in Lubec, with lofty steeples or
spires. The Irave brings ships of burden into the very
heart oi the city $ but the largest unload at Trave-
munde, i. e. the mouth ot the Trave, eight or ten miles
distant. Formerly it is said to have employed no less
than 600 ships, but its trade is now greatly reduced.
In the famous cellar here, it is said, there is wine 200
years old. The torvn’s garrison consists of about 700
or 800 men. The revenue of its Lutheran bishop,
though he is a prince ot the empire, is said not to ex¬
ceed 3000I. Lubec fell into the hands of the French
in 1806, when Bonaparte overran the Prussian domi¬
nions ; and many ot the inhabitants were cruelly mas
sacred and plundered j but it has since been restored
to its rank as a free city. The population is 42,000.
LUBEN, a town ot Germany, in the marquisate of
Lower Lusatia. It is situated on the river Spree, and
is the capital of a small circle of the same name. It
is the seat of the diets, and of the chief tribunals
and offices j and has several churches, with a noble
land-house and hospital. E. Long. 14. 25. N. Lat.
52-
LUBIENIETSKT, Stanislaus, a Polish gentle¬
man, descended from a noble family, and born at
Cracow in 1623. was educated by his father with
great attention. He became a celebrated Socinian mi¬
nister ; and took great pains to obtain a toleration
from the German princes for his Socifiian brethren.
His labours, however, Were ineffectual j being himself
persecuted by the Lutheran ministers, and banished
from place to place ; until at length he was banished
out of the World, with his two daughters, by poison,
his wife narrowly escaping, in 1675. We have of his
writing A History of the Reformation in Poland j A
Treatise on Comets j with other works, in Latin.
LUBIN, Eilhard , was professor of poetry in the
university of Rostock in 15955 and ten years afterwards
was promoted to the professorship of divinity. He
wrote notes on Anacreon, Juvenal, Persius, &c. and
several other works ; but that which made the most
noise is a treatise on the nature and origin of evil, en¬
titled Phosphorus dc Causa prima et Niatura Mali,
printed at Rostock in 1596 5 in which”we have a cu¬
rious hypothesis to account for the origin of moral evil.
I i 2 He
laibec
II
laibin.
1. u c
[ 25-2 ]
LUC
jLubm
il
Lucanus.
He supposed two co-eternal principles, not matter and
vacuum, as Epicurus did ; but God, and Nt/nlwn
Nothing. This being published against by Grawer, was
defended by Lubin ; but after all he is deemed better
acquainted with polite literature than with divinity.
He died in 1621. e
LUBLIN, a handsome and considerable town ot
Poland, capital of the palatinate of the same name,
with a citadel, a bishop’s see, an university, and a
handsome Jewish synagogue. Here the judicial courts
for all Poland were held. It has three fairs, frequented
by merchants from all nations. It is seated on the li¬
ver Bystrzna. E. Long. 22. 31. N. Lat. 51. 26. >
LUCA, in Ancient Geography, a town ot Etruria,
on the river Aufer; a colony and a municipium. Now
Lucca, capital of the republic of that name, near the
river Sechia. E. Long. II. 20. N. Lat. 43. 45'
LUCANIA, a country of Italy, and a part of
Magna Graxia; bounded on the north by the river
or poet
of his narration, Tacitus alleges a charge against our Lueanw.
which, if it were true, must lead us to detest 11 v—
him as the most abject of mankind. The historian as¬
serts, that Lucan, when accused of the conspiracy, for
some time denied the charge > but corrupted at last by
a promise of impunity, and desirous to atone for the
tardiness of his confession, accused his mother Atilla
as his accomplice. This circumstance is so improbable
in itself, and so little consonant to the general character
of Lucan, that some writers have treated it with con¬
tempt, as a calumny invented by Nero, to vilify the
object of his envious abhorrence. But the name of
Tacitus has given such an air of authority to the story,
that it may seem to deserve a more serious discussion,
particularly as there are two subsequent events related
by the same historian, which have a tendency to inva¬
lidate the accusation so injurious to our poet. The
events I mean are, the fate of Annaeus, and the escape
of Atilla, the two parents of Lucan. The former died
Silarus bv which it was separated from the Picentini, in consequence of an accusation brought against him,
and by the river Bradanus by which it was parted from after the death of his son, by Fabius liomanus, who
a* -_i• T> —a!! . 4-1-*c'/Mvfli 1 vfr T.oiic •wnir.ll
the A puli Peucetii 5 on the south by the Laiis, which
separated it from the Bruttn j on the east by the Sinus
Tarentinus ; and on the ivest by the Tuscan sea. Lu-
cani, the people, descendants of the Samnites. Luca¬
nus the epithet, (Horace.) Lucance boves denoted ele¬
phants } first seen in Pyrrhus’s wars in Lucania, whence
the appellation (Pliny.)
LUCANUS, Marcus Ann^us, a Latin poet, born
at Corduba in Spain, about A. C. 39. He was the
son of Anmeus Mela, the youngest brother of Seneca ;
and rvas conveyed to Rome from the place of his na¬
tivity at the age of eight months j a circumstance, as
his more indulgent critics observe, which sufficiently
refutes the censure of those who consider his language
as provincial. At Rome he was educated under the
Stoic Cornutus, so warmly celebrated by his disciple
Persius the satirist, who was the intimate friend of our
poet. In the close of his education, Lucan is said to
have passed some time at Athens. On his return to
Rome he rose to the office of quaestor, before he had
attained the legal age. He was afterwards enrolled
among the augurs •, and married a lady of noble birth,
and of a most amiable character. Lucan had for some
time been admitted to familiarity with Nero, when
the emperor chose to contend for poetical honours by
the public recital of a poem he had composed on Niobe j
and some verses of his imperial production are sup¬
posed to be preserved in the first satire ofPei-sius. Lu¬
can had the hardiness to repeat a poem on Orpheus,
in competition with that of Nero •, and, what is more
remarkable, the judges of the contest were just and
bold enough to decide against the emperor. From
hence Nero became the persecutor of his successful ri¬
val, and forbade him to produce any poetry in public.
The w’ell known conspiracy of Piso against the tyrant
soon followed •, and Tacitus, with his usual sarcastic
severity, concludes that Lucan engaged in the enter¬
prise from the poetical injuries he had received : “ a
5 ^ remark (says Mr Hayley *, who has endeavoured to
Nol.stohisrefute the imputation) which does little credit to the
Second E- candour of the historian 5 who might have found a
pistle on much nobler, and, I will add, a more probable motive
Eptc Poe- for }jJs conduct, in the generous ardour of his character,
tr^' and his passionate adoration of freedom. In the sequel
had been an intimate with Lucan, and forged some let¬
ters in his name, with the design of proving his father
concerned in the conspiracy. These letters wrere pro¬
duced to Nero, who sent them to Annaeus, from an
eager desire, says Tacitus, to get possession of his wealth.
From this fact two inferences may be drawn, accord¬
ing to the different lights in which it may be consider¬
ed :—If the accusation against Annaeus was just, it is
clear that Lucan had not betrayed his father, and he ap¬
pears the less likely to have endangered by his con¬
fession the life of a parent, to whom he owed a still ten¬
derer regard :—If Annaeus was not involved in the con¬
spiracy, and merely put to death by Nero for the sake
of his treasure, we may the more readily believe, that
the tyrant who murdered the father from avarice, might
calumniate the son from envy. But the escape of A-
tilla affords us the strongest reason to conclude that
Lucan was perfectly innocent of the abject and unna¬
tural treachery of which Tacitus has supposed him
guilty. Had the poet really named his mother as an
accomplice, would the vindictive and sanguinary Nero
have spared the life of a woman whose family he de¬
tested, particularly when other females were put to death
for their share in the conspiracy ? That Atilla was not
in that number, the historian himself informs us in the
following remarkable sentence, “ Atilla mater Annaei
Lucani, sine absolutione, sine supplicio, dissimulata j”
thus translated by Gordon: “ The information against
Atilla, the mother of Lucan, was dissembled j and,
without being cleared, she escaped unpunished.”
The preceding remarks will, our author hopes, vin¬
dicate to every candid mind the honour of Lucan,
whose firmness and intrepidity of character are indeed
very forcibly displayed in that picture of his death
which Tacitus himself has given us. He was condemned
to have his veins cut, as his uncle Seneca had before
him. Lucan, “ while his blood issued in streams, per¬
ceiving his feet and hands to grow cold and stiffen,
and life to retire by little and little from the extremities,
while his heart was still beating with vital warmth,
and his faculties nowise impaired, recollected some
lines of his own, which described a wounded soldier
expiring in a manner that resembled this. The lines
themselves he rehearsed j and they were the last words
he
LUC [ 25
he ever uttered.” The critics differ concerning the
verses of the Pharsalia which the author quoted in so
memorable a manner. The two passages he is suppos¬
ed to have repeated are the following j of which Lip-
sius contends for the latter.
Sanguis erant lachrymae : qucecunque foramina nova
Humor, ab his largus manat cruor: ora redundant,
Et patulae nares : sudor rubet : omnia plenis
Membra flaunt venis : totum est pro vulnere corpus.
Lib. ix. v. 814,
Now the warm blood at once, from every part
Ran purple poison down, and drain’d the fainting heart.
Blood falls for tears j and o’er his mournful face
The ruddy drops their tainted passage trace.
Where’er the liquid juices find a way,
There streams of blood, their crimson rivers stray,
His mouth and gushing nostrils pour a flood,
And e’en the pores ooze out the trickling blood j
In the red deluge all the parts lie drown’d,
And the whole body seems one bleeding wound. Rowe.
Scinditur avulsus j nec sicut vulnere sanguis
Emicuit lentus •, ruptis cadit undique venis,
Discursusque anitrae, diversa in membra meantis,
Interceptus aquis. Lib. iii. v. 638,
No single wound the gaping rupture seems,
Where trickling crimson wells in slender streams ;
But, from an op’ning horrible and wide,
A thousand vessels pour the bursting tide :
3 ] LUC
At once the winding channel’s course was broke,
Where wand’ring life her mazy journey took j
At once the currents all forgot their way,
And lost their purple in the azure sea. Rowe.
Such was the death of Lucan before he had completed
his 27th year.—His wife, Polla Argentaria, is said to
have transcribed and corrected the three first books of
the Pharsalia after his death. It is much to be re¬
gretted (Mr Hayley observes) that we possess not the
poem which he wrote on the merits of this amiable
and accomplished woman ; hut her name is immorta¬
lized by two surviving poets of that age. The vene¬
ration which she paid to the memory of her husband
is recorded by Martial ; and more poetically described
in that pleasing and elegant little production of Statius,
Genethliacon Lucani, a poem said to have been written
at the request of Argentaria. The author, after in¬
voking the poetical deities to attend the ceremony,
touches with great delicacy and spirit on the compo¬
sitions ot Lucan’s childhood, which are lost, and the
Pharsalia, the production of his early youth : he then
pays a short compliment to the beauty and talents of
Argentaria 5 laments the cruel fate which deprived her
so immaturely of domestic happiness 5 and concludes
with an address to the shade of Lucan, which, with
Mr Hayley’s translation, we shall subjoin in a Note,
as it seems to furnish a strong presumption of Lucan’s
innocence in regard to one of the accusations mention¬
ed above (a). “ Had he been really guilty of basely
endangering
J.ucaras.
(a) At tu, seu rapidum poll per axem
Famse curribus arduis levatus,
Qua surgunt animse potentiores,
Terras despicis et sepulchra rides :
Seu pads meritum nemus reclusse
Felix Elysiis tenes in oris,
Quo Pharsalica turba congregatur j
Et te nobile carmen insonantem
Pompeii comitantur et Catones :
Tu magna sacer et superbus umbra
Nescis Tartaron, et procul nocentum
Audis verbera, pallidumque visa
Matris lampade respicis Neronem.
Adsis lucidus j et vocante Polla
Unam, quaeso, diem deos silentum
Exores ; solet hoc patere limen
Ad nuptas redeuntibus mantis.
Haec te non thiasis proeax dolosis
Falsi numinis induit figuras ;
Ipsum sed colit, et frequentat ipsum
Imis altius insitum medullis ;
Ac solatia vana subministrat
Vultus, qui simili notatus, auro
Stratis prsenitet, excubatque somno
Securse. Procul hinc abite mortes ;
Haec vitae genitalis est origo }
Cedat luctus atrox, genisque manent
Jam dulces lachrymae, dolorque festus
Quicquid fleverat ante nunc adoret.
But you, O ! whether to the skies
On Fame’s triumphant car you rise,
(Where mightier souls new life assume)
And mock the confines of the tomb 5
Or whether in Elysium blest
You grace the groves of sacred rest,
Where the Pharsalian heroes dwell;
And, as you strike your epic shell,
The Pompeys and the Catos throng
To catch the animating song j
Of Tartarus the dread controul
Binds not your high and hallow’d soul:
Distant you hear that wailing coast,
And see the guilty Nero’s ghost
Grow pale with anguish and affright,
His mother flashing on his sight.
Be present to your Polla’s vows,
While to your honour’d name she bows !
One day let your entreaties gain
From those who rule the shadowy train !
Their gates have op’d to bless a wife,
And given a husband back to life.
In you the tender fair invites
No fancied god with frantic rites :
You are the object of her prayers,
You in her inmost heart she bears :
And stampt on mimic gold, your head
Adorns the faithful mourner’s bed,
And soothes her eyes before they close,
The guardian of her chaste repose.
Away with all funereal state !
From hence his nobler life we date :
Let mourning change the pang severe,
To fond devotion’s grateful tear !
And festal grief, its anguish o’er,
What it lamented, now adore !
LUC [25
endangering tlic life of his mother (says Mr Hayley),
it is Lt probable that his tvife «onld have honoured
his memory with such enthusiastic veneration , 01 n
Statius, in verses designed to do him honour would
have alluded to the mother of Nero. If his chaiacter
as a man has been injured by the historian (continues
Mr Hayley), his poetical reputation has been treated
not less^ injuriously by the critics. ^Qmnt.haiL by t
frivolous distinction, disputes Ins title to be .. .
among the poets j and Sealiger says, with a brutality
of language disgraceful only to himself, that he set ms
rather to hark than to sing. But these insults may ap¬
pear amply compensated, when we remember, that m
the most polished nation of modern Europe, the most
elevated and poetic spirits have been his warmest ad¬
mirers ; that in France he was idolized by Corneille
and in England translated by Rowe.—The severest
censures on Lucan have proceeded from those who
have unfairly compared his language to that ot \ ngil •
but how unjust and absurd is such a comparison . It is
comparing an uneven block ot porphyry, taken rough
from the quarry, to the most beautiful superficies o
polished marble. How differently should we think ot
Virgil as a poet, if we possessed only the verses which
he wrote at that period of life when Lucan composed
his Pharsalia ! In the disposition of his subject, in the
propriety and elegance of diction, he is undoubted y
far inferior to Virgil •, but if we attend to the bold
originality of his design, and to the vigour of his sen¬
timents ; if we consider the Pharsalia as the rapid and
uncorrected sketch of a young poet, executed m an age
when the spirit of his countrymen was broken, and
their taste in literature corrupted ; it may justly be
esteemed as one of the most noble and most wonderful
productions of the human mind.—Lucan wrote several
poems; but we have none remaining beside his Phar-
salia, of which an excellent English version has been
given by Mr Nicholas Rowe.
Luc ANUS, the Stag-Beetle, z. genus of insects of the
order of coleoptera. See Entomology Index.
LUCAR DE Barameda (St), a handsome and
considerable town ot Spain, with a very good haiboui,
well defended, in Andalusia. It was once the greatest
port in Spain, before the galleons unloaded their trea¬
sure at Cadiz. It is seated at the mouth of the river
Guadalquiver. W. Long. 6. 5. N. Lat. 36. 40.
Lucar de Guadiana (St), a strong town of Spain,
in Andalusia, on the confines of Algarve j seated on
the river Guadiana,-with a little harbour. W. Long.
5. ^9. N. Lat. 37. 32.
Lucar de Major (St), a small town of Spain, in
Andalusia, with the title of a duchy. It is seated on
the river Guadiana, in Mk Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 37. 21.
LUC ARIA, a feast celebrated at Rome on the
18th of July, in memory of the flight of the Romans
into a great wood, where they found an asylum, and
saved themselves from destruction. This wood, in
which they found protection, was situated between the
Tyber and the Via Solaria. The enemies from whom
the Romans fled were the Gauls.—On this festival,
Plutarch tells us, it was customary to pay the actors,
and such as contributed to the public amusement, with
the money arising from the felling of wood. I his
money was called lucar. It is obvious, from what has
2
+ J LUC
been observed, that lucar and tucaria are derived from
lucus, a grove.
LUCAS Jacobs, an eminent artist, more gene¬
rally known by the name of Lucas vap Leyden, or
Hugense, was born at Leyden in 1494. He received
his first instructions in the art of painting from his fa¬
ther Hugues Jacobs ; but completed his studies in
the school of Cornelius Engelbrecht. He gained
much money by his profession j and being of a gene¬
rous turn of mind, he spent it freely, dressed well, and
lived in a superior style. It is said, that, a few years
before his death, he made a tour into Zealand and
Brabant ; and during his journey, a painter of Flush¬
ing, envious of his great abilities, gave him poison at
an entertainment 5 which, though very slow, was too
fatal in its effect, and put an end to his life, after six
years languishing under its cruel influence. Others,
denying the story of the poison, attribute his death
to his incessant industry. The superiority of this
artist’s genius manifested itself in his infancy : for his
works, even from the age of nine, were so excellent
as to excite the admiration of all cotemporary artists 5
and when he was about 15, he painted a St Hubert,
which gained him great applause. His tone of colour¬
ing (Mr Pilkington observes) is good ; his attitudes
(making a reasonable allowance for the stiff German
taste) are well chosen j his figures have a considerable
expression in their faces, and his pictures are very
highly finished. He endeavoured to proportion the
strength of his colouring to the different degrees of
distance in which his objects were placed : for in that
early time, the true principles of perspective were but
little known, and the practice of it was much less
observed. In the town hall at Leyden, the most ca¬
pital picture of Lucas, the subject of which is the Last
Judgment, is preserved with great care j the magi¬
strates having refused very large sums which have been
offered for it.
This artist painted not only in oil, but also in dis¬
temper and upon glass. Nor was he less eminent for
his engraving than for his painting. He carried on a
familiar and friendly correspondence with Albert L)u-
rer, who was his cotemporary ; and, it is said, that as
regularly as Albert Durer published one print, Lu¬
cas published another, without the least jealousy on
either side, or wish to depreciate each other’s merit.
And when Albert came into Holland upon his travels,
he was received by Lucas in a most cordial and aflec-
tionate manner. His style of engraving, however, ac¬
cording to Mr Strutt, differed considerably from that of
Albert Durer, “ and seems evidently to have been found¬
ed upon the works of Israel van Mechlen. His prints
are very neat and clear, but without any powerful
effect. The strokes are as fine and delicate upon the
objects in the front, as upon those in the distances *,
and this want of variety, joined with the feebleness ot
the masses of shadow, give his engravings, with all
their neatness, an unfinished appearance, much unlike
the firm substantial effects which we find in the works
of Albert Durer. He was attentive to the minutiae
of his art. Every thing is carefully made out in his
prints, and no part of them is neglected. He gave great
character and expression to the heads of his figures j
but on examination of his works, we find the same
heads
LUC t 255 ] LUC
Lucas, heads too often repeated. The hands and feet are
—V—rather mannered than correct; and when he attempted
to draw the naked figure, he succeeded but very indif¬
ferently. He affected to make the folds of his dra¬
peries long and flowing; but his female figures are
frequently so excessively loaded with girdles, bandages,
and other ornamental trappings, that much of the ele¬
gance of the design is lost. He engraved on wood, as
well as on copper ; but his works on the former are by
no means numerous. They are, however, very spirited ;
though not equal, upon the whole, to those of his friend
Albert. The prints of this master are pretty numerous,
hut very seldom met with complete •, especially fine
impressions of them. For though they are, generally
speaking, executed with the graver only, yet, from
the delicacy of the execution, they soon suffered in the
printing. Of his engravings the few following may
be mentioned as among the principal. 1. Mahomet
sleeping, with a priest murdered by his side, and another
figure stealing his sword, a middling-sized upright plate,
dated 1508, said to be one of his most early produc¬
tions. 2. An ecce homo, a large plate, lengthwise,
dated 1510. 3. The crucifixion on Mount Calvary,
the same. 4. The wise jneri's offering, the same,
dated 15x3. 5. Return of the prodigal son, a mid¬
dling-sized plate, lengthwise, dated 1518. 6. A large
print, lengthwise, called the dance of Magdalen, dated
1519. 7. His own portrait, a small upright plate, dated
J525. 8. David playing before Saul, a middling-sized
upright plate, dated —. This is a very fine
print; the expression of Saul’s countenance, in parti¬
cular, is admirable. 9. A print known by the name
of Ulespiegle, which is the scarcest of all the works of
this master. It is in the collection of the king of
France 5 and said by Marolles, and other masters, to
be unique. But Basan informs us, that M. Marietta
had also an impression of this plate $ and it has been
since found in one or two other collections. It repre¬
sents a travelling bagpiper with his family j himself
playing as he goes along, and carrying two children in
a basket at his back; his wife trudging by his side,
supporting with one hand an infant on her shoulder,
and with the other leading an ass loaded with two bas¬
kets, having two children in each 5 and another child
going before, with a little dog, completes the singular
groupe. This rare print is dated 1520, and is known
to have been sold for 16 louis d’ors.—It is nearly 7^
inches high by 4^ broad} and has been tw’ice copied.
One of the copies is the reverse way : but the other is
the same way with the original j and, though not so
well executed, might without a comparison be mistaken
for it.
Lucas, Richard, D. D. a learned English divine,
was born in 1648, and studied at Oxford ^ after which
he entered into holy orders, and was for some time
master of the free school at Abergavenny. Being es¬
teemed an excellent preacher, he became vicar of St
Stephen’s, Coleman street, in London, and lecturer of
St Olave’s in Southwark. He was doctor of divinity;
and in 1696 was installed prebendary of Westminster.
His sight began to fail him in his youth *, and he total¬
ly lost it in his middle age. He was greatly esteemed
for his piety and learning; and published sevex-al works,
particularly, 1. Practical Christianity. 2. An Inquiry
after Happiness. 3. Several sermons. 4. A Latin
translation of the Whole Duty of Man. He died in Lucas
IDS- . li
LUCCA, a small republic of Italy, on the coast of Lucerne,
the Mediterranean, between the territory of Genoa v
on the west, Modena on the north, and Tuscany on
the east. According to Keysler, it is only about 30
miles in circumference, but is exceeding fertile and
populous. It contains, besides the city of Lucca, 150
villages. The number of inhabitants is computed at
120,000. The government is lodged in a gonfalonier,
whose power is much the same with that of the doges
of Venice and Genoa. He is assisted by nine coun¬
sellors : but the power of all the ten continues only for
two months j during which time they live in the state-
palace, and at the public expence. They are chosen
out of the great council, which consists of 240 nobles $
but even this council is changed by a new election
every two years. The revenues of the republic are
about 400,000 scudi or crowns j out of which they
maintain 500 men by way of regular force, and 70
Swiss as a guard to their acting magistrates. The city
of Lucca is situated in a plain, terminating in most de¬
lightful eminences, adorned with villas, summer-houses,
corn-fields, and plantations of every kind j so that no¬
thing either for use or for pleasure is here wanting.
The city, which is about three Italian miles in circum¬
ference, has regular 'well-lined fortifications j and its
streets though irregular, are wide, well paved, and full
of handsome houses. The number of its inhabitants is
computed to be above 40,000 •, and they carry on large
manufactures, especially of silk stufl’s. Lucca has a bi¬
shop, who enjoys several extraordinary privileges 5 and
its cathedral is Gothic. The city stands in E. Long.
11. 27. N. Lat. 43. 52.
LUCENTI, Lucentia, or Lucentum, a town of
the Hither Spain, now Alicant, a sea-port of Valencia.
W. Long. 32. Lat. 38. 37.
LUCE RES, in Roman antiquity, the third in order
of the three tribes into which Romulus divided the peo¬
ple } including all foreigners : so called from the lucus
or grove, where Romulus opened an asylum.
LUCERIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Apu¬
lia in Italy 5 which in Strabo’s time still exhibited marks
of Diomed’s sovereignty in those parts. Ptolemy has
Nuceria ; whether from mistake, or the custom of his
time, uncertain. Now Nocera de Pagam, in the king-'"
dom of Naples E. Long. 15. o. N. Lat. 40. 40.
LUCERIUS, in Mythology, a name given to Jupi¬
ter, as Luceria was given to Juno, as the deities which
gave light to the world.
LUCERNE, one of the 13 cantons of Swisser-
land. It holds the third place among the 13 j and is
the head of the Catholic cantons. Though less than
Zurich, and consequently much less than Berne, it is,
however, far more extensive than any ot the rest, be¬
ing 15 or 16 leagues long, and eight broad. rlhe po¬
pulation is estimated at 100,000. Even the moun¬
tainous part is not barren, but abundant in wood and
pasture, furnishing cattle, hides, cheese, and buttex*,
for expoi'tation. All the north part is fertile in grain,
fruit, and hay ; supplying sufficient for the consump¬
tion of the inhabitants ; but as the mountaineers of
the little cantons come to their market for corn, the
people of Lucerne purchase this commodity from other
parts of Swisserland, but especially from Alsace and
Snabia.
lucerne.
LUC [
Suabia. Tbeir manufactures are very inconsiderable ;
> consisting only in a little silk and cotton thread.-1 he
government is oligarchical. The councils are chosen
from among 500 citizens only. The great council 0
64 members is the nominal sovereign 5 hut intact the
power resides in the senate, or little council of 36,
having for their chiefs the two avoyers.—Ihe whole
.canton professes the Roman Catholic religion. Ihe
pope’s nuncio, with the title ot legate a latere, usually
resides at Lucerne.—They threw olf the Austrian yoke
in 1352, and by entering into a perpetual alliance
with the three ancient cantons, they gave such weight
.to the confederacy, as to enable it in 1386 to resist
all the efforts of the enemy at the bloody battle ot
Sempach. . „
The town of Lucerne is situated at the extremity ol
a most beautiful lake of the same name, where the
river Reuss issues from it. The buildings are ancient,
and the streets narrow •, nor is Lucerne populous in
proportion to its extent, the inhabitants being only
between 3000 and 4000. Since this is the great pas¬
sage to Italy by Mount St Gothard, and the merchan¬
dise which passes the Alps on mules, and is to be trans¬
ported by the rivers Reuss, Aar, and Rhine, is all^
deposited here, it might have a flourishing tiade it
arts and manufactures were attended to. Ihe Reuss
separates the town into two unequal parts, which are
connected by three bridges: one wide for carriages j
and two narrow covered ones tor foot passengers : be¬
sides these, there is a fourth over an arm of the lake,
to pass to the cathedral. Three of these bridges have
old bad paintings of the Dance of Death, and the Hi¬
story of the Bible, and of Swisserland. They make
a commodious dry walk for the inhabitants.—Ot re¬
ligious edifices, the principal are the cathedral, or col¬
legiate church of St Leger j the convent of Corde¬
liers ; the college of the Jesuits *, the convent of Capu¬
chins ; and two convents of nuns. Of the secular
buildings, the hotel de ville is the principal. The
arsenal is well furnished. The water tower is remark¬
able only for its position and antiquity; it is said to
have been a pharos or lighthouse. What greatly at¬
tracts the notice of most strangers is, a plan in relief
of part of the cantons of Lucerne, Zug, and Berne,
and the whole of Schweitz, Uri, and Underwald, exe¬
cuted by General Pfiffer on a large scale. He has
completed about 60 square leagues the plan is 12
feet long, and nine and a half broad: every mountain
is accurately measured; and every object distinctly
placed.
The lake of Lucerne exhibits greater variety and
more picturesque scenery than any other of the Swiss
lakes. It is seven leagues long in a right line, and
three wide about Kussnacht j but the shape is very ir¬
regular. The whole south side is bordered by high
mountains; but the north exhibits hills of no great
height. The narrow gulf that extends towards the
west, is bordered on the west and north-west by Mount
Pilat, which is a single mountain rising boldly more
than 6000 feet above the lake ; and on the south by
Mount Burgenberg. Stanz Stadt, belonging to the
canton of Underwald, is on this side j and at this place
the lake is deepest. Kussnacht is on the point of the
other gulf, which extends towards the east, and is
wider than the former. All the country to the west
I
25-6 ] LUC
of these gulfs, and part of it to the north of the latter, Lucc.ne
belongs to the canton of Lucerne j but that which is Lucia,
to the south and north-east is dependent on the canton y--
of Zug. All the mountains on the left shore of the
lake belong to the canton of Underwald j those on the
right, partly to the canton of Uri, partly to that ot
Schweitz, partly to the little republic of Gersaw, but
principally to the canton ot Lucerne.
Lucerne, in Botany. See Medicago, Botany
Index.—For the culture of this plant, see Agricul¬
ture Index.
LUCIA, St, one of the Caribbee islands in the
West Indies, about 22 miles long, and 11 broad, the
middle of it lying in N. Lat 39. 14. W. Long. 27. O.
It was first settled by the French in 1650 j but wTas
reduced by the English in 1664, who evacuated it in
1666. The French immediately resettled the island,
but were again driven away by the Caribbs. As soon
as the savages were gone, the former inhabitants re¬
turned, but only for a short time j for being afraid oi
falling a prey to the first privateer that should visit
their coasts, they removed either to other French set¬
tlements that were stronger, or which they might ex¬
pect to be better defended. There was then no re¬
gular culture or colony at St Lucia j it was only fre¬
quented by the inhabitants of Maitinico, who came
thither to cut wood, and to build canoes, and who
had considerable docks on the island. In 1718 it
was again settled by the French ; but four years af¬
ter, it was given by the court of London to the duke
of Montague, who was sent to take possession of it.
This occasioned some disturbance between the two
courts 5 which was settled, however, by an agreement
made in 1731, that, till the respective claims should
be finally adjusted, the island should be evacuated by
both nations, but that both should wood and water
there. This precarious agreement furnished an op¬
portunity for private interest to exert itself. J he
English no longer molested the French in their habi¬
tations j but employed them as their assistants in car¬
rying on with richer colonies a smuggling trade, which
the subjects of both governments thought equally ad¬
vantageous to them. This trade has been more or
less considerable till the treaty of 17631 when the
property of St Lucia was secured to the crown ot
France. After that time the colony flourished consi¬
derably. In the beginning of the year I772>
number of white people amounted to 2018 souls, men,
women, and children 5 that of the blacks to 663 free
men, and 1 2,795 slaves. The cattle consisted of 928
mules or horses, 2070 head of horned cattle, and 3l$4
sheep or goats. There were 38 sugar plantations,
which occupied 978 pieces of land ; 5,595,889 coflee-
trees', 1,321,600 cocoa plants’, and 367 plots ot cotton.
There were 706 dwelling places. The annual revenue
at that time was about 175,000!. which, according to
the Abbe Raynal, must have increased one-eighth
yearly for some time. It was taken by the British in
1778-, restored to France in 1783. It fell again into
the hands of the British in 1794, was evacuated in
1795, and w’as again retaken in 1796.
The soil of St Lucia is tolerably good, even at the
sea side ; and is much better the farther one advances
into the country. The whole of it is capable of culti¬
vation, except some high and
craggy mountains which
bear
LUC [2
Lucia bear evident marks of old volcanoes. In one deep
|| valley there are still eight or ten ponds, the water of
ummsts; which boils up in a dreadful manner, and retains some
of its heat at the distance of 6000 toises from its re¬
servoirs. The air in the inland parts, like that of all
other uninhabited countries, is foul and unwholesome j
but grows less noxious as the woods are cleared and
the ground laid open. On some parts of the sea
coast, the air is still more unhealthy, on account of
some small rivers which spring from the foot of th'e
mountains, and have not sufficient slope to wash down
the sands with which the influx of the ocean stops
up their mouths, by which means they spread them¬
selves into unwholesome marshes on the neighbouring
grounds. St Lucia was restored to France in 1815.
Lucia, St, a high and mountainous island of Africa,
and one of those of C ape \erde, is about nine leagues
long, and lies in the latitude of 160 l8' N. according
to the English geographers; but according to all
others, it is a degree farther to the northward. On the
east-south-east side is a harbour, with a bottom and
shore of white sand j but its best road is opposite to St
Vincent’s to the south-west, where there are at least
20 fathoms of water. On the west side there is no
water: it abounds with goats, sea and land fowl, tor¬
toises, &c. but whether it hath any inhabitants is not
certainly known.
LUCIAN, a celebrated Greek author in the first
century, was born at Samosata, of obscure parents, in
the reign of the emperor Trajan. He studied law, and
practised some time as an advocate but growing iveary
of the wrangling oratory of the bar, he commenced
rhetorician. He lived to the time of Marcus Aure¬
lius, who made him register of Alexandria in Egypt;
and, according to Suidas, he was at last worried by
dogs. Lucian was one of the finest wits in all anti¬
quity. His Dialogues, and other works, are written
in Greek. In these he has joined the useful to the
agreeable, instruction to satire, and erudition to ele¬
gance j and we everywhere meet with that fine and
delicate raillery which characterizes the Attic taste. 
Ihose who censure him as an impious scofl’er at reli¬
gion, have reason on their side, if religion consisted in
the theology of the Pagan poets, or in the extravagant
opinions of philosophers j for he perpetually throws
such ridicule on the gods and philosophers, with their
vices, as inspires hatred and contempt for them ; but
it cannot he said that he writes anywhere against an
overruling providence.
LUCIANISTS, or Lucanists, a religious sect,
so called from Lucianus, or Luc anus, a heretic of the
second century, being a disciple of Marcion, whose
errors he followed, adding some new ones to them. Epi-
phanius says he abandoned Marcion $ teaching that
people ought not to marry, for fear of enriching the
Creator: and yet other authors mention that he held
this error in common with Marcion and other Gno¬
stics. He denied the immortality of the soul j assert¬
ing it to be material.
-There was another sect of Lucianists, who appear¬
ed some time after the Arians. They taught, that the
I ather had been a father always, and that he had the
name even before he begot the Son 5 as having in him
the power or faculty of generation ; and in this manner
they accounted for the eternity of the Son.
Vot.. XII. Pari I.
57 ] LUC
LUCID intep.vals, the fits of lunatics or maniacs, Lucid
during which the phrenzy leaves them in possession of Intervals
their reason. ||
LUCIFER, according to the poets, was the son,^llc^ct*us-
of Jupiter and Aurora. In astronomy, Lucifer is the
bright planet Venus, which either goes before the sun
in the morning, for 290 days, and is our morning
star 5 or in the evening follows the sun, during the
same time, and then is called Hesperus or the evening
star.
LUCIEERA, in Mythology, a surname given to
Diana, under which title she was invoked by the
Greeks in childbed. She was represented as covered
with a large veil, interspersed with stars, hearing a
crescent on her head, and holding in her hand a light- '
cd flambeau.
LUCIIERIANS, a religious sect, who adhered
to tlie schism of Lucifer, bishop of Cagliari, in the
fourth century, who wTas banished by the emperor
Constantins, for having defended the Nicene doctrine
concerning the three Persons in the Godhead.—St Au¬
gustine seems to intimate, that they believed the soul,
which they considered as of a carnal nature, to be
transmitted to the children from their fathers. Theo-
doret says, that Lucifer wras the author of a new error.
The Luciferians increased mightily in Gaul, Spain,
Egypt* The occasion of the schism was, that Lu¬
cifer would not allow any acts he had done to be abo¬
lished. There were but two Luciferian bishops, but a
great number of priests and deacons. The Luciferians
bore a peculiar aversion to the Arians.
LUCILIUS, Caius, a Roman knight, and a La¬
tin poet, wras born at Suessa in Italy, about 140 B. C.
he served under Scipio Africanus in the war with the
Numantines; and was in great favour with that cele¬
brated general, and with Lcelius. He wrote 30 books
of satires, in which he lashed several persons of quality
very sharply. Some learned men ascribe the invention
of satire to him 5 but M. Dacier has maintained, with
great probability, that Lucilius only gave a better
turn to that kind of poetry, and wrote it with more
w it and humour than his predecessors Ennius and Pa-
cuvius had done. His fragments have been carefully
collected by Francis Douza at Leyden in 1599, with
notes. But they require still to be better illustrated
by some learned critic.
LUGINA, a goddess among the Romans, who
presided over women in labour. Some take her to be
Diana, others Juno. She was called Lucina, because
she brought children to the light j from the Latin word
lux, “ light.”
LUCIUS, the specific name of the pike. Sec
Esox, Ichthyology Index.
LUCONIA. See Manilla.
LUCRETIA, the famous Roman matron, wife of
Collatinus, and the cause of the revolution in Rome
from a monarchy to a republic: this lady being ravish¬
ed by Sextus, the eldest son of Tarquin king of Rome,
stabbed herself, 509 B. C. See the article Chastity.
The bloody poniard, with hep dead body exposed to
the senate, was the signal of Roman liberty j the ex¬
pulsion of the Tarquins, and abolition of the regal dig¬
nity, was instantly resolved on, and carried into exe¬
cution. See Rome.
LUCRETIUS, or Titus Luchetius, Caius, one
t Kk of
jAieretius
II
Lucus
LUC [
of the most celebrated of the Latin poets, was born of
an ancient and noble Roman lamily, ant s u 1 ^
Athens, where he became one of Epicurus sc .
acquired great reputation by his learning and elo
quince ; but in the flower of bis age (ell into a frenzy,
occasioned by a philtre given him by his wife, who
was distractedly fond of him. Lucretius, dun g
intervals of his madness, put Epicurus s doctrines into
verse, and composed his six books Dc
which are still extant. It is said that he killed him¬
self in a fit of madness, in the 54th year before the
Christian era, when 51 years old. rIhe most correct
edition of Lucretius is that of Simon de Colme. 1 he
cardinal de Polignachas refuted Lucretius s arguments,
in his excellent Latin poem entitled Anti-Uicrctws.
Jlis poem Be Rermn Natura has been translated into
English by Mr Creech. 7 , ,
LUCRINUS lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Campania, between Raise and Puteoh, famous tor
its oysters (Horace, Martial, Juvenal) ;
(Cicero), the people dwelling on it. TVow a periect
bay since the earthquake in 153^*
LUCULLUS, Lucius Licinius, a Roman gene¬
ral celebrated for his eloquence, his victories, and his
riches. In his youth he made a figure at the bar \ and
being afterwards made quaestor in Asia, and praetor m
Africa, governed those provinces with great modera¬
tion and justice. Scarce was he known as a military
man, when he twice beat the fleet ot Hamilcar, and
gained two great victories over him. His happy ge¬
nius wras greatly improved by study j for he employed
his leisure in reading the best authors on military af¬
fairs. Being made consul with Aurelius Cotta, dur¬
ing the third war with Mithridates king of Pontus,
he was sent against this prince : and this expedition
was attended with a series of victories, which did him
less honour than an act of generosity towards his col¬
league ; who, willing to take advantage of his absence
to signalize himself by some great exploit, hastened to
light Mithridates *, but was defeated and shut up in
Chalcedonia4 where he must have perished, if Lucullus,
sacrificing his resentment to the pleasure o( saving a
Roman citizen, had not flown to his assistance, and
disengaged him. All Pontus then submitted to Lu-
cullur5 who being continued in his government of
Asia, entered the territories of Tigranes, the most
powerful king in Asia. That prince marched with a
formidable army against Lucullus: who defeated him
with a handful of men, and killed great numbers of
his forces ", took Tigranocertes, the capital of his king¬
dom •, and was ready to put an end to the war, when
the intrigues of a tribune got him deposed, and Pompey
nominated in his room. Lucullus having brought home
prodigious riches, now gave himself up to excessive lux¬
ury j and his table was served with a profusion till
that time unknown. He b ought from the East a great
number of hooks, which he formed into a library,
and gave admittance to all men of learning, who fre¬
quented it in great numbers. Toward the end ot his
life, he fell into a kind of madness: and Lucullus, his
brother, was appointed his guardian. He is said to
have been the first who brought cherries into Europe,
having brought the grafts from the kingdom of Pon¬
tus.
LUCUS, in general, denotes a wood or grove sa-
Lucus
II .
Ludi.
2 ^3 J L U D
' cred to a deity; so called « lucendo, because a great
number of lights were usually burning in honour ot
the god (Isidorus) y a practice common with idolaters, ,  
as we learn from Scripture; hence Homer s
^LUD, a British king mentioned in our old chro¬
nicles, and said to have reigned about the year of the
Avorld 3878. He is reported to have enlarged and wall¬
ed about Troynovant, or NeW Troy, where he kept his
court, and made it his capital. I he name of London
is hence derived from Lud's town; and Ludgate from
his being buried near it: but this is only one among
many other derivations of the name ot London j which
are at least equally probable. See London. _ .
LUDAMAR, a Moorish kingdom in the interior
part of Africa, the capital of which is situated m N.
Lat. 1 C. o. W. Long. 60. 50. which Mr Park consi¬
ders as little superior to a desert. 1 he Moors of Lu-
damar subsist chiefly on the flesh of their cattle.
The barrenness of the country is such, that it bur¬
nishes few materials for manufacture : but the inhabi¬
tants contrive to weave a strong cloth, with which their
tents are covered; the thread is spun by the women
from goats hair, and with the hides of their cattle they
furnish saddles, bridles, pouches, and other articles of
leather. They can also convert the native iron pro¬
cured from the negroes into spears, knives, and pots for
boiling their food ; but they purchase their fire-arms ■
and other weapons of a similar nature from the Euro¬
peans, in exchange for slaves.
Their ideas of female perfection are truly singular,
since a woman, to have the smallest pretensions to
beauty, must be one who requires a slave under each
arm to support her as she walks ; and a perfect beauty,
according to Air Park, is a load for a camel. _ ,
The wealth of the Aloors chiefly consists in the.r
numerous herds of cattle, yet the majority of the people
spend their days in a state of idleness. The tent of the
king is the common place of rendezvous for the indo-
lent, where they appear to enjoy an unlimited liberty,
of speech ; yet in the praise of their sovereign they are
Avholly unanimous, singing songs to his honour, which
never fail to be filled with the grossest adulation, the
king sometimes eats out of the same bason with the
driver of his camels, and during the heat of the day re¬
poses himself upon the same bed.
Cavalry constitute the chief military strength of Lu*
damar, which are well mounted, and are very expert
in attacking by surprise. The horse ot every soldier is
furnished by himself, as also his military implements,
consisting of a large sabre, a double-barrelled gun, a
red leather bag for holding his balls, and a powder-horn
slung over his shoulder. He has no pay, and his only
compensation arises from plunder.
They have no intercourse with civilized nations, yet
they hoast an advantage over the negroes, as they pos¬
sess, though in a very limited degree, the knowledge
of letters. They are esteemed the vainest, proudest,,
and most bigotted, ferocious, and intolerant of all the
nations of the earth, blending in their character the
blind superstition of the negro with the savage cruelty
and treachery of the Arab. It was with the utmost
difficulty that Air Park made his escape from this cruel
and inhospitable people.
LUDI, a term used for shows and public represen¬
tations
L U D [ 259 ] L U D
j^udi tations made by the Homans for the entertainment of
|| the people. See Games.
jiidlow. For an account of the particular games of Greece
”’*v’ and Home, as the Isthmian, Nemcean, Olympic, &c.
See Isthmian, &c.
LUDIUS, a celebrated painter, lived in the reign
of Augustus Caesar, and excelled in grand compositions.
He was the first who painted the fronts of houses in
the streets of Rome} which he beautified with great
variety of landscapes, and many other different sub¬
jects.
LUDLOW, "Edmund, sou of Sir Henry Ludlow,
was born at Maidenhead, and educated in Trinity
college, Oxford. His father opposing the king’s in¬
terest, Mr Ludlow joined with the same party, and
was present at the battle of Edgehill as a volunteer un¬
der the earl of Essex. Upon the death of his father,
he was chosen knight of the shire for Wilts, and ob¬
tained the command of a regiment of horse for the de¬
fence of that country. He was one of King Charles I.’s
judges: after whose death he was sent by the parlia¬
ment into Ireland, in quality of lieutenant-general of
the horse 5 which employment he discharged with di¬
ligence and success till the death of the lord-deputy
Ireton, when he acted for some time as general, though
without that title j Cromwell, who knew him to be
sincerely in the interest of the commonwealth, always
finding out some pretext to hinder the conferring of
that character upon him. The last stroke had been
given by Ludlow to the Irish rehellion, if the usurpa¬
tion of Cromwell had not prevented it. Under his
power he never acted; and though Cromwell used his
utmost efforts, he remained inflexible. After Crom¬
well’s death, he endeavoured to restore the common¬
wealth : but Charles II. being recalled, he thought
proper to conceal himself, and escaped into Switzer¬
land, where he settled. After the Revolution, he came
over into England, in order to be employed in Ire¬
land against King James: but'appearing publicly in
London, it gave great offence ; and an address was
presented by Sir Edward Seymour to King William III.
for a proclamation in order to apprehend Colonel Lud¬
low, attainted for the murder of King Charles I. Up¬
on this he returned to Switzerland, where he died.
During his retirement in Switzerland he wrote his
Memoirs.
Ludlow, a town of Shropshire in England, situa¬
ted at the conflux: of the Teme and Corve, 18 miles
from Shrewsbury, and 138 from London. The presi¬
dent of the council of the marches, established by
Henry ^ III. generally kept his courts in it, by which
the town was much benefited, these courts not having
been abolished till the 1st of William and Mary. Its
neighbourhood to Wales makes it a great thorough¬
fare, and engages many of the Welsh to send their
children of both sexes to it for education. It was in¬
corporated by Edward IV. and among other privi¬
leges has that of trying and executing criminals within
itself. It is one of the neatest towns in England,
with walls and seven gates. It is divided into four
wards j and is governed by 2 bailiffs, 12 aldermen, 25
common-council men, a recorder, a town-clerk, steward,
chamberlain, coroner, &c. From the castle on the top
of the hill on which the town stands is a most delight¬
ful prospect. In an apartment of the outer gatehouse
Samuel Butler is said to have written the first part of jiUcn0\v
Hudibras. Of this castle, which was besieged and ta- Ludolph.
ken by King Stephen, some of the offices are fallen ' 
down, and great part of it turned into a bowling-green;
but part of the royal apartments and the sword of
state are still left. The walls were at first a mile in
compass, and there was a lawn before it for near two
miles, of which much is now enclosed. The battle¬
ments are very high and thick, and adorned with
towers. It has a neat chapel, where are the coats of
arms of abundance of Welsh gentry, and over the
stable-doors are the arms of Queen Elizabeth, the earls
of Pembroke, &c. This castle was a palace of the
prince of Wales, in right of his principality. The
river Teme has a good bridge over it, several wears
across it, and turns a great many mills. Here is a
large parochial church, which wras formerly collegiate ;
in the choir whereof is an inscription relating to Prince
Arthur, elder brother to King Henry ^ III. who died
here, and whose bowels were here deposited, though
it is said his heart was taken up some time ago in a
leaden box. In this choir is a closet, commonly call¬
ed God's House, where the priests used to keep their
consecrated utensils ; and in the market-place is a con¬
duit, with a long stone cross on it, and a niche wherein
is the image of St Laurence, to whom the church was
dedicated. On the north side of the town there was a
rich priory, whereof there are few ruins to be seen ex¬
cept those of its church. Here are an alms-house for
30 poor people, and two charity-schools where 50 boys
and 30 girls are both taught and clothed. It has a
market on Monday, and three lesser ones on Wednes¬
day, Friday, and Saturday. Ls fairs are on the Tues¬
day Easter, Whit-Wednesday, August 21. Sept. 28.
and Dec. 8. Provisions are very cheap here ; and at
the annual horse races there is the best of company".
The country round is exceedingly pleasant, fruitful, and
populous, especially that part called the Corvesdale.
Ludlow sends two members to parliament, and contain ¬
ed 4150 inhabitants in 1811.
LUDOLPH, Job, a very learned writer of the iyth
century, was born at Erfurt in Thuringia. He tra¬
velled much, and was master of 26 languages, visited
libraries, searched after natural curiosities and anti¬
quities everywhere, and conversed with learned men of
all nations. He published a History of Ethiopia, and
other curious books.
LudolTH, Henry William, nephew of Job above
mentioned, was born at Erfurt in 1655. He came
over to England as secretary to M. Lenthe, envoy" from
the court of Copenhagen to that of London ; and be¬
ing recommended to Prince George of Denmark, was
received as his secretary. He enjoyed this office for
some years, until he was incapacitated by a violent dis¬
order ; when he was discharged with a handsome pen¬
sion : after he recovered, he travelled into Muscovy,
where he was w"ell received by the czar, and where
his knowledge made the Muscovite priests suppose him
to be a conjurer. On his return to London in 1694,
he was cut for the stone ; and as soon as his health
would permit, in acknowledgement of the civilities he
had received in Muscovy, he wrote a grammar of their
language, that the natives might learn their own tongue
in a regular method. He then travelled into the East,
to inform himself of the state of the Christian church
K k 2 in
L,ud o’ p'u m
LUO t 26
m the Levant ; the deplorable condition of tvllich in-
clueed him, after his return, with the aid of the bishop
of Worcester, to print an edition of the New lesta-
ment in the vulgar Greek, to present to the Greek
church. In 1709, when such numbers of ialatines
came over to England, Mr Ludolph was appointed iy
Queen Anne one of the commissioners to manage the
charities raised for them; and he died early the fol¬
lowing year. His collected works were published in
1712.
LUDWIGIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
tetrandria class, and in the natural method ranking
under the 17th order, Ccihjcanthemcr. See Botany
^ LUES, among physicians, is in general used for a
disease of any kind •, but in a more particular sense is
restrained to contagious and pestilential diseases } thus
the lues Ga/lica, or venerea, signifies the venereal dis¬
ease. See Medicine Index.
LUFF, the order from the pilot to the steersman
to put the helm towards the Ac-side of the ship, in or¬
der to make the ship sail nearer the direction of the
wind. Hence, luff round, or luff a-lce, is the excess
of this movement, by which it is intended to throw the
chip’s bead up in the wind, in order to tack her, &.c.
A ship is accordingly said to spring her luff when she
yields to the effort of the helm, by sailing nearer to
The line of the wind than she had done before. See al¬
so HauusCx the Wind.
LuFF-Tackle, a name given by sailors to any large
tackle that is not destined for a particular place, hut
,Uay be variously employed as occasion requires. It
is generally somewhat larger than the jigger tackle,
although smaller than those which serve to hoist the
heavier materials into and out of the vessel, which lat¬
ter are the main and fore tackles, the stay and quarter
tackles, &c.
LUG-SAIL, a square sail, hoisted occasionally on the
mast of a boat or small vessel upon a yard which hangs
nearly at right angles with the mast. These arc more
particularly used in the barca longas, navigated by the
Spaniards in the Mediterranean.
LUGDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, the capital
of the Segusiani in Gallia Ccltica, situated at the con-
ilux of the Arar and Rhodanus, on an eminence, as the
Celtic term dune signifies 5 built by Manutius Plancus
under Augustus, while commanding in that part of
Gaul •, and whither he led a colony. Now Lyons, ca¬
pital of the Lyonnois.
LuGDUNVk Bavatoram, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Batavi in Gallia Belgica. Now Leyden in
Holland.
Lugdunum Converarutn, in Ancient Geography, a
town of Gaul in Aquitain, at the foot of the Pyrenees.
Now S. Bertrand, in Gascony.
LUGEUS lacus, in Ancient Geography, a lake
of Japydia, the westmost district of Illyricum, to the
south of the Save, and near the head of the Arsia.
Now commonly called the Zirichnitz, Lake, from a
small adjoining town, it is locked on every side with
mountains ; from which scanty currents run down ; the
less in quantity their waters, because drank up by the
earth; till at length they are swallowed up in rocky
furrows, so formed as tc resemble artificial. In these
o ] L U L
the water being so redundant as to refuse receiving any
more, they regurgitate, and return the water with ex¬
traordinary celerity, which thus spreading itself, forms
a lake, in "most places 18 cubits deep. These waters _
afterwards retire with no less celerity than they came
on, not only through the furrows, but pass through
the whole of the bottom, as through a sieve ; which
when perceived by the inhabitants, they directly stop
up the larger apertures, and thus take large quantities
of fish : when the lake is dry, they cut down their liar-
vest on the spot where they sowed, and sow again be¬
fore the inundation comes on : ami grass shoots so quick
on it, that it may be cut down in three weeks time,
(Lazius, YY ember us.)
LUGGERSH ALL, a borough of Wiltshire, 12
miles north of Salisbury, and 75 north by west of Lon¬
don. It is an ancient borough by prescription, though
hut a small hamlet, near the forest of Chute, in a de¬
lightful country ; and was the residence of several
kings. It had formerly a castle. It is governed by a
bailiff chosen yearly at the lord of the manor’s court-
leet. On the neighbouring downs there used to be
horse-races. Population in > 811, 487.
LUKE, St, the evangelist, and the disciple of the
apostles, was originally of Antioch in Syria, and by
profession a physician. He particularly attached him¬
self to St Paul, and was his faithful companion in his
travels and labours. He went with him to Troas in
Macedonia about the year 51. He wrote his gospel
in Achaia about the year 53 ; and, ten years after,
the acts of the Apostles, which contains a history of
30 years. Of all the inspired writers of the New Tes¬
tament, his works are written in the most elegant
Greek. It is believed that St Luke died at Rome, or
iu Achaia.
Gospel of St Luke, a canonical hook of the New
Testament. Some think that it was properly St
Paul’s Gospel ; and that, when the apostle speaks of
his Gospel, he means what is called St Luke's. Ire-
meus says, that St Luke digested into writing what St
Paul preached to the Gentiles; and Gregory Nazian-
zen tells us, that St Luke wrote with the assistance of
St Paul.
St Luke the Evangelist's Day, a festival in the
Christian church, observed on the 18th of October.
LULA, a town of Swedish Lapland*, seated at the
mouth of the river Lula, on the west side of the gulf
of Bothnia, 42 miles south-west of Tornea. E. Long.
21. O. N. Lat. 64. 30.
Lula Lapmark, a province of Swedish Lapland 5
hounded by that of Tornea on the north, by the Beth¬
nic gulf on the east, by Pithia Lapmark on the south,
and Norway on the west.
LULLF, John Baptist, the most celebrated and
most excellent musician that has appeared in France
since the revival of learning, was born at Florence. He
was taken to France when very young by a person of
quality } and he carried the art of playing on the vio¬
lin to the highest perfection. Louis XIV. made him
superintendant of music. Some time after Perinna
having introduced operas into France, and quarrelling
with his company, he resigned his privilege to Lulli.
Operas were then carried to the utmost perfection by
this celebrated musician, and were attended with conti-
mini
Lacus
11
Lulli.
L U N [ 261 J L U K
JT-ulU
Luna.
nual applause. Lulli every year, after this time, gave
a piece of bis own composition, till bis death, which
happened in 1687.
LULLY, Raymond, a writer on alchemy, sur-
named the Enlightened Doctor, was horn in the island
of Majorca in 1225. He applied himself with indefa¬
tigable labour to the study of the Arabian philosophy,
to chemistry, physic, and divinity j and acquired great
reputation by his works. He at length went to preach
the gospel in Africa *, and was stoned to death in Mau¬
ritania, at the age of 80. He is honoured as u martyr
at Majorca, whither his body was carried. He wrote
many treatises on all the sciences, in which he shows
much study and subtility, but little judgment or soli¬
dity. A complete edition of his works has been printed
at Mentz.—He ought not to be confounded with Ray¬
mond Lully of Terraca, surnamed Neophyla, who from
being a Jew turned Dominican friar. This last Lully
maintained several opinions that were condemned by
Pope Gregory XL
LUMBAGO, a fixed pain in the small of the back.
See Medicine Index.
LUMBARIS, a name given to the arteries and
veins which spread over the loins.
LUMBRICAL, a name given to four muscles of
the fingers and to as many of the toes.
LUMBRICUS, the Worm, a genus of animals be¬
longing to the order of vermes intestina. Sec Helmin¬
thology Index.
LUMELLO, a village in Italy, which gives name
to the Lumellin, a small district in the duchy of Mi¬
lan, lying along the river Po, and of which Mortar!a
and Valencia are the principal places. It was ceded
to the duke of Savoy in 1707, and confirmed by the
treaty of Utrecht in 1713. E. Long. 8. 42. N. Lat.
45- 5-
LUMINOUS, an epithet applied to any thing that
shines or emits light.
Luminous Emanations have been observed from
human bodies, as also from those of brutes. The light
arising from currying a horse, ox- from rubbing a cat’s
buck, are known to most. Instances of a like kind
have been known on combing a woman’s head. Bar¬
tholin gives us an account, which he entitles nmliir
splendcns, of a lady in Italy whose body would shine
whenever slightly touched with a piece of linen. These
effluvia of animal bodies have many properties in com¬
mon with those produced from glass j such as their
being lucid, their snapping, and their not being ex¬
cited without some degree of friction j and are un¬
doubtedly electrical, as a cat’s back has been found
strongly electrical when streaked. See Electricity
and Light.
LUMINOUSNESS of the Sea. See Light
and Sea.
I umino usness of Putrescent Substances. See Li G ht.
LUMP-fish. See Cyclopterus, Ichthyology
Index.
LUNA, in Ancient Geography, a forest of Germany,
at no great distance from the Hercynian j below which
were the Boemi: it was therefore in Moravia, near the
springs of the Marus, now March, which runs into the
Danube over against Carnutum.
Luna, or Lunna, a town of Gallia Celtica., Now
Clugny in Burgundy.
Luna, a town and port of Liguria, at the mouth
ot the Macra. The town was but small, hut the port jj
large and beautiful, according to Strabo. Now extinct, Lunatic,
and its ruins called Luna Distrutta. It was famous for w*^v—~
its quarries of white marble, thence called Lunense;
and for its cheese, remarkable rather for its size than
goodness, each being a thousand weight.
Luna, in Astronomy, the moon. See Astronomy,
passim.
Luna, in the jargon of the alchemists, signifies
silver} so called from the supposed influence of the moon
thereupon.
Luna Cornea, in Chemistry, is a compound of muri¬
atic acid with silver. See Silver, muriate of,
Chemistry Index.
LUNACY, a species of madness. See Lunatic,
and Medicine Index.
Lunacy, in Law. See Idiocy and Lunatic.
LUNiE MONS, in Ancient Geography, a promontory
of Lusitania. Now Hock of Lisbon. W. Long. 10,
N. Lat. 38. 50.—Another Luna' Mans of Ethiopia,,
from which the Nile was supposed to take its rise.
Lunjf. Port us, a very extensive port, or more truly
a bay, of Liguria, between Portus Veneris and Portus
Ericis, 20 miles in compass. Now// Golfo della Spczia,
on the east coast of the territory of Genoa.
LUNAR, something relating to the Moon.
Lunar Month. See Month.
Lunar Year, consists of 354 days, or 12 synodical
months. See Year.
Lunar Dial. See Dialling.
LUNARE qs, in Anatomy, is the second bone in
the first row of the carpus. It hasnts name from the
Latin, luna, u the moon,” because one of its sides is in
form of a crescent.
LUNARIA, Satin-flower, or Moonwort; a genus
of plants belonging to the tetradynamia class j and in
the natural method ranking under the 39th order,
Siliquosce. See Botany Index.
LUNAR1UM, in Ancient Geography, a promon-
tory of the Hither Spain, between Blanda and Biutulo.
Commonly called el Cabo de Palafugel, in Catalonia,,
on the Mediterranean ■, or Cabo de Tasa, on the same
coast, and in Catalonia, 15 miles from the former, to
the west.
LUNATIC, a person affected with that species off
madness termed lunacy. The word is indeed properly
applied to one that hath lucid intervals j sometimes
enjoying his senses, and sometimes not j and that
frequently supposed to depend on the influence of the
moon.
Lunatic, in Law. Under the general term of non
compos mentis (which Sir Edward Coke says is the most
legal name), are comprised not only lunatics, hut'
persons under frenzies, or who lose their intellects by
disease ; those that grow deaf, dumb, and blind, not
being born so , or such, in short, as are judged by
the court of chancery incapable of conducting their
own affairs. To these also, as well as idiots, the king
is guardian, but to a very different purpose. For the
law always imagines, that these accidental misfortunes
may be removed j and therefore only constitutes the
crown a trustee for the unfortunate persons, to protect
their property, and to account to them for all profits
received, if they recover, or after their decease to their
representatives .
L U N [ 262 ] L
Lunatic representatives. And therefore it is declared by the their season of breed,_ng.
II statute 17 Edw. II. c. to. that the king shall provide
Lundy. for t]ie custody and .sustentation ot lunatics, and preserve
1 v ' their lands, and the profits of them, for their use when
they come to their right mind ", and the king shall take
nothing to his own use : and if the parties die m such
estate the residue shall be distributed for their souls
by the advice of the ordinary, and of course (by the
subsequent amendments of the laws of administrations)
shall now go to their executors or administrators.
On the first attack of lunacy, or other occasional
insanity, when there may be hopes of a speedy restitution
of reason, it is usual to confine the unhappy objects m
private custody under the direction ot their nearest
friends and relations 5 and the legislature, to prevent all
abuses incident to such private custody, hath thought
proper to interpose its authority, by 14 Geo. III. c,
49. for regulating private mad-houses. But when the
disorder is grown permanent, and the circumstances oi
the party will bear such additional expence, it is thought
proper to apply to the royal authority to warrant a
lasting confinement.
The method of proving a person ?ion compos is very
similar to that of proving him an idiot. The lord
chancellor, to whom, by special authority from the
king, the custody of idiots and lunatics is intrusted,
upon petition or information, grants a commission in
nature of the writ de idiota inquirendo, to inquire into
the party’s state of mind ", ami if he be found non com¬
pos, he usually commits the care of his person, with a
suitable allowance for his maintenance, to some friend,
who is then called his committee. However, to pre¬
vent sinister practices, the next heir is seldom permitted
to be of this committee of the person ", because it is his
interest that the party should die. But it hath been
said there lies not the same objection against his next
of kin, provided he be not his heir; for it is his interest
to preserve the lunatic’s life, in order to increase the
personal estate by savings, which he or his family may
hereafter be entitled to enjoy. The heir is generally
made the manager or committee of the estate, it being
clearly his interest by good management to keep it in
condition: accountable, however, to the court of chan¬
cery, and to the noti compos himself, if he recovers; or
otherwise, to his administrators. See Idiocy.
LUNATION, the period or space of time between
one new moon and another; also called synodical month.
See Cycle and Epact.
LUNDEN,or Lund, a considerable town of Sweden,
in Gothland ; and capital of the territory of Schonen,
with an archbishop’s see and an university: It was
ceded to the Swedes by the Danes in 1658. E. Long.
13. 25. N. Lat. 55. 40.
LUNDY ISLAND, situated 50'miles in the sea, off
the north-west coast of Devonshire, is five miles long
and two broad, but so encompassed with inaccessible
rocks, that it has but one entrance to it, so narrow that
two men can scarcely go abreast. It is reckoned in the
hundred of Brandon. It had once both a fort and a
ohapel. The south part of it is indifferent good soil,
but the north part of it is barren, and has a high pyra¬
midal rock called the Constable. Here are horses, kine,
hogs, and goats, with great store of sheep and rabbits;
but the chief commodity is fowl, with which it abounds
much, their eggs being very thick on the ground at
3
U N
No venomous creature will
live in this island. In the reign of Henry A III. one
William Morisco, who had conspired to murder him at
Woodstock, fled to this island, which he fortified, turn¬
ed pirate, and did much damage to this coast; but was
taken by surprise at length, with 16 of his accomplices,
and put to death. .
LUNE, Lunula, in Geometry, a plane, m form of a
crescent or half-moon, terminated by the cucumference
of two circles, that intersect each other within.
LUNENBURG, or Lunenburg Zell, a principa¬
lity of Germany, forming part of the kingdom oi Hano¬
ver, bounded to the south by that of Calenberg, the dio¬
cese of Hildesheim, and the duchy of Brunswie ; to the
north, by the duchy of Lauenburg and the Elbe, by the
last of which it is separated from the territory of the
imperial city of Hamburgh ; to the east, by the duchy
of Brunswic, the Alte Mark, and the duchy of Meck-
lenbursr; and to the west, by the duchies of Bremen
. 7. . . f rt  .1 
Lundy
and Verden, the county of Hoya, and the principality
of Calenberg. The soil, except along the Elbe, Aller,
and Jetz, is either sand, heath, or moor. In the more
fruitful parts of it are produced wheat, rye,barley, oats,
pease, buck-wheat, flax, hemp, hops, pulse, oak, beech,
firs, pines, birch, and alder, together with black cattle
and horses. The heaths abound with bees and honey,
and a small kind of sheep whose wool is long and coarse.
Lunenburg is well furnished with salt springs and lime¬
stone, and the forest of Gorde with venison. The rivers
Elbe, Umeneau and Aller, are navigable; and conse¬
quently very advantageous to the country, independent
of the fish which they yield. The general diets of this
principality are convened by the sovereign twice a-year,
and held at Zell. They consist of the deputies of the
nobility and the towns of Lunenburg, Uelzen, and Zell,
who have the nomination of the members of the high
colleges, and other officers, jointly with the sovereign.
There are near 200 Lutheran churches in the country,
under two general and 15 subordinate superintendants,
several grammar-schools, twro Calvinist churches at Zell,
and an academy of exercises at Lunenburg. 1 he manu¬
factures are chiefly linen cloth, cottons, ribbons, stock¬
ings, hats, starch, bleached wax, refined sugar, gold and
silver wires, all kinds of wooden wares, barges, boats,
and ships. The exports of these to Hamburgh, Lubec,
and Altona, are considerable. The neighbourhood ot
these cities, with the facility of conveying goods and
merchandise to them and other places, either by land
or water, is very advantageous to this country, and
contributes greatly to its subsistence. On account of
this principality, the king of Great Britain has a seat
and voice both in the college of the princes of the em¬
pire and of the circle of Lower Saxony. Its quota in
the matricula is 20 horse and 120 foot, or 720 florins
in lieu of them. The revenues of the principality arise
chiefly from the demesnes, tolls on the Elbe, contribu¬
tions, duties on cattle, beer, wine, brandy, and other
commodities, which altogether must be very consider¬
able, some bailiwics alone yielding upwards of 20,000
rix-dollars.
Lunenburg, the capital of the principality of the
same name, is a pretty large town of Germany, on the
river Elmen, or the Umenau, which is navigable from
the town to the Elbe, at the distance of 13 miles. It
is 27 miles from Hamburgh, 43 from Zell, 65 from
Bruns wric.
L U N [
menburg, Brunswic, 76 from Bremen, 68 from Hanover j
unense stands in E. Long. 10. 40. N. Lat. 53. 28. Its in-
:irmor. habitants are reckoned at between 8000 and 9000.
' Formerly this was one of the Hanse towns, ami an im¬
perial city. Some derive its name from Lina, the
ancient name of the Ilmenau ; others from l.una, the
moon, an image of which is said to have been wor¬
shipped by the inhabitants in the times of Paganism.
Here were anciently several convents, viz. one of Mi¬
nims, another of Premonstratensians, another of Be¬
nedictines, and a fourth of Minorites. Out of the
revenues of the Benedictine monastery was founded an
academy for the martial exercises, where young gentle¬
men of the principality of Lunenburg are maintained
gratis, and taught French, fencing, riding, and dan¬
cing ; but foreigners are educated at a certain fixed
price. A Latin school was also founded, consisting of
four classes, and well endowed out of these revenues.
The superintendency and management of these, and the
estates appropriated to their maintenance, belongs to
the landschaft director, and the ausreiter, who are both
chosen from among the Lunenburg nobility. The first
came in place of the Popish abbot, and as such is head
of the states of the principality, and president of the
provincial college. He has the title of excellency ; and
in public instruments styles himself, by the grace of God
landschaft director and lord of the mansion of St Michael
in lAtnsnburg. The chief public edifices are three pa¬
rish-churches, the ducal palace, three hospitals, the
town-house, the salt-magazine, the anatomical theatre,
the academy; the conventual church of St, Michael, in
which lie interred the ancient dukes, and in which is
the famous table eight feet long, and four wide, plated
over with chased gold, with a rim embellished with
precious stones, of an immense value, which was taken
from the Saracens by the emperor Otho, and presented
to this church : but in 1698, a gang of thieves stripped
it of 200 rubies and emeralds, together with a large
diamond, and most of the gold, so that at present but a
small part of it remains. Here are some very rich salt
springs. Formerly, when there was a great demand
for the salt, upwards of 120,000 tons have been an¬
nually boiled here, and sold off; hut since the com¬
mencement of the present century, the salt trade hath
declined greatly. A fifth of the salt made here belongs
to the king, but is farmed out. It is said to excel all
the other salt made in Germany. This town is well
fortified; and has a garrison, which is lodged in bar¬
racks. In the neighbourhood is a good limestone
quarry; and along the Ilmenau are warehouses, in
which are lodged goods brought from all parts of Ger¬
many, to be forwarded by the Ilmenau to Hamburgh,
or by the Asche to Lubec, from whence other goods
are brought back the same way. The town itself carries
on a considerable traffic in wax, honey, wool, flax, linen,
salt, lime, and beer.
LUNENSE marmor, in the natural history of the
ancients, the name of that species of white marble
now known among us by the name of the Carrara
marble, and distinguished from the statuary kind by its
greater hardness and less splendour. It was ever great¬
ly esteemed in building and ornamental works, and is
so still. It is of a very close and fine texture, of a very
pure white, and much more transparent than any-
Lunense
Marmor
II
Lungs.
263 ] L U N
and other of the white marbles. It has always been found
in great quantities in Italy, and is so to this day. See
Luna.
LUNETTE, in Fortficationr an enveloped counter-,
guard, or elevation of eai’th, made beyond the second
ditch, opposite to the places of arms ; differing from
the ravelins only in their situation. Lunettes are usually
made in ditches full of water, and serve to the same
purpose as faussebrayes, to dispute the passage of the
ditch. See Fortification.
Lunette, in the manege, is a half horse-shoe, or
such a shoe as wants the sponge, i. e. that part of the
branch which runs towards the quarters of the foot.
Lunette is also the name of two small pieces of
felt, made round and hollow, to clap upon the eyes
of a vicious horse that is apt to bite, and strike with
his fore feet, or that will not suffer his rider to mount
him.
LUNGS, in Anatomy, a part of the human body-,
serving for respiration. See Anatomy, N° ny.
In the Journal de Medicine for June 1789, is a de¬
scription of an
Instrument for Inflating the Leungs, invented by Ml
Gorcy, physician to the military hospital at Neufbrisack,
which appears to be extremely well adapted to the pur¬
pose, whilst it may be used with the greatest ease and
facility.
Th is instrument, which the inventor styles apodopic,
that is, “ restorer of respiration,” consists of a double Plate
pair of bellows, BCLM, fig. 1. the two diflerent parts CCXCVIII^
of which have no communication with each other. In ^ I-
the lower side BM, is an aperture A for a valve con¬
structed on the principles of those of Mr Nairne’s air--
pump. It consists of a rim of copper, closed at one
end by a plate of the same metal, in which plate are
seven small holes placed at equal distances This plate is
covered with pieces of silk coated with elastic gum, in
which are six transverse incisions of two or three lines in
length. Each incision is so made as to be situated be¬
tween two of the hcles, and at an equal distance from
each : see D, fig. 2. The silk must be made very se- Fig- s-
cure by a thread passing several times round the rim.
It is obvious, that a stream of air applied to that side of
the plate which is opposite the silk, will pass through
the holes, and lifting up the silk, escape through the
incisions. On the contrary, a stream of air applied to-
the other side will press the silk upon the plate, and thus
close the holes, so that it will be impossible for it to
pass through them. This valve opens internally, so as
to admit the air from without. At B is another valve, on
the same construction, but opening in a contrary direc¬
tion, thus permitting the air to escape out of the lower
part into the tube EF, but preveniing its entrance. At
C is another valve, opening internally to admit the air
from the tube EF; and at D there is a fourth, opening
externally to discharge the air from the upper part.
The flexible tube EF, screwed on at the end CB,
being introduced into one of the nostrils, whilst the
mouth and the other nostril are closed by an assistant,
if we separate the two handles LM, which were close
together at the introduction of the tube, it is evident,
that the air in the lungs will rush into the upper part
through the valve C, whilst the external air will fill
the lower part through the valve A : the two handles
being:
Fig.
F*ti> 4-
Fig- 5-
L U P [
"bcin'T apuin brought into contact, the atmospheric air
will be forced into the lungs through the valve L, and
at the same time the air in the upper part will be dis¬
charged at the valve D. Thus by the alternate play ol
the double bellows, the lungs will be alternately tilled
and emptied as in respiration. In using the instrument
cure should be taken not to be too violent; as the more
perfectly the natural motion of respiration is imitated,
the better. ... ,
To prevent any substances from without injuring the
valves AD, tig. i. the rim is made with a screw, B, fig.
order to receive a cap AA, lig. 3. lull of small
This screw has also another use. II air or oxy-
See Botany
264 ] L U S
ing under the 3 2d order, Papilionaccce
Index. „ TT
LUPULUS, the Hop plant. See HumuluS,
TANY Index.
LUPUS, the Wolf. See Cants, Mammalia
Index.
Lupus Marinus^ the Sea-wolf, a fish. See Anap-
rhicas, Ichthyology/tw/-.?.
Lupus, in Astronomy. See Astronomy Index.
LURCHER, a kind of hunting-dog, much like a
mongrel greyhound, with pricked ears, a shagged coat,
and generally ol a yellowish white colour . they aw
very swift runners, so that if they get between the
burrows and the conies they seldom miss ; and this
is their common practice in huntings yet they use
other subtilties, as the tumbler does, some of them
bringing 111 their game, and those are the best. It io
also observable, that a lurcher will run down a hare at
stretch.
LURE, in falconry, a device of leather, in the shape
of two wings, stuck Avith feathers, and baited with a
piece of flesh, to call back a hawk when at considerable
distance.
LURGAN, a town in the county of Armagh and
3. m
holes.   . c
gen gtis be preferred* n bladder filled with it* tig.
may, by means of the screw A, be fastened to the valve
A, fig. 1 and, to prevent waste, as this air may serve
several times, a flexible tube may be screived on the
valve D, fig. 1. communicating with the bladder by
means of the opening d, fig. 4 : thus it may be employ¬
ed as often as the operator thinks proper.
There is. a handle -K. to the partition in the middle,
in order that, if it be at anytime necessary to use either
of the divisions alone, the other may be confined fiom
actinir. c, fig. ?• represent the two valves to be ap- __  , . T , . „ r* ,n:„
plied at the end of the instrument C, B, fig. l.j and province ol Ulster in Irelan , mi es lorn 1
fig. 6. is a section of the end CB, showing the valves It is a flourishimr town, agreeably situated in the midst
in their proper places.
It is proper to add, that the capacity of the instill¬
ment should be proportioned to the quantity ol air re¬
ceived into the lungs in inspiration, which DrGoodwyn
has ascertained to be twelve cubical inches or somewhat
more. Each division of the instrument, theielorc,
should be capable of containing that quantity.
LuNG-Wort. See Pulmonaria, Botany Index.
LUNISOLAR year, in Chronology, the space of
(J32 common years ; found by multiplying the cycle of
the sun by that of the moon.
LUNULA. See Lune.
LUPERCALIA, feasts instituted in ancient Rome,
ba honour of the god Pan. The word comes from Lit-
percal, the name of a place under the Palatine moun¬
tain, where the sacrifices were performed.
The Lupercalia were celebrated on the 15th ol the
kalends of March, that is, on the 15th of February, or,
as Ovid observes, on the 3d day after the ides. They
are supposed to have been established by Evander.
On the morning of this feast, the Lupcrci, or priests
of Pan, ran naked through the streets of Rome, strik¬
ing the married women they met on the hands and
belly with a thong or strap of goats leather, which was
held an omen promising them fecundity and happy de¬
liveries. See Luperct.
This feast was abolished in the time of Augustus •,
hut afterwards restored, and continued to the time of
the emperor Anastasias.—Baronius says it was abolish¬
ed by the pope in 496.
LUPEHCI, a name given to the priests of the gou
Pan. See Lupercalia.
The Ivperci were the most ancient order of priests in
Rome ; they were divided into two colleges or compa¬
nies, the one called Fahii and the other Quintilii. To
ihese Caesar added a third, which he Called Ii/la.
LUPINUS, Lupine j a genus of plants belonging
to thediadelphia class ; and in the natural method rank-
It is a flourishing town, agreeably
of a much improved country } and the inhabitants are
extensively engaged in the linen manufacture. It stands
on a gentle eminence, about two miles from Lough-
Neagh, of which it commands a most beautiful and ex¬
tensive prospect. N. Lat. 54. 35. M . Long. 6. 31.
LoRGAN-GREEN, a town of Ireland, in the county
of Louth and province of Leinster, 37 miles from Dub¬
lin ; a mile beyond which is a handsome seat of the
earl of Charlemont.
LURIDiE, the name of the 28th order in Lin-
nseus’s fragments of a natural method. See Botany,
Natural Ox-ders.
LUSATIA, a marquisate of Germany, in Upper Sax¬
ony, subject to Prussia j bounded to the east by Silesia, to
the west by Misnia, to the south by Bohemia, and to the
north by the marquisate of Brandenburgh. Till towards
the middle of the 15th century, the Upper Lusatia was
called the Mark, i. c. the marqmsate or the land oj Bn-
dismn and Gorlit'Z ; and the Lower only Lusatia, which
it is said, in the Sclavonic, signifies “ a woody or
marshy country.” The air of the Upper Lusatia,
which is hilly or mountainous, is better than that of
the lower, a great part of which is moorish and bog¬
gy. Both abound in wood, especially the Lower, and
turf for fuel. The heathy and mountainous tracts are
generally baiTen j but the lower champaign and marsh
lands are tolerably fertile, producing pastime, wheat,
rye, oats, barley, buck-wheat, pease, lentils, beans,
and millet j together with flax, hops, tobacco, some
white and red wine, and what is called manna. Of
several of these articles, however, considerable quan¬
tities are imported. In this country are found also
quarries of stone, medicinal springs, bastard diamonds,
agates, and jaspers, earths and clays for tobacco-
pipes and all sorts of earthen ware, alum, good iron
stone, vitriolic and copper water j nor is it destitute
of cattle, fish, and venison. The rivers Spree, the
Schwaize or Black Elster, and the Pulznitz, have
4 their
A I * I *A UA n S rou /XFLArjXi; rw; MA(iS. /*L I7TJ CCA ( ////.
•-crrz-
Va//
wmMm,
ft ’ ft/'r'/i/T1 rt/ft Jbz/fe .*
L U S [ 265 ] L U S
lAisatia. their sources in the Lusatias, which are also watered sentatives of the six principal towns. Without the Lusatia
by the Neisse and Queis. The ancient inhabitants of consent of these states no taxes can be imposed, nor II
this country were the Saxons, who were succeeded by any thing of importance, that regards the public, trans-, Austral,
the Vandals, and these by the Sober-Wends, a Scla- acted. The diets are ordinary or extraordinary. The
vonian people. The present inhabitants, the descen- ordinary meet once in three years, and the extraordi-
dants ol the Wends, have an odd dress ; and the lan- nary when summoned by the sovereign upon particular
guage is so inarticulate and guttural, that it hath been emergencies. As to ecclesiastical matters, the dean of
said, it might be pronounced without lips, teeth, or Itudissen and his consistory exercise all manner of epis-
tongue 5 but the towns are almost wholly peopled by copal jurisdiction ; and among the Protestants, the
Germans. jurisdiction belongs either to the superior, the upper-
In the Upper Lusatia are six towns which appear office, or the patrons. The revenues arising to the
at the land-diets, 16 smaller country towns, and four superior or sovereign, from Upper Lusatia, consist
market towns. In the Lower are four diet towns, 13 partly of the subsidies granted by the states, among
Country towns, and two market ones. Both marqui- which, at present, are reckoned capitation and estate-
sates were formerly subject either to the kings of Bo- money ; and partly of the beer-tax, excise, tolls, &c.
hernia, the archdukes of Austria, or electors of Bran- —Upper Lusatia is divided into two great circles, viz.
denburgh ; but, in 1636, both were absolutely ceded those of Budissen and G'orlitz, which are again divided
to the elector of Saxony, in lieu of the 72 tons of gold into lesser circles.
which he expended in assisting the emperor Ferdinand The land states of Lower Lusatia consist, like those
II. against the Bohemians. of the Upper, of prelates, lords, and knights, and
Christianity -was first planted in Lusatia in the se- the representatives of the state towns, which are Luc-
venth century *, but it Was several centuries after that kau, Gubben-Lubben, and Kalau. Two land diets
before Popery was fully established. In the nth cen- are yearly held at Lubben, called voluntary-diets ; but
tury many cloisters were erected in the country ; but when the superior causes the states to be summoned
at the Reformation such numbers embraced Lutheran- together at his discretion, and propositions to be laid
ism, that it became the predominant religion, and still before them, by commissaries deputed for that pur-
continues, though there are still several Roman Ca- pose, such convention is called a g/’cc?/ewe/f/A^. The
tholic foundations, churches, market-towns, and vil- marquisate is divided into five circles, each of which
lages. The enthusiastic sect of Hernhuters possesses holds a circle assembled in its circle town. The chief
a great influence and esteem here. There are con- officers appointed either by the superior or the states
siderable manufactures of woollen and linen stuffs in are, the president of the upper office, the land captain,
the Lusatias, especially the Upper. At Budissen, and and the land judge. The principal tribunals are, the
in the adjacent country, prodigious quantities of stock- land court, and the upper office, to which lie appeals
ings, spatterdashes, caps, and gloves are made. The from the inferior judicatories. There are also officers
linen manufactures also flourish here, chiefly in the Up- for the several circles. Spiritual matters belong here
per Lusatia, where all sorts of linen are made, printed, to a consistory, erected in 1668. The ordinary taxes
and dyed. Exclusive of these, there are considerable are paid into the chest of the circle j and from thence,
manufactures of hats, leather, paper, gunpowder, iron, consigned to the general chest, of which the upper tax-
glass, bleached wax, &c. Though the demand and ex- receiver is superintendant. By him an annual account
portation of these commodities, particularly linen and of the receipts is made out, which is examined and
woollens, is not so great as formerly, yet it is still com- passed by the deputies of the states,
siderable, and more than overbalances their importa- LUSITANIA, in Ancient Geography, one of the
tions in wool, yarn, silk, wdnes, spices, corn, fresh and divisions of Spain, extending to the north of the Ta-
baked fruits, garden stuff, and hops. Disputes of many gus, quite to the sea of Cantabria, at least to the Pro¬
years standing have subsisted betw'een the country ar- montorium Celticum. But Augustus, by a new regu-
tificers and linen manufacturers on the one side, and lation, made the Anas its boundary to the south, the
the diet-towns on the other j the latter unjustly seek- Durius to the north j and thus constituting only a part
ing to exclude the former from any share in the linen of the modern Portugal. Lusitani the people, (Diodo-
trade. The natives of this country are said to have rus, Stephanus.)
quick natural parts, but to be sordidly penurious. We LUSTRAL, an epithet given by the ancients to the
are told they observe the Saxon laws much better than water used in their ceremonies to sprinkle and purify
they did the Bohemian. Learning hath been much the people. From them the Romanists have borrowed
esteemed and encouraged in both marquisates since the the holy water used in their churches.
Reformation. The schools in the six diet towns of Lustral Day (JDies Lustricus'), that whereon the
Upper Lusatia, particularly at Gorlitz, Budissen, and lustrations were performed for a child, and its name
Zittau, greatly distinguish themselves, having hand- given j which was usually the ninth day from the birth
some stipends. In Lower Lusatia also are some good of a boy, and the eighth from that of a girl. I hough
schools, with stipends for the maintenance of students. others performed the ceremony on the last day of that
Printing is said to he much followed, and brought to week wherein the child was born, and others on the
great perfection in this country. fifth day from its birth.
In Upper Lusatia, the states consist, 1st, of those Over this feast-day the goddess Nundina was sup-
called state-A/YA; 2dly, of the prelates j 3dly, of the posed to preside j the midwives, nurse*, and domestics
gentry and commonalty, under which are comprehend- handed the child backwards and forwards, around a
ed the counts, barons, nobles, and burgesses, posses- fire burning on the altars of the gods, after which they
sors of fees and fief-estates : and, Athlv, of the repre- sprinkled it with water; hence this feast had the name
Vol. XII. Parti. t LI vt
Lustral, of amphidromia
Lustration, with the water.
entertainment.
L U S [266
The old women mixed saliva and dust
The whole ended with a sumptuous
The parents received gifts from their
friends on this occasion. If the child was a male, then-
door was decked with an olive garland; if a female,
with wool, denoting the work about which women were
to be employed.
LUSTRATION, in antiquity, sacrifices or cere¬
monies by which the ancients purified their cities,
fields, armies, or people, defiled by any crime or im¬
purity. Some of these lustrations were public, others
private. There were three species or manners ol per¬
forming lustration, viz. by fire and sulphur, by water,
and by air ; which last was.done by fanning aim agi¬
tating the air round the thing to be purified. Some
of these lustrations were necessary, 1. e. could not be
dispensed with; as lustrations of houses in time Ot a
plague, or upon the death of any person : others again
Avere done out of choice, and at pleasure. I he public
lustrations at Rome were celebrated every filth year ;
in which they led a victim thrice round the place to
be purified, and in the mean time burnt a great quan¬
tity of perfumes. Their country lustrations, which
they called ambarvalia, Avere celebrated before they
began to reap their corn : in those of the armies, which
they called armilustria, some chosen soldiers, croAvned
with laurel, led the victims, which Avere a coav, a sheep,
and a bull, thrice round the army ranged in battle-
array in the field of Mars, to which deity the victims
Avere afterwards sacrificed, after pouring out many
imprecations upon the enemies of the Romans. Ihe
lustrations of their flocks were performed in this man¬
ner : the shepherd sprinkled them AVith pure water,
and thrice surrounded Ins sheepfold Avith a composition
of savin, laurel, and brimstone set on fire 5 and after-
Avards sacrificed to the goddess Pales an offering of
milk boiled, Avine, a cake, and millet. As for private
houses, they Avere lustrated Avith Avater, a fumigation
of laurel, juniper, olive tree, savin, and such like ; and
the A’ictim commonly Avas a pig. Lustrations made for
particular persons were commonly called expiations, and
the victims piacula. Ihere Avas also a kind of lustia-
tion used for infants, by which they were purified, girls
the third, and boys the ninth, day after their birth ;
Avhich ceremony was performed with pure Avater and
spittle. See the article Ambarvalia.—In their lus-
tratory sacrifices, the Athenians sacrificed tAvomen, one
for the men of their city, and the other for the Avomen.
Divers of these expiations Avere austere : some fasted ;
others abstained from all sensual pleasures 5 and some,
as the priests of Cybele, castrated themselves. The
postures of the penitents Avere different according to
the different sacrifices. The priests changed their ha¬
bits according to the ceremony to be performed 5 white,
purple, and black, Avere the most usual colours. They
cast into the river, or at least out of the city, the ani¬
mals or other things that had served for a lustration or
sacrifice of atonement} and thought themselves threat¬
ened with some great misfortune when by chance they
trod upon them. Part of these ceremonies Avere abo¬
lished by the emperor Constantine and his successors :
the rest subsisted till the Gothic kings were masters of
Rome 5 under Avhom they expired, excepting Avhat the
popes thought proper to adopt and bring into the
church.
1 L u T.
For the lustration, or rather expiation, of the ancient L
Jews, see Expiation.
LUSTRE, the gloss or brightness appearing on any v__
thing, particularly on manufactures of silk, wool, or
stuffi It is likewise used to denote the composition or
manner of giving that gloss. ...
The lustre of silks is given them by washing in soap,
then clear water, and dipping them in alum water cold.
To give stuffs a beautiful lustre: For every eight pounds
of stuff alloAV a quarter ol a pound ol linseed 5 boil it
half an hour, and then-strain it through a cloth, and
let it stand till it is turned almost to a jelly : after-
Avards put an ounce and a half ol gum to dissolve 24
hours •, then mix the liquor, and put the cloth into
this mixture j take it out, dry it in the shade, and pi ess
it. If once doing is not sufficient, repeat the opera¬
tion. Curriers give a lustre to black leather first with
juice of barberries, then Avith gum-arabic, ale, vinegai,
and Flanders glue, boiled together. For coloured lea¬
ther, they use the white of an egg beaten in Avatcr.
Moroccoes have their lustre from juice ol barberries,
and lemon or orange, for hats, the lustre is liequeiii-
ly given Avith common water: sometimes a little black
dye is added: the same lustre serves for furs, except
that for very black furs they sometimes prepare a lustre
ol galls, copperas, Roman alum, ox’s marrow, and other
ingredients.
Lustre, an appellation given to a branched candle¬
stick, when made ot glass. See Branch and Jesse.^
LUSTRINGS. A company Avas incorporated for
making, dressing, and lustrating alamodes and lustrings
in England, Avho Avere to have the sole benefit thereol,
by stat. 4 and 5 William and Mary. And no foreign
silks known by the name of lustrings or alamodes are to
be imported but at the port of London, &c. Stat. 9
and 10 William III. c. 43. See Silk.
LUSTRUM, in Roman antiquity, a general muster
and revieAV of all the citizens and their goods, which
Avas performed by the censors every fifth year, who
afterwards made a solemn lustration. See the article
Lustration.
This custom Aims first instituted by Servius Tullius,
about 180 years after the foundation of Rome. In
course of time the lustra were not celebrated so often ^
for avc find the fifth lustrum celebrated at Rome only
in the 574th year ®f that city.
LUTE, or Loting, among chemists, a mixed, te¬
nacious, ductile substance, Avhich groivs solid by drying,
and, being applied to the juncture of vessels, stops them
up so as to prevent the air from getting in or out.
Lute is also a musical instrument Avith strings.—
The lute consists of four parts, viz. the table, the body
or belly, which has nine or ten sides : the neck, which
has nine or ten stops or divisions, marked Avith strings:
and the head or cross, Avheie the screAvs for raising and
loAvering the strings to a proper pitch of tone are fixed.
In the middle of the table there is a rose or passage for
the sound there is also a bridge that the strings are
fastened to, and a piece of rvory betAveen the head and
the neck to Avhich the other extremities of the strings
are fitted. In playing, the strings are struck with the
right hand, and Avith the left the stops are pressed.
The lutes of Bologna are esteemed the best on account
of the Avood, Avhich is said to have an uncommon dispo¬
sition for producing a sweet sound.
LUTETIA,
Lvitetia,
Luther.
L U T f 26
LUTETIA par isro hum, in Ancient Geography, a
town of the Parisii, in Gallia Celtica, situated in an
island in the Sequana or Seine. It received its name,
as some suppose, from the quantity of clay, latum, which
is in its neighbourhood. J. Caesar fortified and embel¬
lished it, from which circumstance some authoi’s call it
Julii Civitas. Julian the apostate resided there for some
time. It is now Paris, the capital of France ; so call¬
ed from its name Paryis in the lower age.
LUTHLR, Martin, the celebrated author of the
Reformation, was a native of Eisleben in Saxony, and
born in 1483. Though his parents were poor, he re-
7 ] L U T
pear at Rome, within 60 days, before the auditor of
ceived a learned education ; during the progress of
which, he gave many indications of uncommon vigour
and acuteness of genius. As his mind was naturally
susceptible of serious impressions, and tinctured with
somewhat of that religious melancholy which delights
in the solitude and devotion of a monastic life, he re¬
tired into a convent of Augustinian friars •, where he
acquired great reputation, not only for piety, but for
love of knowledge and unwearied application to study.
The cause of this retirement is said to have been, that
he was once struck by lightning, and his companion
killed by his side by the same flash. He had been taught
the scholastic philosophy which ivas in vogue in those
days, and made considerable progress in it: but hap¬
pening to find a copy of the Bible Avhich lay neglected
in the library of his monastery, he applied himself to
the study of it with such eagerness and assiduity, as
quite astonished the monks ; and increased his reputa¬
tion for sanctity so much, that he ivas chosen professor
first of philosophy, and afterwards of theology, at Wit-
temherg on the Elbe, Avhere Frederic elector of Saxony
had founded an university.
While Luther continued to enjoy the highest reputa¬
tion for sanctity and learning, Tetzel, a Dominican
friar, came to Wittemberg in order to publish indul¬
gences. Luther beheld his success with great con¬
cern ; and having first inveighed against indulgences
from the pulpit, he afterwards published 91J theses,
containing his sentiments on that subject. These he
proposed, not as points fully established, but as sub¬
jects of inquiry and disputation. He appointed a day
on Avhich the learned were invited to impugn them ei¬
ther in person or by writings and to the whole he
subjoined solemn protestations of his high respect for
the apostolic see, and of his implicit submission to its
authority. No opponent appeared at the time pre¬
fixed the theses spread over Germany Avith astonish¬
ing rapidity, and Avere read with the greatest eager¬
ness.
Though Luther met Avith no opposition for some
little time after he began to publish his new doctrines,
it Avas not long before many zealous champions arose
to defend those opinions Avith which the Avealth and
power of the clergy were so strictly connected. Their
cause, hoAvever, Avas by no means promoted by these
endeavours •, the people began to call in question eA'en
the authority of the canon law and of the pope him¬
self—-The court of Rome at first despised these neAV
doctrines and disputes but at last the attention of
the pope being raised by the great success of the re¬
former, and the complaints of his adversaries, Luther
was summoned in the month of July 1518, to ap-
the chamber. One of Luther’s adversaries, named
Pnerias, who had Avritten against him, Avas appointed
to examine his doctrines, and to decide concerning
them. I he pope wrote at the same time to the elec¬
tor of Saxony, beseeching him not to protect a man
Avhose heretical and profane tenets Avere so shocking to
pious ears ; and enjoined the provincial of the Au-
gustinians to check by his authority the rashness of an
arrogant monk, which brought disgrace upon their
order, and gave dftence and disturbance to the Avhoie
church.
From these letters, and the appointment of his open
enemy Prierias to be his judge, Luther easily saAV
Avhat sentence he might expect at Rome; and there¬
fore discovered the utmost solicitude to have his cause
tried in Germany, and before a less suspected tri¬
bunal. He Avrote a submissive letter to the pope, in
Avhich be promised an unreserved obedience to his ivill
for as yet he entertained no doubt of the divine ori.
ghial of the pope’s authority; and by the intercession
oi the other professors, Cajetan, the pope’s legate in
Germany Avas appointed to hear and determine the
cause. Luther appeared before him Avithout hesita¬
tion : but Cajetan thought it below his dignity to
dispute the point Avith a person so much his inferior in
rank 5 and therefore required him by virtue of the
apostolic poAvers with Avhich he Avas clothed, to retract
the errors Avhich he had uttered with regard to indul¬
gences and the nature of faith, and to abstain for the
future from the publication of ucav and dangerous
Opinions ; and at the last forbade him to appear in his
presence, unless he proposed to comply Avith what had
been required of him.
This haughty and violent manner of proceedings
together with some other circumstances, gave Luther’s
friends such strong reason to suspect that even the
imperial safe-conduct Avould not be able to protect
him from the legate’s poAver and resentment, that
they prevailed on him secretly to withdraw from
Augsburg, where he had attended the legate, and to
return to his oavh country. But before his departure,
according to a form of Avbich there had been some
examples, he prepared a solemn appeal from the pope,
ill-informed at that time concerning his cause, to the
pope, when he should receive more full intimation
Avith respect to it.—Cajetan, enraged at Luther’s
abrupt retreat, and at the publication of his appeal,
Avrote to the elector of Saxony, complaining of both;
and requiring him, as he regarded the peace of the
church, or the authority of its head, either to send
that seditious monk a prisoner to Rome, or to banish
him out of his territories. Frederick had hitherto, from
political motives, protected Luther, as thinking he
might be of use in checking the enormous power, of
the see of Rome, and though all Germany resounded
with his fame j the elector had never yet admitted
him into his presence. But upon this demand made
by the cardinal, it became necessary to throw.oft'
someAvliat of his former reserve. He bad been at
great expence and bestowed much attention on found¬
ing a new university, an object of considerable import¬
ance to every German prince; and foreseeing how
fatal a bloAv the removal of Luther Avould be to its
L 1 2 reputation.
Luther.
L U T [
T *1, rpnutation he not only declined complying with either
0f^the pope’s requests/but openly discovered great con¬
cern for Luther’s safety. . , f *
The situation of our reformer, m the mean time
came daily more and more. alarming. e nei
very well what were the motives which induced the
elector to afford him protection, and that he could by
no means depend on a continuance of Ins fuemUnp.
If he should be obliged to quit Saxony, he ha
other asvlum, and must stand exposed to whatever
punishment the rage or bigotry of his enemies could
inflict; and so ready were his adversaries to condemn
him, that he had been declared a heretic at Rome
before the expiration of the 60 days allowed him m
the citation for making his appearance. o wi i
standing all this, however, he discovered no symptoms
of timidity or remissness *, but continued to vindicate
his own conduct and opinions, and to inveigh against
those of his adversaries with more vehemence than
Beimr convinced, therefore, that the pope would
268 ] L U T
difference about truth, however clearly proposed or Lather,
strongly proved, he began, in 1520, to utter some
doubts with regard to the divine original of the papal
authority, which he publicly disputed with E.c<JlUS’^
ot his most learned and formidable antagomsts. The
dispute was indecisive, both parties claiming the vic¬
tory ; but it must have been very mortifying to the
pa/tizans of the Romish church to hear such an essen¬
tial point of their doctrine publicly attacked.
The papal authority being once suspected, Luthei
proceeded to push on his inquiries and attacks from
one doctrine to another, till at last he began to shake
the firmest foundations on which the wealth and power
of the church were established. Leo then began to
perceive that there were no hopes of reclaiming such
an incorrigible heretic-, and therefore prepared to de¬
nounce the sentence of excommunication against him.
The college of cardinals was often assembled, in order
to prepare the sentence with due deliberation j and the
ablest canonists were consulted how it might be ex-
ever. .Being convmccu,   i f- nressed'with unexceptionable formality. At last it was
soon proceed to the most violent measures against him, ? , ,th 0f June 1520. Forty-one proposi-
he appealed to a general council, which he affirmed issued on *5 . „ T
, .1  * a* ~ PoFlmlip. rhurch. and
to be the representative of the Catholic church, and
superior in power to the pope, who being a fallible man,
might err, as St Peter, the most perfect of his prede¬
cessors, had done. . ,
The court of Rome were equally assiduous in the
mean time to crush the author of these new doctrines
which gave them so much uneasiness. A bull was
issued by the pope, of a date prior to Luther’s ap¬
peal, in which he magnified the virtues_ of indulgences,
and subjected to the heaviest ecclesiastical censures all
who presumed to teach a contrary doctrine. Such a
clear decision of the sovereign pontiff against him
might have been very fatal to Luther’s cause, had not
the death of the emperor Maximilian, which happened
on January 17. 1519, contributed to give matters a
different turn. Both the principles and interest of
Maximilian had prompted him to support the authori¬
ty of the see of Rome ; but, in consequence of his
death, the vicariate of that part of Germany which is
governed by the Saxon laws devolved to the elector
of Saxony ; and, under the shelter of his friendly ad¬
ministration, Luther himself enjoyed tranquillity ; and
his opinions took such root in different places,^ that
they could never afterwards be eradicated. At the
same time, as the election of an emperor was a point
more interesting to the pope (Leo X.) than a theolo¬
gical controversy which he did not understand, and of
which he could not foresee the consequences, he was
so extremely solicitous not to irritate a prince of such
considerable influence in the electoral college as Fre¬
derick, that he discovered a great unwillingness to pro¬
nounce the sentence of excommunication against Lu¬
ther, which his adversaries continually demanded with
the most clamorous importunity.
From the reason just now given, and Leo’s natu¬
ral aversion to severe measures, a suspension of pro¬
ceeding against Luther took place for 18 months,
(hough perpetual negociations were carried on during
Ibis interval in order to bring the matter to an ami¬
cable issue. The manner in which these were con¬
ducted having given our reformer many opportunities
of observing the corruption of the court of Rome, its
obstinacy in adhering to established errors, and its in-
lions, extracted out of Luther’s works were therein
condemned as heretical, scandalous, and offensive to
pious ears; all persons were forbidden to read his wnt-
f„„s, upon pain of excommunication ; such as had any
of them in their custody were commanded to commit
them to the flames ; he himself, if he did not, within
60 days, publicly recant his errors, and burn his books,
was pronounced an obstinate heretic, excommunicated,
and delivered to Satan for the destruction of the flesh :
and all secular princes were required, under pam of in¬
curring the same censure, to seize his person, that he
might be punished as his crimes deserved. _
Luther was not in the least disconcerted by this sen¬
tence, which he had for some time expected. He re¬
newed his appeal to a general council j declared the
pope to be that antichrist, or man of sin, whose ap¬
pearance is foretold in the New Testament j declaim¬
ed against his tyranny with greater vehemence than
everand at last, by way of retaliation, having assem¬
bled all the professors and students in the university
of Wittemberg, with great pomp, and in the presence
of a vast multitude of spectators, he cast the volumes ot
the canon law, together with the bull of excommuni¬
cation, into the flames. The manner in which this ac¬
tion was justified gave still more offence than the action
itself. Having collected from the canon laws some 01
the most extravagant propositions with regard to the
plenitude and omnipotence of the pope’s power, as well
as the subordination of all secular jurisdiction to his
authority, he published these with a commentary, point¬
ing out the impiety of such tenets, and their evident
tendency to subvert all civil government.
On the accession oi Charles V. to the empire, Lu¬
ther found himself in a very dangerous situation.
Charles, in order to secure the pope’s friendship, had
determined to treat him Avith great severity. His ea¬
gerness to gain this point, rendered him not averse to
gratify the papal legates in Germany, who insisted, that
without any delay or formal deliberation, the diet then
sitting at Worms ought to condemn a man whom the
pope had already excommunicated as an incorrigible
heretic. Such an abrupt manner of proceeding, how¬
ever, being deemed unprecedented and unjust by the
members
L U T [
Luther, members of the diet, they made a point of Luther’s
—-v—-J appearing in person, and declaring whether he adhered
or not to those opinions which had drawn upon him
the-xensures of the church. Not only the emperor, hut
all the princes through whose territories he had to
pass, granted him a safe-conduct; and Charles wrote
to him at the same time, requiring his immediate at¬
tendance on the diet, and renewing his promises of pro¬
tection from any injury or violence. Luther did not
hesitate one moment about yielding obedience; and
set out for Worms, attended by the herald who had
brought the emperor’s letter and safe-conduct. While
on his journey, many of his friends, whom the fate of
Huss, under similar circumstances, and notwithstand¬
ing the same security of an imperial safe-conduct, fill¬
ed with solicitude, advised and entreated him not to
rush wantonly into the midst of danger. But Luther,
superior to such terrors, silenced them with this reply,
“ I am lawfully called (said he) to appear in that city •,
and thither will I go in the name of the Lord, though
as many devils as there are tiles on the houses were
there combined against me.”
The reception which he met with at Worms, was
such as might have been reckoned a full reward of all
his labours, if vanity and the love of applause had been
the principles by which he was influenced. Greater
crowds assembled to behold him than had appeared
at the emperor’s public entry his apartments were
daily filled with princes and personages of the highest
rank *, and he rvas treated with an homage more sin¬
cere, as well as more flattering, than any which pre¬
eminence in birth or condition can command. At his
appearance before the diet, he behaved with great de¬
cency, and with equal firmness. He readily acknow¬
ledged an excess of acrimony and vehemence in his
controversial writings } but refused to retract his opi¬
nions unless he were convinced of their falsehood, or
to consent to their being tried by any other rule than
the word of God. When neither threats nor intreaties
could prevail on him to depart from this resolution,
some of the ecclesiastics proposed to imitate the ex¬
ample of the council of Constance, and by punishing
the author of this pestilent heresy, who was now in
their power, to deliver the church at once from such
an evil. But the members of the diet refusing to ex¬
pose the German integrity to fresh reproach by a se¬
cond violation of public faith, and Charles being no
less unwilling to bring a stain upon the beginning of
his administration by such an ignominious action, Lu¬
ther was permitted to depart in safety. A few days
after he left the city, a severe edict w'as published in
the emperor’s name, and by authority of the diet, de¬
priving him, as an obstinate and excommunicated cri¬
minal, of all the privileges which he enjoyed as a sub¬
ject of the empire, forbidding any prince to harbour
or protect him, and requiring all to seize his person as
soon as the term specified in his protection should be
expired.
But this vigorous decree had no considerable effect 5
the execution of it being prevented partly by the mul¬
tiplicity of occupations which the commotions in Spain,
together with the wars in Italy and the Low Coun¬
tries, created to the emperor j and partly by a pru¬
dent precaution employed by the elector of Saxony,
Luther’s faithful patron. As Luther, on his return
269 ] L U T
from Worms, was passing near Aitenstram in Tliiirin.
gia, a number of horsemen in masks rushed suddenly '■—Ar-—
out of a wood, where the elector had appointed them
to he in wait for him, and surrounding his company,
earned him, after dismissing all his attendants, to
Wortburg, a strong castle not far distant. There the
elector ordered him to he supplied with every thing
necessary or agreeable j hut the place of his retreat was
carefully concealed, until the fury of the present storm
against him began to abate, upon a change in the po¬
litical system of I.urope. In this solitude, where he
remained nine months, and which he frequently called
his Patmos, after the name of that island to which the
apostle John was banished, he exerted his usual vigour
and industry in defence of his doctrines, or in confu¬
tation of his adversaries, publishing several treatises,
which revived the spirit of his followers, astonished to
a great degree and disheartened at the sudden disap¬
pearance of their leader.
Luther, weary at length of his retirement, appeared
publicly again at Wittemberg, upon the 6th of March
1522. He appeared indeed without the elector’s leave }
hut immediately wrote him a letter to prevent his tak¬
ing it ill. Ihe edict of Charles \. as severe as it was,
had given little or no check to Luther’s doctrine j for
the emperor was no sooner gone to Flanders, than
his edict was neglected and despised, and the doctrine
seemed to spread even faster than before. Carolosta-
dius, in Luther’s absence, had pushed things on faster
than his leader 5 and had attempted to abolish the use-
of mass, to remove images out of the churches, to set
aside auricular confession, invocation of saints, the ab¬
staining from mqats j had allowed the monks to leave
their monasteries, to neglect their vows, and to marry ;
in short, had quite changed the doctrine and discipline
of the church at Wittemberg : all which, though not
against Luther’s sentiments, was yet blamed by him,
as being rashly and unseasonably done. Lutheranism
was still confined to Germany: it was not got to
France j and Henry VIII. of England made the most
rigorous acts to hinder it from invading his realm.
Nay, he did something more : to show his zeal for reli¬
gion and the holy see, and perhaps his skill in theolo¬
gical learning, he wrote a treatise Of the seven sacra¬
ments, against Luther’s book Of the captivity of Baby¬
lon; which he presented to Leo X. in October 1521.
The pope received it very favourably j and was so well
pleased with the king of England, that he compliment¬
ed him with the title of Defender of the Faith. Luther,
however, paid no regard to his kingship: but answer¬
ed him with great sharpness, treating both his person
and performance in the most contemptuous manner.
Henry complained of Luther’s rude usage of him to
the princes of Saxony ; and Fisher, bishop of Roches¬
ter, replied to his answer, in behalf of Henry’s treatise :
but neither the king’s complaint, nor the bishop’s re¬
ply, was attended with any visible effects.
Luther, though he had put a stop to the violent
proceedings of Carolostadius, now made open war with
the pope and bishops : and, that he might make the
people despise their authority as much as possible,
lie wrote one book against the pope’s bull, and
another against the order falsely called the order of bi¬
shops. The same year, 1522, he wrote a letter, dated
July the 29th to the assembly of the states of Bohemia ;
l.atlicr.
L U T [ 270 ]
iii which he assured them that he was labouring to esta- Adam r
blish their doctrine in Germany, and exhorted them
not to return to the communion of the church of Irome *,
and he published also this year, a translation of the
New Testament in the German tongue, which was af¬
terwards corrected by himself and JVIelancthon. Ims
translation having been printed several times, and be¬
ing in every body’s hands, Ferdinand archduke of Au¬
stria, the emperor’s brother, made a very severe edict,
to hinder the farther publication of it and forbade all
the subjects of his imperial majesty to have any copies
of it, or of Luther’s other books. Some other princes
followed his example ; and Luther was so angry at it,
that he wrote a treatise Of the secular power, in which
he accuses them of tyranny and impiety. The diet ot
the empire was held at Nuremberg, at the end of the
year •, to which Hadrian VI. sent his brief, dated No¬
vember the 25th : for Leo X. died upon the 2d ot De¬
cember 1521, and Hadrian had been elected pope up*
i)n the 9th of January following. In this brief, among
other things, he observes to the diet, how he had heard
with grief, that Martin Luther, after the sentence of
Leo X. which was ordered to be executed by the edict
of Worms, continued to teach the same errors, and
daily, to publish books full of heresies : that it appear¬
ed strange to him, that so large and so religious a na¬
tion could be seduced by a wretched apostate friar :
that nothing, however, could be more pernicious to
Christendom 3 and that therefore he exhorts them to
use their utmost endeavours to make Luther, and the
authors of these tumults, return to their duty : or, if
they refuse and continue obstinate, to proceed against
them according to the laws of the empire, and the se¬
verity of the last edict.
The resolution of this diet rvas published in the form
of an edict, upon the 6th of March 1523 3 but it had
no effect in checking the Lutherans, who still went on
in the same triumphant manner. This year Luther
wrote a great many pieces : among the rest, one upon
the dignity and office of the supreme magistrate 3
which Frederic elector of Saxony is said to have been
highly pleased with. He sent, about the same time,
a writing in the German language to the Waldenses,
or Pickards, in Bohemia and Moravia, who had ap¬
plied to him “ about worshipping the body of Christ
in the eucharist.” He wrote also another book, which
he dedicated to the senate and people of Prague,
“ about the institution of ministers of the church.”
He drew up a form of saying mass. He wrote a piece,
entitled, An example of Popish doctrine and divinity ;
which Dupin calls a satire against nuns and those who
profess a monastic life. He wrote also against the vows
of virginity, in his preface to his commentary on
1 Cor. viii. And his exhortations here were, it seems,
followed with effects 3 for soon after, nine nuns, among
whom was Catharine de Bore, eloped from the nun¬
nery at Nimptschen, and were brought, by the assist¬
ance of Leonard Coppen, a burgess of Torgau, to Wit-
temberg. Whatever offence this proceeding might give
to the Papists, it was highly extolled by Luther ; who,
in a book written in the German language, compares
the deliverance of these nuns from the slavery of a mo¬
nastic life to that of the souls which Jesus Christ has
delivered by his death. This year Luther had occa¬
sion to canonize two of his followers, who, as Melchior
L U T
kites, were burnt at Brussels
in the beginning
of July, and were the first who suffered martyrdom for —v—*
his doctrine. He wrote also a consolatory epistle to
three noble ladies at Misnia, who were banished from
the duke of Saxony’s court at Friburg, for reading \ui
books.
In the beginning of the year 1524, Clement \ IT.
sent a legate into Germany to the diet, which was to
be held at Nuremburg. Hadrian VI. died in October
1 ^23, and was succeeded by Clement upon the 19th of
November. A little before his death he canonized
Benno, who was bishop of Meissen in the time of Gre¬
gory VII. and one of the most zealous defenders of
the holy see. Luther, imagining that this was done
directly to oppose him, drew up a piece with this title,
Against the Neiv Idol and Old Devil set up at Meissen ;
in which he treats the memory of Gregory with great
freedom, and does not spare even Hadrian. Cle¬
ment VII.’s legate represented to the diet of Nurem-
bnrg the necessity of enforcing the execution of the
edict of Worms, which had been strangely neglected
by the princes of the empire 3 but, notwithstanding
the legate’s solicitations, which were very pressing, the
decrees of that diet were thought so ineffectual, that
they were condemned at Home, and rejected by the
emperor. It was in this year that the dispute between
Luther and Erasmus, about free-will, began. Erasmus
had been much courted by the Papists to write against
Luther 3 but he was all along of opinion, that writing
would not be found an effectual way to end the differ¬
ences and establish the peace of the church. How¬
ever, tired out at length with the importunities of the
pope and the Catholic princes, and desirous at the same
sime to clear himself from the suspicion of favouring
a cause which he would not seem to favour, he re¬
solved to write against Luther, though, as he tells Me-
lancthon, it was with some reluctance, and chose free¬
will for the subject. His book was entitled, ADiatn-
ba, or Conference about Free-will; and was written with
much moderation, and without personal reflections.
He tells Luther in the preface, “ That he ought not
to take his dissenting from him in opinion ill, because
he had allowed himself the liberty of differing from the
judgment of popes, councils, universities, and doctoi’s
of the church.” Luther was some time before he an¬
swered Erasmus’s book 3 hut at last published a treatise
Dc Servo Arbi trio, or Of the Servitude of Man's Will;
and though Melancthon had promised Erasmus, that
Luther should answer him with civility and modera¬
tion, yet Luther had so little regard to Melancthon’s
promise, that lie never wrote any thing sharper. He
accused Erasmus of being careless about religion, and
little solicitous what became of it, provided the world
continued in peace 3 and that his notions were rather
philosophical than Christian. Erasmus immediately re¬
plied to Luther in a piece called Hyperaspistes ; in the
first part of which he answers his arguments, and in
the second his personal reflections.
In October 1524, Luther threw oft’ the monastic ha¬
bit 3 which, though not premeditated and designed,
was yet a very proper preparative to a step he took
the year after 3 we mean, his marriage with Catharine
de Bore. Catharine de Bore was a gentleman’s daugh¬
ter, who had been a nun, and was taken, as we have
observed, out oi the nunnery of Nimptschen, in the
, year
L U T [ 27,
Luther, year 1523. Luther had a design, as Melchior Adam
-—v > related, to marry her to Glacius, a minister of Orta-
mundcn ) but she did not like Glacius ; and so Luther
married her himself upon the 13th of June 1525.
This conduct ol his was blamed not only by the Ca¬
tholics, but, as Melancthon says, by those of his own
party. He was even for some time ashamed of it him¬
self ; and owns, that his marriage had made him so
despicable, that he hoped his humiliation would rejoice
the angels, and vex the devils. Melancthon found him
so afflicted with what he had done, that he wrote some
letters of consolation to him. It was not so much the
marriage, as the circumstances of the time, and the pre¬
cipitation with which it was done, that occasioned the
censures passed upon Luther. He married all of a sud¬
den, and at a time when Germany was groaning under
the miseries of a ivar which was said at least to be
owing to Lutheranism. Then, again, it was thought
an indecent thing in a man of 42 years of age, who
was then, as he pretended, restoring the Gospel, and
reforming mankind, to involve himself in marriage with
a woman ot 26, either through incontinence, or any
account whatever. II ut Luther, as soon as he bad re¬
covered himself a little from this abashment, assumed
Ins former air of intrepidity, and boldly supported what
he had done with reasons. “ 1 took a wife (says he),
m obedience to my father’s commands 5 and hastened
the consummation, in order to prevent impediments,
and stop the tongues of slanderers.” It appears from
Ins own confession, that this reformer was very fond
°f Mrs de Lore, and used to call her his Cathariner
which made prophane people think and say wicked
things of him: “And therefore (says he) I mar¬
ried of a sudden, not only that I might not be obliged
to heat the clamours winch I knew would be raised
against me, but to stop the mouths of those who re-
pi cached me with Catharine de Lore.” Luther also
gives us to understand, that he did it partly as con-
cun ing with his grand scheme of opposing the Catho¬
lics.
Luther, notwithstanding, was not himself altogether
satisfied with these reasons. He did not think the step
he had taken could be sufficiently justified upon the
principles of human prudence j and therefore ive find
him, in other places, endeavouring to account for it
fiom a supernatural impulse. Lut whether there was
any thing divine in it or not, Luther found himself
extremely happy in his new state, and especially after
Jus wife had brought him a son. “ My rib Kate (says
he in the joy of his heart) desires her comjdiments to
you, and thanks you for the favour of your kind let¬
ter. . She is very well, through God’s mercy. She is
obedient and complying with me in all things ; and
more agreeable, I thank God, than I could have ex¬
pected j so that I would not change my poverty for
the wealth of Croesus.” He was heard to say (Seck-
endorf tells us), that he would not exchange his wife
mr the kingdom of France, nor for the riches of the
enetians; and that for three reasons : Because she had
been given him by God, at the time when he implored
the assistance of the Holy Ghost, in finding a good
wife ; secondly, Because, though she was not without
au ts, jet she had fewer than other women j and,
®ecause s^e religiously observed the conjugal
idehty she owed him. There went at first a report,
]
L U T
that Catharine de Bore was brought to bed soon after
her marriage with Luther ; but Erasmus, who had
wrote that news to his friends, acknowledged the
xalsity of it a little after.
His marriage, however, did not retard his activity
and diligence in the work ol reformation. He revised
the Augsburg confession of faith, and apology for the
Frotestants, when the Protestant religion was first esta¬
blished on a firm basis. See Pkotestants and Re¬
formation.
After this, Luther had little else to do than to sit
down and contemplate the mighty work he had finish-
ed: for that a single monk should he able to give the
church so rude a shock, that there needed but such
another entirely to overthrow it, may very well seem a
mighty work. He did indeed little else: for the re¬
mainder ot his life was spent in exhorting princes^
states, and universities, to confirm the reformation
which had been brought about through him; and pub¬
lishing from time to time such writings as might en¬
courage, direct, and aid them in doing it. The em¬
peror threatened temporal punishment with armies, and
the pope eternal with bulls and anathemas; but Luther
cared for none of their threats. His friend and co¬
adjutor Melancthon wTas not .so indifferent; for Me-
lancthon had a great deal of softness, moderation, and
diffidence in his make, which made him very uneasy,
and even sornwful, in the present disorders. Hence
we find many of Luther’s letters w'ritten on purpose to
support and comfort him under these several distresses
and anxieties.
In the year 1533, Luther wrote a consolatory
epistle to the citizens ol Oschatz, who had suffered
some hardships for adhering to the Augsburg confes¬
sion of faith : in which, among other things, he says,
The devil is the host, and the world is his inn ; so
that wherever you come, you shall be sure to find this
ugly host.” Fie had also about this time a terrible
controversy with George duke of Saxony, who had
such an aversion to Luther’s doctrine, that he obliged
his subjects to take an oath that they would never em¬
brace it. However, 60 or 70 citizens of Leipsic were
found to have deviated a little from the Catholic w'ay
in some point or other, and they were known previ¬
ously to have consulted Luther about it; upon which
George complained to the elector John, that Luther
had not only abused his person, but also preached up
rebellion among his subjects. The elector ordered Lu¬
ther to be acquainted with this ; and to be told at the
same time, that if lie did not clear himself of the
charge, he could not possibly escape punishment. But
Luther easily refuted the accusation, by proving, that
he had been so far from stirring up his subjects against
him, on the score of religion, that, on the contrary, he
had exhorted them rather to undergo the greatest hard¬
ships, and even suffer themselves to be banished.
In the year 1534, the Bible translated by him into
German w7as first printed, as the old privilege, dated
at Bibliopolis, under the elector’s hand, shows: and
it w?as published the year after. He also published-
this year a book against masses and the consecration of
priests, in which he relates a conference he had with
the devil upon those points ; for it is remarkable in
Luther’s whole history, that he never bad any conflicts
of any kind within, but the devil was always bis anta-
gonistt
Luther.
L U T [27
I.utlier. gonist. In February IJ37, an assembly was held at
 v ^ Smalkald about matters ot religion, to which Luthei
and Melancthon were called. At tins meeting Lu¬
ther was seized with so grievous an illness that there
were no hopes of his recovery. He was afflicted with
the stone, and had a stoppage of urine lor 11 days. In
this terrible condition he would needs undertake to tra¬
vel, notwithstanding all that his friends could say or do
to prevent him : his resolution, however, was attend¬
ed with a good effect j for the night after his departure
he began to be better. As he was carried along, he
made his will, in which he bequeathed his detestation
of Popery to his friends and brethren j agreeably to
what he often used to say : Pest is eram virus, mortem
era mors tua, papa; that is, “ I was the plague of
Popery in my life, and shall continue to be so in my
death.” .
This year the pope and the court ol Rome, nnding
it impossible to deal with the Protestants by force, be¬
gan to have recourse to stratagem. They affected
therefore to think, that though Luther had indeed car¬
ried things on with a high hand and to a violent ex¬
treme, yet what he had pleaded in defence ol these
measures was not entirely without foundation. They
talked with a seeming show ot moderation: and Pius
HI. who succeeded Clement VII. proposed a reforma¬
tion first among themselves, and even went so far as to
fix a place for a council to meet at for that purpose.
But Luther treated this farce as it deserved to be treat¬
ed ; unmasked and detected it immediately j and, to
ridicule it the more strongly, caused a picture to be
drawn, in which was represented the pope seated on
high upon a throne, some cardinals about him with
foxes tails on, and seeming to evacuate upwards and
downwards [sursum deorsum repurgare, as Melchior
Adam expresses it). This was fixed over against the
title-page, to let the readers see at once the scope and
design of the book which was, to expose that cunning
and artifice with which those subtle politicians affect¬
ed to cleanse and purify themselves from their errors
and superstitions. Luther published about the same
time A Confutation of the Pretended Grant ot Con¬
stantine to Sylvester Bishop ot Rome } and also some
letters of John Hues, written from his prison at Con¬
stance to the Bohemians.
In this manner was Luther employed till his death,
which happened in the year That year, accom-
nanied by Melancthon, he paid a visit to his own coun¬
try, which he had not seen for many years, and re¬
turned again in safety. But soon after he was called
thither again by the earls of Mansfeldt, to compose
some differences which had arisen about their bounda¬
ries. Luther had not been used to such matters ; but
because he was born at Eisleben, a town in the territory
of Mansfeldt, he was willing to do his country what
service he could, even in this way. Preaching his last
sermon therefore at Wittemberg, upon the 17th of
January, he set off on the 23d •, and at Hall in Saxony
lodged with J.ustus Jonas, with whom he staid three
days, because the waters were out. Upon the 28th,
he passed over the river with his three sons and
Dr Jonas *, and being in some danger, he said to the
Doctor, “ Do not you think it would rejoice the
devil exceedingly, if I and you, and my three sons,
should be drowned ?” When he'entered the territories
2 j L u T
of the earls of Mansfeldt, he was received by 100 Luther,
horsemen or more, and conducted in a \eiy honour- v
able manner •, but was at the same time so very ill,
that it was feared he would die. He said, that these
fits of sickness often came upon him when he had any
great business to undertake : ot this, however, he did
not recover j but died upon the i3th ot lebiuary, in
the 63d year of his age. A little before he expired,
he admonished those that were about him to pray to
God for the propagation of the Gospel : “ because
f said he) the council of Trent, which had sat once or
twice, and the pope, would devise strange things against
it.” Soon after, his body was put into a leaden cof¬
fin, and carried with funeral pomp to the church at
Eisleben, when Dr Jonas preached a sermon upon the
occasion. I he earls of INIansfeldt desned that his
body should be interred in their territories ; but the
elector of Saxony insisted upon his being brought back
to Wittemberg; which was accordingly done : and
there he w'as buried with the greatest pomp that
perhaps ever happened to any private man. Princes,
earls, nobles, and students without number, attended
the procession ; and Melancthon made his funeral ora¬
tion.
A thousand lies were invented by the Papists about
Luther’s death. Some said that he died suddenly,
others, that he killed himself j others, that the devil
strangled him: others, that his corpse stunk so abomi¬
nably, that they were forced to leave it in the way, as
it was carried to be interred. Nay, lies were invented
about, his death, even while he was yet alive. Luther,
however, to give the most effectual refutation of this
account of his death, put forth an advertisement of his
being alive *, and, to be even with the Papists for the
malice they had shown in this lie, wrote a book at the
same time to prove, that “ the papacy was founded by
the devil.”
Luther’s -works were collected after his death, and
printed at Wittemberg in 7 vols. folio. Catharine de
Bore survived her husband a few years j and continued
the first year of her widowhood at Wittemberg, though
Luther had advised her to seek another place of resi¬
dence. She went from thence in the year I 547> w^en
the town was surrendered to the emperor Charles ^ .
Before her departure, she had received a present of 50
crowns from Christian III. king of Denmark ; and
the elector of Saxony, and the counts of Mansfeldt,
gave her good tokens of their liberality. With these
additions to what Luther had left her, she had where¬
withal to maintain herself and her family handsomely.
She returned to Wittemberg, when the town was re¬
stored to the elector ; where she lived in a very devout
and pious manner, till the plague obliged her to leave
it again in the year 1552. She sold what she had at
Wittemberg, and retired to Torgau, with a resolu¬
tion to end her life there. An unfortunate mischance
befel her in her journey thither, which proved fatal to
her. The horses growing unruly, and attempting to
run away, she leaped out of the vehicle she was convey¬
ed in ) and, by leaping, got a fall, of which she died
about a quarter of a year after, at Torgau, upon the
20th of December 1552. She was buried there in the
great church, where her tomb and epitaph are still to
be seen •, and the university of Wittemberg, which was
then at Torgau because the plague raged at Wittem-'
1 berg,
L U T [2
Luther raa(le a public programina concerning the funeral
II poniP-
Luthcrn. ^ LUTHERANISM, the sentiments of Martin Lu-
ther with regard to religion. See Luther.
Lutheranism has undergone some alterations since
the time of its founder.—Luther rejected the epistle of
St James as inconsistent with the doctrine of St Paul,
in relation to justification j he also set aside the Apoca¬
lypse : both which are now received as canonical in the
Lutheran church.
_ Luther reduced the number of sacraments to two,
viz. baptism, and the eucaanst j hut he believed the
impanation, or consubstantiation, that is, that the
matter or the bread and wine remain with the body
and blood of Christ j and it is in this article that the
main difference between the Lutherans and English
churches consists.
Luther maintained the mass to be no sacrifice; ex¬
ploded the adoration of the host, auricular confession,
meritorious works, indulgences, purgatory, the worship
of images, &c. which had been introduced in the cor¬
rupt times of the Romish church. He also opposed the
doctrine of free will, maintained predestination, and as¬
serted our justification to be solely by the imputation
of the merits and satisfaction of Christ. He also op¬
posed the fastings in the Roman church, monastical
vow’s, the celibate of the clergy, &c.
LUTHERANS, the Christians who follow the opi¬
nions of Martin Luther, one of the principal reformers
of the church in the 16th century. See Luther,
The Lutherans, of all Protestants, are those who
differ least from the Romish church ; as they affirm,
that the body and blood of Christ are materially pre¬
sent in the sacrament of the Lord’s supper, though in
an incomprehensible manner -f and likewise represent
some religious rites and institutions, as the use of
images in churches, the distinguishing vestments of the
clergy, the private confession of sins, the use of wafers
in the administration of the Lord’s supper, the form of
exorcism in the celebration of baptism, and other ce¬
remonies of the like nature, as tolerable, and some of
them as useful. The Lutherans maintain, with regard
to the divine decrees, that they respect the salvation
or misery of men, in consequence of a previous know-
ledge of their sentiments and characters, and not as
tree and unconditional, and as founded on the mere
will of God. Towards the close of the last century,
the Lutherans began to entertain a greater liberality
of sentiment than they had before adopted ; though
m many places they persevered longer in severe and
despotic principles than other Protestant churches.
‘ heir public teachers now enjoy an unbounded liberty
ot dissenting from the decisions of those symbols or
creeds which were once deemed almost infallible rules
of faith and practice, and of declaring their dissent in
the manner they judge the most expedient. Mosheim
attributes this change in their sentiments to the maxim
which they generally adopted, that Christians were ac¬
countable to God alone for their religious opinions 5
and that no individual could be justly punished by the
magistrate for his erroneous opinions, while he con¬
ducted himself like a virtuous and obedient subject,
and made no attempts to disturb the peace and order
of civil society.
LU FHERN, in Architecture, a kind of window
Vol. XII. Part I.
73 ] LUX
over the cornice, in the roof of a building ; standing
perpendicularly over the naked of a wall, and serving
to illuminate the upper story.
Lutherns are of various forms ; as square, semicir¬
cular, round, called huWs eyes, fiat arches, &c.
LUTRA, m Zoology. See Mustela, Mammalia
Index*
LUT1I, Beneditto, an eminent painter, born at
T lorence in^ 1666. He w’as the disciple of Antonio
Homimco Gabiani, and his merit w’as judged equal to
that of his master : he painted few beside easel pieces ;
and his works were much valued and sought for in
England, I ranee, and Germany. rl he emperor knight¬
ed him j and the elector of Mentz, together with his
patent of knighthood, sent him a cross set with dia¬
monds. Lutti w-as never satisfied in finishing his pic¬
tures ; yet though he often retouched them, they never
appeared laboured. He died in 1724.
LUTZEN, a town of Upper Saxony in Germany $
famous for a battle fought here in 1632, when Gusta-
vus Adolphus king of Sweden was killed. It is situated
on the river Elster, in E. Long. 12. 37. N. Lat. 51. 20.
LUXATION, is when any bone is moved out of
its place of articulation, so as to impede or destroy its
proper office or motion. See Surgery.
LUXEMBURG, a city in the kingdom of the Nether¬
lands, and capital of a duchy of the same name. It is
seated partly on a hill, and partly on a plain ; it is
very strong both by art and nature. It is but indiffer¬
ently built, though there are some good stone houses in
it. There is nothing very remarkable among the struc¬
tures but the Jesuits church ; which is a handsome
edifice, after the modern taste. It W’as taken by
Louis XIV. in 1684 ; who so augmented the fortifica¬
tions, that it is now one of the strongest towns in Eu¬
rope. It w’as ceded to Spain by the treaty of Rys-
wick 5 but the French took it again in 1701, and gave
it up to the house of Austria by the treaty of Utrecht.
It is 25 miles south-w'est of Treves, and 100 west of
Mentz. E. Long. 6. 10. N. Lat. 49. 52.
Luxemburg, the duchy of, is one of the 17 pro¬
vinces ot the Netherlands. It is bounded on the east
by the archbishopric of Treves ; on the south by
Lorrain 5 on the w'est, partly by Champagne, and
partly by the bishopric of Liege, which likewise, with
part of Limburg, bound it on the north. It lies in
the forest ot Ardenne, which is one of the most famous
in Europe. In some places it is covered with moun¬
tains and woods, and in general it is fertile in com
and wine j and here are a great number of iron mines.
The principal rivers are the Moselle, the Sour, the
Ourte, and the Semoy. It was formerly divided be¬
tween the Austrians and the French, but now forms
part of the kingdom of the Netherlands.
Luxemburg, Francois Henry de Montmorenci, duke
of, and marshal of France, a renowned general in the
service of Louis XIV. was born in 1628. He was
with the prince of Conde at the battle of Rocroy, in
1643 ; and in 1668 distinguished himself at the con¬
quest of Franche Compte. In 1672, he commanded
in chief the French army in Holland *, when he de¬
feated the enemy near Woerden and Bodcgrave, and
was universally admired for the fine retreat he made
in 1673. He became marshal of France in 1675 ,
gained the battle of Fleurs in 1690, that of. Stecnkirk
t M m in
Luthem
Luxem
bura.
I.U’cem-
burg
tl
Luxury.
LUX
in 1692, and that of Nerwind in 1693.
WrcQillpc; iTi T wO
LUXURIANS flos, “ a luxuriant or double
flowera flower, some of whose parts are increased
in number, to the diminution or entire exclusion oi
The parts that are augmented or multiplied in luxu¬
riant flowers, are the flower-cup and petals, which
Ltnnseus considers as the teguments or covers ot the
flower ; the parts that are diminished, or entirely ex¬
cluded, are the stamina or chives, which the same au¬
thor denominates the male organs ot generation.
Luxuriance in flowers is capable of the three iollow-
ing varieties.
1. A flower is said to be multiplied (fios multipli-
catus'), when the increase of the petals is not such as to
exclude all the stamina: in this sense, flowers are pro¬
perly said to be double, triple, or quadruple, according
to the number of multiplications of the petals.
2. A flower is said to be FULL {jiosplcnus'),. when,
by the multiplication of the petals, all the stamina are
excluded. Such are most of the double flowers that
engage the attention of florists. _
3. A flower is said to be prolific { flosprolifer),
which produces flowers, and sometimes leaves, from its
centre.
For a particular description of each of these kinds
of luxuriance in flowrers, see the articles Multiplica-
tus Flos, Plenvs Flos, and Prolifer Flos.
Many natural orders of plants do not in any circum¬
stances produce luxuriant flowers. Of this kind are
the masqued flowers of Tournefort, excepting calve’s-
snout} the rough-leaved, umbelliferous, starry plants,
and such as flower at the joints, of Ray : some umbel¬
liferous flowers, however, are prolific.
The pea-bloom, or butterfly-shaped flowers, are rare¬
ly rendered double } some instances, however, of luxu¬
riance, are observed in a species of lady’s Anger, coro-
nilla, and broom.
All luxuriant flowers are vegetable monsters. Such
as are perfectly full, by which avc mean the greatest
degree of luxuriance, cannot be propagated by seeds j
because these, for want of impregnation, can never ri~
pen. Full flowers therefore are very properly deno¬
minated by Linnaeus eunuchs. This highest degree of
luxuriance is very common in carnation, lychnis,, ane¬
mone, stock, Indian cress, rose, marsh marigold, ra
nunculus, violet, peony, and narcissus.
Flowers which do not exclude all the stamina, per¬
fect their seeds. Of this kind are poppy, fennel-flower,
campanula, and some others.
Some flowers, as those of the water-lily, fig-mari-
gold, and cactus, have many rows or series of petals,
without the number of stamina being in the least dimi¬
nished. Such flowers are by no means to be reckoned
luxuriant, in the slightest degree.
Luxuriance in flowers is generally owing to excess of
nourishment.
LUXURY 5 voluptuousness, or an extravagant in¬
dulgence in diet, dress, and equipage.
Luxury, among the Romans, prevailed to such a
degree, that several laws were made to suppress, or
at least limit it. The extravagance of the table be¬
gan about the time of the battle ol Actium, and con¬
tinued in great excess till the reign of Galba. Pea-
C27+] L ,u. x
He died in cocks, cranes of Malta, nightingales, venison, wild Luxury.
and tame fowl, were considered as delicacies. A pro-'   
fusion of provisions was the reigning taste. Whole
wild boars wrere often served up, and sometimes they
were Ailed with various small animals, and birds ot
different kinds : this dish they called the Trojan horse,
in allusion to the wooden horse Ailed with soldiera.
Fowls and game of all sorts were served up in whole
pyramids, piled up in dishes as broad as moderate
tables. Lucullus had a particular name for each
apartment; and in whatever room he ordered his ser¬
vants to prepare the entertainment, they knew by the
direction the expence to which they were to go.
When he supped in the Apollo, the expence was Ax¬
ed at 50,000 drachmee, that is 1250I. M. Antony
provided eight boars lor 12 guests. Vitelhus had a
large silver platter, said to have cost a million of se¬
sterces, called Minerva'1 s buckler. In this he blended
together the livers of gilt-heads, the brains ol phea¬
sants and peacocks, the tongues of phenicopters, and
the milts of lampreys. Caligula served up to his guests
pearls of great value dissolved in vinegar j the same
was done also by Clodius the son of ^dosop the trage¬
dian. Apicius laid aside 90,000,000 of sesterces, be¬
sides a mighty revenue, lor no other purpose but to be
sacriAced to luxury j Anding himself involved in debt,
he looked over his accounts, and though he had the
sum of 10,000,000 of sestei'ces still left, he poisoned
himself for fear of being starved to death.
The Roman laws to restrain luxury were Lex Orchia,
Fannia, THdia, Licinia, Cornelia, and many others:
But all these were too little ; for as riches increased
amongst them, so did sensuality.
What were the ideas of luxury entertained in Eng¬
land about two centuries ago, may be gathered from
the following passage ol Holinshed } who, in a discourse
preAxed to his History, speaking oi the increase of
luxury, says, “ Neither do I speak this in reproach,
of any man, God is my judge 5 but to show, that
I do rejoice rather to see how God has blessed us with,
his good gifts, and to behold how that in a time
wherein all things are grown to the most excessive
prices, we yet do And means to obtain and atchieve
such furniture as heretofore was impossible. There
are old men yet dwelling in the village where I remain,
which have noted three things to be marvellously al¬
tered in England within their sound remembrance. One
is the multitude of chimneys lately erected } whereas
in their young days there were not above two or three,
if so many, in most uplandish towns of the realm (the
religious houses, and manor places ol their lords, al¬
ways excepted, and peradventure some great person-
ages), but each made his Are against a reredoss
[skreen] in the hall, where he dressed his meat and
dined.—The second is the great amendment ol lodg¬
ing j for, said they, our fathers and we ourselves have-
lain full oft upon straw pallets covered only with a
sheet, under eoverlits made of a dogswaine or horhar-
riots (to use their own terms), and a good log under- t
their head instead of a bolster.—-If it were so that
the father or goodman of the house had a mattrass,.
or flock bed and sheets, a sack, of chaff to rest his
head upon, he thought himself to be as well lodged
as the lord of the town. So well were they con¬
tented, that pillows (said they) were thought meet %
only
LUX
luxury, only for women in childbed j as for servants, if they
——v—had any sheet above them it was well; for seldom had
they any under their bodies to keep them from prick¬
ing straws, that ran oft through the canvas and their
hardened hides.—The third thing they tell of, is the
exchange of treene [wooden] platters into pewter, and
v/ooden spoons into silver or tin ; for so common were
all sorts of treene vessels in old times, that a man should
hardly find four pieces pewter (of which one was per-
adventure a salt) in a good farmer’s house. Again, In
times past, men were contented to dwell in houses
buildcd of sallow, willow, &c. so that the use of oak
was in a manner dedicated wholly unto churches, reli¬
gious houses, princes palaces, navigation, &c. But
now willow, &c. are rejected, and nothing but oak
anywhere regarded; and yet see the change, for when
our houses were builded of willow, then had we oaken
men 5 but now that our houses are come to be made of
oak, our men are not only become willow, but a great
many altogether of straw, which is a sore alteration.
In these the courage of the owner was a sufficient de¬
fence to keep the house in safety j but now the assurance
of the timber must defend the men from robbing. Now
have we many chimneys, and yet our tenderlins com¬
plain of rheums, catarrhs, and poses 5 then had we
none but reredoses, and our heads did never ache. For
as the smoke in those days were supposed to be suffi¬
cient hardening for the timber of the house ; so it was
reputed a far better medicine to keep the goodman and
his family from the quacks or pose; wherewith, as then,
very few were acquainted. Again, Our pewterers in
time past employed the use of pewter only upon dishes
and pots, and a few other trifles for service j whereas
now they are grown into such exquisite cunning, that
they can in a manner imitate by infusion any form or
fashion of cup, dish, salt, bowl, or goblet, which is
made by the goldsmith’s craft, though they be ever so
curious and very artificially forged. In some places
beyond the sea, a garnish of good flat English pewter
(l say flat, because dishes and platters in my time be¬
gan to be made deep, and like basons, and are indeed
more convenient both for sauce and keeping the meat
warm) is esteemed so precious as the like number of
vessels that are made of fine silver.”
Particular instances of luxury, in eating, however,
might be adduced from an earlier period, surpassing
even the extravagance of the Romans. Thus, in the
roth year of the reign of Edward IV. (1470), George
Nevill, brother to the earl of Warwick, at his instal¬
ment into the archiepiscopal see of York, entertained
most of the nobility and principal clergy j when his
bill of fare was 300 quarters of wheat, 350 tuns of
ale, 104 tuns of wine, a pipe of spiced wine, 80 fat
oxen, six wild bulls, 1004 weathers, 300 hogs, 300
calves, 3000 geese, 3000 capons, 3C0 pigs, 100 pea¬
cocks, 200 cranes, 200 kids, 2000 chickens, 4000
pigeons, 4000 rabbits, 204 bitterns, 4000 ducks, 200
pheasants, 500 partridges, 200 woodcocks, 400 plo¬
vers, xoo curlews, 100 quails, 1000 egrets, 200 rees,
400 bucks, does, and roebucks, 1506 hot venison pas¬
ties, 4000 cold ditto, 1000 dishes of jelly parted, 4003
dishes of jelly plain, 4333 cold custards, 2033 hot cus¬
tards, 333 pikes, 333 breams, eight seals, four porpus-
ses, 433 tarts. At this feast the earl of Warwick was
steward, the earl of Bedford treasurer, and Lord Has-
t. 275 ]
LUX
tings comptroller, with many more noble officers •, 1000
servitors, 62 cooks, 515 menial apparitors in the kit¬
chen.—But such was the fortune of the man, that after
his extreme prodigality he died in the most abject but
unpitied poverty, vmetust jacuit in summa inopia.
And as to dress, luxury in that article seems to have
attained a great height long before Holinshed’s time :
I or in the reign of Edward III. we find no fewer than
seven sumptuary laws passed in one session of parlia¬
ment to restrain it. It was enacted, that men servants of
lords, as also of tradesmen and artisans, shall be content
with one meal of fish or flesh every day j and the other
meals, daily, shall be of milk, cheese, butter and the
like. Neither shall they use any ornaments of gold,
silk, or embroidery ; nor their wives and daughters any
veils above the price of twelvepence. Artisans and
yeomen shall not wear cloth above 43s. the whole piece
(the finest then being about 61. per piece), nor the or¬
naments before named. Nor the women any veils of
silk, but only those of thread made in England. Gen¬
tlemen under the degree of knights, not having 130I.
yearly in land, shall not wear any cloth above 44-
marks the whole piece. Neither shall they or their fe¬
males use cloth of gold, silver, or embroidery, &c.
But esquires having 233I. per annum or upwards of
rent, may wear cloths of five marks the whole piece of
cloth ; and they and their females may also wear stuff
of silk, silver, ribbons, girdles, or furs. Merchants,
citizens, burghers, and artificers or tradesmen, as well
of London as elsewhere, who have goods and chattels
of the clear value of 500b and their females, may wear
as is allowed to gentlemen and esquires of 130I. per an¬
num. And merchants, citizens, and burgesses, worth
above 1333I. in goods and chattels, may (and their fe¬
males) wear the same as gentlemen of 230I. per annum.
Knights of 230 marks yearly may wear cloth of six
marks the cloth, but no higher ; but no cloth of gold,
nor furred with ermine : but all knights and ladies ha¬
ving above 400 marks yearly, up to 1300I. per annum,
may wear as they please, ermine excepted} and they
may wear ornaments of pearl and precious stones for
their heads only. Clerks having degrees in cathedrals,
colleges, &c. may wear as knights and esquires of the
same income. Plowmen, carters, shepherds, and such
like, not having 40s. value in goods or chattels, shall
wear no sort of cloth but blanket and russet lawn of 12d.
and shall wear girdles and belts ; and they shall only
eat and drink suitable to their stations. And whoso¬
ever uses other apparel than is prescribed by the above
laws shall forfeit the same.
Concerning the general utility of luxury to a state,
there is much difference of opinion among political
writers. Baron Montesquieu asserts, that luxury is ne¬
cessary in monarchies, as in France 5 but ruinous to de¬
mocracies, as in Holland. With regard therefore to
Britain, whose government is compounded of both spe¬
cies, it is held to be a dubious question, how far private
luxury is a public evil j and, as such, cognizable by
public laws. And indeed our legislators have several
times changed their sentiments as to this point •, for for¬
merly there were a number of penal laws existing to re¬
strain excess in apparel, chiefly made in the reigns of
Edward III. IV. and Henry VIII. a specimen of which
we have inserted above. But all of them it appeared
expedient to repeal at an after period. In fact, although
M m 2 . luxury
Luxury.
Luxury
II
Lycaon.
L Y C [
luxury will of necessity increase according to the influx
of wealth, it may not be for the general benefit of com¬
merce to impose, as in the above cited laws, an abso¬
lute prohibition of every degree of it 5 yet, for the good
of the public, it may be necessary that such as go be¬
yond proper bounds in eating, drinking, and wearing
what by no means is suitable to their station, should be
taxed accordingly, could it be done without including
those who have "a better title to such indulgence. This
is certainly, however, a point which should be maturely
weighed before executed ; and, in mercantile countries
at least, such restraints may be found prejudicial, most
likely impracticable, especially where true liberty is
established. Sir William Temple observes, speaking
of the trade and riches, and at the same time of the
frugality of the Hollanders, “ That some of our max¬
ims are not so certain as current in politics : as that en¬
couragement of excess and luxury if employed in the
consumption of native commodities, is of advantage to
trade. It may be so to that which impoverishes, but not
to that which enriches a country. It is indeed less
prejudicial, if it lies in native than in foreign wares :
but the humour of luxury and expence cannot stop at
certain bounds ; what begins in native will proceed to
foreign commodities } and though the example arise
among idle persons, yet the imitation will run into all
degrees, even of those men by whose industry the na¬
tion subsists. And besides, the more of our own ive
spend, the less shall we have to send abroad ; and so it
will come to pass, that while we drive a vast trade, yet,
by buying much more than we self we shall come to be
poor at last.”
LYBIA, or Libya, a name anciently given to all
that part of Africa lying between the border of E-
gypt and the river Triton j and comprehending Cyre-
naica, Marmarica, and the Regio Syrtica. See these
articles.
LYCiEUM, Avhuov, in antiquity, the name of a
celebrated school or academy at Athens, where Ari¬
stotle explained his philosophy. The place was com¬
posed of porticoes and trees planted in the quincunx
form, where the philosophers disputed walking. Hence
philosophy of the Lycceum is used to signify the philoso¬
phy of Aristotle, or the Peripatetic philosophy. Suidas
observes, that the Lycaeum took its name from its hav¬
ing been originally a temple of Apollo Lycaeus ; or
rather a portico or gallery built by Lycseus son of
Apollo ; but others mention it to have been built by
Pisistratus or Pericles.
LYCiEUS, in Ancient Geography^ a mountain of
Arcadia, sacred to Jupiter } whence Jupiter Lycans
(Pliny). Sacred also to Pan (Virgil) 5 and hence Ly-
ccea, the rites performed to Pan on this mountain ;
which Evander carrying with him to Latium, were
called Lupercalia (Virgil).
LYCAON, in fabulous history, the first king of
Arcadia, son of Pelasgus and Meliboea. Hp built a
town called Lycosura, on the top of Mount Lycaeus,
ui honour of Jupiter. He had many wives, by whom
he had a daughter called Callisto, and 50 sons. He
was succeeded on the throne by Nyctimus, the eldest of
his sons. He lived about 1820 years before the Chris¬
tian era.—Another king of Arcadia, celebrated for his
cruelties. He was changed into a wolf by Jupiter, be¬
cause he offered human victims on the altar of the god
4
276 ]
Pan.
L Y C
Some attribute this metamorphosis to another Lyeaon
cause. The sins of mankind, as they relate, were be- I!
come so enormous, that Jupiter visited the earth to pu- LycoincJcs
nish wickedness and impiety. He came to Arcadia,
where he was announced as a god, and the people be¬
gan to pay proper adoration to his divinity. Lycaon,
however, who used to sacrifice all strangers to his wan¬
ton cruelty, laughed at the pious prayers of his subjects ;
and to try the divinity of the god, he served up human
flesh on his table. This impiety so irritated Jupiter,
that he immediately destroyed the house of Lycaon,
and changed him into a wolf.
LYCAONIA, in Ancient Geography, a small coun¬
try of the Hither Asia, contained between Pamphylia
to the south, Cappadocia to the north, Pisidia and Phry¬
gia to the west, and Armenia Minor to the east. Ly-
caones, the people. This country, though situated
very near Mount Taurus, and part of it on it, yet the
Romans reckoned it in Asia intra Taurum. Arca¬
dia, anciently called Lycaonia (Stephanus.)—Also an
island in the Tiber, joined to Rome by a bridge, and
to the land by another, namely, the Cestius and Fabri-
cius.
LYCHNIS, Campion, including also Catch-fly,
&c. ; a genus of plants belonging to the decandria
class, and order pentagyniaand in the natural method
ranking under the 22(1 order, Caryophyllce. See Bo¬
tany Index.
LYCIA, a country of Asia Minor, bounded by the
Mediterranean on the south, Caria on the west, Pam¬
phylia on the east, and Phrygia on the north. It was
anciently called Milyas and Tremile, from the Milyae,
or Solymi, a people of Crete, who came to settle there.
The country received the name of Lycia from Lycus
the son of Pandion, who established himself there.
The inhabitants have been greatly commended by all
the ancients for their sobriety and justice. They w'ere.
conquered by Croesus king of Lydia, and afterwards
by Cyrus. Though they wrere subject to the power of
Persia, yet they were governed by their own kings,
and only paid a yearly tribute to the Persian monarch.
They became part of the Macedonian empire when
Alexander came into the east, and afterwards were
ceded to the house of the Seleucidae. The country was
reduced into a Roman province by the emperor Clau¬
dius.
LYCIUM, a genus of plants belonging to the pent-
andria class ; and in the natural method ranking under
the 28th order, Luridce. See Botany Index.
LYCODONTES, the petrified teeth of the lupus-
piscis, or wolf-fish, frequently found fossil. They are
of different shapes j but the most common kind rise into
a semiorbicular form, and are hollow within, somewhat
resembling an acorn-cup; this hollow is found some¬
times empty, and sometimes filled with the stratum in
which it is immersed. Many of them have an outer
circle of a difi’erent colour from the rest.
LYCOMEDES, in fabulous history, a king of Scy-
ros, an island in the iEgean sea. He was son of Apollo
and Parthenope. He was secretly intrusted with the
care of young Achilles, whom his mother Thetis had
disguised in woman’s clothes, to remove him from the
' Trojan war, where she knew he must unavoidably pe¬
rish. Lycomedes has rendered himself famous for his
treachery to Theseus, who had implored his protection
when
L Y C
[ 277 J
L Y D
iycomedcs when driven from his throne of Athens by the usurper
|| Mnestheus. Lycomedes, as it is reported, either en-
Lycurgus. v;ous 0f the fame of his illustrious guest, or bribed by
u^ the emissaries of Mnestheus, led Theseus to an eleva¬
ted place, on pretence to show him the extent of his
dominions, and perfidiously threw him down a preci¬
pice, where he was killed.
LYCOPERDON, a genus of plants belonging to
the cryptogamia class. See Botany Index.
LYCOPERSICON. See Solanum, Botany In¬
dex.
LYCOPHRON, a famous Greek poet and gram¬
marian, born at Colchis in Euboea, flourished about
304 B. C. and, according to Ovid, was killed by an
arrow. He wrote 20 tragedies j but all his works are
lost, except a poem entitled Cassatidra, which contains
a long train of predictions, which he supposes to
have been made by Cassandra, Priam’s daughter.
This poem is extremely obscure. The best edition of
it is that of Dr Potter, printed at Oxford in 1697,
folio.
LYCOPODIUM, or Club-moss j a genus of plants
belonging to the cryptogamia class. See Botany In¬
dex.
LYCOPOLIS, or Lycon, in Ancient Geography,
so called from the worship of wolves. Lycopolitce, the
people j Lycopolites, the district. There were two
towns of this name, one in the Delta, or Lower
Egypt, near the Mediterranean 5 the other in the The-
bais, or Higher Egypt, in the northern part, to the
west of the Nile.
LYCOPSIS, a genus of plants belonging to the
pentandria class 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 41st order, Asperifolice. See Botany Index.
LYCOPUS, a genus of plants belonging to the di-
andria class; and in the natural method ranking under
the 42d order, Verticillatce. See Botany Index.
LYCURGIA, a festival observed by the Spartans,
in memory of their lawgiver Lycurgus, whom they ho¬
noured with a temple and anniversary sacrifice.
LYCURGUS, the celebrated legislator of the Spar¬
tans, was the son of Eunomes king of Sparta.—He
travelled to Greece to the isle of Crete, to Egypt, and
even to the Indies, to converse with the sages and learn¬
ed men of those countries, and to learn their manners,
their customs, and their laws. After the death of his
brother Polydectes, who was king of Sparta, his wi¬
dow offered the crown to Lycurgus, promising that she
would make herself miscarry of the child of which she
was pregnant, provided he would marry her j but Ly¬
curgus nobly refused these advantageous offers, and af¬
terwards contented himself with being tutor to his ne¬
phew Charillus, and restored to him the government
when he came of age j but notwithstanding this regular
and generous conduct, he was accused of a design to
usurp the crown. This calumny obliged him to retire
to the island of Crete, where he applied himself to the
study of the laws and customs of nations. At his return
to Lacedaemon, he reformed the government : and, to
prevent the disorders occasioned by luxury and the love
of riches, he prohibited the use of gold and silver ; pla¬
ced all the citizens in a state of equality j and intro¬
duced the strictest temperance, the most exact discip¬
line, and those admirable laws which (a few except-
ed) have been celebrated by all historians. It is said,
that, to engage the Lacedaemonians to observe them Lycureus
inviolably, he made them promise with an oath not to ||
change any part of them till his return j and that he Lydia.
afterwards went to the island of Crete, where he killed v~—'
himself, after having ordered that his ashes should be
thrown into the sea, for fear lest if his body should be
carried to Sparta the Lacedsemonians would think them¬
selves absolved from their oath. He flourished about
870 B. C.
LYDD, a town of England, in Kent, two miles
and a half south-west of Romney, of which town and
port it is a member, and 71 miles from London. It is
a populous town, and is incorporated by the name of a
bailiff, jurats, and commonalty. In the beach near
Stone-end, is a heap of stones, fancied to be the tomb
of Crispin and Crispianus 5 and near the sea is a place
called Holmstone, consisting of beach and pebble-stones,
which abounds with holm trees.
LYDGATE, John, called the Monk of Bury ; not,
as Cibber conjectures, because he was a native of that
place, for he was born about the year 1380, in the vil¬
lage of Lydgate: but because he was a monk of the
Benedictine convent at St Edmund’s-Bury. After stu¬
dying some time in our English universities, he travei-
len to France and Italy : and, having acquired a com¬
petent knowledge of the languages of those countries,
he returned to London, where he opened a school, in
which he instructed the sons of the nobility in polite li¬
terature. At what time he retired to the convent of
St Edmund’s-Bury, does not appear ; but he was cer¬
tainly there in 1415. He was living in 1446, aged
about 66 } but in what year he died is not known.
Lydgate, according to Pits, was an elegant poet, a
persuasive rhetorician, an expert mathematician, an
acute philosopher, and a tolerable divine. He was a
voluminous writer j and, considering the age in which
he lived, an excellent poet. His language is less obso¬
lete, and his versification much more harmonious, than
the language and versification of Chaucer, who wrote
about half a century before him. He wrote, 1. History
of the Theban war, printed at the end of Chaucer’s
works, 1561, 1602, 1687. 2. Poemation of good
counsel j at the end of Chaucer’s works. 3. The life of
Hector j London 1594, folio, printed by Gross, dedi¬
cated to Henry V. 4. Life of the blessed Virgin j
printed by Caxton. 5. The proverbs of Lydgate upon
the fall of princes; printed by Wink. Word, London,
4to. 6. Dispute of the horse, the sheep, and the goose j
printed in Caxton’s Collect. 410. 7. The temple of
brass 5 among the works of Chaucer. 8. London lick-
penny j vide Stow’s history, &c. &c. Besides an in¬
credible number of other poems and translations preser¬
ved in various libraries, and of which the reader wdl
find a catalogue in Bishop Tanner.
LYDIA, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated king¬
dom of Asia Minor.—All the ancient writers tell us,
that Lydia was first called Maonia or Meonia, from
Meon king of Phrygia and Lydia 5 and that it was
known under no other denomination till the reign of
Atys, when it began to be called Lydia from his son
Lydus. Bochart finding in his learned collection of
Phoenician words the verb hex, signifying “ to wind,”
and observing that the country we are speaking of is
watered by the Maeander so famous for its windings,
concludes that it was thence named Lydia, or Ludia.
A 3:
L Y D [ 278 ]
As to the ancient name of Maeonia, he takes it to be a phale
Greek translation of the Phoenician word ludwherein
he agrees in some measure with Stephanus, who derives
the name of Maeonia from Maeon the ancient name
of the Mseander. Some take the word mceonia to he
a translation of a Hebrew word signifying “ metal,”
because that country, say they, was in former times
enriched above any other with mines. Though Lydia
and Maeonia are by most authors indifferently used for
one and the same country, yet they are sometimes
distinguished; that part where Mount Tmolus stood,
watered by the Pactolus, being properly called M&o-
nia ; and the other, lying on the coast, Lydia. This
distinction is used by Homer, Callimachus, Dionysius,
and other ancient writers. In after ages, when the
lonians, who had planted a colony on the coast of the
Egean sea, began to make some rigure, that part was
called Ionia, and the name of Lydia given to the an¬
cient Mseonia.—Lydia, according to Pliny, Ptolemy,
and other ancient geographers, wras bounded by My-
sia Major on the north, by Caria on the south, by
Phrygia Major on the east, and Ionia on the west, ly¬
ing between the 37th and 39th degrees of north lati¬
tude. What the ancients style the kingdom of Lydia
was not confined within these narrow boundaries, but
extended from Halys to the Egean sea. Pliny’s de¬
scription includes iEolia, lying between the Hermus
and the Cai’cus.
As to the origin of the Lydians, Josephus, and
after him all the ecclesiastical writers, derive them
from Lud, Shem’s fourth son ; but this opinion has
no other foundation than the similitude of names.
Some of the ancients will have the Lydians to be a
mixed colony of Phrygians, Mysians, and Carians.
Others finding some conformity in religion and reli¬
gious ceremonies between the Egyptians and Tuscans
who were a Lydian colony, conclude them, without
any farther evidence, to be originally Egyptians. All
we know for certain is, that the Lydians were a very
ancient nation, as is manifest from their very fables}
for Atys, Tantalus, Pelops, Niobe, and Arachne, are
all said to have been the children of Lydus. And Zan-
thus in his Lydiaca, quoted by Stephanus, informs us,
that the ancient city of Ascalon, one of the five sa¬
trapies of the Philistines, mentioned in the books of
Joshua and the Judges, was built by one Ascalus a Ly¬
dian, whom Achiamus king of Lydia had appointed to
command a body of troops which he sent, wre know
not ■ on what occasion, into Syria. The Heraclidae,
or kings of Lydia descended from Hercules, began to
reign before the Irojan war 5 and had been preceded
by a long series of sovereigns sprung from Atys, and
hence styled Atyada ; a strong proof of the antiquity
of that kingdom.
The Lydians began very early to be ruled by kings,
whose government seems to have been truly despotic,
and the crown hereditary. We read of three distinct
races of kings reigning over Lydia, viz. the Atyadoe,
the Heraclidse, and the Mermnad®.
I he Atyadtr were so called from Atys the son of Co-
tys, and grandson of Manes the first Lydian king. But
the history of this family is obscure and fabulous.
The Atyadse were succeeded by the Herachdee, or
the descendants of Hercules. For Hercules being,
L Y D
queen df Lydia, to expiate the murder of
Iphitus, had, during his captivity, by one of her1
slaves, a son named Cleolaus, whose grandson Argon
was the first of the Heraclidae that ascended the throne
of Lydia. This race is said to have reigned 505
years; the son succeeding the father for 2 2 gene¬
rations. They began to reign about the time of the
Trojan war. The last of the family was the unhappy
Candaules, who lost both his life and kingdom by his
imprudence : an event of which we have the following
account by Herodotus. Candaules had a wife whom
he passionately loved, and believed the most beautiful
of her sex. He extolled her charms to Gyges his fa¬
vourite, whom he used to intrust with his most important
affairs; and the more to convince him of her beauty,
resolved to show her to him quite naked; he accord¬
ingly placed him in the porch of her chamber where
the queen used to undress when she went to bed, or¬
dering him to retire after he should have seen her,
and take all possible care not to be observed. But
notwithstanding all the caution he could use, she plain¬
ly discovered him going out; and though she did not
doubt but it was her husband’s contrivance, yet she
passed that night in a seeming tranquillity, suppres¬
sing her resentment till next morning, when she sent
for Gyges, and resolutely told him that he must either
by his death atone for the criminal action he had been
guilty of, or put to death Candaules the contriver of
it, and receive both her and the kingdom of Lydia
for his reward. Gyges at first earnestly begged of
her that she vrould not drive him to the necessity of
such a choice. But finding that he could not prevail
with her, and that he must either kill his master or
die himself, he chose the former part of the alterna¬
tive. Being led by the queen to the same place where
her husband had posted him the night before, he stab¬
bed the king while he was asleep, married the queen,
and took possession of the kingdom, in which he was
confirmed by the answer of the Delphic oracle. Ihe
Lydians having taken up arms to revenge the death
of their prince, an agreement wTas made between them
and the followers of Gyges, that if the oracle should
declare him to be lawful king of Lydia, he should be
permitted to reign; if not, he should resign the crown
to the Heraclidoe. The answer of the oracle proving
favourable to Gyges, he was universally acknowledged
for lawful king of Lydia. Candaules is said to have
purchased a picture painted by Bularchas, representing
a battle of the Magnetos, for its weight in gold ; a
Lvdia.
>y the direction of the oracle, sold as a slave to Om-
3
circumstance which shows how early the art of paint¬
ing began to be in request, for Candaules was cotem
porary with Romulus.
Gyges having thus possessed himself of the kingdom
of Lydia, sent many rich and valuable presents to
the oracle of Delphos ; among others, six cups of
gold weighing 30 talents, and greatly esteemed for
the workmanship. He made war on Miletus and
Smyrna, took the city of Colophon, and subdued the
whole country of Troas. In his reign, and by his
permission, the city of Abydus was built by the Mi¬
lesians. Plutarch and other writers relate his acces¬
sion to the crown of Lydia in a quite different man¬
ner, and tell us, without making any mention of the
queen, that Gyges rebelled against Candaules and slew
him in an engagement. In Gyges began the third
race.
L Y D
Lydia, race, called Mermnadce ; who were also, properly speak-
—v——^ ing, Heraclidae, being descended from a son of Her¬
cules by Omphale. Gyges reigned 38 years, and was
succeeded by his son Ardyes.
This prince carried on the war against the Milesians
which his father had begun, and possessed himself of
Priene, in those days a strong city. In his reign the
Cimmerians invaded and overran all Asia Minor j but
what battles were fought against the Lydians and
these invaders, and with what success, we find no where
mentioned. Herodotus only informs us, that in the
time of Ardyes they possessed themselves of Sardis, the
metropolis of Lydia, but could never reduce the castle.
Ardyes reigned 49 years, and was succeeded by his son
Sadyattes, who reigned 12 years, and warred most part
of his reign with the Milesians.
After him came his son Alyattes, who for the space
of five years continued the war which his father had
begun against the Milesians, ravaging their country,
and about harvest time carrying atvay all their corp
yearly, in order to oblige them, for want of provisions,
to surrender their city, which he knew he could not
reduce any other way, the Milesians being at that time
masters of the sea. In the 12th year of this war the
Lydians having set fire to the coin in the fields, the
flames were carried by a violent wind, which happened
to blow at that time, to the temple of Minerva at
Assesus, and burnt it down to the ground. Not long
after, Alyattes falling sick, sent to consult the oracle
at Delphos; which refused to return any answer till
such time as the king should rebuild the temple of
Minerva at Assesus. Alyattes, thus warned, despatched
ambassadors to Miletus, enjoining them to conclude
a truce with the Milesians till the temple should be
rebuilt. On the arrival of the ambassadors, Thrasy-
bulus, then king of Miletus, commanded all the corn
that was at that time in the city to be brought into
the market-place, ordering the citizens to banquet
in public, and revel as if the city were plentifully
stored with all manner of provisions. This stratagem
^hrasybulus practised, to the end that the ambassadors
seeing such quantities of corn, and the people every¬
where diverting themselves, might acquaint their master
with their affluence, and divert him from pursuing the
war. As Thrasybulus had designed, so it happened 5
for Alyattes, who believed the Milesians greatly dis¬
tressed for provisions, receiving a different account from
his ambassadors, changed the truce into a lasting peace,
and ever afterwards lived in amity and friendship with
Hirasybulus and the Milesians. He was succeeded,
after a reign of 57 years, by his son Croesus, whose
uninterrupted prosperity, in the first years of his reign,
far eclipsed the glory of his predecessors. He was the
first that made war on the Ephesians, whose city he
[ 279 ]
L Y D
directly fronting his dominions. But this design, which,
considering the slow progress in maritime power among 1
the nations most diligent to attain it, would probably
have failed of success, was prevented by the advice of
a philosophical traveller, conveyed in such a lively turn
of wit as easily changed the resolution of the kino-.
Bias of Briene in Ionia, some SayPittacus ofMitylene
m the isle of Lesbos, while he travelled after the
Grecian custom, from curiosity and a love of knowledge,
was presented to Croesus at the Lydian court; and
being asked by that prince what news from Greece ;
he answered with a republican freedom, that the islanders
had collected powerful squadrons of cavalry with an
intention of invading Lydia. “ May the gods grant
(said Croesus), that the Greeks, who are unacquainted
ivith horsemanship, should attack the disciplined valour
ol the Lydian cavalry j there would soon be an end to
the contest.” “ In the same manner (replied Bias), as
if the Lydians, who are totally unexperienced in naval
affairs, should invade the Grecians by sea.” Struck
by the acuteness of this unexpected observation, Croesus
desisted from his intended expedition against the islands,
and instead of employing new means for extending
his conquests, determined peaceably to enjoy the lau¬
rels which he had won, and to display the grandeur
which he had attained. But his happiness wras soon
after allayed by the death of his favourite son Atys,
who was unfortunately killed at the chase of a wild
boar. For this loss he continued disconsolate for two
years and in a state of inaction, till the conquests of
Cyrus, and growing power of the Persians, roused up
his martial spirit, and diverted his mind to other
thoughts. He apprehended that the success which
attended Cyrus in all his undertakings, might at last
prove dangerous to himself, and therefore resolved to
put a stop, if possible, to his progress. In taking this
resolution, which might probably be attended with
the most important consequences, he was desirous to
learn the will of heaven concerning the issue of the war.
The principal oracles which he consulted were those
of Branchis in Ionia, of Hammon in Libya, and of
Delphi in Greece. Among these respected shrines,
the oracle of Delphi maintained its ascendant, as
the most faithful interpreter of fate. Croesus was
fully persuaded of its veracity 5 and desirous generously
to compensate for the trouble which he had already-
given, and still meant to give, the priests of Apollo,
he sacrificed 3000 oxen to the god, and adorned his
shrine with dedications equally valuable for the work¬
manship and for the materials 5 precious vessels of
silver, ewers of iron beautifully inlaid and enamelled ;
various ornaments of pure gold, particularly a golden
lion weighing ten talents, and a female figure three
cubits or near five feet high. In return for these mag-
, . . .   — ; » ui ntcu uve iccl uigu. in return tor tnese mag-
esieget an took, notwithstanding their consecrating it mficent presents, the oracle, in ambiguous language,
to JJiana, and fasteninp- the walls hv a 7-nn.. tn hor       
to Diana, and fastening the walls by a rope to her
temple, which was seven stadia distant from the city.
After the reduction of Ephesus, he attacked, under
various pretences, the lonians and ^Folians, obliging
them, and all the other Greek states of Asia, to pay him
a yearly tribute. Having met with such extraordinary
success by land, the Lydian prince determined to render
ms power equally conspicuous by sea. For this purpose
fte thought seriously of equipping a fleet; with which
he purposed to invade and conquer the Greciau islands
flattered Croesus with obtaining an easy victory over
his enemies, and with enjoying a long life and a pro¬
sperous reign. The god at the same time enjoined
him to contract an alliance with the most powerful of
the Grecian states.
Elevated with these favourable predictions of Apollo,
Crcesus prepared to yield a ready obedience to the only
condition required on his part for the accomplishment
of his aspiring purpose. Not deeming himself sufficiently
acquainted with the affairs of Greece, to know what-
particular
Lydia.
L Y D [
particular republic teas meant by the oracle, he made
particular inquiry oi those best informed concerning
the state of Europe j and discovered, that among all
the members of the Grecian confederacy, the Athenians
and Lacedaemonians were justly entitled to the pie-
eminence. In order to learn which of these communi¬
ties deserved the epithet of most powerful, it was
necessary to send ambassadors into Greece. . r he
Lydians despatched with this important commission,
soon discovered that the Athenians after having been
long harassed by internal dissensions, were actually
governed by the tyrant Pisistratus. Ihe Spartans, on
the other hand, though anciently the worst regulated
of all the Grecian communities, had enjoyed domestic
peace and foreign prosperity ever since they had
adopted the wise institutions ol Lycurgus. After^ that
memorable period, they had repeatedly conquered the
warlike Argivcs, triumphed over the hardy Arcadians ;
and notwithstanding the heroic exploits ot Aristomenes,
subdued and enslaved their unfortunate rivals of Messene.
To the Lydian ambassadors, therefore, the Spartan
republic appeared to be pointed out by the oracle, as
the community whose alliance they were enjoined to
solicit. Having repaired accordingly to Sparta, they
were introduced not only to the kings and senate,
but, as the importance of the negociation required,
to the general assembly of the Lacedaemonians, to
whom they, in few words, declared the object of their
commission j “ We are sent, O Lacedaemonians ! by
Croesus, king of the Lydians and of many other nations,
who being commanded by the oracle of Apollo to seek
the friendship of the most powerful people of Greece,
now summons you, who justly merit that epithet, to
become his faithful allies, in obedience to the will of
the god whose authority you acknowledge.” The
Lacedaemonians, pleased with the alliance ot a warlike
king, and still more with the fame of their valour,
readily accepted the proposal. To the strict connexion
of an ofiensive and defensive league, they joined the
more respected ties of sacred hospitality. A tew yeai’3
before this transaction, they had sent to purchase gold
at Sardis for making a statue of Apollo. Croesus
had on that occasion gratuitously supplied their want.
Semembering this generosity, they gave the Lydian
ambassadors at their departure, as a present for their
master, a vessel of brass containing 3CO amphoras
(above 12 hogsheads), and beautifully carved on the
outside with various forms of animals.
Croesus, having thus happily accomplished the de¬
sign recommended by the oracle, was eager to set out
upon his intended expedition. He had formerly en¬
tered into alliance with Amasis king of Egypt, and
Labynetus king of Babylon. He had now obtained
the friendship of the most warlike nation of Europe.
The newly raised power of Cyrus and the Persians
seemed incapable of resisting such a formidable confe¬
deracy.
Elevated with these flattering ideas of his own in¬
vincible greatness, Croesus waited not to attack the
Persian dominions until he had collected the strength
of his allies. The sanguine impetuosity of his temper,
unexperienced in adversity, unfortunately precipitated
him into measures no less ruinous than daring. At¬
tended only by the arms of Lydia, and a numerous
band of mercenaries, whom his immense wealth enabled
280 j L ^ ^
him at any time to call into his service, he marched j
tawards the river Halys; and having crossed with'—
much difficulty that deep and broad stream, entered
the province ot Cappadocia, which formed the w'estern
frontier of the Median dominions. That unfortunate
country soon experienced all the calamities ot invasion.
The Pterian plain, the most beautiful and the most
fertile district of Cappadocia, was laid waste j the
ports of the Euxine, as well as several inland cities,
were plundered-, and the inoffensive inhabitants were
either put to the sword or dragged into captivity.
Encouraged by the unresisting sottness ot the natives
of those parts, Crmsus was eager to push forwards j
and if Cyrus did not previously meet him in the field,
he had determined to proceed in triumph to the moun¬
tains of Persia. Against this dangerous resolution
he was in vain exhorted by a Lydian named Sandanis;
who, when asked his opinion of the war, declared it
with that freedom which the princes of the east have
in every age permitted, amidst all the pride and ca¬
prices of despotic power, to men distinguished by the
gifts of nature or education. “ You are preparing,
O king, to march against a people who lead a labo¬
rious and a miserable life j whose daily subsistence is
often denied them, and is always scanty and precarious;
who drink only water, and who are clothed with the
skins of wild beasts. What can the Lydians gain by
the conquest of Persia; they who enjoy all the ad¬
vantages of which the Persians are destitute ? For my
part, I deem it a blessing of the gods, that they have
not excited the warlike poverty of these miserable bar¬
barians to invade and plunder the luxurious wealth of
Lydia.” The moderation of this advice was rejected
by the fatal presumption of Croesus ; who confounding
the dictates of experienced wisdom with the mean sug¬
gestions of pusillanimity, dismissed the counsellor with
contempt.
Meanwhile, the approach of Cyrus, who was not of
a temper to permit his dominions to be ravaged with
impunity, afforded the Lydian king an opportunity of
bringing the. v.rar to a more speedy issue than by his in¬
tended expedition into Persia. The army of Cyrus
gradually augmented on his march : the tributary
princes cheerfully contributing with their united
strength towards the assistance of a master whose va¬
lour and generosity they admired, and who now took
arms to protect the safety of his subjects, as well as to
support the grandeur of his throne. Such was the ra¬
pidity of his movement, especially after being inform¬
ed of the destructive ravages of the enemy in Cappa¬
docia, that he arrived from the shores of the Caspian
to those of the Euxine sea before the army of Croesus
had provided the necessaries for their journey. rIhat
prince, when apprised ot the neighbourhood of the
Persians, encamped on the Pterian plain ; Cyrus like¬
wise encamped at no great distance; frequent skirmishes
happened between the light troops ; and at length a
general engagement wras fought with equal fury and
perseverance, and only terminated by the darkness oi
night. The loss on both sides hindered a renewal of
the battle. The numbers, as well as the courage of
the Persians, much exceeded the expectation of Crce-
sus. As they discovered not any intention to harass
his retreat, he determined to move back towards Sar¬
dis, to spend the winter in the amusements of his pa¬
lace ;
L'Y D i 2
Lydia. lace; and after summoning his numerous allies to his
y standard, to take the field early in the spring with such
increase of force as seemed sufficient to overpower the
Persians.
But this design was defeated by the careful vigilance
of Cyrus. That experienced leader allowed the ene¬
my to retire without molestation j carefully informing
himself of every step which they took, and of every
measure which they seemed determined to pursue.
Patiently watching the opportunity of a just revenge,
he waited until Croesus had re-entered his capital, and
had disbanded the foreign mercenaries, who composed
the most numerous division of his army. It then seem¬
ed the proper time for Cyrus to put’ his Persians in
motion 5 and such was his celerity, that he brought
the first news of his own arrival in the plain of Sardis.
Crcesns, whose firmness might well have been shaken
by the imminence of this unforeseen danger, was not
wanting on the present occasion to the duties which lie
owed to his fame and the lustre of the Lydian throne.
Though his mercenaries were disbanded, 'his own sub¬
jects, who served him from attachment, who had been
king accustomed to victory, and who were animated
with a high sense of national honour, burned with a
desire of enjoying an opportunity to check the daring
insolence of the invaders. Crossus indulged and en°
couraged this generous ardour. The Lydians in that
age fought on horseback, armed with long spears 5 the
strength of the Persians consisted in infantry. They
were so little accustomed to the use of horses, that ca¬
mels were almost the only animals which they employ¬
ed as beasts of burden. This circumstance suggested
to a Mede, by name Harpagus, a stratagem, which
being communicated to Cyrus, was immediately adopt¬
ed with approbation by that prince. Harpagus, hav¬
ing observed that horses had a strong aversion to the
diape and smell of camels, advised the Persian army to
be drawn up in the following order: All the camels
which had been employed to carry baggage and pro¬
visions were collected into one body, arranged in a long
line fronting the Lydian cavalry. The foot soldiers of
the Persians were posted immediately behind the line,
and placed at a due distance. The Median horse (for
a few squadrons of these followed the standard of Cy¬
rus) formed the rear of the army. As the troops on
both sides approached to join battle, the Lydian caval¬
ry, terrified at the unusual appearance of the camels,
mounted with men in arms, were thrown into disor¬
der, and turning their heads, endeavoured to escape
from the field. Croesus, who perceived the confusion,
was ready to despair of his fortune ; hut the Lydians,
abandoning their horses, prepared with uncommon
bravery to attack the enemy on foot. Their courage
deserved a better fate ; but unaccustomed as they were
to mode of fighting, they were received and repel¬
led by the experienced valour of the Persian infantry,
and obliged to take refuge within the fortified strength
ot Sardis, where they imagined themselves secure. The
walls of that city bid defiance to the rude art of at-
fack, as then practised by the most warlike nations.
If the Persian army should invest it, the Lydians were
provided with provisions for several years ; and there
was reason to expect, that in a few months, and even
weeks, they would receive such assistance from Egypt,
Babylonia, and Greece (to which countries they had
Vol. XIL Part I. f
81 ] L Y D
already sent ambassadors), as would oblige the Persians
to raise the siege.
The Lydian ministers despatched into Greece met
with great sympathy from the Spartans. That people
were particularly observant of the faith of treaties 5 and
while they punished their enemies with unexampled se¬
verity, they behaved with generous compassion towards
t.iose vyliom they had ,once accepted for allies. They
immediately resolved therefore to send him a speedy
ami effectual relief; and for this purpose assembled
their troops, made ready their vessels, and prepared
every thing necessary for the expedition.
The valour of the Spartans might perhaps have
upheld the sinking empire of Lydia ; but before their
armament could set sail, Croesus was no longer a sove¬
reign. Notwithstanding the strength of Sardis, that
city had been taken by storm on the 20th day of the
siege ; the walls having been scaled in a quarter, which
appearing altogether inaccessible, was too carelessly
guarded. This was effected by the enterprise of Hy-
reades a Mede, who accidentally observed a centinel
descend part of the rock in order to recover his hel¬
met. Hyieades was a native of the mountainous pro¬
vince of Mardia, and being accustomed to clamber
over the dangerous precipices of his native country,
resolved to try his activity in passing the rock upon
which he had discovered the Lydian. The design was
moie easily accomplished than he had reason to ex¬
pect ; emulation and success encouraged the bravest of
the Persians to follow his example ; these were sup¬
ported by greater numbers of their countrymen ; the
garrison of Sardis was surprised ; the citadel stormed ;
the rich capital of Lower Asia subjected to the venge¬
ful rapacity of an indignant victor. Thus ended the
ancient kingdom of Lydia, which continued subject to
the Persians till they also were conquered by the Ma¬
cedonians. I* or the fate of the Lydian monarch, see
the article Croesus.
L YD I AT, Thomas, a learned English divine,
born in 1572, and educated at Oxford. About th@
year 1609, he became acquainted with Dr James
Usher, afterwards archbishop of Armagh, who carried
him to Ireland. He was at Dublin college for about
two years, after which he returned to England ; and
the rectory of Alkrington becoming vacant, lie was
presented to it: but at length, being engaged for the
debts of a near relation, which for the present he was
unable to pay, having before spent his patrimony in
printing several hooks, he was sent to prison ; and was
confined at Oxford, in the King’s Bench, and else¬
where, till Sir William Boswell, a generous patron of
learned men, Dr Bobert Pink, warden of New college,
Bishop Usher, and Dr Laud, discharged the debt. In
the civil wars, he suffered much in his rectory of Alk¬
rington from the parliament party; was four times
pillaged to the value of at least 70I.; and was forced
for a quarter of a year together to borrow a shirt to
shift himself. He died in 1646. He wrote some pieces
in English, and many works in Latin, on chronology
and natural history.
LYDIUS lapis, in the natural history of the an¬
cients ; the name of the stone used by way of touchstone
for the trial of gold and silver, and called by some He-
raclius lapis; both of which names were also applied
by the ancients to the loadstone ; and hence ha? arisen
N n no
I^ydius
L Y M [ 28
no small misunderstanding of their works. Pimy has
„ observed, that both the loadstone and touchstone were
Lyrne-regis at t;mes caued Lydius and Heraclius lapis.
^ '"v rfhe true lapis Lydius, or the touchstone, was an¬
ciently found only in the river Traolus *, but was altcr-
wards found in many other places, and is now very
common in many of the German rivers. The ancients
give us very remarkable and circumstantial accounts ot
the uses they made of it j and it is plain they were able
to discern the alloys of gold by means of it with very
great exactness. We at present use several diflerent
stones under this name, and for the same purpose. In
Italy, a green marble called verdella, is most frequent¬
ly used; and with us, very frequently small pieces ot
basalt.
LYCEUM, a genus of plants belonging to the tn-
andria class 5 amfin the natural method ranking under
the fourth order, Gramina. See Botany Index.
LYGII, Ligii, Lugii, or Logiones, in Ancient Geo¬
graphy, a people of Germany, to the west of the Vistu¬
la, where it forms a bend like a crescent 5 Z^V, (Dio) ;
Lugii, (Strabo) j Logiones, (Zosimus). Their name
Lugii is conjectured to be derived from their mutually
close confederacy or league. The \ istula was their
boundary to the north, east, and south, with Mount
Asciburgius to the west. Now the whole of that coun¬
try lies in Poland, on this side the Vistula.
’LYING-in women. See Midwifery.
LriNG-to, or Lying-hy, the situation of a ship, when
she is retarded in her course, by arranging the sails in
such a manner as to counteract each other with nearly
an equal effort, and render the ship almost immoveable,
with respect to her progressive motion, or headway.
A ship is usually brought to by the main and lore top
sails, one of which is laid aback, whilst the other is full j
so that* the latter pushes the ship forward, whilst the
former resists this impulse, by forcing her astern. This
is particularly practised in a general engagement, when
hostile fleets are drawn up in two lines of battle oppo¬
site each other. It is also used to wait for some other
ship, either approaching or expected ; or to avoid pur¬
suing a dangerous course, especially in dark or foggy
weather.
LYME-REGis, a sea port town of Dorsetshire in
England, 148 miles from London. It lies near the
sea, on the very borders of Devonshire, in a cavity
between two rocky hills, which makes it difficult of
access. As it lies on the declivity of a hill, the houses
make a good show, rising one above another; and
some of them are built of free-stone, and covered with
blue slate. The number of inhabitants in 1811 was
estimated at 1925. The corporation consists of a
mayor (who is justice of peace during his mayoralty
and the year after, and in the third year both justice
and coroner), a recorder, 15 capital burgesses, and a
town clerk. This place had formerly a very flourish¬
ing trade to France, Spain, the Straits, Newfound¬
land, and the West Indies; during which, the customs
amounted some years to i6,oocl. But it stands on
such a high steep rock, that the merchants are obliged
to load and unload their goods at a place a quarter of
a mile off, called the Cobb, originally built in the
reign of Edward III. which costs a great sum to main¬
tain, but forms such a harbour as perhaps is not to
be equalled in the world, the ships being sheltered
] L Y N
by a high thick stone wall, raised in the main sea Lime-regisj
a good way from the shore, broad enough for carriages
1 1 tE«cf rwYtl-irktico /Yrimp»¥»C nu nil** . *
and warehouses, and the customhouse officers have one
upon it. The cellars of the low part of the town, near
the sea, are however often overflowed by the spring
tides 10 or 12 feet. There are guns planted for the
defence both of the Cobb and of the town, the shore
here being very proper for batteries. Tthe customhouse
stands on pillars, with the corn market under it. There
is an alms-house in Church-street, also Presbyterian and
Anabaptist meeting-houses. The town hall is near
Broad-street. The church stands at the east end of
the town on a rising ground. The market here is on
Friday, and there are two fairs in the year. We read,
that in 774, the Saxon king Kinwulf gave land here¬
abouts to the church of Sherborn, for the boiling of salt
there to supply its necessities. At this place the duke
of Monmouth landed in 1685. A few years ago above
2000I. worth of gold and silver coin of Char. I. and II.
w ere discovered by some labourers.
LYMINGTON, a borough town of Hampshire in
England, 97 miles south-west of London. It stands
about a mile from the channel running between the
main land and the isle of Wight; and has a harbour
for vessels of considerable burden. The tide flow’s near
a mile above the town. It has a market on Saturdays \
and sends two members to parliament. The population
in 1811 was estimated at 2641.
LYMPH, a fine colourless fluid, separated in the
body from the mass of blood, and contained in peculiar
vessels called lymphatics. See Anatomy.
LYMPH/EA, were artificial caves or grottos a-
mongst the Homans, furnished with a great many
tubes, canals, and various hydraulic apparatus through
which the w’ater gushed out upon the spectators unex¬
pectedly whilst they were admiring the beautiful ar¬
rangement of the shell-work in the grotto.
LYMPHATI, was a name given by the Romans
to such as were seized with madness. It is supposed
to be used for Nymphati, because the ancients imagined
that every person who had the misfortune to see a
Nymph was instantly struck with phrenzy. Lymphati
may indeed signify “ madmen,” as derived from lym-
pha, “ water,” over which element the Nymphs wrere
thought to preside : But it appears most likely, that
distracted people wrere called lymphati, from the cir¬
cumstance of madmen’s being affected with the hydro¬
phobia or dread of w’atcr after the bite of a mad dog j
for this peculiarity, in cases of canine madness, was
unknown to the Romans.
LYNCEUS, in fabulous history, one of the 50 sons
of ZEgeus, married Hypermnestra, one of the 50 daugh¬
ters of Danaus. See Hypermnestra.
Lynceus, in fabulous history, one of the Argo¬
nauts, who W’ent with Jason in the expedition to ob¬
tain the golden fleece. He wras of great use to the
Argonauts, by enabling them to avoid the sand banks
and rocks they found in their way. The poets say, that
Lynceus had so piercing a sight, that it could not only
penetrate to the bottom of the sea, but even to hell.
Some mythologists suppose, that this fable is taken
from Lynceus’s skill in observing the stars, and disco¬
vering the mines of gold and silver concealed in the
earth
LYNCURIUM, a stone thought to be the same
with
L Y N [2
I^yficu- with the tourmalin. The name is derived from XvA
num, “ lynx,” and “ urine.”
1cr . LYNCUEIUS lapis, a stone capable of produ-
1 _j C111g mushrooms.
In the Ephemerides of the Curious, we find men¬
tion made of a stone, so called by Dr John George
TV olckamerus, who saw one in Italy, which never
ceases to produce in a few days mushrooms of an
excellent flavour by the most simple and easy pro¬
cess imaginable. “ It is (says he) of the bigness of
an ox’s head, rough and uneven on its surface, and
on which also are perceived some clefts and crevices.
It. is black in some parts, and in others of a lighter
and grayish colour. Internally it is porous, and near¬
ly of the nature of the pumice-stone, but much hea¬
vier ; and it contains a small piece“cf flint, which is
so incorporated with it as to appear to have been form¬
ed at die same time the stone itself received its form.
This gives room to judge, that those stones have been
produced by a fat and viscid juice, which has the pro¬
perty of indurating whatever matter it filtrates into.
The stone here spoken of, when it has been lightly
coveied with earth, and sprinkled with warm water,
produces mushrooms of an exquisite flavour, which are’
usually round, sometimes oval, and whose borders, by
their inflexions and different curvities, represent in some
measuie human ears. Jhe principal colour of these
mushrooms is sometimes yellowish, and sometimes of a
bright purple ; but they are always disseminated with
different spots, of a deep orange colour, or red brown ;
and when these spots are recent, and still in full bloom,
they produce a very agreeable effect to the sight. But
what appears admirable is, that the part of the stalk
which remains adhering to the stone, when the mush¬
room has been separated from it, grows gradually hard,
and petrifies in time, so that it seems that this fimgites
restores to the stone the nutritive juice it received from
it, and that it thus contributes to its increase.John
Baptist Porta pretends, that this stone is found in se-
veial parts of Italy ; and that it is not only to be met
x\ith at Naples, taken out of Mount Vesuvius, but al¬
so on Mount Pantherico, in the principality of Arel-
iino; on Mount Garganus, in Apulia; and On the
summits of some other very high mountains. He adds,
that the mushrooms which grow on those sorts of stones,
and are usually caWed fungi lyncurii, have the property
of dissolving and breaking the stone of the kidneys and
bladder ; and that, for this purpose, nothing more is
required than to dry them in the shade, and being re-
duced to powder, to make the patient, fasting, take
a sufficient quantity of this powder in a glass of white
wine, which will so cleanse the excretory ducts of the
urine, that no stones will ever after be collected in
them. As to the form of those mushrooms, their root
is stony, uneven, divided according to its longitudinal
direction, and composed of fibres as fine as hairs, in¬
terwoven one with another. Their form, on first shoot¬
ing out, resembles a small bladder, scarce then larger
than the bud of a vine ; and if in this state they are
squeezed between the fingers, an aqueous subacid li¬
quor issues out. When they are at their full growth,
t eir pedicle is of a finger’s length, larger at top than
at bottom, and becomes insensibly slenderer in propor¬
tion as it is nearer the earth. These mushrooms are
also formed in an umbella, and variegated with an in-
8.3 ] L Y N
fimty of little specks situated very near one another. Lyncurius
icy are smooth and even on the upper part, but un- lapis,
uerneath leafy like the common mushrooms. TheirI'vnn i'eR's-
taste is likewise very agreeable, and the sick are not'    
debarred eating of them when they have been dressed in
a proper manner. Curiosity having prompted some
naturalists and physicians to submit these stones to a
chemical analysis, in order to be more competent fudges
of the uses they might be put to in medicine, there
first came forth, by distillation, an insipid water, and
afterwards a spirituous liquor. The retort having been
heated to a certain point, there arose an oil, which had
nearly the smell and taste of that of guaiacum: and a
very acrid salt was extracted from the ashes.
LYMN-rechs, a town of Norfolk, in England
distant 98 miles from London. It is a handsome
aige, well-built place, and sends two members to par¬
liament. It was a borough by prescription in 1298.
King John, on account of its adherence to him against
the barons, made it a free borough, with large pri¬
vileges; He appointed it a provost, and gave it a
arge silver cup of 73 ounces doubly gilt and enamel¬
led, and a large silver sword that is carried before the
mayor; though this last, according to some, is Hen¬
ry VIII’s sword, which he gave to the town when it
came into his hands by exchange with the bishop of
Norwich ; after which it was "called King’s Lynn,
whereas before it was Bishop’s Lynn. Henry III. made
it a mayor town, for its serving him against the barons.
It has bad 15 royal charters; and is governed by a
mayor, high-steward, under-steward, recorder, 12 aider-
men, and 18 common-council men. It has two churches
besides St Nicholas, a chapel of ease to St Margaret’s’
a Presbyterian and a Quakers meeting-house, with a
bridewell or workhouse, and several alms-houses, and
a free school. In September 1741 the spires of its
two churches were both blown down by a storm of
wind ; and that of St Margaret’s, which was 193 feet
in height, having beat in the body of the church, it
has been since rebuilt, towards which King George II.
gave loool. and the late earl of Orford, then Sir
Kobert Walpole, 500I. This church was formerly
an abbey, and afterwards one of the largest parish-
churches in P^ngland; The town house, called Tri¬
nity-hall, is a noble old fabric ; and so is the Exchange,
which is of free-stone, with two orders of columns.
St Nicholas’s chapel is very ancient, and reckoned
one of the fairest and largest of the kind in England.
It has a bell tower of free stone, alnl an octagonal
spire over it, both which together are 170 feet from
the ground. There is a library in it that was erected
by subscription ; and there is another at St Marga¬
ret’s. Here have been formerly several monasteries ;
but the only fabric remaining that belongs to any re¬
ligious order is the Gray-friars steeple, a noted sea¬
mark. The situation of this town, near the fall of
the Ouse into the sea, after having received several
other rivers, of which some are navigable, gives it an
opportunity of extending its trade into eight different
counties : by which many considerable cities and
towns, viz. Peterborough, Ely, Stamford, Bedford,
St Ives, Huntingdon, St Neot’s, Northampton, Cam¬
bridge, St Edmundsbury, and the north parts of Bucks,
as well as the inland parts of Norfolk and Suffolk, are
supplied with heavy goods, not only from our owti
N n 2 producej
L Y N L
Kgis.produce, as coals and salt from Newcastle, but also of
^merchandise imported from abroad, especially wine;
of which two articles, viz. coals and wine, t.ns is t ie
greatest port for importation of any place on all the
eastern coast of England ; and those wherein the Lynn
merchants deal more largely than any town in England,
except London, Bristol, and Newcastle. In return
for this, Lynn receives back all the corn which the
counties’ just mentioned produce, for exportation ; and
therefore sends more of it abroad than any port except
Hull. The foreign trade of the merchants here, is
very considerable, especially to Holland, Norway and
the Baltic, and also to Spain and Portugal} and for¬
merly they drove a good trade to France, till it was
turned oft', by treaties on one hand, and by prohibi¬
tions, high duties, &c. on the other, to Spain and
Portugal. The harbour is safe when ships are in it,
hut difficult to enter by reason of the many flats and
shoals in the passage j which, however, are well buoyed,
and good pilots are always ready. The town consists ot
about 2400 houses j and appears to have been very
strong, by the ruins of the works demolished in the
civil wars. St Ann’s platform at the north end mounts
12 great guns, and commands all the ships passing near
the harbour: and towards the land, besides the wall,
there is a ditch. Four rivulets run through the town;
and the tide of the Ouse, which is about as broad
here as the Thames at London bridge, rises 20 feet
perpendicular. In the great market-place a statue
was erected in 1686 to the honour ol Iving James II.
There is another spacious market-place, adorned with
a statue of King William III. and a fine cross with a
dome and gallery round it, supported by 16 pillars.
The market-house is of free-stone, supported by 16
columns, and is 70 feet high, erected on four steps, neat¬
ly adorned with statues, &c. Every first Monday in the
month, the mayor, aldermen, preachers, &c. meet to
hear and determine all controversies amicably, for pre¬
venting law-suits. This was first established in 1588,
and is called The Feast of Reconciliation. The markets
are on Tuesdays and Saturdays ; and it has two fairs j
one of which, beginning Feb. 14. lasts for a fortnight,
and is called Lynn mart; the other is a cheese fair on
Oct. 6. The adherence of this town to King John
arid to Henry VIII. as above mentioned, are not the
only instances of its loyalty to its sovereigns j for, in
the late civil wars, it held out for King Charles I. and
sustained a formal siege of above 18,000 men of the
parliament army for above three weeks ; hut, for
want of relief, was obliged to surrender, and submit
to the terms of paying 10s. a-head for every inhabi¬
tant, and a month’s pay to the soldiers, to save the
town from plunder. There are more gentry, and con¬
sequently more gaiety, in this town than in Yarmouth
or even Norwich } there being such plenty of eatables
and drinkables, that Spelman says, Ceres and Bacchus
seem to have established their magazines at this place 5
the east side abounding with corn, sheep, rabbits, hares,
Kc. the west side with cheese, butter, black cattle,
swans, and the wild-fowl common to marshes, besides
the abundance of sea and river fish } so that he thinks
there is no place in Great Britain, if in Europe, has
such a variety in so small a compass of ground. At
a small distance from the town, stands a mount, called
the Lady’s or Red Mount, which was once a chapel
284 ] ^ Y O
dedicated to the Virgin Mary, which was a resting- Ly
place for pilgrims on their way towards her convent
at Walsingham. The king’s staith-yard, or quay,
where the greatest part of the imported wines is
landed and put into large vaults, is a handsome
square. People pass hence into the fen country, and
over the famous washes into Lincolnshire in boats,
which are often lost, by venturing out at an improper
season and without guides. The population in 1811
LYNX. See Felis, Mammalia Index.
LYON Kixg of Arms. See King ; and Law,
N° clviii. 16. .
This office is of great antiquity and respect in Scot¬
land ; and although the precise time of its institution
is unknown, vet it must have been as early -as the in¬
troduction of' armorial figures as hereditary marks of
gentility and distinction into this country, which was
in the 12th century. His regalia are, a crown of gold,
with a crimson velVet cap, a gold tassel, and an ermine
lining : a velvet robe reaching to his feet, with the arms
of the kingdom embroidered thereon before and be¬
hind in the proper tinctures } a triple row of gold chain
round his neck, with an oval gold medal pendant there¬
to, on one side of which is the royal bearing, and on
the other St Andrew with his cross enamelled in pro¬
per colours, and a baton of gold enamelled green, pow¬
dered with the badges of the kingdom. The lord
lyon’s rank is superior to that of any other king of
arms, as he holds his office immediately from the sove¬
reign by commission under the great seal j whereas the
kings of arms in England are deputies to the earl
marshal, and act under his authority. Formerly Scot¬
land was divided into two provinces, the one on the
north and the other on the south side of Forth j and
these provinces were under the management of two de¬
puties appointed by the lord lyon, to superintend the
execution ol all the business ol his office. Before the
Revolution, the lord lyon, at his admission into office,
was most solemnly crowned by the sovereign or his
commissioner, in presence of the nobility, the officers
of state, and other great men, after a suitable sermon
preached in the royal chapel; and his crown was of
the same form with the imperial crown of the king¬
dom. On solemn occasions he wears the regalia above
described j at all other times he wears the oval gold
medal or badge on his breast, suspended by a broad
green ribbon. He has the absolute disposal of all the
offices in his own court, and of the heralds and pur¬
suivants places. The messengers at arms throughout
Scotland are also created by him, and are amenable to
his jurisdiction. And the powers vested in him by his
commission are the same with those of the sovereign in
all matters relative to the marks of gentility.
LYONET, Peter, an ingenious naturalist, and
member of several learned societies, was horn at Maes-
tricht, and was descended from a very ancient and re¬
spectable family of Lorrain. He had scarcely attained
his seventh year before he displayed an uncommon
strength and agility in all bodily exercises j but he was
not less diligent in the improvement of his mind. Be¬
ing placed at the Latin school, he learned chronology,
and exercised himself in Latin, Greek, and French
poetry, as also in Hebrew, logic, and the Cartesian
physics. He was particularly fond of the study of lan-
, guages,
L Y O [ 285 1 J, Y O
Lyonct. guages, wliereof he understood no less than nine, 11-
ving and dead. Having entered the university of Ley¬
den, he studied the Newtonian philosophy, geometry,
algebra, &c. j but his father (who was a clergyman),
desiring he should attach himself to divinity, he reluc¬
tantly abandoned the former studies, as his passion for
them was not easily to be overcome. He at the same
time applied himself to anatomy, and also to music and
drawing. He began afterwards to practise sculpture :
and performed several pieces in wood, some of which
are preserved, and have been greatly admired by the
artists. After this, he betook himself to drawing
portraits of his friends from life } wherein, after three
or four months practice, he became a great proficient.
Having attained the degree of candidate in divinity,
he resolved to study law, to which he applied him¬
self with so much zeal, that he was promoted at the
end of the first year. Arrived at the Hague, he un¬
dertook the study of decyphering; and became secre¬
tary of the cyphers, translator of the Latin and French
languages, and patent-master to their High Mighti¬
nesses. Meanwhile, having taken a strong liking to
the study of insects, he undertook an historical de¬
scription of such as are found about the Hague, and
to that end collected materials for several volumes ; and
having invented a method of drawing adapted thereto,
he enriched this work with a great number of plates,
universally admired by all the connoisseurs who had
seen them. In the year 1724 was printed at the
Hague a French translation of a German work, the
‘ Theology of Insects,’ by Mr Lesser. Love of truth
engaged by Mr Lyonet to defer the publication of this
above-mentioned description, and to make some obser¬
vations on that work, to which he has added two most
beautiful plates, engraved from his designs. This per¬
formance caused his merit to be universally known and
admired. The celebrated M. de Reaumur had the
above translation reprinted at Paris, not so much on
account of the work itself, as of Mr Lyonet’s obser¬
vations ; and bestowed on it, as did also many other
authors, the highest encomiums. He afterwards exe¬
cuted drawings of the fresh water polypus for Mr
Trembley’s beautiful work, 1744. The ingenious
Wandelaar had engraved the first five plates 5 when Mr
Lyonet, who had never witnessed this operation, con¬
cerned at the difficulties he experienced in getting the
remaining eight finished in the superior style he requir¬
ed, resolved to perform the task himself. He ac¬
cordingly took a lesson of one hour of Mr Wandelaar,
engraved three or four small plates, and immediately
began upon the work himself, which he performed in
such a manner as drew on him the highest degree of
praise, both from Mr Trembley and from many
other artists, particularly the celebrated Van Gool ;
who declared that the performance astonished not
only the amateurs, but also the most experienced
artists. In 1748 he was chosen member of the Royal
Society of London. In 1749 hegan (by mere
chance) his amazing collection of horns and shells,
winch, according to the universal testimony of all tra¬
vellers and amateurs who have visited it, is at present
• he most beautiful, and certainly one of the most valu¬
able in Europe. In 1753 ^ie became member of the
newly-established Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
lem *, and in 1757, after the celebrated M. !e Cat, Lyonet
prolessor in anatomy and surgery, and member of al- li
most all the principal societies in Europe, had seen .
Mr Lyonet’s incomparable Traite Anatomique de la V
Chenille qni range le Bois de Saule, with the drawings
belonging to it (which work was afterwards published),
he was elected member of the Royal Academy of Sci¬
ences ol Rome, whereof M. le Cat was perpetual se¬
cretary. After the publication of this treatise he be-
became, in 1760, member of the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Berlin ; in 1761, of the Imperial Acade¬
my of Naturalists ; and, in 1762, of the Imperial Aca¬
demy of Sciences at St Petersburgh. In order to en¬
able such as might be desirous of following him in his
intricate and most astonishing discoveries respecting the
structure of this animal, Mr Lyonet published, in the
I ransactions of the Dutch Society of Sciences at Haer-
Jem, a description and a plate (as he also afterwards did
m French at the beginning of his Traite Anatomique) of
the instrument and tools he had invented for the pur¬
pose of dissection, and likewise of the method he used
to ascertain the degree of strength of his magnifying
glasses. Notwithstanding all this labour, which was
considerably increased by the extensive correspondence
which he for many years carried on with several learn¬
ed and respectable personages, he still found means to
set apart a large proportion of his time (as he himself
mentions it in his preface) for the immediate service
of his country j but was not fortunate enough (as ap-
pears by his writings) to get any other recompense
for his exertions than sorrow and disappointment.  **
During the last fifteen or twenty years of his life, Mr
Lyonet added to the valuable treasure he had already
collected ol natural curiosities, a most superb cabinet
of paintings, consisting of more than 560 performances ;
among which are many of the most eminent works of
the first Dutch masters. He did this with a view to
procure himself some amusement during the latter part
of his life, when old age and infirmities must weaken
his powers, and set bounds to his activity. He had al¬
ways indeed accustomed himself to employment, inso¬
much that he has written some pieces of Dutch poetry j
and this disposition remained with him till within a
fortnight of his death, when he was attacked with an
inflammation in his breast, which, though apparently
cured, was, in the end, the cause of his dissolution. H&
died at the Hague in January 1789, aged 83 years,
leaving behind him a most estimable character.
LYONOIS, a large province of France j bound¬
ed on the north by Burgundy } on the east, by Dau-
phiny, Bresse, and the principality of Dombs 5 on
the south, by Vivarais and Velay $ and on the west by
Auvergne and a small part of Bourbonnois. It com¬
prehends Lower Lyonois, Beaujolois, and Forez 5
and it produces corn, wine, fruits, and more especi¬
ally excellent chesnuts. The principal rivers are the
Seine, the Rhone, and the Loire. Lyons is the capi¬
tal town.
LYONS, a large, rich, ancient, and famous town of
France, being the most considerable in the kingdom,
next to Paris, with an archbishop’s see, an academy
of sciences and belles letters, and an academy of arts
and sciences settled here in 1736. It is seated at the
confluence of the rivers Rhone and Saone ; on the side
of
L Y R
[ 286 ]
L Y R
of St
of it are two liigli mountains j and the mountain ^
Sebastian serves as a bulwark against the north winds,
which often blow here with great violence. It con¬
tains nearly 100,000 inhabitants j and the houses, in
g eneral, are high and well built. It has six gates, and as
nianv suburbs. The town-house, the arsenal, the am-
Hermes, as mentioned under that article. The lyre Lyre,
attributed to the Grecian Mercury is described by al-
most all the poets to be an instrument of seven strings*. M*r
Vincenzio Galilei has collected the various opinions of V-
the several Greek writers who have mentioned the in¬
vention of the chelys or testudo ; and the late Mr
The cathedral is a superb structuic, and the
attention.   * .
canons that compose the chapter are all persons ot di¬
stinction. It was a place ol great trade, and was
especially distinguished by its silk manufactures, which
however have been greatly reduced by the Revolution.
It derives vast advantages from the rivers near it; and
is situated in E. Long. 4. 59. N. Lat. 45. 46. Lyons
Avas the scene of some of the horrid transactions ot the
Erench revolution. See France.
LYRA, a species of fish. See Callyonimus, Ich¬
thyology Index.
Lyra, in Astronomy, a constellation in the north¬
ern hemisphere. I he number of its stars, in I tole-
my’s catalogue, is ten j in Tycho’s eleven j in Heve-
Hus’s seventeen 5 and in the Britannic catalogue twenty
one* • 1 1 • 1
LYRE, a musical instrument of the stringed kind,
much used by the ancients.
Concerning the number of strings Avith Avhich this in¬
strument was furnished, there is great controversy. Some
assert it to be only three ; and that the sounds of the
two remote were acute, and that of the intermediate
one a mean betAveen those two extremes j that Mercu¬
ry, the inventor, resembled those three chords to as
many seasons of the year, Avhich Avere all that the Greeks
reckoned, namely, summer, winter, and spring : assign¬
ing the acute to the first, the grave to the second, and
the mean to the third.
Others assert that the lyre had four strings ; that the
interval betAveen the first and the fourth AVas an octave ;
that the second Avas a fourth from the first, and the fourth
the same distance from the third, and that from the se¬
cond to the third Avas a tone.
Another class of writers contend that the lyre of
Mercury had seven strings. Nicomachus, a follo\\Ter
of Pythagoras, and the chief of them, gives the folW-
ing account of the matter : “ The lyre made of the
shell Avas invented by Mercury j and the knoAvledge of
it, as it was constructed by him of seven strings, Avas
transmitted to Orpheus: Orpheas taught the use of it
to Thamyris and Linus j the latter of whom'taught it
to Hercules, avIio communicated it to Amphion the
Theban, who built the seven gates of Thebes to the
seven strings of the lyre.” The same author proceeds
to relate, “ That Orpheus Avas afterwards killed by the
Thracian Avomen \ and that they are reported to have
cast his lyre into the sea, Avhich was aftenvards thrown
up at Antissa, a city of Lesbos : that certain fishers
finding it, they brought it to Terpander, Avho carried
it into Egypt, exquisitely improved, and showing it to
the Egyptian priests, assumed to himself the honour of
its invention.”
This difference among authors seems to have arisen
from their confounding together the Egyptian and the
Grecian Mercuries.—The invention of the primitive
lyre with three strings Avas due to the first Egyptian
wonderful musician, and represents him with a, lyre.
There is a ridiculous old legend relating to this inven¬
tion, which informs us, that Mercury, after stealing
some bulls from Apollo, retired to a secret grotto,
which he used to frequent, at the foot of a mountain
in Arcadia. Just as he was going in, he found a tor¬
toise feeding at the entrance ot his cave: he Killed the
poor creature, and perhaps ate tne flesh ot it. As he
was diverting himself with the shell, he was mightily
pleased with the noise it gave trcm its conca\’e figure.
He had possibly been cunning enough to find out, that
a thong pulled strait and fastened at each end, Avhen
struck Avith the finger, made a sort of musical sound.
HoAvever that Avas, he Avent immediately to Avork, and
cut several thongs out of the hides he had lately
stolen, and fastened them as tight as he could to the
shell of this tortoise *, and, in playing Avith them, made
a new kind of music Avith them to divert himself m his
retreat.” This, considered only as an account of the
first invention of the lyre, is not altogether so unna-
. tural.
The most ancient representations of this instrument
agree very Avell with the account of its invention : the
lyre, in particular on the old celestial globes, Avas re¬
presented as made of one entire shell of a tortoise *, and
that of Amphion in the celebrated group of the Dirce
or Toro, in the Farnese palace at Rome, Avhich is of
Greek sculpture, and very high antiquity, is figured in
the same manner.
There have, however, been many other claimants to
the seven-stringed lyre. For though Mercury invent¬
ed this instrument in the manner already related, it is
said he afterwards gave it to Apollo, Avho was the first
that played upon it Avith method, and made it the con¬
stant companion of poetry. According to Homer’s
account of this transaction, in his hymn to Mercury,
it Avas given by that god to Apollo, as a peace-oflering
and indemnification for the oxen Avhich he had stolen
from him :
To Phoebus Maia’s son presents the lyre,
A gift intended to appease his ire,
The god receives it gladly, and essays
The novel instrument a thousand Avays •,
With dext’rous skill the plectrum wields 5 and sings
With voice accordant to the trembling strings,
Such strains as gods and men approv’d, from Avhcnce
The SAveet alliance sprung of sound and sense.
Diodorus informs us, that Apollo soon repenting of
the cruelty with Avhich he had treated Marsyas in con¬
sequence of their musical contest, broke the strings of
the lyre, and by that means put a stop for a time to any
further progress in the practice of that neAV instrument.
“ The Muses (adds he) aftenvards added to this instru¬
ment the string called mese ; Linus, that of lichanos ;
ami
L Y R [ 287 ] L Y R
Lyre, and Orpheus and Thamyris, those strings ■which are
—named hypafe and parhypate (a).
Again, Many ancient and respectable authors tell us,
that, before the time of Terpander, the Grecian lyre
had only four strings ; and, if we may believe Suidas,
it remained in this state 8 <;6 years, from the time of
Amphion, till Terpander added to it three new strings,
which extended the musical scale to a heptachord, or
seventh, and supplied the player with two conjoint te-
trachords. It was about 150 years after this period,
that Pythagoras is said to have added an eighth string
to the lyre, in order to complete the octave, which con¬
sisted of two disjoint tetrachords.
Boetius gives a different history of the scale, and
tells us, that the system did not long remain in such
narrow limits as a tetrachord. Choraebus, the son of
Athis, or Atys, king of Lydia, added a fifth string ;
Hyagnis, a sixth 5 Terpander, a seventh ; and at length
Lychaon of Samos, an eighth. But all these accounts
are irreconcileable with Homer’s hymn to Mercury,
where the, chelys, or testudo, the invention of which he
ascribes to that god, is said to have had seven strings.
There are many claimants among the musicians of an¬
cient Greece to the strings that were afterwards added
to these, by which the scale, in the time of Aristoxenus,
was extended to two octaves. Athenaeus, more than
once, speaks of the nine-stringed instrument ; and Ion
of Chios, a tragic and lyric poet and philosopher, who
first recited his pieces in the Sad Olympiad, 452 B. C.
mentions, in some verses quoted by Euclid, the ten¬
stringed lyre; a proof that the third conjoint tetrachord
was added to the scale in his time, which was about 50
years after Pythagoras is supposed to have constructed
the octachord.
The different claimants among the Greeks to the
same musical discoveries, only prove that music was cul¬
tivated in different countries, and that the inhabitants
of each country invented and improved their own in¬
struments, some of which happening to resemble those
of other parts of Greece, rendered it difficult for histo¬
rians to avoid attributing the same invention to differ¬
ent persons. Thus the single flute was given to Mi¬
nerva and to Marsyas ; the syrinx or fistula, to Pan
and to Cybele ; and the lyre or cithara, to Mercury,
Apollo, Amphion, Linus, and Orpheus. Indeed, the
mere addition of a string or two to an instrument with¬
out a neck, was so obvious and easy, that it is scarce
possible not to conceive many people to have done it at Lyre,
the same time. L— v
M ith respect to the form of the ancient lyre, as little
agreement is to be found among authors as about the
number of strings. The best evidences concerning it,
are the representations of that instrument in the hands of plate
ancient statues, has reliefs, &c. See Plate CCXCVIII. CCXCVIII.
where,
Fig. 1. is a representation of the testudo, or lyre of Fig. 1.
Amphion, in front, as it appears on the base of the ce¬
lebrated Toro Farnese at Home. This admirable work,
consisting of four figures bigger than the life, besides
the toro or bull, was found in Caracalla’s baths, where
the Farnese Hercules was likewise discovered : and, ex¬
cept the Laocoon, is the only piece of Greek sculpture
mentioned hy Pliny that is now remaining. The two
projections near the bottom, seem to have been fasten¬
ings for the strings, and to have answered the purpose
of tail-pieces in modern instruments.
Fig. 2. The lyre held by Terpsichore, in the picture Fig. 2.
of that muse dug out of Herculaneum.
Fig. 3. The Abyssinian testudo, or lyre in use at pre-Fig. 3.
sent in the province of Tigre, from a drawing of Mr
Bruce, communicated to Dr Burney. “ This instru¬
ment (says he) has sometimes five, sometimes six, but.
most frequently seven strings, made of the thongs of
raw sheep or goat skins, cut extremely fine, and twisted j
they rot soon, are very subject to break in dry weather,
and have scarce any sound in wet. From the idea, how¬
ever, of this instrument being to accompany and sus¬
tain a voice, one would think that it was better mounted
formerly. “ The Abyssinians have a tradition, that the
sistrum, lyre, and tambourine, were brought from Egypt
into Ethiopia, by Thot, in the very first ages of the
world. The flute, kettle-drum, and trumpet, they say,
were brought from Palestine, with Menelek, the son of
their queen of Saba by Solomon, who was their first
Jewish king.
“ The lyre in Amharic is called ‘ the sheep
in Ethiopia it is called raes/V/An ; the verb sinko signifies
to strike strings with the fingers: no plectrum is ever
used in Abyssinia ; so that mesinko, being literally in¬
terpreted, will signify the ‘ stringed instrument played
upon with the fingers.’
“ The sides which constitute the frame of the lyre,
were anciently composed of the horns of an animal of the
goat kind, called agaxen, about the size of a small cow,
and
(a) It has been already related, that the lyre invented by the Egyptian Mercury had but three strings ; and,
by putting these two circumstances together, Dr Burney observes, we may perhaps acquire some knowledge of
the progress of music, or at least, of the extension of its scale, in the highest antiquity.
Mcse, in the Greek music, is the fourth sound of the second tetrachord of the great system, and first tetrachord
invented by the ancients, answering to our A, on the fifth line in the base. If this sound then was added to the
former three, it proves two important points; first, that the most ancient tetrachord was that from E in the base
to A; and that the three original strings in the Mercurian and Apollonian lyre were tuned E, F, G, which the
Greeks called Tlypate Meson, Parhypate Meson, Meson Diatotws. The addition therefore of Mese to these, com¬
pleted the first and most ancient tetrachord, E, F, G, A.
The string lichanos, then, being added to these, and answering to our D on the third line in the base, ex¬
tended the compass downwards, and gave the ancient lyre a regular series of five sounds in the Dorian mode,
the most ancient of all the Greek modes ; and the two strings called Hypate and Parhypate, corresponding
with our B and C in the base, completed the heptachord, or seven sounds, B, C, D, E, F, G, A, a com¬
pass that received no addition till after the time of Pindar, who calls the instrument then in use the seven~
tongued lyre.
L Y R
and common in the province of 1 igre. I have seen se¬
veral of these instruments very elegantly made of such
horns, which nature seems to have shaped on purpose.
Some of the horns of an African species of this animal
may be seen in M. Buffon’s history of the king of
France’s cabinet. They are bent, and less regular than
the Abyssinian } but after fire-arms became common in
the province of Tigre, and the woods were cut down,
this animal being more scarce, the lyre has been made
of a light red wood *, however, it is always cut into a
spiral twisted form, in imitation of the ancient mate¬
rials of which the lyre was composed. The drawing I
send you was one of these instruments made of wood.
“ The kingdom of Tigre, which is the largest and
most populous province of Abyssinia, and was during
many ages the seat of the court, was the first which
received letters, and civil religious government j it
extended once to the Red sea : various reasons and re¬
volutions have obliged the inhabitants to resign their
sea coast to different barbarous nations, Pagan and Ma¬
hometan : while they were possessed of it, they say that
the Red sea furnished them with tortoise-shells, of which
they made the bellies of their lyres, as the Egyptians
did formerly, according to Apollodorus and Lucian;
but having now lost that resource, they have adopted
in its place a particular species of gourd, or pumpkin,
very hard and thin in the bark, still imitating with the
knife the squares, compartments, and figure of the shell
of the tortoise.
“ The lyre is generally from three feet to three
feet six inches high } that is, from a line drawn through
the point of the horns, to the lower part of the base of
the sounding board. It is exceedingly light, and easy
of carriage, as an instrument should naturally be in so
rugged and mountainous a country.
“ When we consider the parts which compose this
lyre, we cannot deny it the earliest antiquity. Man in
his first state was a hunter and a fisher, and the oldest
instrument was that which partakes most of that state.
The lyre, composed of two principal pieces, owes the
one to horns of an animal, the other to the shell of
a fish.
“ It is probable, that the lyre continued with the
Ethiopians in this rude state as long as they confined
themselves to their rainy, steep, and rugged mountains *,
and afterwards, when many of them descended along
the Nile into Egypt, its portability would recommend
it in the extreme heats and weariness of their way. Up¬
on their arrival in Egypt, they took up their habita¬
tion in caves, in the sides of mountains, which are in¬
habited to this day. Even in these circumstances, an
instrument larger than the lyre must have been in¬
convenient and liable to accidents in those caverns •, but
when these people increased in numbers and courage,
they ventured down into the plain, and built Thebes.
Being now at their ease, and in a fine climate, all na¬
ture smiling around them, music and other arts were
cultivated and refined, and the imperfect lyre v'as ex¬
tended into an instrument of double its compass and
volume. The size of the harp could be now no long¬
er an objection 5 the Nile carried the inhabitants every¬
where easily, and without effort •, and we may naturally
suppose in the fine evenings of that country, that the
Nile was the favourite scene upon which this instru-
Y R
ment wras practised ; at least the sphinx and lotus upon J vr.
its head, seem to hint that it was someway connected ||
with the overflowings of that river.” See Harp. , Lyrodl^
Fig. 4. An Etruscan lyre, with seven strings, in the ~
collection of Etruscan, Greek and Roman antiquities,
published from the cabinet of the Hon. Sir "William
Hamilton, Vol. I. Naples 1766. Plate CIX. With re¬
spect to this instrument, it is wrorthy of observation,
that though the vase upon which it is represented is of
such indisputable and remote antiquity, the tail-piece,
bridge, belly and sound-holes, have a very modern ap¬
pearance, and manifest a knowledge in the construction
of musical instruments among the Etruscans superior to
that of the Greeks and Romans in much latter times.
The lower part of the instrument has much the appear¬
ance of an old bass-viol, and it is not difficult to dis¬
cover in it more than the embryo of the whole violin
family. The strings lie round, as if intended to be
played on with a bow 5 and even the cross lines on the
tail-piece are such as we frequently see on the tail¬
pieces of old viols.
Fig. 5. The Tripodian lyre of Pythagoras the Zacyn- Fig. 5.
thian, from a bass relief in the Mallei palace at Rome
representing the whole choir of the muses. Athenseus
gives the following account of this extraordinary in¬
strument, Lib. XIV. cap. xv. p. 637. Many ancient
instruments are recorded (says Artemon), of which
we have so little knowledge, that we can hardly be
certain of their existence 5 such as the tripod of Py¬
thagoras the Zacynthian, which, on account of its
difficulty, continued in use but a short time. It
resembled in form the Delphic tripod, whence it
had its name. The legs were equidistant, and fixed
upon a moveable base that was turned by the foot
of the player: the strings were placed between the
legs of the stool; the vase at the top served for the
purpose of a sound-board, and the strings of the three
sides of the instrument were tuned to three diflerent
modes, the Doric, Lydian, and Phrygian. The per¬
former sat on a chair made on purpose : striking the
strings with the fingers of the left hand, and using the
plectrum with the right, at the same time turning the
instrument with his foot to whichever of the three
modes he pleased: so that by great practice he was
enabled to change the modes with such velocity, that
those who did not see him would imagine they heard
three different performers playing in three diflerent
modes. After the death of this admirable musician,
no other instrument of the same kind was ever con¬
structed.”
Fig. 6. A lyre in the famous ancient picture dug 6.
out of Herculaneum, upon which Chiron is teaching
young Achilles to play. See Chiron.
LYRIC poetry, was such as the ancients sung to
the lyre or harp.—It was originally employed in ce¬
lebrating the praises of gods and heroes, and its cha¬
racteristic was sweetness. Who was the author of it is
not known. It was much cultivated by the Cheeks:
and Horace was the first who attempted it in the La¬
tin language. Anacreon, Alcceus, Stesichorus, Sap¬
pho, and Horace, were the most celebrated lyric poets
of antiquity.
LYRODI, among the ancients, a kind of musicians
who played on the lyre, and sung at the same time.
This.
r 288 ]
L Y S [ :
LjTodi This appellation was also given to such as made it
II their employment to sing lyric poems composed by
Lysippus, others*
LYS, or Lis. See Lis.
Lys, the name of a measure used by the Chinese in
estimating distances. Two hundred lys make 60 geo¬
graphical miles, which are equal to one degree.
L\SANDEIi, a famous Spartan general. See
Sparta.
LYSANDRIA, a Samian festival, celebrated with
games and sacrifices in honour of the Lacedemonian
general Lysander. It was anciently called hcrca:
but this name the Samians abolished by a public de¬
cree.
LYSIARCH, an ancient magistrate, who superin¬
tended the sacred games, and presided in matters of
religion in the province of Lycia. He was created
in a council consisting of deputies from all the pro¬
vincial cities, in number 23. The lysiarchs were
both heads of the council and pontiffs of the pro¬
vince.
LYSIAS, an ancient Grecian orator, was born at
Syracuse in the Both Olympiad. At 15, he went
to Thurion, a colony of the Athenians j and when
grown up, assisted in the administration of the go¬
vernment there many years. When about 47 years
of age, he returned to Athens; whence, being after¬
wards banished by the 30 tyrants, he went to Mega-
fa. Upon his return, Thrasybulus would have had
him employed again in state matters; but this not tak¬
ing place, he spent the remainder of his life as a pri¬
vate man. He was very familiar with Socrates, and
other illustrious philosophers. He professed to teach
the art of speaking ; not that he pleaded at the bar
himself, but he supplied others with speeches. “ Fuit
Lysias in causis forensibus non versatus (says Cicero),
sed egregie subtilis scriptor atque elegans, &c. Quin¬
tilian calls him, “ subtilis atque elegans, et quo nihil,
si oratorio satis sit docere, quoeras perfectius. Nihil
enim est inane, nihil arcessitum; puro tamen fonti,
quam magno fiumini, proprior.” Plutarch and Pho-
tius relate, that 425 orations were formerly exhibited
under the name of Lysias; of which 34 only are
now extant. The best edition of them is by Dr John
Taylor at London, 1739, 410; Cambridge, 1740,
8 vo.
LYSIMACHIA, Loosestrife, a genus of plants
belonging to the pentandria class; and in the natural
method ranking under the 20th order, Rotaccce. See
Botany Index.
LA SIPPUS, a celebrated Greek statuary, was born
at Sicyone, and first followed the business of a lock¬
smith, which he quitted in order to practice painting :
But he afterwards applied himself entirely to sculp¬
ture ; in which he acquired an immortal reputation,
and made a great number of statues that were the ad¬
miration of the people of Athens and Rome. His
grand statue of the Sun represented in a car drawn by
four horses, was worshipped at Rhodes. He made se¬
veral statues of Alexander and his favourites, which
were brought to Rome by Metellus after he had redu¬
ced the Macedonian empire ; and the statue of a man
wiping and anointing himself after bathing, being par¬
ticularly excellent, was placed by Agrippa before his
baths in that city. He lived in the time of Alexan-
Vol. XII. Part I.
!8y ] L Y T
tier the Gi-cat, about 334 B. C. ; and left three sons, I.ysitmus
who were all famous statuaries. ||
LAI IIRUM, Purple Loosestrife, a genus 0f Tytteltou
plants belonging to the decandria class ; and in the   7 
natural method ranking under the 17th order, Caly -
canthemce. See Botany Index.
LYTTELTON, Edward, Lord Lyttelton, keep¬
er of the great seal in the reign of Charles I. was emi¬
nent for his probity and his moderation at the com ¬
mencement of that monarch’s disputes with his sub
jects. ithout forfeiting his fidelity to the king, he
preserved the esteem of the parliament till 1644, when
he was made colonel of a regiment in the king’s army
at AYrk. He died in 1645.. Besides several of his
speeches which have been printed, he wrote reports
in the common pleas and exchequer, printed at Lon¬
don in 1683, in folio; several arguments and discourses,
&c.
Littleton, George Lore/, eldest son of Sir Thomas
Lyttleton, Bart, descended from the great judge Lyt¬
telton, was born in 1700, at seven months; and the
midwife, supposing him to be dead, threw him carelessly
into the cradle ; where, iiad not some signs of life been
taken notice of by one of the attendants, he might
never have recovered. He received the elements of
his education at Laton school, where he showed an
early inclination to poetry. His pastorals and some
other light pieces were originally written in that semi¬
nary of learning; from whence he Was removed to the
university of Oxford, where he pursued his classical
studies with uncommon avidity, and sketched the plan
of his Persian Letters ; a work which afterwards pro¬
cured him great reputation, not only from the elegance
ol the language in which they were composed, but from
the excellent observations they contained on the man¬
ners of mankind.
In the year 1728, lie set out on the tour of Europe;
and, on his arrival at Paris, accidentally became ac¬
quainted with the honourable Mr Poyntz, then our
minister at the court of Versailles; who was so struck
with the extraordinary capacity of our young traveller,
that he invited him to his house, and employed him in
many political negoeiations, which he executed with
great judgment and fidelity.
Mr Lyttelton’s conduct, while on his travels, was
a lesson of instruction to the rest of his countrymen.
Instead of lounging away his hours at the coffee-houses
frequented by the English, and adopting the fashion¬
able follies and vices of France and Italy bis time was
passed alternately in his library and in the society of
men of rank and literature. In this early part of his
life, he wrote a poetical epistle to Dr Ayscough, and
another to Mr Pope, which show singular taste and
correctness.
After continuing a considerable time at Paris with
Mr Poyntz, who, to use his own words, behaved like
a second father to him, he proceeded to Lyons and
Geneva; and from thence to Turin, where he was
honoured with great marks of friendship by his Sardi¬
nian majesty. He then visited Milan, Venice, Genoa,
and Rome, where he applied himself closely to the
study of the fine arts ; and was, even in that celebrated
metropolis, allowed a perfect judge of painting, sculp¬
ture, and architecture.
During his continuance abroad, he constantly cor-
+ Do. responded
L Y T
I.viteUon. respouacd ivitli Sir Thomas, his father.
[
Several
Ms'letters are yet remaining, and place Ins hhzl af¬
fection in a very distinguished light. He soon aft
returned to his native country, and was elected re¬
presentative for the borough of Okehampton in Devon¬
shire ; and behaved so much t0> the satisfaction of
his constituents, that they severaHimes re-elected him
for the same place without putting him to the least
6 About this period, he received great marks of friend¬
ship from Frederic prince of Wales, lather of his pre¬
sent majesty; and was, in the year 1737, appointed
principal secretary to his royal highness, and continued
in the strictest intimacy with him till the time of his
death. His attention to public business did not, how¬
ever, prevent him from exercising his poetical talent.
A most amiable young lady, Miss I ortescue, insFrt't
him with a passion, which produced a number of little
pieces, remarkable for their tenderness and elegance.-,
and he had a happy facility of striking out an extem¬
pore compliment, which obtained him no small share
of reputation. One evening being in company with
Lord Cobham and several of the nobility at btowe,
his lordship mentioned his design of putting up a bust
of Lady Suffolk in his beautiful gardens ; and, turning
to Mr Lyttelton, said, “ George, you must furnish
me with a motto for it.” “ I will, my lord ” answered
Mr Lyttleton j and directly produced the following
couplet:
Her wit and beauty for a court were made,.
But truth and goodness fit her for a shade.
When Mr Pitt, afterwards earl of Chatham, lost his
commission in the guards, in consequence of his spirited
conduct in parliament, Mr Lyttelton was in waiting
at Leicester-house, and, on hearing the circumstance,
immediately wrote these lines .
Long had thy.virtue mark’d thee out foi fame,.
Far, far superior to a cornet’s name 5
This generous Walpole saw, and griev’d to find
So mean a post disgrace that noble mind }
The servile standard from thy free-born hand
He took, and hade thee lead the patriot band.
In the year 1742, he married Lucy, the daughter
of Hugh Fortescue, Esq. of Filleigh in the county
of Devon, the lady above mentioned, whose exemplary
conduct, and uniform practice of religion and virtue,
established his conjugal happiness upon the most solid
basis.
In 1744, he was appointed one of the lords com¬
missioners of the treasury ; and, during his continuance
in that station, constantly exerted his influence in re¬
warding merit and ability. He wag the friend and
patron of the late Henry Fielding, Janies Thomson
author of the Seasons, Mr Mallet, Dr Young, Mr
Hammond, Mr West, Mr Pope, and Voltaire. On
the death of Thomson, who left his affairs in a very
embarrassed condition, Mr Lyttelton took that poet’s
sister under his protection. He revised the tragedy of
Coriolanus, which that writer had not put the last
hand to-, and brought it out at the theatre-royal,
Covent-garden, with a prologue of his own writing,
in which he so affectingly lamented the loss of that
delightful bard, that not only Mr Quin, who spoke
290 ] L Y T
of the lines, but almost the whole audience, spontaneously
burst into tears. r .. .
In the beginning of the year 1746, his felicity was
interrupted by the loss of his wife, who died in the
2nth year of her age j leaving him one son, I homas,
the late Lord Lyttelton 5 and a daughter, Lucy, who
afterwards married Lord Viscount Valentia. Ihe
remains of his amiable lady were deposited at Uver-
Arlev in Worcestershire} and an elegant monument
was erected to her memory in the church of Hagley,
which contains the following inscription written by
her husband :
Lyttelton.
Made to engage all hearts, and charm all eyes :
Tho’ meek, magnanimous ; tho’ witty, wise 5
Polite, as all her life in courts had been ;
Yet good, as she the world had never seen :
The noble fire of an exalted mind,
With gentlest female tenderness combin’d.
Her speech was the melodious voice of love,
Her song the warbling of the vernal grove.
Her eloquence was sweeter than her song,
Soft as her heart, and as her reason strong.^
Her form each beauty of her mind express’d,
Her mind was virtue by the Graces dress’d.
Besides these beautiful lines, Mr Lyttelton wrote a
monody on the death of his lady, which will be re¬
membered while conjugal affection and a taste tor
poetry exist in this country. .
His masterly observations on the conversion and
apostleship of St Paul, were written at the desire of
Gilbert West, Esq. in consequence of Mr Lyttelton s
asserting, that, beside all the proofs of the Christian
religion, which might be drawn from the prophecies
of the Old Testament, from the necessary connection
it has with the whole system of the Jewish religion,
from the miracles of Christ, and from the evidence
given of his resurrection by all the other apostles,
he thought the conversion of St Paul almie, duly
considered, was of itself a demonstration sufficient to
prove Christianity to be a divine revelation. Mr West
was struck with the thought t and assured Ins friend,
that so compendious a proof would he of great use to
convince those unbelievers that will not attend to a
longer series of arguments ; and time has shown he was
not out in his conjecture, as the tract is esteemed one 01
the best defences of Christianity which has Jntheito
been published.
In 1754, he resigned his office of lord of the trea¬
sury, and was made cofferer to his majesty’s house¬
hold, and sworn of the privy-council: previous to
which, he married a second time, Elizabeth daughter
of Field-marshal Sir Robert Bich; whose indiscreet con-
duct gave him great uneasiness, and from whom he
was separated, by mutual consent, a tew years after In^
marriage.
After being appointed chancellor, and under tiea-
surer of the court of exchequer, he was, by ietter^'
patent dated the 19th of November I757» 31 ^‘eo- .
created a peer of Great Britain, by the style and title
of Lord Lyttelton, baron of Franktey, in the county. oj
Worcester. His speeches on the Scotch and mutiny
bills in the year 1747, on the Jew hill in 1753, anu
on the privilege of parliament in 1763? showed sourui
judgment, powerful eloquence, and inflexible inft-
L Y T
Lyttelton, grity. During the last ten years he lived chiefly
t«—v—' in retirement, in the continual exercise of all the
virtues which can ennoble private life. His last
work was Dialogues of the Dead, in which the mo¬
rality of Cambray and the spirit of Fontenelle are hap¬
pily united.
He was suddenly seized with an inflammation of
the bowels, in the middle of July 1773, at his seat at
Hagley j which terminated in his death, on the 22d of
L Y T
that month, His last moments were attended with Lyttelton
unimpaired understanding, unaffected greatness 0f 
mind, calm resignation, and humble but confident
hopes in the mercy of God. As he had lived uni¬
versally esteemed, he died lamented by all parties.
A complete collection of his works has been pub¬
lished since his decease, by his nephew Georg-e Avs-
cough, Esq.
[ 291 1
M.
M TV/T A liquid consonant, and the twelfth letter in the
[1 I’l-j alphabet. •
,b’llon', It has one unvaried sound, and is pronounced by
* striking the upper lip against the lower 5 in which the
pronunciation of this letter agrees wfith that of b ; the
only difterence between the two consisting in a little
motion made in the nose in pronouncing m, and not in
b; whence it happens that those who have taken cold,
for ni ordinarily pronounce b ; the nose in that case be¬
ing disabled from making the necessary motion.
All consonants are formed with the aid of vowels ;
in on the vowel precedes, in be it follows j and 7n is
never mute.
Quintilian observes, that the m sometimes ends La¬
tin words but never Greek ones 5 the Greeks always
changing it in that case into «, for the sake of the bet¬
ter sound.
M is also a numeral letter, and among the ancients
Was used for a thousand j according to the verse,
M caput est numeric quem scimus mille teneri.
When a dash is added to the top of it, as M 3 it sig¬
nifies a thousand times a thousand.
M, as an abbreviature, stands for Manlius, Marcus,
Martins, and Mucius : M. A. signifies inagister‘ artium,
or master of arts j MS. manuscript, and MSS. manu¬
scripts.
M, in astronomical tables, and other things of that
kind, is used for Tneridional or southern j and sometimes
lor meridian or mid-day.
M, in medicinal prescription, is frequently used to
signify a maniple or handful; and it is sometimes also
put at the end of a recipe, for misce, “ mingle 3” or for
mixtura, “ a mixture,” Thus m.f julapiimi, signifies
“ mix and make a julep.”
M, in Z<m’, the brand or stigma of a person convict¬
ed of manslaughter, and admitted to the benefit of
his clergy. It is to be burnt on the brawn of his left
thumb.
MAAT, John. See Blankof.
MABILLON, John, a very learned writer of
France in the 17th century, was born at Perremonte,
on the frontiers of Champagne, in 1632. He was
educated in the university ol Bheims, and afterwards
entered into the abbey of the Benedictines of St Ilemy.
^n the year 1663, he was appointed keeper of the
treasures and monuments of France at St Dennis : but Mabillon
haying unfortunately broke a looking glass there, 11
which was pretended to have belonged to Virgil, beMacarian^
desired leave ot his superiors to quit an employment' v
which frequently obliged him to tell things he did not
believe. Next year he went to Paris 3 and was very
serviceable to I ather d’Acheri, who was desirous of
haying some young monk who could assist him in com¬
piling his Spicilegium. This made him known. Soon
aftei, the congregation ot St Maur having formed a
design of publishing new editions of the fathers, re¬
vised from the MSS. in the libraries of the Benedic¬
tines, Mabillon was charged with the edition of St
Bernard, which he prepared with extraordinary dili¬
gence. After that, he published many other works,
which are evidences of his vast capacity and industry.
In 1682, he was employed by Mr Colbert in examin¬
ing some ancient titles relating to the royal family.
The year following he sent him into Germany, to
search the archives and libraries of the ancient abbeys,
for what was most curious and proper to illustrate the
history of the church in general, and that of France
in particular. He has published an account of this
journey. In 1685, he undertook another journey
into Italy, by order of the king of France 3 and re¬
turned the year following with a very noble collection.
He placed in the king’s library above 3000 volumes
of rare books, printed and in MSS. and composed two
volumes of the pieces which he had discovered in that
country. He was highly esteemed for his virtues as
well as his learning.
MACACO, or Macauco. See Lemur, Mamma¬
lia Index.
MACAO, a town of China in the province of
Canton, seated in an island at the mouth of the river
Tae. The Portuguese have been in possession of the
harbour for 150 years. Formerly they had a great
trade here 3 but now they have only a fort with a small
garrison. The houses are built after the European
manner 3 and there is a Chinese mandarin, as well as a
Portuguese governor, to take care of the town and
the neighbouring country. E. Long. 109. N. Lat.
22. 12.
Macao. See Psittacus, Ornithology I/idex.
MACARIANS, in ecclesiastical history, the fol¬
lowers of Macarius, an Egyptian monk, who was di-
O o 2 stinguished
M A £ E z92 J
Mr» stra™3l«a towards the close of the fourth century for heads.
T his sanetity and virtue. In his writmgs there are some
Macassar, superstitious tenets, and also certain opinions >a scei
^ ' tainted ivith Origenism. The name has been also ap¬
plied to those who adopted the sentiments of Macarius
a native of Ireland, who about the close ot the ninth
century, propagated in France the error afterwards
maintained by Averrhoes, that one individual intelli¬
gence or soul performed the spiritual and rational
functions in all the human race.
MACARONI. See Folengio, and the next
1 MACARONIC, or MaCARONIAN, a kind of bur¬
lesque poetry, consisting of a jumble of words ol dmer-
ent languages, with words ot the vulgar tongue La¬
tinized," and Latin words modernized. Macaroni
among the Italians, as has been observed by Caelms
Rhodiginus, signifies a coarse clownish man; a.n<x be¬
cause this kinil of poetry is patched out of several
languages, and full of extravagant words, &c. the
Italians, among whom it had its rise, gave it the name
of macaronian or macaronic poetry. Others choose
t0 derive it a macaronibus, from macaroons, a kind ot
confection made of meal not boulted, sweet almonds,
sugar, and the white of eggs, accounted a great dainty
among the country people in Italy, which, from their
being composed of various ingredients, occasioned
this kind of poetry, which consists ot Latm, Italian,
Spanish, French, English, &c. to be called by their
name. . , • . i
Example.—A hold fellow in the macaronic style,
says,
Enftlavi onines scadrones et regunandos, &-c.
Another example :
Archelos pistoliferos furiamqite manantum,
Et grandem esmeutam quwinopihum facta ruelle est:
1 'oxinunique alto troublantem cordu clochcro, Stc.
J’lieoph. Folengius, a Benedictine monk of Mantua,
was the first who invented, or at least cultivated, this
kind of verse. See Folengio.
The best pieces of this kind are, the Ealdus of r o-
lengio, and Macaronis Forcsa by Stefonio a. Jesuit,
among the Italians, and the Reatus veritabilis, super
terribili esmeuta paisanarum dc Ri/clhs, among the
French. The famous Rabelais first transferred the
‘macaronic style out of the Italian verse into 1 rench
prose : and on the model thereof formed some of the
best things in his Pantagruel: We have little in
English in the macaronian way ; nothing scarce, but
some little loose pieces collected in Camden’s remains.
But the Germans and Netherlanders have had their
macaronic poets } witness the Certamcn Catholicuni enm
Calvinist is, of one Martinius Hamconius Frisius, which
contains about I2CO verses, all the words whereof be¬
gin with the letter C.
MACARSKA, a town of Dalmatia, and capital of
Primogria, with a pretty good harbour, and a bishop’s
see, seated on the gulf of Venice. E. Long. i*]. 57-
N. Lat. 43. 42.
MACASSAR, a considerable kingdom., of the
island of Celebes, in the East Indies. The climate is
very hot 5 and would be intolerable, were it not for
the rains which fall when the sun is directly over their
MAC
The soil is extremely fertile, and there arc m acassar.
ripe fruits at all times of the year. There are great |]
numbers of monkeys, who are devoured by monstrous f^cabces,
serpents, some of which are so large, that they will
swallow one of these animals entire. The Macassars
are large, robust, courageous, and greatly addicted to
war. They profess the Mahometan religion.
Macassar, a large, strong, and handsome town,
of the island of Celebes, and capital of the kingdom
of the same name, where the king resides. The
houses are all built of wood, and supported by thick
posts-, and they have ladders to go up into them,
which they draw up as soon as they have entered.
The roofs are covered with very large leaves, which
prevent the rain from entering. It is seated near the
mouth of a large river, which runs through the king¬
dom from north to south. E. Long. 117* 5S’
5. o. See Celebes, Supplement.
Macassar Poison, in Natural History, called ippo m
the Macassar and Malayan tongue, is the gum of a cer¬
tain tree, shining, brittle, black, and every way like
stone-pitch, growing in the island of Celebes, in the
South seas ; with which all the natives arm themselves
in travel, having a long hollow trunk of a haid red
wood like brasil, accurately bored, and at one end is
fixed a large lance-blade ot iron. J-hen they make a-,
small arrow, very straight, and somewhat bigger than a
large wheaten straw : at one end they fix it into a
round piece of white, light, soft wood, like cork,
about the length of the little finger, just fit for the
bore of the trunk, to pass clear by the force of one s
breath, and to fill it so exactly, that the air may not
pass by, but against it, in order to carry it with the
greater force. At the other end they fix in it either
a small fish-tooth for that purpose, or make a blade ofi
wood of the bigness of the point of a lancet, about
three-quarters of an inch long, and making a little
notch in the end of the arrow, they stick it firm
therein, which they anoint with poison. The poi¬
sonous gum, when gathered, is put into hollow bam¬
boos or canes, stopped up very close, and thus brought
to Macassar. When they fit it for use, they take a
piece of smooth turtle-shell, and a stick cut flat and
smooth at the end: then they take green gaiangal root,,
grate it, and with the addition of a little fair water,
press the juice into a clean china dish : then with a knife
scraping a little of the poison upon the shell, dip the
end of the stick in the forementioned liquor, and with
this dissolve the poison to the consistence of a syrup;
when this is done, they artoint the fish-tooth or wooden
blade with the same stick, and lay it in the sun, so that
it may be baked hard. The pointed arrows thus pre¬
pared, are put in hollow bamboos, close shut, and in
this state they retain their virtue for a month.
MACCAB/EUS, Judas. See Judas.
MACCABEES, two apocryphal books of scripture,
containing, the history of Judas and his brothers, and
their wars against the Syrian kings in defence of then-
religion and liberties, so called from Judas Mattathias,
surnamed Maccabccus, as some say from the word
formed of the initials of mru cbio ."TDOS q. d. Who
is like unto thee, 0 Lord, among the gods ; which was
the motto of bis standard *, whence those who fought
under his standard were called Maccabees, and the name
was generally applied to all who suffered in the cause
of
M A C [ 293 ] M A C
Maccabees. l>i° true religion, under the Egyptian or Syrian
Macbeth- kings. The first book of the Maccabees is an excel-
 v lent history, and conies nearest to the style and manner
of the sacred historians of any extant. It was written
originally in the Chaldee language, of the Jerusalem
dialect, and was extant in this language in the time of
Jerome. From the Chaldee it was translated into
Greek, from the Greek into Latin. It is supposed to
have been written by John Hyrcanus the son of Si¬
mon, who was prince and high priest of the Jews near
30 years, and began his government at the time where
this history ends. It contains the history of 40 years,
from the reign of Antiochus Epiphanes to the death
of Simon the high priest; that is, from the year of
the world 3829 to the year 3869 j 131 years before
Christ. The second book of the Maccabees begins
with two epistles sent from the Jews of Jerusalem to
the Jews of Egypt and Alexandria j to exhort them
to observe the feast of the dedication of the new altar
erected by Judas on his purifying the temple. The first
was written in the 169th year of the era of the Se-
leucidm, i. e. before Christ 144 j and the second in the
18 8th year of the same era, or 125 before Christ j
and both appear to be spurious. After these epistles
follows the preface of the author to his history, which
is an abridgement of a larger work, composed by one
Jason, a Jew of Cyrcne, who wrote in Greek the hi¬
story of Judas Maccabeus and his brethren, and the
wars against Antiochus Epiphanes, and Eupator his
son. The second book does not by any means equal
the accuracy and excellency of the first. It contains
a history of about 15 years, from the execution of
Heliodorus’s commission, who was sent by Seleucus
to fetch away the treasures of the temple, to the vic¬
tory obtained by Judas Maccabees o\er Nicanor;
that is, from the year of the world 3828, to the year
3843, 147 years before Christ.
There are in the Polyglot Bibles, both of Paris and
London, Syriac versions of both these books : but
they, as well as the English versions which wre have
among the apocryphal writers in our Bible, are de¬
rived from the Greek. There is also a third book of
the Maccabees, containing the history of the persecu¬
tion of Ptolemy Philopator against the Jews in Egypt,
and their sufferings under it j which seems to have been
written by some Alexandrian Jew in the Greek lan¬
guage, not long after the time of Siracides. It is in
most of the ancient manuscript copies of the Greek
Beptuagint •, particularly in the Alexandrian and Va¬
tican, but was never inserted into the vulgar Latin
version of the Bible^, nor consequently into any of our
English copies. Moreover, Josephus’s history of the
martyrs that suffered under Antiochus Epiphanes, is
found in some manuscript Greek Bibles, under the
name of the fourth hook of the Maccabees.
MACBETH, a Scots nobleman in the nth cen¬
tury, nearly allied to Duncan king of Scotland.-—
Not contented with curbing the king’s authority, he
carried his pestilent ambition so far as to put him to
death •, and, chasing Malcolm Canmore his son and
heir into England, usurped the crown. Si ward earl
of Northumberland, whose daughter Duncan had mar¬
ried, undertook, by the order of Edward the Confessor,
the protection of the fugitive prince.—He marched w ith
an army into Scotland ; defeated and killed Macbeth 5
I
and restored Malcolm to the throne of his ancestors. Muciied-
Shakespeare has made this transaction the subject cf one Macbrick,’
oi his best tragedies. i .1
MACBIt IDE, Dr David, an eminent physician
and philosopher, was descended from an ancient family
in the county of Galloway in Scotland. His grand¬
father, a clergyman, had settled in Ireland about the
end ot the 17th century, as minister to a Presbyterian-
congregation at Belfast 5 and his father, who followed
the same line, was settled at Ballymony in the county
of Antrim, where he married, and where our author
was born in April 1726. After a proper school-educa¬
tion, and having passed some time under the tuition-
ot an eminent surgeon in his native place, he was sent
to the university of Glasgow. Having there completed
the usual coux-se of academical studies, he went to
Edinburgh for the further prosecution of medical sci¬
ence. After a short stay here, a war then prevailing
between France and Britain, he was induced to go on
board the navy iirthe station of a surgeon’s mate. In
the service of his country he continued for several
years j and after discharging for some time the duties
ol an assistant, he was raised to the rank of surgeon.
In this situation, he first turned his thoughts towards
the discovery of a remedy for the sea-scurvy. It was
not, however, at this period, that either chance or rea¬
soning suggested to him the employment of an article
which has since been attended with the most beneficial
consequences. Here he had an opportunity only of ob¬
serving the symptoms, of studying the nature, and of
lamenting the consequences, of the disease.
The termination of the war by the peace of Aix-la-
Chapelle put a period to Dr Macbriile’s employment
as a naval surgeon. He had now probably obtained
much medical knowledge in the school of experience ;
but he was sensible that he had still much to acquire
in that of science. An ardent keenness to mingle in
active life had led him from the schools of medicine at
an earlier period than could have been wished ; and an
earnest desire to found his future practice in the best
established principles led him back to them, when a
judgment, matured by years, and informed from the
observation of facts, rendered him capable of hearing
teachers with greater advantage. He returned there¬
fore to Edinburgh, and again entered on the career of
academical pursuits, under the tuition of Dr Monro,
and those other teachers, whose abilities raised the
fame of that medical school. But not satisfied with.
the instructions to be had from any one set of professors,
the celebrity of the medical teachers in London led
him also to visit that capital. There he particularly
became the pupil of those distinguished lecturers, Dr
Hunter and Dr Smellie. And while from the former
he laboured to acquire an accurate chirurgical know¬
ledge, from the latter he endeavoured to obtain the-
true principles of midwifery considered as a science.
At the same time he was no less industrious in improv¬
ing himself in the successful practice of both arts by
attention at hospitals.
Thus prepared for the exercise of his profession,
about the end of the year 1749 he fixed his residence
in Dublin in the character of surgeon and accoucheur.
If amiable manners, and extensive knowledge of his
profession, could alone have been sufficient introduc¬
tions to practice, he might in a short time have lo#L-
MAC
[ 294 1
MAC
Macbride. ed for a competent share of business in that capital j
-v ' but while he had to combat that objection which very
generally arises from youth, his progress was also not
♦a little retarded by an uncommon degree oi modesty.
Hence for several years he remained almost in a state
of obscurity, and was employed by but few people ei¬
ther of rank or fortune. But if it is to be legictted
that for many years his time was not so fully employed
in the lucrative part of his profession as was due to
his merit, it ought still to be remembered, that this es¬
sentially promoted the cause of science : for by this
means his genius and industry were directed to medical
researches *, and wTere productive of discoveries which
'will with honour transmit his name to latest posterity.
iThese, though some of them might have been succes-
'fully turned to his own emolument, were freely com¬
municated to the world in different publications 5 and
he did not show greater ingenuity in making disco¬
veries than liberality of sentiment in publishing them
.for the advantage of others. His first publication,
entitled, “ Experimental Essays on Medical and Phi¬
losophical Subjects,” made its appearance in the year
1*164.—These essays are five in number: 1. On the
fermentation of alimentary mixture and the digestion
of the food. 2. On the nature and properties of fixed
air. 3. On the different kinds of antiseptics. 4 Of
the dissolvent power of quicklime. 5. Of the sea-scur¬
vy. The merit of all these is sufficiently known and
acknowledged : but the last of them is unquestionably
the most important', the method therein proposed of
both the prevention and cure of that dreadful disease,
the scurvy, having been confirmed by repeated and un¬
deniable observation.
Having thus equally distinguished himself as an inge¬
nious philosopher and able practitioner, the world were
not now slow in bestowing upon him the tribute of ap¬
plause to which he rvas entitled. His name wras enrol¬
led with honour in the lists of many learned societies •,
and the university where his studies had first been com¬
menced, were proud to confer upon him the degree of
doctor of medicine.
The reputation, however, of being a distinguished
author, was to him but a secondary object; and his
talents were not confined to the advancement of medi¬
cine alone. Having successfully discovered a consider¬
able improvement in the art of tanning, with that
spirited generosity which is ever the concomitant of
real worth, he speedily and freely communicated it to
the public, by publishing, first, “ An Account of a
New Method of Tanning and afterwards, “ Instruc¬
tions for carrying on the New Method of Tanning.”
As a mark of approbation for this liberal conduct, as
well as a testimony of respect for his ingenuity, prize-
medals were conferred upon him by the Societies of
Arts both in London and Dublin. But his last and
most extensive publication was more immediately in
the line of his own profession . It is entitled, “ A Me¬
thodical Introduction to the Theory and Practice of
Medicine.” In that valuable work he has given a
concise and connected view of the principles and prac¬
tice of the healing art, as best established by sound
reason, and confirmed by accurate observation. Most,
if not all, of these publications, not only went through
various editions, but were translated into different lan¬
guages.
Mace.
After the merit of Dr Macbride came to be proper- Madrid*
ly known, the public seemed to show a desire tor mak¬
ing compensation for having so long overlooked it. ^
His employment increased so rapidly, that he had more
business than he could transact either with ease or safe¬
ty. This having kept him in perpetual agitation both
of body and mind, at last induced an almost total in¬
capacity of sleeping. From this circumstance his health
could not fail to be impaired. In this situation, alter
accidental exposui’e to cold, he was attacked with a
fever, which put an end to his life on the 13th of De¬
cember 1778, in the 53d year of his age.
Those who were among his most intimate acquaintance
were inclined to believe that his death was not a little
hastened by domestic calamities. During his residence
in Dublin he was twice married, and was as often sub¬
jected to that inexpressible distress which must result
from a final separation in this world from the most inti¬
mate and loving friends. By both of his wives he
had several children ; but none of them survived their
father. And on these calamitous events, although he
was able to conceal his feelings from the wrorld, yet
they gave a severe shock to his constitution. After
his death, several of the playful trinkets of his infants,
with the signature of dulces exuvia^ were found in his
repositories among papers on medical and other import¬
ant subjects : an incontrovertible proof, that in him at
least, the great mind of the philosopher was conjoin¬
ed with the feeling heart of the affectionate father.
But if his abilities were remarkable as a philosopher
and physician, if his conduct wras exemplary as a hus¬
band and parent, his manners were no less amiable as
a companion and friend. His polite and benevolent
conduct, joined to his taste for the fine arts, conciliated
the affections and esteem of all who knew him. His
death was universally and sincerely lamented in the
city of Dublin.
MACCLESFIELD, a town of Cheshire in Eng¬
land, 171 miles from London, is seated on the edge of
a forest of the same name, upon a high rank near the
river Bollin j and is a large handsome town, with a
fine church and a very high steeple. It was erected
into a borough by King Edward HI. is governed by
a mayor, and enjoys great privileges and jurisdictions
by virtue of the court and the liberties of the forest.
In its church are twro bx-ass plates, on one of which
there is a promise of 26,000 years and 26 days pardon
for saying five Pater-Nosters, and five Aves, It has ex¬
tensive manufactures in silk and cotton. In Macclesfield
forest are many pits dug for the sake of the turf j in
which it is common to find fir-trees buried, which are
dug up for various uses, but chiefly for splinters that
serve the poor for candles. The population in 18x1
was 12,299. W. Long. 2. 10. N. Lat. 53. 15.
MACE, an ancient weapon, formerly much used
by the cavalry of all nations. It was commonly made
of iron j its figure much resembles a chocolate mill}
many specimens may be seen in the Tower. It was
•was with one of these that Walworth mayor of London
knocked the rebel M at Tyler from off his horse in
Smithfield for approaching the young King Richard II.
in an insolent manner ; and as he fell he dispatched
him with his dagger. The mace in modern times
changed its form 5 and being no longer a war instru¬
ment, is made of copper or silver gilt, ornamented xvith
Mace,
Macedon,
MAC [ 295 ]
a crown, globe, and cross, and is now the chief insignia in Macedon.
Situation,
&c. of the
country.
2
fferent
ffles.
1 3
igdom
nded by
'anus.
ol authority throughout Great Britain. Similar to the
; ancient maces, were those staves at the end of which
iron or leaden balls armed with spikes were suspended
by chains: they were formerly carried by the pioneers
of the trained bands or militia of London.
Mace, in the Materia Mcdica, the second coat or
covering of the kernel of the nutmeg, is a thin, mem¬
branaceous substance, of a yellowish colour 5 being met
with in flakes of an inch or more in length, which are
divided into a multitude of ramifications. It is of an
extremely fragrant, aromatic, and agreeable flavour;
and of a pleasant, but acrid oleaginous taste. See Ma¬
teria Medic a Index.
MACEDON, or Macedonia, a most celebrated
kingdom of antiquity, was bounded on the east by
the iEgean sea 5 on the south by Thessaly and Epirus j
on the west by the Ionian sea or Adriatic ; on the
north, at first by the river Strymon and the Scardian
mountains, but afterwards by the river Nessus or Nes-
tus. In a direct line the whole country extended
only 150 miles in length*, but the windings of the
coast lengthened it out to three times that extent ; in
which almost every convenient situation was occupied
hy a Grecian sea-port. The country was naturally
divided, by the Thermaic and Strymonic gulfs, into
the provinces of Pieria, Chalcis, and Pangaeus. The
middle region, which took its name from a city of
Euboea from whence it was originally peopled, was
very fertile and pleasant; the inland country, being
diversified by lakes, rivers, and arms of the sea, was
extremely convenient for inland navigation, while the
towns of Amphipolis, Potidiea, Acanthus, and many
others, afforded marts for the commerce of the republics
of Greece, as well as of Thrace and Macedon. On
one side of this district were the mountains of Pangmus,
and on the other the plains of Picria. The Pangcean
mountains, which extended 90 miles towards the east
and the river Nessus, though proper neither for corn
nor pasture, produced plenty of timber for ship-build¬
ing ; while the southern branches of the mountains
contained rich veins of gold and silver ; but these,
though wrought successively by the Thasians and the
Athenians, were only brought to perfection by Philip
of Macedon, who extracted from them gold and silver
to the value of 200,00:!. sterling annually. Pieria ex¬
tended 50 miles along the Thermaic gulf, to the
confines of Thessaly and Mount Pindus. The inland
part of the country was beautifully diversified with
shady hills and fountains ; and so admirably calculated
for solitary walks and retirement, that the ancients
looked upon it to be the favourite haunts of the Muses,
and accordingly bestowTed upon them the title of PA-
rides.
In the most early times this country was called JEma-
thia, from TEmathius one of its princes. The name of
Macedon is said to have been derived from Macedo a
descendant of Deucalion; though others suppose it
to have been only a corruption of Mygdonia a district
of the country. In those remote ages of antiquity,
Macedon, like most other countries of Europe, was
divided into a great number of petty principalities,
of which scarce even the names are known at this
time. All authors agree, however, that Caranus was
the first who established any permanent sovereignty
3
MAC
He was an Argive, a descendant of Maccdom
Hercules, and about 800 years B. C. conducted a ' v *
small colony of his countrymen into the inland district
of Macedon, at that time distinguished by the name of
JEmathia as already mentioned. This territory was
about 300 miles in circumference. On the south it
was separated from the sea by a number of Greek re¬
publics, of which the most considerable were those of
oiynthus and Amphipolis; and on the north, east, and
west, was surrounded by the barbarous kingdoms of
Thrace, Poeonia, and Illyricum. According to the
traditions of those times, Caranus, having consulted
the oracle on the success of lus intended expedition,
was commanded to be directed by the goats in the esta¬
blishment of his empire. For some time he proceeded
at random, without knowing what to make of the ora¬
cle’s answer 5 but happening to enter the small kingdom
of JEmathia, at that time governed by King Midas, he
observed a herd of goats running towards Edessa the
capital. Recollecting then the answer of the oracle,
he attacked and took the city by surprise, soon after
making himself master of the whole kingdom. In me¬
mory of this remarkable event he called the city JEgea,
and the people JEgiates, from the goats who conducted
him, and made use of the figure of a goat in his stand¬
ard. From this fable also we see why the figure of a
goat is so frequently seen on the coins of Philip and his
successors. ^
1 he little colony of Argives led into iEmathia hy Policy of
Caranus would soon have been overwhelmed by the pbaer
barbarous nations w ho surrounded it, had not this prince
and his subjects taken care to ingratiate themselves with
their neighbours, rather than to attempt to subdue them
by lorce of arms. They instructed them in the Grecian
religion and government, and in the knowdedge of many
useful arts; adopting themselves, in some degree, the
language and manners of the barbarians; imparting
to them in return some part of the Grecian civiliza¬
tion and polite behaviour. Thus they gradually asso¬
ciated with the fierce and warlike tribes in their neigh¬
bourhood j and this prudent conduct, being followed
by succeeding generations, may be looked upon as one
of the causes of the Macedonian greatness.
Caranus, dying after a reign of three years, left the
kingdom to his son Coenus ; who having considerably
enlarged his dominions, was succeeded by Thurymas, ^
and he by Perdiccas I. This last prince is by Thucy- PerJiccasI.
dides and Herodotus accounted the founder of the
Macedonian monarchy 5 though this history is so
obscured by fable, that nothing certain can now be
known concerning it. In process of time, however, the
good understanding which had subsisted between the
Macedonians and their barbarous neighbours began to ^
suffer an interruption ; and in 691 B. C. the kingdom Invasion by
was for the first time invaded by the Illyrians. Atthellly-
iirst they did considerable damage by their ravages ; rLns.
but the Macedonian monarch, Argaeus, having decoyed
them into an ambush, cut off great numbers, and obliged
the remainder to leave the kingdom. In the reign of
his successors, however, they returned, and occasionally
proved very Troublesome enemies till the reigns of Phi- 7
lip and Alexander. ence^of'tlie
In the mean time the kingdom of Macedon began topers;ans
be affected by those great events which took place and Mace-
in other parts of the world. Cyrus having overthrownclonians*
the
MAC t
Ttlaced in. the Babylonian empire, and conquered all the western
of Asia, established a mighty monarchy, winch
threatened all the eastern parts of Europe with sub-
jucration. The Greeks, however, having now emerged
from their barbarism, and acquired great knowledge
in the art of war, were able to resist effectually this
very formidable power j but the kingdom of Macedon,
obscure and unconnected, was obliged to yield, and
though not formally made a province of the Persian
empire, was nevertheless accounted in some sort as un¬
der the vassalage and protection of the Persians. Al-
cetas, who ascended the Macedonian throne about the
time that the Persian monarchy was founded, had the
dexterity to preserve his dominions from the encroach¬
ments of the Greeks on the one hand,, and or the Per¬
sians on the other j but in the reign of his successor
Amyntas, a formal demand was made of submission to
the great king Darius, by sending him a present of
earth and water. Seven ambassadors were sent on this
errand by Megabizus, one of the officers of Darius.
They were sumptuously entertained by Amyntas } but
having attempted to take some indecent liberties with
the Macedonian women, Alexander the king’s son
caused them all to be murdered. This rash action
had almost proved the ruin of the kingdom •, but
Alexander found means to pacify Bubaris the general
sent against him by Megabizus, by showing him his
sister Gygsea, a very beautiful woman, with whom the
Persian fell in love at first sight, and afterwards mar¬
ried her.
From this time the Macedonians were accounted
the faithful allies of the Persians; and, through the
interest of his son-in-law, Amyntas obtained the coun¬
try in the neighbourhood of Mount Huemus and Olym¬
pus, at the same time that the city of Alabanda in Phry¬
gia was given to Amyntas the nephew of Alexander.
The Macedonians distinguished themselves in the time
of the Persian invasion of Greece, by furnishing their
allies with 200,000 recruits ; though some cities, par¬
ticularly Potidaea, Olynthus, and Pallenc, adhered to
the Grecian interest. The two last were taken and
rased, and the inhabitants massacred by the Persians •,
but Potidsea escaped by reason of the sea breaking
into the Persian camp, where it did great damage.
Alexander, however, afterwards thought proper to
court the favour of the Greeks by giving them intel¬
ligence of the time when Mardonius designed to attack
them. The remaining transactions of this reign are
entirely unknown, farther than that he enlarged his
dominions to the river Nessus on the east and the Axius
9 on the west.
Iteigfn of Alexander I. was succeeded by his son Perdiccas II.
Perliccus who, according to Dr Gillies, “ inherited his father’s
IL abilities, though not his integrity.” But from his du¬
plicity above mentioned both to Greeks and Persians,
it does not appear that he had much to boast of as
to the latter quality. In the Peloponnesian war he
espoused the cause of the Spartans against the Athe¬
nians, from whom he was in danger by reason of their
numerous settlements on the Macedonian coast, and
their great power by sea. For some time, however,
he amused the Athenians with a show of friendship 5
but at last, under pretence of enabling Olyntbus and
some other cities to recover their liberties, be assisted
in destroying the influence of the Athenians in those
4
3
Advan¬
tages ac¬
cruing to
Macedon
from this
interfer¬
ence.
296 ] MAC
places, in hopes of establishing that of the Macedo- Maccdor,.
nians in its stead. But this design failed of success •,—v—-
the Olynthian confederacy was broken, and the mem¬
bers of it became subject to Sparta, until at luM, by
the misfortunes of that republic, they became sufficient¬
ly powerful not to resist the encroachments of the Ma¬
cedonians, but to make considerable conquests in their
country. ^ 13 n \ 10
Perdiccas II. was succeeded about 416 B. L. by Of Arche,
Archelaus I. He enlarged his dominions by the con- 'aus I.
quest of Pydna, and other places in Pieria, though his
ambition seems rather to have been to improve his do¬
minions than greatly to extend them. He facilitated
the communication between the principal towns of Ma¬
cedon, by cutting straight roads through most part of
the country j he built walls and fortresses in such places
as afforded a favourable situation ; encouraged agricul¬
ture and the arts, particularly those subservient to war ,
formed magazines of arms ^ raised and disciplined a
considerable body of cavalry } and in a word, sajs Dr
Gillies, “ added more to the solid grandeur of Macedon
than had been done by all his predecessors put together.
Nor was he regardless of the arts of peace. His palace
was adorned by the works of Grecian painters. Euii-<
pides was long entertained at his court •, Socrates was
earnestly solicited to live there, after the example of
this philosophic poet, formed by his precepts and che¬
rished by his friendship : men of merit and genius in
the various walks of literature and science were invited
to reside in Macedon, and treated with distinguished
regard by a monarch duly attentive to promote his own
glory and the happiness of his subjects.” it
This great monarch died after a reign of six years, The king-
a space by far too short to accomplish the magnificentd°mbe-
projects he had formed. After his death the ^in?"prCy t0 ci-
dom fell under the power of usurpers or weak and v;i ciisscn.
wicked monarchs. A number of competitors con-sions.
stantly appeared for the throne } and these by turns
called in to their assistance the Thracians, Illyrians,
Thessalians, the Olynthian confederacy, Athens, Sparta,
and Thebes. Bardyllis, an active and daring chief,
who, from being head of a gang of robbers, had be¬
come sovereign of the Illyrians, entered Macedon at
the head of a numerous army, deposed Amyntas II. the
father of Philip, and set up in his place one Argteus,
who consented to become tributary to the Illyrians.
Another candidate for the throne, named Pausanias,
was supported by the Thracians j but by the assistance
of the Thessalians and Olynthians, Amyntas was ena¬
bled to resume the government. After his restoration,
however, the Olynthians refused to deliver up several
places of importance belonging to Macedon which A-
myntas had either intrusted to their care, or which tney 11
had taken from his antagonist. Amyntas C0,T1P^a*ne^^|tf^iyn.
to Sparta j and that republic, which bad already form-^^5,
ed schemes of very extensive ambition, so readily com¬
plied with the request, that it was generally supposed to
have proceeded from Spartan emissaries sent into Mace¬
donia They pretended indeed to hesitate a little, and
to take time to deliberate on the army which ought to
be raised for the purpose} but Cleigenes, the principal
ambassador, represented the urgency of the case m
such a manner, that the troops which happened at
that time to be ready were ordered to take the field
without delay. Two thousand Spartans, under the
command
M AC [ 297 ]
Macedon. command of Emlamulas, were ordered into Macedon
‘—nr—'while a powerful reinforcement under the command,
of Phoebidas, brother to the general, was ordered to
follow him as soon as possible. By accident, Phoebidas
and his auxiliaries w'ere detained till the season for ac¬
tion was passed j but Eudamidas with his small army
performed very essential service. The appearance of a
Spartan army at once encouraged the subjects and allies
of the Olynthians to revolt; and the city of Potidaa,
a place of great importance in the isthmus of Pallene,’
surrendered soon after his arrival in the country. Be¬
ing too much elated with his success, however, Euda¬
midas approached so near the city of Olynthus, that he
was unexpectedly attacked, defeated, and killed, in a
sally of the citizens. He was succeeded by Teleutias
the brother of Agesilaus, who had under his command
a body of 10,000 men, and was farther assisted by A-
myntas king of Macedon, and Herdas his brother, the
governor or sovereign of the most westerly province of
Macedon, which abounded in cavalry. By these for¬
midable enemies the Olynthians were defeated in a
number of battles, obliged to shut themselves up in their
city, and prevented from cultivating their territory j 011
which Eeleutias advanced with his whole forces to in¬
vest the city itself. His excessive eagerness to destroy
his enemies proved his ruin. A body of Olynthian
horse had the boldness to pass the river Amnias in sight
of the allied army, though so much superior in number.
Teleutias ordered his targeteers to attack them, the
Olynthians, having retreated across the river, were
closely pursued by the Lacedaemonians, great part of
whom also passed the river 5 but the Olynthians sud¬
denly turned upon them, killed upwards of 100, with
Tlemomdas their leader, leleutias, exasperated at this
disaster, ordered the remainder of the targeteers and
cavalry to pursue ; while he himself advanced at the
head of the heavy-armed foot with such celerity that
they began to fall into disorder. The Olynthians al¬
lowed them to proceed, and the Lacedaemonians very
imprudently advanced just under the towers and battle¬
ments of the city. The townsmen then mounted the
walls, and discharged upon them a shower of darts, ar¬
rows, and other missile weapons, while the flower of the
Olynthian troops, who had been purposely posted be¬
hind the gates, sallied forth and attacked them with
great violence, "leleutias, attempting to rally his men,
was slain in the first onset j the Spartans who attended
him were defeated, and the whole army at last dispersed
with great slaughter, and obliged to shelter themselves in
the towns of Acanthus, Apo]lonia,Spartolus, and Potidtea.
Ehe Spartans, undismayed by this terrible disaster,
next sent their king Agesipolis with a powerful rein¬
forcement into Macedon. His presence greatly raised
the spirits of the Lacedaemonian allies, and his rapid suc¬
cess seemed to promise a speedy termination to the war,
when he himself died of a calenture. He was succeeded
in the throne by his brother Cleoinbrotus, and in the
command of the army by Polybiades an experienced
general, who likewise brought along wdth him a power¬
ful reinforcement. Olynthus was now completely
blocked up by land, while a squadron of Lacedce-
monian galleys blocked up the neighbouring harbour
ct Myceberna. The Olynthians, however, held out
£°r nine or ten months, but at last were obliged to sub-
VOL. XII. Part I. & t
MAC
mlt on very Immiliating conditions. They formally re- Macedon.
nounced claim to the dominion of Chaieis ; they u—v-~
ceded the Macedonian cities to their ancient governor : 13
and m consequence of this Amyntas left the city of 2E- The 0,yn‘
ga-a or Edessa where till now he had held his royal tedmtub-
residence, and fixed it at Pella, a city of great strength mit.
and beauty, situated on an eminence, which, together J4
with a plain of considerable extent, was defended by ^elIa madc
impassable morasses, and by the rivers Axius and Ly-JMare^1
dias. It was distant about 15 miles from the vEgeandon.
sea, with which it communicated by means of the above-
mentioned rivers. It was originally founded by the
.reeks, who had lately conquered and peopled it; but
in consequence of the misfortunes of Olynthus, it now
became the capital of Macedon, and continued ever af¬
ter to he so.
Amyntas, thus fully established in his dominions,
continued to enjoy tranquillity daring the remaining
part ot his life. The reign of his son Alexander was
•short, and disturbed by invasions of the Illyrians;
from whom he was obliged to purchase a peace. He
left behind him two brothers, Perdiccas and Philip,
both very young 5 so that Pausanias again found means’Pausanias
to usurp the throne, being supported not only by the usurps the
Ihracians, but a considerable number of Greek mer- throue.
cenaries, as well as a powerful party in Macedon it-
Sielf*A Jn.this cr^tIc.al juncture, however, Iphicrates
the Athenian happening to be on an expedition to Am-
phipolis, was addressed by Eurydice the widow of
Amyntas, so warmly in behalf of' her two sons, whom
she presented to him, that he interested himself in their
behalf, and got Perdiccas the eldest established on
the throne. He was induced also to this piece of
generosity by the kindness which Eurydiee and her
husband had formerly shown to himself; and he like¬
wise saw the advantages which must ensue to his conn-
tiy fi om a connexion with Mucedon. During the Ptolemy
minority ol the young prince, howeyer, his brother asP*res to
I tolemy, who was his guardian, openly aspired to the t*li0nc'
tin one; but lie was deposed by the Theban general
Pelopidas, who reinstated Perdiccas in his dominions ;
and in order to secure, in the most effectual manner,
the dependence of Macedon upon Thebes, carried along
with him thirty Macedonian youths as hostages ; and
among them Philip, the younger brother of the king.
I erdiccas now, elated by the protection of such power¬
ful allies, forgot Iphicrates and the Athenians, and even
disputed with them the right to the city of Amphipolis,
which had been decreed to them by the general coun¬
cil ol Greece, but which his opposition rendered impos¬
sible for them to recover. In consequence of the trust
he put in these new allies, also, it is probable that he
refused to Bardyllis the Illyrian the tribute which the
Macedonians had been obliged to pay him ; which oc¬
casioned a war with that nation. In this contest the.pj]c
Macedonians were defeated with the loss of 4000 men, donians de-
Perdiccas himself being taken prisoner, and dying soonfeated, and
after of his wounds. their king
The kingdom was now left in the most deplorable 1Vlled,by.
a —— .1-.   1 ■ .i 1 the Ulyn-
state. Amyntas, the proper heir to the throne, was anv
an infant; the Thebans, in whom Perdiccas had placed
so much confidence, were deprived of the sovereignty
of Greece ; the Athenians, justly provoked at the un¬
grateful behaviour of the late monarch, showed a hos-
P P . tile
MAC [
Maccdoii. tile disposition •, the Illyrians ravaged the west, and the
u—^ ' Paeon Ians the north quarter of the kingdom j the
clans still supported the cause of Pausamas and proposed
to send him into Macedon at the head of a numerous
army ; while Argaeus, the former rival ot Amyntas,
renewed his pretensions to the throne, and by flattering
the Athenians with the hopes of recovering Amplnpo-
lis, easily induced them to support his claims 5 and in
consequence of this they fitted out a fleet having on
board 3000 heavy-armed soldiers, which they sent to
18 the coast of Macedon.
Philip ar- Philip, the late king’s brother, no sooner heard ot
rives inMa-jj’g defeat and death, than he set out privately Irom
cedon.
Thebes ; and on his arrival in Macedon found matters
in the situation we have just now described. Fired
with an insatiable ambition, it is very probable that
from the very first moment lie had resolved to seize
the kingdom for himself j yet it was necessary at first
to pretend that he assumed the throne only to preserve
it for his nephew. Philip, as has already been men¬
tioned, was carried off as a hostage by Pelopidas,
but for a long time past had remained in such obscuri¬
ty, that historians disagree as to his place ol residence j
some placing him in Thebes and others in Macedon.
It is certain, however, that from the age of 15 he had
been very much in the family of Epaminonclas, from
whose lessons lie could not but derive the greatest emo¬
lument. It is probable also that he attended this cele¬
brated general in many of his expeditions ; and it is
298 ] MAG
army in Pieria, filled the whole country with conster- MaccJon.
nation } and Philip, who was by no means deficient in '
talents necessary to recommend himself to the good
graces of the people, took the opportunity of getting 20
Amyntas set aside, and himself declared king*, lor Takes up-
which indeed the danger of the times afforded a very on him the
plausible pretext. Argseus, in the mean time, advan- sovereign-
ced with his Athenian allies towards Edessa or /Ege,
the ancient capital of the Macedonian empire, where
he hoped to have been amicably received} but finding
the gates shut against him, he returned back to Me- ,
thone. Philip harassed him in his retreat, cutting oil ^ Argae_
<Tieat numbers of his men, and afterwards defeated himusanusurp
in a general engagement; in which Argaeus himself, er.
with the flower of his army, was cut in pieces, and all
the rest taken prisoners. 22
This first instance of success contributed greatly to Philip’s po-
raise the spirits of Philip’s party } and he himself took treaty
care to improve it in the best manner possible. Flav- ^
ing taken a great number of prisoners, both Macedo¬
nians and Athenians, he determined, by his treatment
of them, to ingratiate himself with both parties. The
former were called into his presence, and, after a
gentle reprimand, admitted to swear allegiance to
him •, after which they were distributed through the
army : the Athenians were entertained at his table,
dismissed without ransom, and their baggage restored.
The prisoners were just allowed time to return to their
native city and to spread abroad the news of Philip’s
certain, that, with an'attendance'suitable to his rank, generosity, when they were followed by an^sadurs
he visited most of the principal republics, and showed from Macedon with proposals for peace. As knew
an attention to their institutions, both civil and mili-
^9
Retrieves
the affairs
of the king
dom-
tary, far superior to his years. Having easy access to
whomsoever he pleased, he cultivated the friendship of
the first people in Greece. Even in Athens, w here no
good will subsisted with Macedon, the philosophers
Plato, Isocrates, and Aristotle, cultivated his acquaint¬
ance : and the connexion he formed with the principal
leaders of that republic in the early period of his life,
no doubt contributed greatly to the accomplishment of
the designs in which he afterwards proved so successful.
His appearance in Macedon instantly changed the face
of affairs : the Macedonian army, though defeated, was
“not entirely destroyed } and the remainder of them se¬
cured themselves in the fortresses which had been built
by Archelaus. There were also considerable garrisons
in the fortresses, and walled towns scattered over the
kingdom 5 and the Illyrians, who had made war only for
the sake of plunder, soon returned home to enjoy the
fruits of their victory. His other enemies, the Thra¬
cians and Pseonians, were much less formidable than
the Illyrians, being still in a very rude and uncivilized
state, incapable of uniting under one head in such a
manner as to bring any formidable army into the field.
While the Illyrians therefore gave up the campaign
through mere caprice and unsteadiness, Philip himself
applied to the Pseonians, and by fair promises and flat¬
tery prevailed upon them to desist. The king of T. brace,
by means of a sum of money, was easily prevailed upon
to abandon the cause of Pausanias 5 so that Philip, freed
from these barbarians, was now left at liberty to oppose
the Athenians, who supported Argaeus, and threatened
a very 'formidable invasion.
The appearance of the Athenian fleet before Me-
thone, with that of Argaeus at the head of a numerous
   r- r - - * . . , , Renounces
that the loss of Amplupolis had greatly irritated them, rjgiato
he now thought proper to renounce his jurisdiction Amphipo-
over that city°-, and it was accordingly declared free Ik
and independent, and subject only to the government
of its own free and equitable law-s. Tins artful con¬
duct, together with his kind treatment of the pusoners,
so wrought upon the minds of the Athenians, that they
consented to the renewal of a treaty which had formerly
subsisted between them and his father x\.myntas.
he found means to remove all jealousy of his ambition
or the schemes he might afterwards undertake to tnen
prejudice j and not only this, but to induce, them to
engage in a ruinous war with their allies, which occu¬
pied their attention until Philip had an opportunity of
getting his matters so well established that it was
impossible to overthrow them. 24
The new king being thus left at liberty to regulate Reduces
his domestic concerns, began to circumscribe tile power 1
of his chiefs and nobles } who, especially in the more
remote provinces, paid very little regard to the autho¬
rity of the kings of Macedon ^ sometimes, even in
times of public calamity, throwing off their allegiance
altogether, and assuming an independent government ^
over considerable tracts of country. rXo counteractQp0()SCSa
the ambition of these chiefs, Philip chose a body of number of
the bravest Macedonian youths, whom he entertained illusiriouSn
at his own table, and honoured with many testimonies ^
of his friendship, giving them the title of his compa- panions.
nions, and allowing them constantly to attend him m
war and hunting. Their intimacy with the sovereign,
which was considered as an indication of their merit,
obliged them to superior diligence in all the severe du¬
ties of military discipline ; and the young nobility,
eager to participate such high honours, vied with each
other
MAC
26
Whether
he institu
ted the
phalanx.
^ 27
Overcomes
the Pasoni-
ans and II-
[lyruns.
Ollier in tlieir endeavours to gain admission into this
distinguished order 5 so that while on the one hand
they served as hostages, on the other they formed an
useful seminary for future generals, by whom both
Philip and Alexander were afterwards greatly assisted
in their conquests.
Diodorus Siculus, and all the Roman writers who
■ have treated of the history of Greece, assert that Phi¬
lip, in the first year of his reign, instituted the Mace¬
donian phalanx ; a body of 6000 men armed with
short swords fitted either for cutting or stabbing, ha¬
ving also strong bucklers four feet long and two and a
halt broad, and pikes 14 feet long j usually marching
16 men deep. But this opinion is controverted by
others. Dr Gillies supposes that the opinion had
arisen from the Romans meeting with the phalanx in
its most complete form in Macedon $ and as they be¬
came acquainted with Greece and Macedon pretty
nearly at the same time, it was natural for them to
suppose that it had been invented among the Macedo¬
nians. The phalanx, he says, is nothing different
trom the armour and arrangement which had always
prevailed among the Greeks, and which Philip adopt¬
ed in their most perfect form 5 44 nor is there reason
(says he) to think that a prince, who knew the dan¬
ger of changing what the expei ience of ages had ap¬
proved, made any alteration in the tveapons or tactics
of that people. The improvement in the counter¬
march, to which Philip gave the appearance of advan¬
cing instead of retreating, mentioned by ^Elian in his
Tactics, cap. xxvni, was borrowed, as this author tells
us, from the Lacedaemonians. If Philip increased the
phalanx, usually less numerous, to 6000 men, this was
far from an improvement 5 and the latter kings of
Macedon, who swelled it to 16,000, only rendered that
order of battle more unwieldy and inconvenient.” In¬
stead of this, Philip, according to our author, employ¬
ed himself in procuring arms, horses, and other neces¬
sary materials for wrar; and in introducing a more se¬
vere and exact military discipline than had formerly
been known in Macedon.
While the king thus took the best methods to ren¬
der himself secure at home and formidable abroad, the
Paeonians again began to make incursions into the
kingdom. The death of Agis their king, however,
who wras a man of great military skill, deprived them
almost of every power of resistance when they were
attacked. Philip, of consequence, overran their coun¬
try vvith little opposition, and reduced them to the state
of tributaries to Macedon. No sooner was this accom¬
plished, than he undertook a winter’s campaign against
the Illyrians, who had long been the natural enemies
01 Macedon. They had now extended their territory
to the east; by which means the Macedonians were ex¬
cluded from the harbours on the coast of the Adriatic.
This was a grievance to Philip, who seems early to
have meditated the raising of a naval power 5 neither
could he hope to be in safety, should the kingdom be
left open to the incursions of a barbarous enemy j for
which reason he determined at once to humble those
enemies in such a manner that they should no longer be
in a situation to give him any disturbance. After an
ineffectual negociation, he was met by Bardyllis at the
head of a considerable body of infantry, but with only
400 horse. They made a gallant resistance for some
1 299 ]
M A C
time ; but being unable to cope with such a skilful gC- Macc(irtri
neral as 1 fillip, they Were defeated with the loss of1—v——
7000 men, among whom was their leader Bardyllis
who fell at the age of 90. ’ ^
By this disaster the Illyrians were so much disheart- The/are
ened, that they sent ambassadors to Philip, humbly forced t°
begging for peace on any terms. The conqueror befome
granted them the same conditions which had been im- tnbuUry‘
posed upon the Paeonians, vix. the becoming tributary,
and yielding up to him a considerable part of their
country, lhat part of it Which lay to the eastward
of a lake named Lychnidus he annexed to Macedon ;
and probably built a town and settled a colony there ;
the country being fertile, and the lake abounding with
many kinds of fish highly esteemed by the ancients.
I his town and lake were about 50 miles distant from
the Ionian sea} and such was the ascendancy which the
arms and policy of Philip acquired over his neighbours,
that the inhabitants of all the intermediate district soon
adopted the language and manners of their conquerors 5
and their territory, hitherto unconnected with any fo-
icign power, sunk into such absolute dependence upon
Macedon, that many ancient geographers supposed it to
be a province of that country;
Philip had no sooner reduced the Illyrians, than he His great
began to put in execution greater designs than any he designs,
had yet attempted. The rich coasts to the southward
of Macedon, inhabited chiefly by Greeks, presented
a strong temptation to his ambition and avarice. The
confederacy of Olynthus, after having thrown off the
yoke of Sparta, was become more powerful than ever;
and could send into the field an army of 10,coo heavy
armed troops, besides a number of cavalry in propor¬
tion. Most of the towns in Chalcidice were become
its allies or subjects; so that this populous and wealthy
province, together with Pangams on the right and
Pieria on the left, of both which the cities were ei¬
ther independent or subject to the Athenians, formed
a barrier not only sufficient to guard against any in¬
cursions of the Macedonians, but which was even for¬
midable to them. But though Philip Was sensiblej|ie
enough of the importance of those places, he consi-C01j^ies[C
dered the conquest of Anlphipolis as more necessary of Amphipo-
at the present time. By the possession of this place Polis-
Macedon would be connected with the sea, and would
be secured in many commercial advantages, which
could not but contribute greatly to the prosperity of
the kingdom at large 5 a road was likewise opened to
the Woods and mines of Pangams, the former of which
were so necessary to the raising of a naval power, and
the latter for the establishment of a proper military
force. Iliis city had indeed been declared indepen¬
dent by Philip himself in the beginning of his reign ;
but this was only to prevent a rupture with the Athe¬
nians, who still asserted their right to it as an ancient
colony ; though, by reason of the perfidy of Chari-
deniys, a native of Euboea, they had hitherto failed
in their attempts to recover it. The Amphipolitans,
however, having once enjoyed the sweets of liberty,
prepared to maintain themselves in their independence.
In the mean time the hostile designs of Philip, which
all his precaution had not been able to conceal, alarm¬
ed the inhabitants to such a degree, that they thought
proper to put themselves under the protection of the
Olynthians. By them they were readily received in-
P p 2 to
MAC [ 300 ] M f ,C t .. t. .
Macedon to the confederacy; and trusting to the strength of pewerfulan enemy, surrendered at last at dtscret,on »
their new allies^ behaved in snch pSSeeded in the same cautious and poll-
1 -   Though the ob-
LLJCll new cn 1 i5 — .
to Philip, that he was not long of finding a specious
pretext for hostility ; at which the Olynthians, great¬
ly alarmed, sent ambassadors to Athens, requesting
their assistance against such a powerful enemy. Philip,
however, justly alarmed at such a formidable conspi¬
racy, sent agents to Athens, with such expedition
that they arrived there before any thing could be con¬
cluded with the Olynthian deputies. Having gained
over the popular leaders and orators, he deceived and
31 flattered the magistrates and senate in such an artful
Engages to manner, that a negociation was instantly set on foot,
conquer it b Philip engaged to conquer Ampbipolis for
lor the A- ^ Athenians, upon condition that they surrendered
k mans. ^ him the strong fortress of Pydna, a place which
he represented as of much less importance to them ;
promising also to confer upon them many other ad¬
vantages, which, however, he did not specify at that
time. Thus the Athenians, deceived by the perfidy of
their own magistrates, elated with the hopes of recover¬
ing Amphipolis, and outwitted by the superior policy of
Philip, rejected with disdain the proffers of the Olyn¬
thians.
The ambassadors of Olynthus returned home highly
disgusted with the reception they had met with 1 but
had scarce time to communicate the news to their coun¬
trymen, when the ambassadors of Philip arrived at O-
lynthus. Pie pretended to condole with them on the
aifront they had received at Athens •, hut testified his
surprise that they should court the assistance of that dis¬
tant and haughty republic, when they could avail them¬
selves of the powerful kingdom of Macedon, which
wished for nothing more than to enter into equal and
lasting engagements with their confederacy. As a proof
of his moderation and sincerity, he offered to put them
in possession of Anthemus, an important town in the
neighbourhood, of which the Macedonians had long
claimed the jurisdiction, making many other fair pro¬
mises ; and among the rest, that he would reduce lor
them the cities of Pydna and Potidgea, which he chose
rather to see in dependence on Olynthus than Athens.
Thus he prevailed upon the Olynthians not only to
abandon Amphipolis, but to assist him with all their
power in the execution of his designs.
Philip now lost no time in executing his purposes on
Amphipolis •, and pressed the city so closely, that the
people were glad to apply to the Athenians for relief.
Accordingly they despatched two of their most eminent
< itizens, Hierax and Stratocles, to represent the dan¬
ger of an alliance betwixt Philip and the Olynthians,
and to profess their sorrow for having so deeply ofiend-
rd the parent state. This representation had such an
effect, that though the Athenians were then deeply
engaged in the Social war, they would probably have
paid some attention to the Ampbipolitans, had not Phi¬
lip taken care to send them a letter with fresh assuran¬
ces of friendship, acknowledging their right to Amphi¬
polis, and which he hoped shortly to put in their
hands in terms of his recent, agreement. By these spe¬
cious pretences the Athenians were persuaded to pay as
little regard to the deputies of the Amphipolitans as
Amphipolis they had already done to those of the Olynthians 5
surrenders, so that the city, unable to defend itself alone against so
tic manner in which he had begun _
stinate defence of the Amphipolitans might have fur¬
nished a pretence for severity, he contented himself
with banishing a few of the popular leaders from whom
he had most cause to dread opposition, treating the
rest of the inhabitants with all manner of clemency 5
but took care to add Amphipolis to his own domi¬
nions, from which he was determined that it never
should be separated, notwithstanding the promises be
bad made to the Athenians. Finding that it was not
bis interest at this time to fall out with the Olynthians,
he cultivated the friendship of that republic with great
assiduity 5 took the cities of Pydna and Potidiea,
which he readily yielded to the Olynthians, though
they had given him but little assistance in the reduction
of these places. Potidaea had been garrisoned by the
Athenians 5 and them the artful king sent back with¬
out ransom, lamenting the necessity of his afiairs which
obliged him contrary to his inclination, to oppose their
republic. Though this was rather too gross, the A-
thenians at present were so much engaged with the So¬
cial war, that they had not leisure to attend to the af¬
fairs of other nations. Philip made the best use of his
time, and next projected the conquest of the gold mines ^
of Thrace. That rich and fertile country was now Makes him
held by one Cotys, a prince of such weak intellectual self master
faculties, that the superstition of the Greeks, into
which he was newly initiated, had almost entirely Sub;Tbrace.
verted his reason j and he wandered about m quest of
the goddess Minerva, with whom he fancied himself
in love. The invasion of the Macedonians, however,
awaked him from his reverie ; and Cotys, finding him¬
self destitute of other means of opposition, attempted
to stop the progress of the enemy by a letter. To this
Philip paid no regard: the Thracians were instantly
expelled from their possessions at Crenidae, where there
were very valuable gold mines. Ihese had formerly
been worked by colonies from TLhasos and Athens } but
the colonists had long since been expelled by the bar¬
barous Thracians, who knew not how to make use of
the treasure they were in possession of. Philip took
the trouble to descend into the mines himself, in order
to inspect the works} and having caused them to be
repaired, planted a Macedonian colony at Crenidse,
bestowed upon it the name of Philippi, and drew
annually from the gold mines to the value ol near 1000
talents, 200,0001. sterling} an immense sum in those
days. The coins struck here were likewise called Phi
lippi* . ... 34
Philip having obtained this valuable acquisition, Settles the
next took upon him to settle the affairs of Iliessaly,
where everything was in confusion. This country
had been formerly oppressed by Alexander tyrant ol ys a(jYaE-
Pherce •, after whose death three others appeared, viz.tage.
Tissiphornus, Pitholaus, and Lycophron, the brothers-
in-law of Alexander, who had likewise murdered him.
By the united efforts of the Thessalians and Macedo¬
nians, however, these usurpers were easily overthrown,
and effectually prevented from making any disturbances
for the futureand the Thessalians, out of a mistaken
gratitude, surrendered to Philip all the revenues arising
from
35
Marries
Olvmpias
3^
\ general
combina¬
tion of the
rainst him.
, MAC [ 301
Macedoo. from their fairs and towns of commerce, as well as all
the conveniences of their harbours and shipping ; a
concession which Philip took care to secure in the most
effectual manner.
Having now not only established his sovereignty in
the most effectual manner, but rendered himself very
powerful and formidable to his neighbours, Philip de¬
termined to enjoy some repose from his fatigues. Hav¬
ing formed an alliance with Arybbas king of Epirus,
he in the year 357 B. C. married Olympias the sis¬
ter of that prince 5 a match thought the more eligible,
as the kings of Epirus were supposed to be descended
from Achilles. The nuptials were solemnized at Pella
with great pomp, and several months were spent
in shows and diversions 5 during which Philip showed
such an extreme proneness to vice of every kind, as
disgraced him in the eyes of his neighbours, and most
probably laid the foundation of his future domestic un¬
happiness. So much was this behaviour of the Mace¬
donian monarch taken notice of by the neighbouring
neighbour- states, that the Pseonians and Illyrians threw oft’ the
ng princes yoke, engaging in their schemes the king of Thrace :
ormed a- an(j notwithstanding the insane state of that prince, their
designs were now carried on with more judgment than
was usual with barbarians. Philip, however, not¬
withstanding his dissipation, got warning of his dan¬
ger in sufficient time to prevent the bad consequences
which might have ensued had the confederates got
time to bring their matters to a proper bearing. Early
in the spring 356 he took the field with the flower of
the Macedonian troops. Having marched in person
against the Pseonians and Thracians, he despatched
)efeats his Paxmemo his best general into Illyria. Both enter-
nemies. prises p10ved successful; and while Philip returned
victorious from Thrace, he received an account of the
victory gained by Parmenio ; a second messenger in¬
formed him of a victory gained by his chariot at the
Olympic games j and a third, that Olympias had been
delivered of a son at Pella. This was the celebrated
Alexander, to whom the diviners prophesied the highest
prosperity and glory, as being born in such auspicious
circumstances.
A short time after the birth of Alexander, Philip
wrote a letter to the philosopher Aristotle, whom he
^precep- cj]0Se for preceptor t0 y0ung son. The letter was
written with great brevity, containing only the fol¬
lowing words : “ Know that a son is born to us. We
thank the gods not so much for their gift, as for
bestowing it at a time when Aristotle lives. We as¬
sure ourselves that you will form him a prince worthy
of his father, and worthy of Macedon.” He next
set about the farther enlargement of his territories,
which were already very considerable. Pueonia was
nmn ter-now one of his provinces: on the east his dominions
extended to the sea of Thasos, and on the west to
the lake Lychnidus. The Thessalians wei’e in effect
subject to his jurisdiction, and the possession of Am-
plupolis had secured him many commercial advantages j
he had a numerous and well-disciplined army, with
plentiful resources for supporting such an armament,
and carrying through the other schemes suggested by
his ambition ; though his deep and impenetrable poli¬
cy rendered him more truly formidable than all these
; of all put together. His first scheme was the reduction of
ece. Olynthus, the most populous and fertile country on
37
38
irth of
lexander
ke Great.
. -89
ristotle
'pointed
} MAC
the borders of Macedon ; after which his ambition
prompted him to acquire the sovereignty of all Greece.
Macedon.
40
ftent of
2 Mace-
anes.
4i
'jects
eon-
m of 0-
lius
42
El:
i o accomplish the former, he had hitherto courted the
friendship ot the Olynthians by every possible method ;
and without letting slip any opportunity to accomplish
the latter, he deprived the Athenians gradually of several
ol their settlements in Thrace and Macedon. In these
depredations, however, he took care always to give
such appearance of justice to his actions, that his anta¬
gonists, who had studied the matter less deeply, could
not find a plausible pretext for engaging in war against
him, even when he had openly committed hostilities
against them. Philip easily perceived that the affairs
ol the Greeks were coming to a crisis, and he deter¬
mined to wait the event of their mutual dissensions.
That event did not disappoint his hopes. The Phocians Account of
had violated the religion of those days in a most ex-t*.ie
traordinary manner 5 they had even ploughed up the Clan war'
lands consecrated to Apollo : and however they might
pretend to excuse themselves by examples, the Am-
phictyons fulminated a decree against tliC Phocians,
commanding the sacred lands to be laid waste, and im¬
posing a heavy fine upon the community.
By this decree all Greece was again involved in the
war called Phocian, from the name of the city about
which it commenced. Philip at the beginning of the
troubles w'as engaged in Thrace, where a civil war had
taken place among the sons of Cotys j and wherever
Philip interfered, he was sure to make matters turn
out to his own advantage. His encroachments at
length became so enormous, that Kersobletes, the most
powerful of the contending princes, agreed to cede
the Thracian Chersonesus to the Athenians j who
immediately sent Chares at the head of a powerful
armament to take possession of it. In this expedition
the town of Sestos was taken by storm, and the inha¬
bitants cruelly treated by Chares, while Philip employ- 43
ed himself in the siege of Methone in Pieria. This city Philip loses
he likewise reduced > but the king lost an eye at the siege ”n e}e at ^
in the following extraordinary manner, if we may give °
credit to some ancient historians. A celebrated archer,
named Aster, had, it seems, offered his services to Phi¬
lip, being represented as such an excellent marksman,
that he could hit the swiftest bird on the wing. Phi¬
lip replied, that he would be of excellent use if they
were to make war with starlings. Aster, disgusted with
this reception, xvent over to the enemy, and with an
arrow wounded the king in the eye. When the weapon
was extracted, it w'as found to have on it the following
inscription : “ For the right eye of Philip.” The king
ordered the arrow to be shot back again, with another
inscription importing that he would cause Aster to be
hanged when the town was taken. A report was raised
after Philip’s death, that he had lost his eye by prying
too narrowly into the amours of Olympias and Jupiter
Ammon 5 which the vanity of his successor prompted
him to cherish, as his flatterers had probably been the
inventors of it.
All this time the Phocian war raged with the great¬
est fury, and involved in it all the states of Greece. 44
Lycophron, one of the Thessalian tyrants, whom Philip Is engaged
had formerly deprived of his authority, had again
found means to re-establish his authority, and his coun- marc]llls
trymen having taken part w'ith the Phocians, Lyco- the Phocian
phron called in Onomai'chus, the Phociaix general, to general.
protect
MAC
to Philip, who well knew how to
MAC [ 302 ]
Mart. ilon. protect him against the power of Philip, by whom lie great temptation .
' v- 1 Us sensible that he would soon be attacked. The king value the importance of its situation both with respect
accordingly marched into Thessaly with a considerable to commerce and war : and in order to pave the way
army, defeated Phyallus the brother of Onomarchus,
whom the latter had sent into the country with a de¬
tachment of 7000 men. After this he besieged and
took the city of Pegasae, driving the enemy towards
the frontiers of Phocis. Onomarchus then advanced
with the whole army •, and Philip, though inferior in
numbers, did not decline the engagement. The Pho-
w cians at first gave ground, on which the Macedonians
pursued, but in good order-, but coming near a pre¬
cipice, on the top of which Onomarchus had posted
a detachment of soldiers, the latter rolled down stones
who defeatsantl fragments of the rock in such a manner as did
him; dreadful execution, and threw them into the utmost
disorder. Philip, however, rallied his troops with
great presence of mind, and prevented the Phocians
from gaining any farther advantage than they had
already done j saying, as he drew off his men, that
they did not retreat through fear, but like rams, in
order to strike with the greater vigour. Nor was he
long before he made good his assertion for having re¬
cruited his army with the greatest expedition, he re-
,5 turned into Thessaly at the head o£ 20,000 foot and
Put isat 500 horse, where lie was met by Onomarchus. The
last defeat-Macedonians at this time were superior in number to
id and kill-enemjeg . an(j Philip moreover took care tore-
mind them, that their quarrel was that of heaven, and
that their enemies had been guilty of sacrilege, by pro¬
faning the temple of Delphi. That they might be
still more animated in the cause, he put crowns of laurel
on their heads. Thus fired by enthusiasm, and having
besides the advantage of numbers, the Phocians were
altogether unable to withstand them. They threw away
their arms and fled towards the sea, where they ex¬
pected to have been relieved by Chares, who, Avith
the Athenian fleet, was nigh the shore : but in this
they were disappointed, for he made no attempt to
save them. Upwards of 6000 perished in the field of
battle or in the pursuit, and 3000 were taken prison¬
ers. The body of Onomarchus being found among
the slain, was by order of Philip hung upon a gibbet
as a mark of infamy, on account of his having polluted
the temple the bodies of the rest were thrown into the
sea, as being all partakers of the same crime. The
fate of the prisoners is not known, by reason of an am¬
biguity in a sentence of Diodorus Siculus, which mav
imply that they were, drowned, though he does not ex¬
pressly say so.
After, this victory, Philip set about the settlement
Maced*
t • •47
^eshifam Thessatyj waiting only for an opportunity to put
bilious m execution his favourite scheme of invading Greece,
schemes. In the mean time, he rejoiced to see the states weak¬
ening each other by their mutual dissensions ; of which
he never failed to take advantage as far as possible.
He now, however, began to throw oft' the mask with
regard to the Olynthians, whom he had long deceived
with fair promises. Having detached Kersobletes from
the interest of the Athenians, he established him in
the sovereignty of Thrace ; not out of any good will,
but with a view to destroy him whenever a proper op¬
portunity offered. Were he once possessed of the
dominions of that prince, the way to Byzantium was
open to him j the possession of which must have been a
. 2
to this important conquest, lie attacked the fortress
of Herseum, a small and in itself unimportant place,
though, by reason of its neighbourhood to Byzan- ^
tium, the acquisition was valuable to Philip. I he is oppose
Athenians, however, at last began to perceive the de-by the A
signs of Philip, and determined to counteract them.tliemans
For this purpose they entered into an alliance with
Olynthus and having warned Kersobletes of bis dan¬
ger, they ordered a powerful fleet to the defence of
the Htrseum. But these vigorous measures were soon
counteracted by the report of Philip’s death, which
had been occasioned by his wound at Methone, and a
distemper arising from the fatigues he had afterwards
undergone. The inconstant Athenians too easily gave
credit to this report 3 arid, as if all danger had been
over with his death, discontinued their preparations,
and directed their whole attention to the sacred Avar.
—This contest, instead of being ended by the death ^
of Onomarchus, now raged Avith double fury. Pby-ContifiuaJ
alius, above mentioned, the only surviving brothertion ofili.j
of Onomarclius, undertook the cause of the Phocians j^°clan 1
and his affairs becoming every day more and more des¬
perate, he undertook the most unaccountable method
of retrieving them Avhich could be imagined : having
converted into ready money the most precious mate¬
rials belonging to the temple at Delphi, and with this
treasure doubled the pay of his soldiers. But this new
piece of sacrilege, he indeed brought many adventu¬
rers to his standard, though he cut off all hopes of mer¬
cy for himself or his party should he be defeated.
Having the assistance of 1000 Lacedaemonians, 2000
Achaeans, arid 5000 Athenian foot, with 400 cavalry,
he Avas still enabled to make a very formidable appear¬
ance ; and the Phocians took the field Avith great pro¬
spect of success. 50
Philip noAV thought it time to throAV off the mask rbiiip erii
entirely, for which the proceedings of the Athenians, |
particularly their league with Olynthus, furnished him
Avith a plausible pretext; and the revenging such hor¬
rid sacrilege as bad been committed at Delphi seemed
to gKe him a title to march at the head of an army
into Greece. The superstition of the Greeks, Iioav-
ever, had not yet blinded them to such a degree, but
they could easily perceive that Philip’s piety was a
mere pretence, and that his real design Avas to invade
and conquer the Avhole country. The Athenians no
- sooner heard of the march of the Macedonian army,
than they despatched, Avith all expedition, a strong
guard to secure the pass of Thermopylae j so that Phi- „
lip Avas obliged to return greatly chagrined and dis- js prevoiit
appointed. Their next step Avas to call an assembly, ed from el
to deliberate upon the measures proper to be taken in
order to restrain the ambition of the Macedonian mo- re
narch 5 and this assembly is rendered memorable by
the first appearance of Demosthenes as an orator
against Philip. Athens for some time bad been in a
very alarming situation. They Avere deeply involved
in the sacred Avar their northern possessions Avere
continually insulted and plundered by Philip ; Avbile.
a number of his mercenary partisans drew off the pub¬
lic attention to such a degree, that, instead, of taking-
measures to counteract that ambitious prince, they a-
mused
MAC
S3
Advice of
Isocrates
jtlie orator
to them.
54
te and
’hocion
Macedon. mused themselves with speculations about the designs
^—v 1 of the Persian monarch, who was preparing for war
tr t £ me aSainst the Cyprians, Egyptians, and Phoenicians. Iso-
mdolence crates the celebrated orator, and Phocion the states-
arid care- man, joined toe multitude m their present opinion,
lessnessof though not from any mercenary motives, but purely
the Athe- from a sense of the unsteady conduct of the Athenians ;
who, they were assured, could not contend with a
prince of the vigour and activity of Philip ; and there¬
fore exhorted them by all means to cultivate the friend¬
ship of Philip, whom they could not oppose with any
probability of success. Isocrates, indeed, greatly wish¬
ed for an expedition into Asia, and looked upon Phi¬
lip to be the only general capable of conducting it,
though at present the Greeks had no pretence for
making war upon the Persians, but that of revenging
former injuries : and on this subject he addressed a
discourse to Philip himself; and it is even said, that
Isocrates, by the power of his rhetoric, prevailed upon
Philip and the Athenians to lay aside their animosities
for a short time, and consent to undertake this expedi¬
tion in conjunction.
If this coalition, however, did really take place, it
was of very short duration. The views of Phocion
^Demosda'Kl '*-socrates werc violently opposed by Demosthenes.
lenes"105 though sensible of the corruption and degeneracy of
his countrymen, he hoped to be able to rouse them
from their lethargy by dint of his eloquence ; a ta¬
lent he had been at great pains to cultivate, and in
which he is said to have excelled all men that ever
existed.
In his first addresses to the people, this celebrated
orator exhorted them to awake from their indolence,
and to assume the direction of their own affairs. They
had been too long governed, he said, by the incapa¬
city of a few ambitious men, to the great disadvantage
as well as disgrace of the community. In the first
place, an orator who had placed himself at the head
of a faction of no more than 300 or 400, availed him¬
self and his followers of the carelessness and negligence
of the people, to rule them at pleasure. From a con¬
sideration of their present weakness and corruption,
as well as of the designs and commotions of the neigh¬
bouring powers, he advised them to abandon all ro¬
mantic and distant schemes of ambition ; and instead
of carrying their arms into remote countries, to pre¬
pare for repelling the attacks which might be made
upon their own dominions. He insisted also upon a
better regulation of their finances, a more equal dis¬
tribution of the public burdens, in proportion to the
abilities of those upon whom they were laid, and upon
the retrenching many superfluous expences. Having
pointed out in a strong light the vigorous conduct of
Philip ; and shown by what means he had attained
to such a respectable footing in the world, he next
laid down a proper plan for their military operations.
He told them, that they were not yet prepared to
meet Philip in the field ; they must begin with pro¬
tecting Olynthus and the Chersonesus, for which it
would be necessary to raise a body of 2000 light arm¬
ed troops, with a due proportion of cavalry, which
ought to be transported under a proper convoy to the
islands of Lemnos, Thasos, and Sciathos, in the neigh¬
bourhood of Macedon. In these they would enjoy
ali kinds of necessaries in abundance, and might avail
f 3°3 ]
MAC
55
pstance
’ his first
iscourscs.
themselves of every favourable incident, to appear at Macedou
the first summons oi their allies } and either to repel the 1 J
incursions of the Macedonians, or harass their territo¬
ries. While this was going on, more vigorous prepa¬
rations might be made for war at home ; and it was
proposed, that only the fourth part of the Athenian
citizens should enlist, and no more supplies ivere want¬
ed at present but 90 talents. But notwithstanding the
moderation of these proposals, and the urgent necessi¬
ties of the state, it was impossible to prevail upon the
indolent and careless Athenians to provide for their
own safety. They appear, indeed, at this time to
have been desperately sunk in effeminacy and dissipa¬
tion ; which disposition Philip took care to encourage
to the utmost of his power. There ivas an assembly in
the city called the Sixty-, from their consisting original¬
ly of that number, who met expressly for the purposes
of extinguishing all care about public affairs, and to in¬
toxicate themselves with every kind of pleasure they had
in their power. With this assembly Philip was so well
pleased, that he sent them money to support their extra-
vagancies j and so effectually did they answer his pur¬
poses, that all the eloquence of Demosthenes could not
counteract the speeches ol orators much his inferiors
when backed by Macedonian gold.
Philip himself, as we have already hinted, was ex¬
cessively debauched in his private character, and the
most shameful stories are related of him by the ancient
writers, particularly by Demosthenes. Theopompus,
too, an author who flourished in the time of Alexan-
der, and was rewarded and honoured by that monarch,
also speaks of him in such terms as we cannot with
decency relate : but these accounts, coming from the
avowed enemies of the king, are scarcely to be credit¬
ed ; and perhaps policy, as well as inclination, might
contribute somewhat to this scandalous behaviour, that
he might thereby recommend himself to the libertines
of Athens, and prevent even many of the more think¬
ing part of the people from suspecting his designs.
But in whatever excesses he might at times indulge
himself, he never lost sight of his main object, the sub¬
jugation of the Greek states. On pretence of being
in want of money to defray the expence of his build¬
ings, he borrowed money at a very high price through¬
out the whole country ; and this he found an easy mat¬
ter to do, as the dissipation of the Delphic treasures
had rendered cash very plentiful in Greece, Tims he
attached his creditors firmly to his own interest ; and
on pretence of paying debts, was enabled without mo¬
lestation to bestow a number of pensions and gratuities
upon the Athenian orators, who by their treacherous
harangues contributed greatly to the ruin of their
country ; at least as far as it could be ruined by sub¬
jection to a prince who would have obliged them to
remain at peace, and apply themselves to useful arts.
These he himself encouraged in a very eminent degree.
The greatest part of his time was employed at Pella,
which city he adorned in the most magnificent manner
with temples, theatres, and porticoes. He invited by
liberal rewards, the most ingenious artists in Greece 5
and as many of these met with very little encourage¬
ment in their own country, great numbers flocked to
him from all quarters. In the government of his peo¬
ple, also, Philip behaved with the utmost impartiality :
listening with condescension to the complaints of the
meanest
MAC
[ 304 J
MAC
Macedop.
56
Over-
and at last
concludes
a peace.
meanest of his subjects, and keeping tip a constant cor¬
respondence with those whom he thought worthy ot Ins
acquaintance ‘7 from which, it is not easy to imagine
how he could he so guilty of the vices we have already
mentioned from some ancient historians. t
The fate of Olynthus was now soon determined.
This city, which held the balance of power betwixt
Athens and Macedon, was taken and plundered, and
the inhabitants sold for slaves; hut the chief hope ol
Philip was in putting an end to the Phocian war.
For this purpose he affected a neutrality, that he might
thereby become the arbiter of Greece. His hopes
were well founded; for the T. hebans, who vrere at
the head of the league against the Pbocians, soli¬
cited him on the one side, and the states confede¬
rate with the Phocians did the like on the other.
He answered neither, yet held both in dependence.
In his heart he favoured the Thebans, or rather
placed his hopes of favouring his own cause in that
state; for he well knew, that the Athenians, Spar¬
tans, and other states allied with Phocis, would ne¬
ver allow him to pass Thermopylae, and lead an army
into their territories. So much respect, however, did
he show to the ambassadors from these states, paiti-
cularly Ctesiphon and Phrynon, who came horn A-
thens, that they believed him to be in their interest,
and reported as much to their masters. The Athe-
reaches the iiJans, who were now dissolved in ease and luxury, re-
Athenians,,ce-ve(j t},is news with great satisfaction; and named
immediately ten plenipotentiaries to go and treat of a
full and lasting peace with Philip. Among these ple¬
nipotentiaries were Demosthenes and vEschines, the
most celebrated orators in Athens. Philip gave di¬
rections that these ambassadors should be treated with
the utmost civility; naming, at the same time, three of
his ministers to confer with them, viz. Antipater, Par-
menio, and Eurylochus. Demosthenes being obliged
to return to Athens, recommended it to his colleagues
not to carry on their negociations with Philip’s depu¬
ties ; but to proceed with all diligence to court, there
to confer with the king himself. ihe ambassa¬
dors, however, were so far from following his in¬
structions, that they suftered themselves to be put off
for three months by the arts of Philip and his mini¬
sters.
In the mean time, the king took from the Athe¬
nians such places in Thrace as might best cover his
frontiers ; giving their plenipotentiaries, in their stead,
abundance of fair promises, and the strongest assu¬
rances that his good will should be as beneficial to them
as ever their colonies had been. At last a peace was
concluded ; but then the ratification of it was deferred
till Philip had possessed himself of Pherea in Thessaly,
and saw himself at the head of a numerous army:
then he ratified the treaty; and dismissed the plenipo¬
tentiaries with assurances, that he would be ready at all
times to give the Athenians proofs of his friendship.
On their return to Athens, when this matter came
to be debated before the people, Demosthenes plainly
told them, that, in his opinion, the promises of Phi¬
lip ought not to be relied on, because they appeared
to be of little significance in themselves, and came
from a prince of so much art, and so little fidelity, that
they could derive no authority from their maker. ^Es-
t bines, on the other hand, gave it as his sentiment,
1
that the king of Macedon’s assurances ought to give Macedot:
them full satisfaction. He said, that for his part,
he was not politician enough to see any thing o.f dis¬
guise or dissimulation in the king’s conduct; that there
was great danger in distrusting princes ; and that the
surest method of putting men upon deceit was to show
that we suspected them of it. Ihe rest ot the pleni¬
potentiaries concurred with iEschines ; and the people,
desirous of quiet, and addicted to pleasure, easily gave
credit to all that was said, and decreed that the peace
should be kept. All this was the easier brought about,
because Phocion, the worthiest man in the republic,
did not oppose Philip ; which was owing to his having
a just sense of the state his country was in. He con¬
ceived, that the Athenians of those times were nothing
like their ancestors; and therefore, as he expressed
himself on another occasion, he was desirous, since they
would not be at the head of Greece themselves, that
they would at least be upon good terms with that power
which would be so. 57
Philip, who knew how to use as w ell as to procure Passes
opportunity, while the Athenians were in this good
humour, passed Thermopylae, without their knowing1
whether he would fall on Phocis or Thebes; but he
quickly undeceived them, by commanding his soldiers war.
to put on crowns of laurel, declaring them thereby
the troops of Apollo, and himself the lieutenant-gene¬
ral of that god. He then entered Phocis with an air
of triumph ; which so terrified the Phocians, whom
he had caused to be proclaimed sacrilegious persons,
that they immediately dismissed ail thoughts of de¬
fence, and without more ado submitted to his mercy.
Thus the Phocian war, which had so long employed
all Greece, was ended without a stroke; and the judge¬
ment on the Phocians remitted to the Amphictyons,
or grand council of Greece. By their decree the
w'alls of three Phocian cities were demolished, the
people were forbid to inhabit in any but villages, to
pay a yearly tribute of 60 talents, and never to make
use either of horses or arms till they had repaid to the
temple of Apollo the money they had sacrilegiously
carried from thence. Their arms were taken from
them, broken to pieces, and burnt; their double voice
in the council was taken from them, and given to the
Macedonians. Other orders were made for settling the
affairs both of religion and state throughout Greece :
all of which were executed by Philip with great exact¬
ness and moderation, he paying the most profound re¬
spect to the council ; and, when he had performed its
commands, retiring peaceably with his army back to
Macedon, which gained him great reputation.
At Athens alone, the justice and piety of Philip was
not understood. The people began to see, though a
little too late, that they had been abused and deceived
by those who had negociated the late peace. hey js a<rain
saw that, through their acceptance of it, the Phocians opposed ^
were destroyed; that Philip was become master oftheAtc
Thermopylae, and might enter Greece when he plea-,uau:”
sed ; that, in abandoning their allies, they had aban¬
doned themselves ; and that, in all probability, they
might soon feel the weight of his power, whom they
had so foolishly trusted : they therefore began to take
new and hostile measures ; they ordered that the wo¬
men should retire out of the villages into the city,
their walls be repaired, and their forts new strengthen¬
ed.
Macedon.
MAC [ 305
cd. They seemed inclined to question Philip’s elec¬
tion into the council of the Amphictyons, because it
had been done without their consent j and even to pro¬
ceed to an open war. In all likelihood they had car¬
ried things to extravagancy, ii Demosthenes had not
interposed. He told them, that though he was not
lor making tne peace, he ivas however* lor keeping it j
and that he saw no manner of occasion for their enter¬
ing into so unequal a contest as would needs ensue,
if they took up arms, not only against Philip, but
against all the states concurring with him in the late
transactions. This seems to have cooled the rarre of
59 , ■
Pursues his
conquests
in Thrace.
60
His domi¬
nions in¬
vaded by
Diopithes;
6x
vho is de¬
cided by
^emosthe-
ies.
rtn/nvg Philip by degrees, as by degrees they had raised
him.
Jhc fame of his achievements without the bounds
m Macedon having disposed the subjects of Philip to
hope every thing from his conduct', and the several
states of Greece to desire above all things his friend-
s.up , that prudent monarch laid hold or this favourable
situation to fix his dominion on such a stable founda¬
tion as that a reverse of fortune should not immediate¬
ly destroy it. 1o this end, while he carried on his
negociations through Greece, he likewise kept his
army in exercise, by taking several places in Thrace,
which terribly incommoded the Athenians. Diopi¬
thes,. who had the government of the Athenian colo¬
nies in those parts, perceiving well what end Philip
had in view, did not stay for instructions from home 5
but having raised with much expedition a considera¬
ble body of troops, taking advantage of the king’s
being absent with his army, entered the adjacent
territories of Philip, and wasted them with fire and
sword.
The. king, who, on account of the operations of the
campaign in the Chersonese, was not at leisure to re¬
pel Diopithes by force, nor indeed could divide his
army without imminent hazard, chose, like an able ge¬
neral, rather to abandon his provinces to insults, which
might be afterwards revenged, than, by following the
dictates of an ill-timed passion, to hazard the loss of
his veteran army, whereon lay all his hopes. He con¬
tented. himself, therefore, with complaining to the
Athenians of Diopithes’s conduct, who, in a time of
peace had entered his dominions, and committed such
devastations as could scarcely have been justified in a
time of war. His partisans supported this application
with all their eloquence. They told the Athenians,
that unless they recalled Diopithes, and brought him
to a trial for this infringement of the peace, they ought
not to hope either for the friendship of Philip or&of
any other prince or state; neither could they justly
complain, if, prompted by such a precedent, others
should break faith with them, and fall without the
least notice upon their dominions. Demosthenes de¬
fended Diopithes : and undertook to show that he de¬
served the praise and not the censure of the Athenians.
Those of the other party began then to charge him
with crimes of a different nature j they alleged, that
he oppressed the subjects and maltreated the allies of
Athens. Demosthenes replied, that of these things
there were , as yet no proofs ; that when such should
appear, a single galley might be sent to bring over Dio¬
pithes to abide their judgment, but that P’hilip would
not come if they sent a fleet : whence he inferred,
Vol. XU. Part I.
] M A * C
that they ought to be cautious, and to weigh well the vi .1
merits of this cause before they took any resolution.
He said, that it was true Philip had not as yet at¬
tacked Attica, or pretended to make a descent on their
territories in Greece, or to force his way into their
ports; when it came to that, he was of opinion they
would be hardly able to defend themselves ; wherefore
he thought such men were to be esteemed as fought
to protect their frontiers, in order to keep Philip as
long as might be at a distance : whereupon he moved,
that, instead of disowning what Diopithes had done, 01
directing him to dismiss his army, they should send him
. . . 0 vuv-y xviic W
now to protect their territories, and to maintain the
dignity of their state, as well as their ancestors. These
arguments had such an effect, that a decree was made
conformable to his motion.
While affairs stood thus, the Illyrians recovering
courage, and seeing Philip at such a distance, harassed
the frontiers of Macedon, and threatened a formidable
invasion : but Philip, by quick marches, arrived on
the borders of Illyricum : and struck this barbarous
people with such a panic, that they were glad to com¬
pound for their former depredations at the price he
ivas pleased to set. iMost of the Greek cities m Thrace
now sought the friendship of the king, and entered in¬
to a league with him for their mutual defence. As it
cannot be supposed that each of these free cities had
a power equal to that of Philip, we may therefore look } f-
upon him as their protector. About this time Philip’s Pjlllp>s
negociations in Peloponnesus began to come to light; defeated,
the Argives and Messenians, growing weary of that
tyrannical authority which the Spartans exercised over
them, applied to Thebes for assistance ; and the The¬
bans out of their natural aversion to Sparta, sought
to open a passage for Philip into Peloponnesus, that,
in conjunction with them, he might humble the Laee-
daemonians. Philip readily accepted the offer ; and
resolved to procure a decree from the Amphictyons, di¬
recting the Lacedaemonians to leave Argos and Messene
free ; which if they complied not with, he, as the lieu¬
tenant of the Amphictyons, might, with great appear¬
ance of justice, march with a body of troops to enforce
their order. When Sparta had intelligence of this,
she immediately applied to Athens, earnestly entreat¬
ing assistance, as in the common cause of Greece. The
Argives and Messenians, on the other hand, laboured
assiduously to gain the Athenians to their side ; alleging
that, if they were friends to liberty, they ought to as¬
sist those whose only aim was to be free. Demosthe¬
nes, at this juncture, outwrestled Philip, if we may
borrow that king’s expression ; for, by a vehement ha¬
rangue, he not only determined his own citizens to be¬
come the avowred enemies of the king, but also made
the Argives and Messenians not over fond of him for
an ally ; which when Philip perceived, he laid aside all
thoughts of this enterprise for the present, and began
to practise in Euboea.
This county, now called Neg7'opont, is separated
from Greece by the Euripus, a strait so narrow, that
Euboea might easily be united to the continent. This
situation made Philip call it the fetters of Greece, which
he therefore sought to have in his own hands. There
had been for some years great disturbances in that
country; under colour of w hich, Philip sent forces
f Q q thither,
MAC [
Mnceam thither, ami demolished Porthmos, the strongest city
C-r—' in those ..arts, leaving the country under the govern-
ment of three lords, whom Demosthenes roundIv calls
tyrants, established by Philip. Shortly after, the Ma¬
cedonians took Oreus, which was left under the go¬
vernment of five magistrates, styled also tyrants at A-
thens. Thither Plutarch of Eretria, one of the most
eminent persons in Euboea, went to represent the di¬
stresses of his country, and to implore the Athenians to
set it free. This suit Demosthenes recommended warm¬
ly to the people ; who sent thither their famous leader
Phocion, supported by formidable votes, but a very
slender army : yet so well did he manage the affairs of
the commonwealth and her allies, that Philip quickly
found he must for a time abandon that project-, which,
however, he did not till he had formed another no less
beneficial to himself, or less dangerous to Athens. It
was the prosecution of bis conquests in T. brace which he
thought of pushing much farther than he had hitherto
done, or could be reasonably suspected to have any in¬
tention of doing. _
Extraordinary preparations were made by the Ma¬
cedonian monarch for this campaign. His son Alex¬
ander was left regent of the kingdom ; and he himself
with 30,000 men laid siege to Perinthus, one of the
strongest cities in the country. At present, however,
all his arts of oajoling and pretending friendship were
insufficient to deceive the Athenians. Phey gave the
command of their army and fleet to Phocion *, a general
of great abilities, and with whom Philip would have
found it very hard to contend. On the other hand, the
king of Persia began to turn jealous of the growing
power of the Macedonian monarch. The Persian kings
had been accustomed to regard those of Macedon as
their faithful allies but the good fortune of Philip, the
continual clamour of the Athenians against him, and
fiis dethroning at pleasure the petty princes of I brace,
made him now regarded in another light. When,
therefore, he led his troops against Perinthus, the Great
King, as he was styled by. the Greeks, sent his letters
mandatory to the governors of the maritime provinces,
directing them to supply the place with all things in
their power*, in consequence of which they filled it
with troops, granted subsidies in ready money, and sent
besides great convoys of provision and ammunition. The
Byzantines also, supposing their own turn would he
next, exerted their utmost endeavours for the preserva¬
tion of Perinthus *, sending thither the flower of their
youth, with all other necessaries for an obstinate de¬
fence. The consequence of all this was, that Philip
found himself obliged to raise the siege with great
loss.
How be at That the reputation of the Macedonian arms might
last gained not sink by this disgrace, Philip made war on the Scy-
his point, thians and Triballi, both of whom he defeated and
then formed a design of invading Attica, though he
had no fleet to transport his troops, and knew very
well that the Thessalians were not to be depended up¬
on if he attempted to march through the Pisa;, and
that the Thebans would even then be ready to oppose
his march. To obviate all these difficulties, he had
recourse to Athens itself*, where by means of his par¬
tisans, he procured his old friend yEschines to be sent
their deputy to the Amphictyons. This seemed a
small matter, and yet was the hinge on which his
3
306 ] MAC
whole project turned. By that time iEschines had Maced**
taken his seat, a question was stirred in the council,
whether the Lecrians of Amphisia had not been guilty
of sacrilege in ploughing the fields of Cyrrha in the
neighbourhood of the temple of Delphi. The assembly
being divided in their opinions, iEsclnnes proposed to
take a view, which Was accordingly decreed. But when
the Amphictyons came in order to see how things
stood, the Locrians, either jealous of their property,
er spurred thereto by the suggestions of some who
saw farther than themselves, fell upon those venerable
persons so rudely, that they were compelled to secure
themselves by flight. The Amphictyons decreed, that
an army should be raised, under the command of one
of their own number, to chastise the delinquents j hut
as this army was to be composed of troops sent from,
all parts of Greece, the appearance at the rendezvous
was so inconsiderable, that the Amphictyons sent to
command them durst undertake nothing. The whole
matter being reported to the council, yEschines, in a
long and eloquent harangue, showed how much the
welfare and even the safety of Greece depended on the
deference paid to their decrees j and after inveighing
against the want of public spirit in such as had not
sent their quotas at the time appointed^ by the coun¬
cil, he moved that they should elect 1 hilip for their _
general, ami pray him to execute their decree. The
deputies from the other states, conceiving that by this
expedient their respective constituents would be free
from any farther trouble or expence, came into it at
once j whereupon a decree was immediately drawn up,
purporting that ambassadors should be sent to Philip
of Macedon, in the name of Apollo and the Amphic¬
tyons, once more to require his assistance, and to nor
tify to him, that the states of Greece had unanimously
chosen him their general, with full power to act as be
thought fit against such as had opposed the authority ^
of the Amphictyons. Thus of a sudden 1 hilip ac* Is chosen
quired all that he sought *, and having an army ready general by
in expectation of this event, he immediately marched the Am-
to execute the commands of the Amphictyons in ap- P lct>on
pearartce, but in reality to accomplish his own de¬
signs: For having passer! into Greece with his army,
instead of attacking the Locrians, he seized immedi¬
ately upon Elatea, a great city of Phocis upon the river
Cephisus. 65
The Athenians in the mean time were in the utmost js opposed
confusion on the news of Philip’s march. However, by the A-
by the advice of Demosthenes, they invited the Ihe-b^r^^
bans to join them against the common enemy of Greece. bang.
Philip endeavoured as much as possible to prevent this
confederacy-from taking place 5 but all his eflorts pro¬
ved ineffectual. The Athenians raised an army, which
marched immediately to Elcusis, where they were join¬
ed by the Thebans. The confederates made the best
appearance that had ever been seen in Greece, and the
troops were exceedingly good j but unfortunately the
generals were men of no conduct or skill in the mill- C6
tary art. An engagement ensued at Cheronaea j where- whom
in Alexander commanded one wing of the Macedonian ^<*1^
army, and his father Philip the other. T-he confede¬
rate army was divided according to the different na¬
tions of which it consisted 5 the Athenians having the
right and the Boeotians the left. In the beginning
of the battle the confederates bad the better $ where¬
upon
MAC [ 307
Macedou. upon Stratocles an Athenian commander cried out
r—-' “ Come on, brother soldiers, let us drive them back to
Macedon 3” which being overheard by the king, he said
very coolly to one of his officers, « These Athenians
do not know how to conquer.” Upon this he directed
the files of the phalanx to be straitened; and draw¬
ing his men up very close, retired to a neighbouring
eminence: from whence, when the Athenians were
eager in their pursuit, he rushed down with impetuo-
sity, broke, and routed them with prodigious slaugh¬
ter. The orator Demosthenes behaved very unbecom¬
ingly in this engagement j for he deserted his post,
and was one of the first that fled: nay, we are told,
that a stake catching hold of his robe, he, not doubt¬
ing but it was an enemy, cried out, “ Alas ! spare my
life.”
This victory determined the fate of Greece ; and
from this time we must reckon Philip supreme lord of
all the Grecian states. The first use he made of his
power was to convoke a general assembly, wherein he
67
Is appoint¬
ed general
against the
Persians.
M A C
ffiflifefiSC0Very °f hiS aCCOn,P,iceS’ they Put an end to Macedon.
With regard to the character of this monarch, it 6<>
appears certain, that he was one of the most eminentHis cha"
persons that ever sat on a throne. Had he lived for™^1-'
some time longer, he would in all probability have
subdued the Persians : which was in truth less difficult
than what he had already done. “ Had that event
taken place (says Dr Gillies), the undertakings of his
Jong and successful reign would have been ennobled and
illuminated by the splendour of extensive foreign con-
quest. Philip would have reached the height of such
renown as is obtained by the habits of activity, vigi¬
lance, and fortitude, in the pursuit of unbounded great¬
ness } and 111 the opinion of posterity, would perhaps
have surpassed the glory of all kings and conquerors
who either preceded or followed him. Yet, even on
this supposition, there is not any man of sense and
probity, who, if he allows himself time for serious re-
68
murdcr-
.
was recognized generalissimo and with Ml poweT prSperity’of tl,el’ki,'gTf MacldoT“dtl,f^r,W Ms
potnted then-leader agatnst the Persians Having, by artifices and his crimes; anTto a pMosopher wt
virtue of Ins authority, settled a general peace among ~—:j —J -*‘I '■ * . . . f - P ’
them, and appointed the quota that each of the states
should furnish for the war, he dismissed them : and re¬
turning to Macedon, began to make great prepara¬
tions for this new expedition. His pretence for ma¬
king war on the Persians at this time was the assistance
given by the Persians to the city of Pcrinthus, as al¬
ready mentioned. In the mean time, however, the
king by reason of the dissensions which reigned in his
family, was made quite miserable. He quarrelled with
his wife Olympias to such a degree, that he divorced
her, and married another woman named Cleopatra.
This produced a quarrel between him and his son
Alexander j which also came to such a height, that
Alexander retired into Epirus with his mother. Some
time afterwards, however, he was recalled, and a re¬
conciliation took place in appearance ; but in the mean
time a conspiracy w'as formed against the king’s life,
the cncumstanccs and causes of which are very much
unknown. Certain it is, however, that it took effect,
as the king wras exhibiting certain shows in honour of
his daughter’s marriage with the king of Epirus. Phi¬
lip having given a public audience to the ambassadors
of Greece, went next day in state to the theatre. All
the seats were early taken up $ and the shows began
with a splendid procession, wherein the images of the
12 superior deities of Greece were carried, as also the
image of Philip, habited in like manner, as if he now
inade the 13th, at which the people shouted aloud,
ihen came the king alone, in a white robe, crowned,
with his guards at a considerable distance, that the
Greeks might see he placed his safety only in his con¬
fidence of the loyalty of his subjects. Pausanias, the
assassin, however, had fixed himself close by the door
of the theatre j and observing that all things fell out
as he had foreseen they would, took his opportunity
considered either the means by which he had obtained
his triumphs, or the probable consequences of his domi¬
nion over Greece and Asia, the busy ambition of this
mighty conqueror would appear but a deceitful scene
of splendid misery.”
No sooner did the news of Philip’s death reach A- Extrava-
thens, than, as if all danger had been past, the inbabi-&ant j°>’
tants showed the most extravagant signs of joy. De-fu the A
mosthenes and his party put on chaplets of flowers, and ^
behaved as if they bad gained a great victory. Pho-
cion reproved them for this madness; bidding them
remember, that “ the army which had beaten them at
Cheronsea was lessened but by one.” This reproof,
however, had very little effect. The people heard with
pleasure all the harsh things which the orators could
say of the young Alexander king of Macedon, whom
they represented as a giddy wrong-headed boy, ready
to grasp all things in bis imagination, and able to per¬
form nothing. Phe affairs of Macedon indeed were in
a very distracted state on the accession of Alexander :
for all the neighbouring nations had the same notion
of the young king with the Athenians ; and being ir¬
ritated by the usurpations of Philip, immediately re¬
volted ; and the states of Greece entered into a confe¬
deracy against him. The Persians had been contriv¬
ing to transfer the-war to Macedon ; but as soon as the
news of Philip’s death reached them, they behaved as
if all danger had been over. At the same time Attains,
one of the Macedonian commanders, aspired to the
crown, and sought to draw off the soldiers from their
allegiance.
In the councils held on this occasion, Alexander’s
best friends advised him rather to make use of dissi¬
mulation than force, and to cajole those whom they
thought he could not subdue. These advices, how-
,   —j   » —- vLiuiLj? ever, were ill suited to the temper of their monarch.
Wien the king drew near him, and plunging his sword He thought that vigorous measures onlv were proper, 7:
m Ins left side, laid him dead at his feet. He then fled and therefore immediately led his army into Thessaly, declared01
Here he harangued the princes so effectually, that he general of
thoroughly gained them over to his interest, and was Greece,
by them declared general of Greece ; upon which he
returned to Macedon, where he caused Attalus to be
seized and put to death.
Q q 2
7 M.V- AV/V.V* JL A lliCll 11 Cl-1
as fast as he was able towards the place where his
horses were ; and would have escaped, had not the
twig of a vine catched his shoe and thrown him down,
ibis gave time to those who pursued him to come up
•jith him; but instead of securing him, in order to ex-
In
Alacedon.
72 .
Defeats the
TiiballL
M AC [ 3oB
In Hie spring of the next year (335 B. C.) Alex¬
ander resolved to subdue the Triballians and Illyrians,
who inhabited tlie countries now called Bulgaria and
Sclavonic, and had been very formidable enemies to
the Macedonian power. In this expedition he disco¬
vered, though then but 20 years of age, a surprising
decree of military knowledge. Having advanced to
the passes of Mount Haemus, lie found that the barba¬
rians Ji'kI posted themselves in the most advantageous
manner. On the tops of the cliff's, and at the head ot
every passage, they had placed their carriages and wag-
in such a manner as to form a kind of parapet
J
M A €
with their shafts inwards, that when the Macedonians
should have half ascended the rock, they might be able
to push these heavy carriages down upon them. 1 hey
reckoned the more upon this contrivance, because of
the close order of the phalanx, which, they imagined,
would be terribly exposed by the soldiers wanting
room to stir, and thereby avoid the falling waggons.
But Alexander, having directed his heavy-armed troops
to march, gave orders, that, where the way would per¬
mit, they should open to the right and lelt, and suffer
the carriages to go through j but that, in the nairow
passes, they should throw themselves on their faces with
their shields behind them, that the carts might run
over them. This had the desired effect 5 and the Ma¬
cedonians reached the enemies works without the loss
of a man. The dispute was then quickly decided j
the barbarians were driven from their posts with great
slaughter, and left behind them a considerably booty for
the conquerors.
The next exploits of Alexander were against the
Cette, the Tanlantii, and some other nations inhabit¬
ing the country on the other side of the Danube.
Them he also overcame j showing in all his actions
the most perfect skill in military aff airs, joined with the
greatest valour. In the mean time, however, all Greece
was in commotion by a report which had been confi¬
dently spread abroad, that the king was dead in Illy¬
ria. The Thebans, on this news, seized Amyntas and
Timolaus, two eminent officers in the Macedonian gar¬
rison which held their citadel, and dragged them to the
market-place, where they were put to death without
either form or process, or any crime alleged against
them. Alexander, however, did not suffer them to
remain long in their mistake. He marched with such
expedition, that in seven days he reached Pallene in
Thessaly ", and in six days more he entered Boeotia,
bef6re the Thebans had any intelligence of his passing
the straits of Thermopylae. Even then they would not
believe that the king was alive j but insisted that the
Macedonian army was commanded by Antipater, or
by one Alexander the son of iEropus. The rest of the
Greeks, however, were not so hard of belief; and
therefore sent no assistance to the Thebans, who were
thus obliged to bear the consequences of their own
folly and obstinacy. The city was taken by storm,
and the inhabitants were for some hours massacred with¬
out distinction of age or sex ; after which the houses
were demolished, all except that of Pindar the famous
poet, which was spared out of respect to the merit ot
its owner, and because he had celebrated Alexander
king of Macedon. The lands, excepting those destin¬
ed to religious uses, were shared among the soldiers,
7’
The The¬
bans revolt
on the
news of his
death.
74
Thebes
taken and
destroyed.
and all the prisoners sold for slaves ; by which 440 la- Mhccdun.
lents were brought into the king’s treasury. ^ J
By this severity the rest ot the Grecian states wrere
so thoroughly humbled, that they thought no more of
making any resistance, and Alexander had nothing fur¬
ther to hinder him from his favourite project ot invad¬
ing Asia. Very little preparation was necessary for
the Macedonian monarch, who went out as to an as¬
sured conquest, and reckoned upon being supplied only
by the spoils of his enemies. Historians are not agreed ^
as to the number of his army : Arrian says, that there.Number of
were 30,000 foot and 5000 horse. Diodorus Siculus the army
tells us, that there were 13,000 Macedonian loot, 7000^ in^j
of the confederate states, and 5000 mercenaries. Ihese Agia
were under the command of Parmenio. Of the Odri-
sians, Triballians, and Illyrians, there were 5000 ; and
of the Agrians, who were armed only with darts, 1000.
As for the horse, he tells us there were 1800. com¬
manded by Philotas, and as many Thessalians under
the command of Callas : out of the confederate states of
Greece, were 600 commanded by Eurygius ; and goo
Thracians and Paeonians, who led the van under Cas-
sander. Plutarch tells us, that, according to a low
computation, he had 30,000 foot and 5000 horse ; and,
according to the largest reckoning, he had 34,000
foot and 4000 horse. As to his fund tor the pay¬
ment of the army, Aristobulus says it was but 7.°.ta"
lents; and Onesicritus, who was also in this expedition,
not only takes awTay the 70 talents, but affiims that
the king was 200 in debt. As for provisions, there
was just sufficient for a month and no more ; and to
prevent disturbances, Antipater was left in Macedon
with I 2,000 foot and 1500 horse. ^
The army having assembled at Amphipolis, hegcjsout0I1
marched froni thence to the mouths of the river Stry-his expedi-
then crossing Mount Panggeus, he took the roadtion.
to Abdera. Crossing the river Ebrus, he proceeded
through the country of Pastis, and in 20 days reached
Sestos ; thence he came to Eleus, where he sacrificed
on the tomb of Protesilaus, because he was the first
among the Greeks who at the siege ot Iroy set ioct
on the Asiatic shore. He did this, that his landing
might be more propitious than that of the hero to
whom he sacrificed, who was slain soon alter. I he
greatest part of the army, under the command of 1 ar-
menio, embarked at Sestos, on board ot a fleet ot 160
galleys of three benches of oars, besides small craft.
Alexander himself sailed trom Eleus; and when he
was in the middle of the Hellespont, ofiered a bull to
Neptune and the Nereids, pouring forth at the same
time a libation trom a golden cup. When he drew
near the shore, he launched a javelin, whicn stuck in
the earth : then, in complete armour, he leaped upon
the strand; and having erected altars to Jupiter, Mi¬
nerva, and, Hercules, he proceeded to Ilium. Here
again he sacrificed to Minerva ; and taking down some
arms which had hung in the temple ot that goddess
since the time of the Trojan war, consecrated his own
in their stead. He sacrificed also to the ghost ot Priam,
to avert his wrath on account of the descent which he
himself claimed from Achilles.
In the mean time the Persians had assembled a great
army in Phrygia; among whom was one Memnon a
Rhodian, the best officer in the service of Darius. A-
. , lexauder*
MAC [ 309 J
Slarcdon. lexaiitler^ as soon as lie had performed all the ceremo- through which
M A C
'* See Gra-
nicus.
77
Consequen
ces of liis
first victo¬
ry.
iiies which he judged necessary, marched directly to
wards the enemy. Memnou gave it as his opinion,
that they should burn and destroy all the country
round, that they might deprive the Greeks of the means
of subsisting, and then transport a part of their army
into Macedon. But the Persians, depending on their
cavalry, rejected this salutary advice ; and posted them¬
selves along the river Granicus, in order to wait the
arrival of Alexander. In the engagement which hap¬
pened on the banks of that river, the Persians were
defeated *, and Alexander became master of all the
neighbouring country; which he immediately began to
take care ol, as if it had been part of his hereditary
dominions. The city ot Sardis was immediately de¬
livered up; and here Alexander built a temple to Ju¬
piter Olympius. After this, he restored the Ephesians
to their liberty ; ordered the tribute which they for¬
merly paid to the Persians to be applied towards the
rebuilding the magnificent temple of Diana : and
having settled the affairs ot the city, marched against
Miletus. This place was defended by Memnon with a
considerable body of troops who had fled thither af¬
ter the battle of Granicus, and therefore made a vigo¬
rous resistance. J he fortune of Alexander, however,
prevailed j and the city was soon reduced, though
Memnon with part of the troops escaped to Halicar¬
nassus. After this, the king dismissed his fleet, for
which various reasons have been assigned ; though it
is probable, that the chief one was to show his army
that their only resource now was in subverting the Per¬
sian empire.
Almost all the cities between Miletus and Halicar¬
nassus submitted as soon as they heard that the former
was taken ; but Halicarnassus, where Memnon com¬
manded with a very numerous garrison, made an obsti¬
nate defence. Nothing, however, was able to resist
the Macedonian army. Memnon was at last obliged
to abandon the place j upon which Alexander took
and razed the city of Tralles in Phrygia ; received the
submission of several princes tributary to the Per¬
sians j and having destroyed the Marmarians, a people
of Lycia who had fallen upon the rear of his army, put
an end to the campaign 5 after which he sent home all
the new married men 5 in obedience, it would seem,
to a precept of the Mosaic law, and which endeared
him more to his soldiers than any other action of his
life.
As soon as the season would permit, Alexander
quitted the province of Phaselus ; and having sent part
of his army through the mountainous country to
Perga, by a short but difficult road, took his route by
a certain promontory, where the way is altogether im¬
passable, except when the north winds blow. At the
time of the king’s march the south wind had held for
a long time •, but of a sudden it changed, and blew from
the north so violently, that, as he and his followers de¬
clared, they obtained a safe and easy passage through
the Divine assistance. By many this march is held to
be miraculous, and compared to that of the children
of Israel through the Red sea; while, on the other
hand, it is the opinion of others, that there was no¬
thing at all extraordinary in it. He continued his
march towards Gordium, a city of Phrygia ; the ene¬
my having abandoned the strong pass of Tehnissus,
4
van “ 1 • Jt WaS Iiecessa,7 for him to march. Macedon.
VV hen he arrived at Gordium, and found himself un-' L.y
der a necessity of staying some time there till the se-
■\eial corps of his army could be united, he expressed
a strong desire of seeing Gordius’s chariot, and the fa¬
mous knot in the harness, of which such strange stories
had been published to the world. The cord in which
this knot was tied, was made of the inner rind of
the cornel tree; and no eye could perceive where it -3
had begun or ended. Alexander, when he could find Unties the
no possible way of untying, and yet w as unwilling Gordian
to leave it tied lest it should cause some fears in the *tnot'
breasts of his soldiers, is^said by some authors to have
cut the cords with his sword, saying, “ It matters not
how it is undone.” But Aristobulus assures us, that
the king wrested a wooden pin out of the beam of the
waggon, which, being driven in across the beam, held
it up ; and so took the yoke from under it. Be this
as it will, however, Arrian informs us, that a great
tempest of thunder, lightning, and rain, happening
the succeeding night, it was held declarative of the
true solution of this knot, and that Alexander should
become lord of Asia.
The king having left Gordium, marched towards-
Cilicia; where he was attended with his usual good
fortune, the Persians abandoning all the strong passes
as he advanced. As soon as he entered the province,
he received advice that Arsames, whom Darius had
made governor of Tarsus, was about to abandon it,
and that the inhabitants were very apprehensive that
he intended to plunder them before he withdrew. To
prevent this, the king marched incessantly, and arrived 79
just in time to save the city. But his saving it hadP)SS’c^~
well nigh cost him his life: for, either through thenessan,i
  . r , • c , . ’ . & , recoverv.
excessive fatigue ot marching, as some say, or, accord¬
ing to others, by his plunging when very hot into the
river Cydnus, which, as it runs through thick shades,
has its waters excessively cold, he fell into such a distem¬
per as threatened his immediate dissolution. His army
lost their spirits immediately ; the generals knew not
what to do ; and his physicians were so much affrighted,
that the terror of his death hindered them from using
the necessary methods for preserving his life. Philip
the Acarnanian alone preserved temper enough to exa¬
mine the nature of the king’s disease; the worst symp
tom of which was a continual waking, and which he
took off by means of a potion, and in a short time the
king recovered his usual health.
Soon after Alexander’s recovery, he received the
agreeable news that Ptolemy and Asander had defeated
the Persian generals, and made great conquests on the
Hellespont ; a little after that, he met the Persian army
at Issus, commanded by Darius himself. A bloody
engagement ensued, in which the Persians were de¬
feated with great slaughter, as related under the article
Issus. The consequences of this victory were very
advantageous to the Macedonians. Many governors
of provinces and petty princes submitted themselves to
the conqueror; and such as did so were treated, not as
a newly conquered people, but as bis old hereditary
subjects ; being neither burdened with soldiers nor
oppressed with tribute. Among the number of those
places which, within a short space alter the battle of
Issus, sent deputies to submit to the conqueror, wa
the city of Tyre. The king, whose name was Azel-
micasj
MAC [ 3*
iMacedon. micus, was absent in the Persian fleet; but his son was
' v   among the deputies, and was very favourably received
by Alexander. The king probably intended to confer
particular honours on the city of lyrcj for he ac¬
quainted the inhabitants that he would come and sa¬
crifice to the Tyrian Hercules, the patron of their
city, to whom they had erected a most magnificent
temple. But these people, like most other trading
nations, were too suspicious to think of admitting
such an enterprising prince with his troops within
their walls. They sent therefore their deputies again
to him, to inform him, that they were ready to do
•whatever he should command them; but, as to his
coming and sacrificing in their city, they could not
consent to that, but were positively determined not to
admit a single Macedonian within their gates. Alex¬
ander immediately dismissed their deputies in great dis¬
pleasure. He then assembled a council of war, wherein
he insisted strongly on the disaffected state of Greece
(for most of the Grecian states had sent ambassadors
to Darius, to enter into a league with him against the
Macedonians), the power of the Persians by sea, and
the folly of carrying on the war in distant provinces,
while Tyre was left unreduced behind them: he also
remarked, that if once this city was subdued, the so¬
vereignty of the sea would be transferred to them, be¬
cause it would fix their possession of the coasts j and
as the Persian fleet was composed chiefly of tributary
squadrons, those tributaries would fight the battles,
not of their late, but of their present masters. For
80 these reasons the siege of Tyre was resolved on. I he
Tyre taken ^own was not taken, however, without great difficulty j
"troved" which provoked Alexander to such a degree, that he
r°>C treated the inhabitants with the- greatest cruelty. See
Tyre.
After the reduction of Tyre, Alexander, though the
season was already far advanced, resolved to make an
expedition into Syria j and in his way thither proposed
to chastise the Jews, who had highly offended him du¬
ring the siege of Tyre : for when he sent to them to de¬
mand provisions for his soldiers, they answered, That
they were the subjects of Darius, and bound by oath
not to supply his enemies. The king, however, was
pacified by their submission ; and not only pardoned
them, but conferred many privileges upon them, as re¬
lated under the article Jews.
From Jerusalem Alexander marched directly to
Gaza, the only place in that part of the world which
•still held out for Darius. This was a very large and
strong city, situated on a high hill, about five miles
from the sea-shore. One Batis or Betis, an eunuch,
had the government of the place •, and had made every
preparation necessary for sustaining a long and obsti
nate siege. The governor defended the place with
■great valour, and several times repulsed his enemies j
but at last it was taken by storm, and all the gar¬
rison slain to a man •, and this secured to Alexander an
entrance into Egypt, which having before been very
impatient of the Persian yoke, admitted the Macedo¬
nians peaceably.
Here the king laid the foundations of the city of
Alexandria, which for many years after continued to
be the capital of the country. "While he remained
here, he also formed the extraordinary design of visit¬
ing the temple of Jupiter Ammon. As to the mo¬
st
' "Egypt sub¬
mits.
S2
Alexander
visits the
temple of
Jupiter
Ammon.
0 ] MAC
lives by which he was induced to take this extraordi- Macedon
nary journey, authors are not agreed ; but certain it1 ■
is, that he hazarded himself and his troops in the high¬
est degree; there being two dangers in this march,
which, with the example of Cambyses, who lost the
greatest part of his army in it, might have terrified any¬
body but Alexander. The first was the want of water,
which, in the sandy deserts surrounding the temple, is
nowhere to be found j the other, the uncertainty of the
road from the fluctuation of the sands; which chan¬
ging their situation every moment, leave the traveller
neither a road to walk in nor mark to march byr. ri hese
difficulties, however, Alexander got over; though not
without a miraculous interposition, as is pretended by
all his historians.
Alexander having consulted the oracle, and received
a favourable answer, returned to pursue his conquests.
Having settled the government of Egypt, he appointed
the general rendezvous of his forces at Tyre. Here he
met with ambassadors from Athens, requesting him to
pardon such of their countrymen as he found serving
the enemy. The king, being desirous to oblige such a
famous state, granted their request; and sent also a fleet
to the coast of Greece, to prevent the effects of some
commotions which had lately happened in Peloponnesus.
He then directed his march to Thapsacus; and having
passed the Euphrates and Tigris, met with Darius near
Arbela, where the Persians were again overthrown with
prodigious slaughter t, and Alexander in effect became + See Ar-
master of the Persian empire. _ 7jela‘
After this important victory, Alexander marched di- Reduc^
rectiy to Babylon, which was immediately delivered Baby]0D)
up; the inhabitants being greatly disaffected to the Susa, and
Persian interest. After 30 days stay in this country, Persepolis.
the king marched to Susa, which had already surren¬
dered to Philoxenus ; and here he received the trea¬
sures of the Persian monarch, amounting, according
to the most generally received account, to 50,000 ta¬
lents. Having received also at this time a supply ol
6000 foot and 500 horse from Macedon, he set about
reducing the nations of Media, among whom Darius
was retired. He first reduced the Uxians, and having
forced a passage to Persepolis the capital of the empire,
he like a barbarian destroyed the stately palace there,
a pile of building not to be equalled in any part of the
world ; after having given up the city to he plundered
by his soldiers. In the palace he found 120,000 talents,
which he appropriated to his own use, and caused im¬
mediately to be carried away upon mules and camels;
for he had such an extreme aversion to the inhabitants
of Persepolis, that he determined to leave nothing va¬
luable in the city.
During the time that Alexander remained at Per¬
sepolis, he received intelligence that Darius remained
at Ecbatana the capital of Media; upon which he
pursued him with the greatest expedition, marching 84
at the rate of near 40 miles a-day. In 15 days heHe^F1"®
reached Ecbatana, where he was informed that Da- !
rius had retired from thence five days before, with an
intent to pass into the remotest provinces of his em¬
pire. This put some stop to the rapid progress of the
Macedonian army; and the king, perceiving that there
was no necessity for hurrying himself and his soldiers
in such a manner, began to give the orders requisite
in the present situation of his affairs. The Thessalian
horse,
MAC
Macedon. Kprse, who had deserved exceedingly well of him in all
■""v his battles, he dismissed according to his agreement ’
gave them their whole pay, and ordered 2000 talents
over and above to be distributed among them. He
then declared that he would force no man : but if any
were willing to serve him longer for pay, he de¬
sired they would enter their names in a book, which
a great many of them did j the rest sold their horses,
and prepared for their departure. The king appointed
Epocillus to conduct them to the sea, and assigned him
a body of horse as an escort: he likewise sent Menetes
with them, to take care of their embarkation, and that
they were safely landed in Euboea without any expence
to themselves.
On receiving fresh information concerning the state
of Darius s affairs, the king set out again in pursuit
of him, advancing as far as Rhages, a city one day’s
journey horn the Caspian straits : there he understood
that Darius had passed those straits some time before 5
which information leaving him again without hopes,
he halted for five days. Oxidates, a Persian whom Da-
1111s had left prisoner at Susa, was made governor of
Media, while the king departed on an expedition into
Parthia. Ihe Caspian straits he passed immediately
without opposition j and then gave directions to his of¬
ficers to collect a quantity of provisions sufficient to
serve his army on a long march through a wasted coun¬
try. But before his officers could accomplish those
commands, the king received intelligence that Darius
had been murdered by Bessus, one of his own subjects,
and governor of Bactria, as is related at length under
the article Persia.
As soon as Alexander had collected his forces to¬
gether, and settled the government of Parthia, he en¬
tered Hyrcania; and having, according to his usual
custom, committed the greatest part of his army to
the care of Craterus, he, at the head pf a choice
body of troops, passed through certain craggy roads,
and before the arrival of Craterus, who took an open
and easy path, struck the whole provinces with such
terror, that all the principal places were immediately
put into his hands, and soon after the province of Aria
also submitted, and the king continued Satibarzanes
die governor in his employment.—The reduction of
this province finished the conquest of Persia ; but the
ambition of Alexander to become master of every na-
Hon of which he had the least intelligence, induced
mm to enter the country of the JNfardi, merely be¬
cause its rocks and barrenness had hitherto hindered
any body from conquering, or indeed from attempt¬
ing to conquer it. This conquest, however, he easily
accomplished, and obliged the whole nation to sub¬
mit to his pleasure. But in the mean time disturbances
began to arise in Alexander’s new empire, and among
his troops, which all his activity could not thorough¬
ly suppress. He had scarcely left the province of Aria,
Vihen he received intelligence, that the traitor Bessus
had caused himself to be proclaimed king of Asia by
the name of Artaxerxes; and that Satibarzanes had
joined him, after having massacred all the Macedonians
who had been left in the province. Alexander ap¬
pointed one Armies governor in the room of Satibar-
r 311 i
MAC
85
ho is
! irdcred
S6
axandcr
iuces
! mania.
Tones j and marched thence with his army against the
Aarangce, who, under the command of Barzaentes, one
0. those who had conspired against Darius, had taken up
arms, and threatened to make an obstinate defence,
But theu' numbers daily falling off, Barzaentes being' y-w
atraid they would purchase their own safety at the ex¬
pence of his, privately withdrew from his camp, and
crossing the river Indus, sought shelter among the na¬
tions beyond it. But they, either dreading the power
of Alexander, or detesting the treachery of this Persian
towards his former master, seized and delivered him up
to Alexander, who caused him immediately to be put
to death. 1
Ihe immense treasure which the Macedonians had The Ma-
acquired in the conquest of Persia began now to cor-ct^on*ails
nipt them. Ihe king himself was of a most generoust^tm‘
disposition, and liberally bestowed his gifts on those WyUPtB
around him j but they made a bad use of his bounty
and foolishly indulged in those vices by which the for¬
mer possessors of that wealth had lost it. The king did
all in his power to discourage the lazy and inactive
pride which now began to show itself among his of¬
ficers j but neither his discourses nor his example had
any considerable effect. The manners of his courtiers
from bad became worse, in spite of all he could say
or do to prevent it; and at last they proceeded to
censure his conduct, and to express themselves with
some bitterness on the subject of his long continuance
of the warr and his leading them constantly from one
labour to another. This came to such a height, that
the king was at last obliged to use some severity, in or¬
der to keep his army within the limits of their duty. 88
liom this time forward, however, Alexander .himself Alexander
began to alter his. conduct; and by giving a little in-confoms
to the customs of the Orientals, endeavoured to se.t?thePen-
cure that obedience from his new subjects which he toms.CUS'
found so difficult to be preserved among his old ones.
He likewise endeavoured, by various methods, to blend
the customs of the Asiatics and the Greeks. The
form of his civil government resembled that of the
ancient -Persian kings; in the military aflairs, how¬
ever, he preserved the Macedonian discipline j but
then he made choice of 30,000 boys out of the pro¬
vinces, whom he caused to be instructed in the Greek
language, and directed to be brought up in such a
manner as that from time to time he might with them
fill up the phalanx. The Macedonians, saw with great .
concern these extraordinary measures, which suited
very ill with their gross understandings 5 for they
thought, after all the victories they had gained, to be
absolute lords of Asia, and to possess not only the riches
of its inhabitants, but to rule the inhabitants them¬
selves: whereas they now saw, that Alexander meant
no such thing j but that, on the contrary, he con¬
ferred governments, offices at court, and all other
marks of confidence and favour, indiscriminately both
on Greeks and Persians.—From this time also the
king seems to have given instances of a cruelty he
had never shown before. Philotas his most intimate
friend was seized, tortured, and put to death for a
conspiracy of which it could never be proved that he
was guilty; and soon after Parmenio and some others
were executed without any crime at all real or al¬
leged. These things very much disturbed the army.
Some of them wrote home to Maeedon of the king’s
suspicions of his friends, and his disposition to hunt
out enemies at the very extremities of the world. A-
lexander having intercepted some of these letters, and
procured
MAC C 3
Maced on procured the best information he could conc™S
d^L-j (heir authors, picked out these dissatisfied people, and
havine- disposed them into a corps, gave it the title
of the turbulent battalion; hoping by this means to
prevent the spirit of disatfection from pervading the
whole army. . .
As a farther precaution against any future conspira¬
cy, Alexander thought fit to appoint Hepluestion and
Clvtus generals of the auxiliary horse •, being appre¬
hensive, that if this authority was lodged m the hands
of a single person, it might prompt him to dangerous
undertakings, and at the same time furnish him with
the means of carrying them into execution, lo ke^p
his forces in action, he suddenly marched into the coun¬
try of the Euergetse, i. e. Benefactors; and found them
full of that kind and hospitable disposition lor which
that name had been bestowed on their ancestors: he
therefore treated them with great respect
and at his
89
Satibarza-
departure added some lands "to their dominions which
lay contiguous, and which for that reason they had re-
‘ quested of him. . ,
Turning then to the east, he entered Arachosia, the
inhabitants of which submitted without giving him any
trouble. While he passed the winter in these paits,
the king received advice, that the Arians, whom he
had so lately subdued, were again up in arms, Sati-
barxanes being returned into that country with two
thousand horse assigned him by Bessus. Alexander in¬
stantly despatched Artabazus the Persian, with Engyus
and Caranus, two of his commanders, with a consi¬
derable body of horse and foot; he likewise ordered
Phrataphernes, to whom he had given the govern¬
ment of Parthia, to accompany them. A general
nesdefeat- engagement ensued, wherein the Arians behaved very
and killed, well, as long as their commander Satibarzanes lived •,
but he engaging Erigyus, the Macedonian struck
him first into the throat, and then, drawing forth
his spear again, through the mouth •, so that he im¬
mediately expired, and with him the courage of his
soldiers, who instantly began to fly 5 whereupon Alex¬
ander’s commanders made an easy conquest of the rest
of the country, and settled it effectually under his obe¬
dience.
The king, notwithstanding the inclemency of the
season, advanced into the country of Paropamisus, so
called from the mountain Paropamisus, which the sol¬
diers of xllexander called Caucasus. Having crossed
the country in 16 days, he came at length to an open¬
ing leading into Media *, which finding of a sufficient
bixath, he directed a city to be built there, which
he called Alexandria, as also several other towns about
a day’s journey distant from thence : and in these
places he left 7000 persons, part of them such as had
hitherto followed his camp, and part of the mercenary
soldiers, who, weary of continual fatigue, were con¬
tent to dwell there. Having thus settled things in
this province, sacrificed solemnly to, the gods, and ap¬
pointed Proexes the Persian president thereof, with a
small body of troops under the command of Niloxenus
to assist him, he resumed his former design of penetrat¬
ing into Bactria.
"Bessus, who had assumed the title of Artaxerxes,
when he was assured that Alexander was marching
towards him, immediately began to w'aste all the coun¬
try between Paropamisus and the river Oxus j which
93
ISessus re¬
duced and
put to
death.
12 ] M A C
river he passed with all his forces, and then burnt all Maceda
the vessels he had made use of for transporting them, 1 v—■
retiring to Nautaca, a city of Sogdia; fully persuad¬
ed, that, by the precautions he had taken, Alexander
would be compelled to give over his pursuit. Ihis
conduct of his, however, disheartened his troops, and
gave the lie to all his pretensions ; for he had affected
to censure Darius’s conduct, and had charged him
with cowardice, in not defending the rivers Euphrates
and Tigris, whereas he now quitted the banks ol the
most defensible river perhaps in the whole world. As
to his hopes, though it cannot be said they were ill
founded, yet they proved absolutely vain } for Alexan¬
der, continuing his march, notwithstanding all the hard¬
ships his soldiers sustained, reduced all Bactna under his
obedience, particularly the capital Bactria and the strong
castle Aornus: in the latter he placed a garrison under
the command of Archelaus} but the government of
the province he committed to Artabazus. He then
continued his march to the river Oxus : on the banks
of which, when he arrived, he found it three quarters
of a mile over, its depth more than proportionable to
its breadth, its bottom sandy, its stream so rapid as to
render it almost unnavigable, and neither boat nor tree
in its neighbourhood so that the ablest commandeis
in the Macedonian army were of opinion that they
should be obliged to march back, a he king, liowevei,
having first sent away, under a proper escort; all his
infirm and worn-out soldiers, that they might be con¬
ducted safe to the sea-ports, and from thence to Greece,
devised a method of passing this river without either
boat or bridge, by causing the hides which covered the
soldiers tents and carriages to be stuffed with straw, and
then tied together, and thrown into the river. Having
crossed the Oxus, he marched directly towards thecamp
of Bessus, where, when he arrived, he found it abandon¬
ed 5 but received at the same time letters from Spita-
menes and Dataphernes, who were the chief comman¬
ders under Bessus, signifying, that, if he would send a
small party to receive Bessus, they would deliver him
into his hands; which they did accordingly, and the
traitor was put to death in the manner related in the
history of Persia.
A supply of horses being now arrived, the Mace¬
donian cavalry were remounted. Alexander continued
his march to Maracanda the capital of Sogdia, from
whence he advanced to the river laxartes. Here he
performed great exploits against the Scythians 5 from
whom, however, though he overcame them, his army
suffered much \ and the revolted Sogdians being headed 9:
by Spitamenes, gave him a great deal of trouble. Here ^
he married Itoxana the daughter of Oxyartes, a prince j^oxana
of the country whom he had subdued. But during
these expeditions, the king greatly disgusted his army
by the murder of his friend Clytus in a drunken quarrel
at a banquet, and by his extravagant vanity in claim
ing divine honours. y.
At last he arrived at the river Indus, where Heph®-Passes
stion and Perdiccas had already provided a bridge of Indus
boats for the passage of the army. The king refreshed
his troops for 30 days in the countries on the other side
of the river, which were those of his friend and ally
Taxiles, who gave him 30 elephants, and joined his ar¬
my now with 700 Indian horse, to which, when they
•were to enter upon action, he afterwards added 5000
foot,
pi
MAC
t
Rfaeeion. foot. The true reason of this seems to have been his
u v 'enmity to Portis, a famous Indian prince whose terri¬
tories lay on the other side of the river Hydaspes.
Dui mg' this recess, the king sacrificed with great so¬
lemnity j receiving also ambassadors from Ambisurus
a. very potent prince, and from Uoxareas, who was
likewise a king in those parts, with tenders of their
duty, and considerable presents. ,lhese ceremonies over
Alexander appointed Philip governor of Taxila* and
put a Macedonian garrison into the place, because he
intended to erect an hospital there for the cure of his
sick and wounded soldiers. He then ordered the ves¬
sels, of which his bridge had been composed when he
passed the Indus, to be taken to pieces, that they might
be brought to the Hydaspes, where he was informed
that 1 orus with a great army lay encamped to hinder his
passage. When he approached the banks of this river
•with his army and the auxiliaries under the command
of laxiles, he found that the people he had to do with
were not so easily to be subdued as the Persians and
other Asiatics. 1 he Indians were not only a very tall
and robust, but also a very hardy and well disciplined
people j and their king Porus was a prince of high spirit,
invincible courage, and great conduct.
It was about the summer solstice when Alexander
I'eached the Hydaspes, and consequently its waters
were broader, deeper, and more rapid, than at any
other time ; for in India the rivers swell as the sun’s
increasing heat melts the snow, and subside again as
winter approaches. Alexander therefore had every dif¬
ficulty to struggle with. Porus had made his disposi¬
tions so judiciously, that Alexander found it impossible
to practise upon him as he had done upon others, and
to pass the river in his view : wherefore he was con¬
strained to divide his army into small parties, and to
practice other arts, in order to get the better of so vi¬
gilant a prince. I o this end he caused a great quan¬
tity of corn and other provisions to be brought into
his camp; giving out, that he intended to remain where
he was till the river fell, and by becoming fordable
should give him an opportunity of forcing a passage:
this did not, however, hinder Porus from keeping" up
very strict discipline in his camp ; which when Alex¬
ander perceived, he frequently made such motions as
seemed to indicate a change ot his resolution, and that
he had still thoughts of passing the river. The main
tiling the Macedonians stood in fear of were the ele¬
phants ; tor the bank being pretty steep on the other
side, and it being the nature of horses to start at the first
appearance of those animals, it was foreseen that the
army would be disordered, and incapable of sustaining
the charge of Porus’s troops.
At length Alexander passed the river by the follow-
ing contrivance. There was, at the distance of 150
stadia from his camp, a rocky promontory projecting
into the river, thick covered with wood ; and over-
against this promontory there lay a pretty large unin¬
habited island almost overgrown with trees. The king
therefore conceived within himself a project of convey¬
ing a body of troops from this promontory into that
island; and upon this scheme he built his hopes of sur¬
prising Porus, vigilant as he was. To this end he kept
liiin and his army constantly alarmed for many nights
together, till he perceived that Porus apprehended it
was only done to harass his troops, and therefore no
Vol. XII. Part I. f
Macedon.
9S
nil the
vdaspeg
ith diffi-
dty.
] M A c
longer drew out of his camp, but trusted to his ordi-
nary guards: then Alexander resolved to put his design
in execution. A considerable body of horse, the Ma¬
cedonian phalanx, with some corps of light-armed
root, he left in his camp under the command of Cra-
terus, as also the auxiliary Indians, giving these orders
to be observed in his absence, that if Porus marched*
against him with part of his army, and left another part
with the elephants behind in his camp, Craterus arid
his Ibrces should remain where they were ; but if it so
happened that Porus withdrew his elephants, then Cra¬
terus was to pass the river, because his cavalry might
then do it safely. Alexander having marched half the
way, or about nine of our miles, ordered the merce¬
nary troops under the command of Attalus and other
generals, to remain there ; and directed them, that as
soon as they knew he was engaged with the Indians
on the other side, they should pass in vessels provided
for that purpose, in order to assist him. Then march¬
ing a long way about, that the enemy might not per¬
ceive his design of reaching the rock, he advanced as
diligently as he could towards that post. It happened
very fortunately for him, that a great storm of thun¬
der, lightning, and hail, rose in the night, whereby
his march was perfectly concealed, his vessels of 30
oars put together, and his tents stuffed and stitched, so
that they passed from the rock into the island, without
being perceived, a little before break of day; the
storm ceasing just as he and his soldiers were ready for
their passage. When they had traversed the island, they
boldly set forward to gain the opposite shore in sight of
Porus’s outguards, who instantly posted away to give
their master an account of the attempt. Alexander
landed first himself, and was followed as expeditiously
ks possible by his forces, whom he took care to draw
up as fast as they arrived. When they began their
march again, they found that their good fortune was
not so great as at first they esteemed it; for it appeared
now, that they had not reached the continent at all, but
were in truth m another island much larger than the
lormer. They crossed it as fast as they could, and
found that it was divided from the terra firma by a
narrow channel, which, however, was so swelled by the
late heavy rain, that the poor soldiers were obliged to
wade up to the breast. When they were 011 the other
side, the king drew them up again carefully, ordering
the foot to march slowly, they being in number about
6000, while himself with 5000 horse advanced before*
As soon as Porus received intelligence that Alexander
was actually passing the river, he sent his son with 2000
horse and 120 armed chariots, to oppose him. But they
came too late: Alexander was already got on shore,
and even on his march.
When the Macedonian scouts perceived them ad- Tj,e 0f
vance, they informed the king, who sent a detachment Porus de-
to attack them, remaining still at the head of his ca- *'eatvd and
valry in expectation of Porus* But when he found
that this party was unsupported, he instantly attack¬
ed with all his horse, and defeated them with the
slaughter of many, and the loss of all their armed
chariots, the son of Porus being slain in the fight.
The remainder of the horse returning to the camp with
this disastrous account, Porus was in some confusion :
however, he took very quickly the best and wisest re¬
solutions his circumstances would allow : which were,
R r to
MAC [ 31
„ , „ tn leave a uartv of his army, with some of his elc-
oppose Craterus/who was now about to
pass the river also j and, with the rest, to march agamst
Alexander and his forces, who were already passed.
This resolution once taken, he marched innned -J
out of his camp at the head of 4000 horse, 3°>cgo
foot, 300 chariots, and 200 elephants. He advanced
as expeditiously as he could, till he came into a plum
■which was firm and sandy, where his chariots and c e-
phants might act to advantage : there he halted, tnat
he might put his army in order, knowing well t.iat he
need not go in quest of his enemy. A exander soon
came up with his horse, but he did not charge I orus j
on the contrary, he halted, and put Ins troops m or¬
der, that they might be able to defend themselves m
case they were attacked. When he had waited some
time his foot arrived *, whom he immediately surround¬
ed with his horse, that, after so fatiguing a march,
they might have time to cool and breathe themselves,
before they were led to engage. Porus permitted all
this, because it was not his interest to fight, and be¬
cause he depended chiefly upon his order of battle, the
elephants covering his foot, so that the Macedonians
9S could not charge them. _ . .
Porus him- When Alexander had disposed his foot m proper
self defeat- ort}er? iie placed his horse on the wings : and, observ-
ed' ing that he was much superior in them to the enemy,
and that the cavalry of Porus were easy to be charged,
he resolved to let the foot have as little share as possible
in the battle. To this end, having given the necessary
directions to Ccenus who commanded them, he went
himself to the right, and with great fury fell upon the
left wing of Porus. The dispute, though short, was
very bloody : the cavalry of Porus, though they fought
gallantly, were quickly broken } and the foot being bj
this means uncovered, the Macedonians charged them.
But the Indian horse rallying, came up to their reliel,
yet were again defeated. By this time the archers had
wounded many of the elephants, and killed most ot
their riders, so that they did not prove less troublesome
and dangerous to their own side than to the Macedo¬
nians } whence a great confusion ensued : and Ccenus,
taking; this opportunity, fell on w'lth the troops under
his command, and entirely defeated the Indian army.
Porus himself behaved with the greatest intrepidity,
and with the most excellent conduct: he gave his or¬
ders and directed every thing, as long as his troops
retained their form •, and when they were broken, he
retired from party to party as they made stands, and
continued fighting till every corps of Indians was put
to the rout. In the mean time Craterus had passed
with the rest of the Macedonian army 5 and these, fal¬
ling upon the flying Indians, increased the slaughter
of the day excessively, insomuch that 20,000 foot and
3000 horse were killed, all the chariots were hacked to
pieces, and the elephants not killed were taken 5 two
of Porus’s sons fell here, as also most of his officers of
all ranks.
As for Porus, Alexander gave strict directions that
no injury might be done to his person. he even sent
Taxiles to persuade him to surrender himself, and to
assure him that he should be treated with all the kind¬
ness and respect imaginable } but Porus, disdaining this
advice from the mouth of an old enemy, threw a jave¬
lin at him, and had killed him hut lor the quick turn
4 ] " MAC
of his horse. Meroe the Indian, who was also in the Macedon.
service of Alexander, succeeded better : he had been o—^
the old acquaintance of Porus j and therefore when he
entreated that prince to spare his person, and to submit ^
himself to fortune and a generis victor I on.s fo - iie^ubnut,
lowed his advice •, and we may truly say, that tuc ^
dition of this Indian king sufiered nothing by the loss
of the battle. Alexander immediately gave him hi=
liberty, restored him shortly alter to his kingdom, to
which he annexed provinces almost equal to it in va¬
lue. Neither was Alexander a loser by his mum li¬
cence j for Porus remained his true friend and con-
To perpetuate the memory of this victory, Alex¬
ander ordered two cities to be erected; one on the
field of battle, which he named hiccm; the other on
this side the river, which he called Buccphala, in ho¬
nour of his horse Bucephalus, who died here, as Ar¬
rian says, of mere old age being on the verge of
30 All the soldiers who fell m the battle, he buried
with great honours; offered solemn sacrifices to tiie
gods, and exhibited pompous shows on the banks m
the Hydaspes, where he had forced his passage. He
then entered the territories ot the Glaus*, m which
were 37 good cities, and a multitude ot populous villa¬
ges. All these were delivered up to him without light¬
ing ; and as soon as he received them, he presented
them to Porus; and having reconciled him to ^axiles,
he sent the latter home to his own dominions. About
this time ambassadors arrived from some Indian princes
with their submissions : and Alexander having con¬
quered the dominions of another Porus, which lay on
the Hydraotes, a branch of the Indus, added them to
those of Porus his ally.
In the middle of all this success, however, news
arrived, that the Cathei, Oxydrac*, and the Malh,
the most warlike nations of India, were confederated
against the Macedonians, and had drawn together a
great army. The king immediately marched to give
them battle; and in a few days reached a city called
Sanga/a, seated on the top ol a hill, and having a ^
fine lake behind it. Before this city the confederate Sanga|a
Indians lay encamped, having three circular lines ol taken,
carriages locked together, and their tents pitched 111
the centre. Notwithstanding the apparent difficulty
of forcing these intrenchments, Alexander resolved im¬
mediately to attack them. The Indians made a noble
defence ; but at last the first line of their carriages was
broken, and the Macedonians entered. The second
was stronger by far; yet Alexander attacked that
too, and after a desperate resistance forced it. I he
Indians, without trusting to the third, retired into the
city; which Alexander would have invested: but the
foot he had with him not being sufficient for that
purpose, he caused his works to be carried on both
sides as far as the lake ; and, on the other side of that,
ordered several brigades ol horse to take post ; oider-
ing also battering engines to be brought up, and in
some places employing miners. The second night, he
received intelligence that the besieged, knowing the
lake to he fordable, intended to make their escape
through it. Upon this the king ordered all the car¬
riages which had been taken in forcing their camp to
be placed up and down the roads, in hopes of hinder¬
ing their flight; giving directions to Ptolemy, who
commanded
MAC [ :
Macedon. commanded the horse on the other side of the lake, to
      be extremely vigilant, and to cause all his trumpets to
sound, that the forces might repair to that post where
the Indians made their greatest eftort. These pre¬
cautions had all the effect that could be desired : for
of the few Indians who got through the lake, and
passed the Macedonian horse, the greater part were
killed on the roads ; but the greatest part of their
army w'as constrained to retire again through the
water into the city. Two days after, the place was
taken by storm. Seventeen thousand Indians were
killed ; 70,000 taken prisoners ; with 300 chariots,
and 500 horse. The Macedonians are said to have
lost only 100 men in this siege j but they had 1200
wounded, and among these several persons of great
distinction.
The city was no sooner taken, than Alexander de¬
spatched Eurnenes his secretary, with a party of horse,
to acquaint the inhabitants of the cities adjacent with
what had befallen the Sangalans •, promising also, that
they should be kindly treated if they would submit.
But they were so much affrighted at what had happened
to their neighbours, that, abandoning all their cities,
they fled into the mountains j choosing rather to expose
themselves to wild beasts, than to these invaders, who
had ti'eated their countrymen so cruelly. When the
king was informed of this, he sent detachments of horse
and foot to scour the roads ; and these, finding aged,
infirm, and wounded people, to the number of about
9S 500, put them to the sword without mercy. Perceiv-
And razed, ing that it was impossible to persuade the inhabitants
to return, he caused the city of Saugala to be razed,
and gave the territories to the few Indians who had
submitted to him.
Alexander, still unsated with conquest, now pre¬
pared to pass the Hyphasis. The chief reason which
induced him to think of this expedition was, the in¬
formation he had received of the state of the countries
beyond that river. He wars told that tbev were in
themselves rich and fruitful ; that their inhabitants
were not only a very martial people, but very civilized ;
that they were governed by the nobility, who were
themselves subject to the laws 5 and that as they lived
in happiness and freedom, it was likely they would
fight obstinately in defence of those blessings. He
was farther told, that among these nations there were
the largest, strongest, and most useful elephants bred
and tamed ; and was therefore fired with an earnest
desire to reduce such a bold and brave people under
his rule, and of attaining to the possession of the many
valuable things that were said to be amongst them.
As exorbitant, however, as his personal ambition was,
he found it impossible to infuse any part of it into the
minds of his soldiers : who were so far from wishing:
to triumph over new and remote countries, that they
^ were highly desirous of leaving those that they had
Alexander’sa^ready conquered. When therefore they were in-
Jroops re- formed of the king’s intentions, they privately con-
suited together in the camp about the situation of
^aer. ^ their own affairs. At this consultation, the gravest
and best of the soldiers lamented that they were made
use of by their king, not as lions, who fall fiercely
upon those who have injured them j but as mastiffs
who fly upon and tear those who are pointed out to
them as enemies. The rest were net so modest; but
*5 j M A G
expressed themselves roundly against the king’s humour Maeedon
tor leading them from battle to battle, from siege to ——v--—
siege, and from river to river 5 protesting that^they
would follow him no further, nor lavish away their lives
any longer, to purchase fame for him.
Alexander was a man of too much penetration not
to be early in perceiving that his troops were very
uneasy. He therefore harangued them from his tri¬
bunal j but though his eloquence was great, and the
love his army had for him was yet very strong, they
did not relent. I or some time the soldiers remained
sullen and silent ^ and at last turned their eyes on Coe-
nus, an old and experienced general, whom Alexander
loved, and in whom the army put great confidence. 
He had the generosity to undertake their cause ; and
told Alexander frankly, “ That men endured toil in
hopes of repose j that the Macedonians v>ere already
much reduced in their numbers ; that of those who
remained, the greater part were invalids ; and that
they expected, in consideration of their former ser¬
vices, that he would now lead them back to their na¬
tive country : an act w-hich, of all others, would most
contribute to his own great designs ; since it would
encourage the youth of Macedon, and even of all
Greece, to follow him in whatever new expedition he
pleased to undertake.” The king was far from being
pleased with this speech of Coenus, and much less with
the disposition of his army, which continued in a deep
silence. He therefore dismissed the assembly : but
next day he called another, wherein he told the sol¬
diers plainly, that he would not be driven from his
purpose ; that he would proceed in his conquests with
such as should follow him voluntarily ; as for the rest,
he would not detain them, but would lea\e them at
liberty to go home to Macedon, where they might
publish, “ that they had left their king in the midst
of h is enemies.” Even this expedient had no success ;
his army was so thoroughly tired with long marches and
desperate battles, that they were determined to go no
further, either for fair speeches or foul. Upon this
Alexander retired to his tent, where he refused to see
his friends, and put on the same gloomy temper that
reigned among his troops. For three days things
remained in this situation. At last the king,suddenly
appeared j and, as if he had been fully determined to
pursue his first design, he gave orders for sacrificing
for the good success of his new undertaking. Ari-
stander the augur reported, that the omens were al¬
together inauspicious j upon which the king said, that
since his proceeding fai’ther was neither pleasing to
the gods, nor grateful to his army, he would return. r
When this was rumoured among the army, they as-ijecon-
sembled in great numbers about the royal tent, salut- seats to
ing the king with loud acclamations, wishing himreturn-
success in all his future designs ; giving him at the
same time hearty thanks, for that “ he who was in¬
vincible had suffered himself to be overcome by their
prayers.”
A stop being thus put to the conquests of Alexan¬
der, he determined to make the Hyphasis the boun¬
dary of his dominions j and having erected twelve
altars of an extraordinary magnitude, he sacrificed
on them: after which he exhibited shows in the
Grecian manner ; and, having added all the conquered
country in these parts to the dominions of Porus, he
R r 2 began
MAC [3
jyfacedon. began to return. Having arrived at the Hydaspes,
x—I-V——' he made the necessary preparations for sailing down
101 the Indus into the ocean. For this purpose, he or-
Sails down dered vas(. quantities of timber to he felled in the
the Indus. • hbourho0(1 0f the Hydaspes, through which he
was to sail into the Indus 5 he caused the vessels with
which he had passed other rivers to be brought thi¬
ther, and assembled a vast number of artificers capable
of repairing and equipping his fleet j which, when
finished, consisted of 80 vessels of three banks ot oars,
and 2000 lesser ships and transports. Those who were
to manage this fleet were collected out from the Phoe¬
nicians, Cyprians, Carians, and Egyptians following
his army, and who were reckoned perfectly well skilled
in the naval art. When all things were ready, the
army embarked about break of day ; the king, in the
mean time, sacrificed to the gods according to the
ceremonies used in his own country, and likewise ac¬
cording to those of the country where he now was.
Then he himself went on board ; and causing the sig¬
nal to be given by sound of trumpet, the fleet set sail.
Craterus and Hephaestion had marched some days be¬
fore with another division of the army j and in time
days the fleet reached that part of the river which was
opposite to their camps. Here he had information,
that the Oxydracse and Malli rverc raising forces to
oppose him •, upon Avhich he immediately determined
to reduce them ; for, during this voyage, he mad.e it
a rule to compel the inhabitants on both sides of the
river to yield him obedience. But before he amved
on the coasts of the people above mentioned, he him¬
self sustained no small danger 5 for, coming to the
confluence of the Acesines with the Hydaspes, from
whence both rivers roll together into the Indus, the
eddies, whirlpools, and rapid currents, rushing with
tremendous noise from the respective channels ot those
rivers into the great one formed by them both, at
once terrified those who navigated his vessels, and ac¬
tually destroyed many of the long vessels, with all who
were aboard* of them j the king himself being in some
danger, and Nearchus the admiral not a little at a loss.
As soon as this danger Avas over, Alexander Avent on
shore ; and having ordered his elephants with some
troops of horse and archers to be carried across, and
put under the command of Craterus, he then divided
his army on the left-hand bank into three bodies ; the
first commanded by himself, the second by Ileplim-
stion, and the third by Ptolemy. Hephaestion had
orders to move silently through the heart of the coun¬
try, five days march before the king 5 that if, on
Alexander’s approach, any of the barbarians should
attempt to shelter themselves by retiring into the
country, they might fall into the hands of Hephoe-
stion. Ptolemy Lagus was ordered to march three
days journey behind the king, that if any escaped his
army, they might fall into Ptolemy’s hands •, and the
fleet had orders to stop at the confluence of this river
with the Hydraotes till such time as these several corps
should arrive.
Alexander himself, at the head of a body of horse
Mu against and light armed foot, marched through a desert
the Malli. country against the Malli; and, scarce affording any
rest to his soldiers, arrived in three days at a city into
which the barbarians had put their Avives and children,
with a good garrison for their defence. The country
102
His expedi¬
tion against'
16 ] MAC
people, having no notion that Alexander would march Macedor
through such a desert and barren region, were all un- 1 /—*■
armed, and in the utmost confusion. Many of them
therefore were slain in the field ; the rest fled into the
city, and shut the gates. But this only protracted
their fate for a short time 5 for the king, having or¬
dered the city to be invested by his cavalry, took it,
as well as the castle, by storm, and put all he found
there to the sword. He sent at the same time Per-
diccas Avith a considerable detachment, to invest an¬
other city of the Malli at a considerable distance ; but
Avhen he came there he found it abandoned. Hoav-
ever, he pursued the inhabitants, who had but lately
left it, and killed great numbers of them on the road.
After this the king took several other cities, but not
Avithout considerable resistance •, for the Indians some¬
time chose to burn themselves in their houses rather
than surrender. At last he marched to their capital
citv and finding that abandoned, he proceeded to
the river Hydraotes, Avhere he found 50,000 men
encamped on the opposite bank, in order to dispute^
his passage. He did not hesitate, however, to enter
the river Avith a considerable party of horse : and so
much Avere the Indians terrified at his presence, that
their Avhole army retired before him. In a short time
they returned and attacked him, being ashamed to fly
before such an inconsiderable number; but in the
mean time the vest of the Macedonian forces came up*
and the Indians were obliged to retire to a city Avhich
lay behind them, and which Alexander invested that
very night. The next day he stormed the city Avith
such violence, that the inhabitants were compelled
to abandon it, and to retire to the castle, where
they prepared for an obstinate defence. The king
instantly gave orders for scaling the AA7alls, and the
soldiers prepared to execute these orders as fast as
they could ; but the king being impatient, caught hold
of a ladder and mounted it first himself, being followed
by Leonatus, Peucestas, and Abreas, the latter a man
of great valour, and aaIio on that account had double
pay allowed him. The king having gained the top
of the battlements, cleared them quickly of the defend- I0,
ants, killing some of them Avith his SAVord, and push- uis despe-
ing others over the walls : but after this was done, he rate vakra-
Avas in more danger than evrer ) for the Indians galled and
him Avith their arroAvs from the adjacent towers,
though they durst not come near enough to engage
him. His oAvn battalion of targeteers mounting in
haste to second him, broke the ladders j which, as
soon as Alexander perceived, he threrv himself down
into the castle, as did also Peucestas, Leonatus, and
Abreas. As soon as the king was on the ground, the
Indian general rushed forAvard to attack him ; but
Alexander instantly despatched him, as Avell as several
others who followed him. Upon this the rest retired,
and contented themselves Avith throAving dartar and
stones at him at a distance. Abreas was struck into
the head Avith an arrow, and died on the spot; and,
shortly after, another pierced through the king’s breast¬
plate into his body. As long as be had spirits, he
defended himself valiantly ; but, through a vast effusion
of blood, losing his senses, he fell upon his shield.
Peucestas then covered him Avith the sacred shield of
Pallas on one side, as did Leonatus with his OAArn
shield on the other, though they themselves were
dreadfully
MAC [ 3
Macedon. dreaclfuliy wounded. In the mean time, however, the
soldiers on the outside, eager to save their king, ’sup-
nlien fneir want nf lorlrloi-o  i . ° ,r
7 ]
MAC
Is Withdif- r1'011 ";ant °f ladllers. i'y driving large iron pins'
fall ,"t0 ^ wal!s- By '«=1P of the.fe many of them
saved by
]iis men.
ascended, and came'to the assistance of Alexander and
his companions. The Indians were now slaughtered
without mercy ; but Alexander continued for some time
in a very dangerous way: however, he at last recover-
ed his strength, and showed himself again to his army,
which lilied them with the greatest jov.
The Malh, being now convinced that nothing but
submission could save the remainder of them, sent de¬
puties to Alexander, offering the dominion of their
country; as did also the Oxydracac: and the king
He pro.- !ia7-ng SCtt!ed eVery thing in. t!icse countries agreeable
iceeds in his 0 113 proceeded on his voyage down the river
Indus. In this voyage he received the submission of
ios
He pro.-
voyage
down the
Indus.
some other Indian princes 5 and perceivino-, that
at
I io5
‘ out for
4 yion.
the point of the island Pattala, the river divided itself
into two vast branches, he ordered an haven and con¬
venient docks to be made there for bis ships; and
when he had careened his fleet, he sailed down the
right-hand branch towards the ocean. In his passage
he sustained great difficulties by reason of his want of
pilots, and at the mouth of the river very narrowly
missed being cast away : yet all this did not hinder
him trom pursuing bis first design, though it does not
appear that lie had any other motive thereto than the
vain desire of boasting that he had entered the ocean
beyond the Indus: for, having consecrated certain
iiulis to Neptune, and thrown them into the sea,
performed certain libations of golden cups, and
thrown the cups also into the sea, he came hack
again ; having only surveyed two little islands, one
at the mouth of the Indus, and one a little farther in
the ocean.
On the king’s return to Pattala, he resolved to sail
own the other branch of the Indus, that he might
see whether it was more safe and commodious for his
fleet than that which he had already tried ; and for
this he had very good reasons. He had resolved to
send Nearchus with his fleet by sea, through the
Persian gulf up the river Tigris, to meet him and
ms army m Mesopotamia; hut as the possibility of
this voyage depended on the ceasing of the Etesian
wincb, there was a necessity of laying up the fleet till
the season should prove favourable'. Alexander, there¬
fore sailing through this branch of the Indus, sought
on the sea coast for hays and creeks, where his fleet
nngnt anchor in safety ; he caused also pits to be
shuk which might he filled with fresh water for the
use of Ins people ; and took all imaginable precautions
mr preserving them in ease and safety till the season
would allow them to continue their voyage. In this
he succeeded to his wish ; for he found this branch of
the river Indus, at its mouth, spread over the plain
country, and forming a kind of lake, wherein a fleet
might ride with safety. He therefore appointed Leo-
natus, and a part of his army, to carry on such works
as were necessary: causing them to be relieved by
resh troops as often as there was occasion ; then hav¬
ing given his last instructions to Nearchus, he de¬
parted with the rest of the army, in order to march
hack to Babylon.
Before the king’s departure, many of his friends
advised him against the route which 'he intended to vr ,
take. They told him, that nothing could be more rash IaC°don^
or dangerous than this resolution. They acquainted
mm, that the country through which he was to travel
«cis a wild uncultivated desert; that Semiramis, when
she Jed her soldiers this way out of Ind.a, brought
home but 20 of them ; and that Cyrus, attempting
to do the same, returned with only seven. But all this
was so Jar from deterring Alexander, that it more
than ever determined him to pursue no other road. As
soon therefore, as he had put things in order, he
marched at the head of a sufficient body of troops to
i educe the Ontae, who had never vouchsafed either to
make their submission or to court his friendship. Their
territories lay on the other side of a river called Ara-
fzyj wh,ich Akxander crossed so speedily, that they
i.u no intelligence ol his march ; whereupon most of
them quitted their country, and fled into the deserts.
I heir capital he found so well situated, that he resolv¬
ed to take it out of their hands, and to cause a new
and noble city to he founded there, the care of which
he committed to Hephsestion. Then he received the
deputies of the Oritae and Gedrosi; and having assured
them, that if the people returned to their villages, they
should he kindly treated, and having appointed Apol-
lophenes president of the Oritae, and left a considerable
body of troops under Leonatus to secure their obe¬
dience, he began his march through Gedrosia. In-this
march lus troops suflered incredible hardships. The His ^an-
road was very uncertain and troublesome, on accountgerous
of its lying through deep and loose sands, risingin many mai'c]l
places into hillocks, which forced the soldiers°to climb, pr^ug1}
H-t the same time that it sunk under their feet j there
were no towns, villages, nor places of refreshment, to
be met with; so that, after excessive marches, they were
lorced to encamp among these dry sands. As to pro¬
visions, they hardly met with any during their whole
march. The soldiers were therefore obliged to kill their
beasts of carriage; and such as were sent to bring some
corn from the sea side, rvere so grievously distressed,
that, though it rvas sealed with the king’s signet, they
cut open the bags, choosing rather to die a violent death
for disobedience than perish by hunger. When the
king, however, was informed of this, he freely par¬
doned the offenders ; he was also forced to accept
the excuses that were daily made for the loss of
mules, horses, &c. which were in truth eaten by the
soldiers, and their carriages broken in pieces to avoid
further trouble. As for water, their want of it was
a great misfortune ; and yet their finding it in plenty
was sometimes a greater : for, as by the first they
perished with thirst, so by the latter they were hurst, ,
thrown into dropsies, and rendered incapable of travel.
Frequently they met with no water for the whole day
together: sometimes they were disappointed of it at
night; in which case, if they were able, they marched
on ; so that it was common with them to travel 30,
40, 50, or even 60 miles without encamping. Nl...
hers through these hardships were obliged to lag in the
rear; and of these many were left behind, and perish¬
ed ; for indeed scarce any ever joined the army again.
Their miseries, however, they sustained with incre¬
dible patience, being encouraged by the example of
their king; who, on this occasion, suffered greater
hardships than the meanest soldier in his army. At last
they
Macedon.
10S
He arrives
in Carama-
nia.
109
'Redresses
tbe grie¬
vances of
his people
MAC [ 31
they arrived at the capital of Gedrosia, where they re¬
freshed themselves, and staid some time : after which
they marched into Caramama 5 which being a very plen
tiful country, they there made themselves ample amends
for the hardships and fatigues they had sustained. Here
they were joined first by Craterus with the troops un¬
de/ his command, with a number of elephants : then
came Stasanor president of the Arlans, and Pharismanes
the son of Phrataphernes governor of Partlna. Hiev
brought with them camels, horses, and other beasts 0
burden, in vast numbers j having foreseen, that the
kine-’s march through Gedrosia would be attended with
the loss of the greatest part, if not of all the cavalry
and beasts belonging to his army.
During Alexander’s stay in Caramama, he redressed
the injuries of his people, who had been grievously op¬
pressed by their governors during his absence. Heie
also he was joined by his admiral Nearchus, who
brought him an account that all under his command
were in perfect safety, and in excellent condition ;
with which the king was mightily pleased, and, artei
having bestowed on him singular marks ol Ins favour,
sent him back to the navy. Alexander next set out tor
Persia, where great disorders had been committed du¬
ring his absence. These also he redressed, and cause
the governor to be crucified ; appointing in his room
Peucestas, who saved his life when he fought singly
against a whole garrison as above related. The new
governor was no sooner invested with his dignity, than
he laid aside the Macedonian garb, and put on that ci
the Medesj being the only one of Alexander’s captains,
who, by complying with the manners of the people he
governed, gained their affection.
While Alexander visited the different parts of Per¬
sia, he took a view, among the rest, of the ruins ol Per-
sepolis, where he is said to have expressed great soi-
row for the destruction he had formerly occasioned.
Prom Persepolis he marched to Susa, where he gave
an extraordinary loose to pleasure ”, resolving to make
himself and his followers some amends for the difficul¬
ties they had hitherto undergone : purposing at the
same time so effectually to unite his new conquered
with his hereditary subjects, that the jealousies and
fears which had hitherto tormented both, should no
longer subsist. With this view he married two wives
of the blood royal of Persia ; viz.. Barsine, or Statira,
the daughter of Darius, and Parysatis the daughter
of Ochus. Drypetis, another daughter ol Darius, he
gave to Hepluestion ^ Amastrine, the daughter ol Oxy-
artes the brother of Darius, married Craterns •, and
to the rest of his friends, to the number of 80, lie gave
other women of the greatest quality. All these mar¬
riages were celebrated at once, Alexander himself be¬
stowing fortunes upon them ; he directed likewise to
take account of the number of his officers and soldiers
who had married Asiatic wives 5 and though they ap¬
peared to he 10,000, yet he gratified each of them ac-
i-avs me cording to his rank. He next resolved to pay the debts
debts of bis of his army, and thereupon issued an edict directing
every man to register his name and the sum he owed *,
with which the soldiers complying slowly, from an ap¬
prehension that there was some design against them,
Alexander ordered tables heaped with money to he set
in alt quarters of the camp, and caused every man’s
4ebts to he paid on his bare word, without even
g j M A C
making any entry of his name : though the whole sum MitcctfJl
came to 20,000 talents. On such as had distinguished  
themselves in an extraordinary manner, he bestowed
crowns of gold. Peucestas had the first*, Lecnatus
the second'*, Nearchus the third 5 Onesicntus the
fourth ; Hephsestion the fifth 5 and the rest of his
guards had each of them one. After this he made
other dispositions for conciliating, as be supposed the
differences among all his subjects. He reviewed the
20,000 youths, whom at his departure for India he had
ordered to be taught Greek and the Macedonian dis¬
cipline ; expressing high satisfaction at the fine appear¬
ance they made, which rendered them worthy oi the
appellation he bestowed on them, viz. that of bpigom,
i. e. successors. He promoted also, without any dis ¬
tinction of nation, all those who had served him laith-
fully and valiantly in the Indian war. W hen all these
regulations were made, he gave the command of his
heavy-armed troops to Heplnestion, and ordered him
to march directly to the banks of the Tigris, while m
the mean time a fleet was equipped for carrying the
king and the troops he retained with him down to the
no
Marries
other two
wives.
in
Pays the
Thus ended the exploits of Alexander *, the greatest
conqueror that ever the world saw, at least with re¬
spect to the rapidity of his conquests. In 12 years
time he had brought under his subjection Egypt,
Libya, Asia Minor, Syria, Phoenicia, Palestine, Ba¬
bylonia, Persia, with part of India and 1 artary. StiL,
however, he meditated greater things. He had now
got a great taste in maritime affairs j and is said to
have meditated a voyage to the coasts of Arabia and
Ethiopia, and thence round the whole continent oi
Africa to the straits of Gibraltar. But of this there
is no o-reat certainty: though that he intended to sub¬
due the Carthaginians and Italians, is more than pro¬
bable. All these designs, however, were frustrated by
his death, which happened at Babylon m 323 B. C.
He is said to have received several warnings of his ap¬
proaching fate, and to have been advised to avoid that
city : which advice he either despised or could not tol- nj
low. He died of a fever after eight days illness, with'pje dies
out naming any successor ; having only given his ring Babylon
to Perdiccas, and left the kingdom, as he said, to the
most worthy. . 113
The character of this great prince has been various-IIisc)iar
ly represented 3 but most historians seem to have look-ter.
ed upon him rather as an illustrious madman than one
upon whom the epithet of Great could be properly be¬
stowed. From a careful observation of his conduct,
however, it must appear, that he possessed not only a
capacity to plan, but likewise to execute, the greatest
enterprises that ever entered into the mind of any of
the human race. From whatever cause the notion
originated, it is plain that he imagined himself a divine
person, and born to subdue the whole world : and ex¬
travagant and impracticable as this scheme may appeal
at present, it cannot at all he looked upon in the same
light in the time of Alexander. The Greeks were in
his time the most powerful people in the world in re¬
spect to their skill in the military art, and the Persians
were the most powerful with respect to wealth and
numbers. The only other powerful people in the
world were the Carthaginians, Gauls, and Italian na¬
tions. From a long series of wars which the Cartha¬
ginians
M A C
Macedon. g’m'aDS earned on in Sicily, it appeared that they
1—^ /were by no means capable of contending with the
Gi eeks, even when they had an immense superiority of
numbers ; much less then could they have sustained
an attack from the whole power of Greece and Asia
united. The Gauls and Italians were indeed very
brave, and of a martial disposition ; but they were bar¬
barous, and could not have resisted armies well dis¬
ciplined and under the command of such a skilful
leader as Alexander. Even long after this time, it ap¬
peared that the Homans themselves could not have
resisted the Greeks; since Regulus, after having de¬
feated the Carthaginians and reduced them to the ut¬
most distress, was totally unable to resist a Carthagi¬
nian army commanded by a Greek general, and guided
by Greek discipline.
T-hus it appears, that the scheme of Alexander can¬
not by any means be accounted that of a madman, or
ol one who projects gr^at things without judgment or
means to execute them. It we consider from his ac¬
tions the end which most probably he had in view,
could his scheme have been accomplished, we shall find
it not only the greatest but the best that can possibly
be imagined. He did not conquer to destroy, enslave,
or oppress ; but to civilize and unite the whole world
as one nation. No sooner w7as a province conquered
than he took care of it as if it had been part of his
paternal inheritance. He allowed not his soldiers to
oppress and plunder the Persians, which they were
very much inclined to do } on the contrary, by giving
into the oriental customs himself, he strove to extinguish
that inveterate hatred which had so long subsisted be¬
tween the two nations. In the Scythian countries
which he subdued, he pursued the same excellent plan.
His courage and military skill, :n which he never was
excelled, were displayed, not with a view to rapine or
desultory conquest, but to civilize and induce the bar¬
barous inhabitants to employ themselves in a more pro¬
per way of life. “ Midst the hardships of a military
life (says Hr Gillies), obstinate sieges, bloody battles,
and dear bought victories, he still respected the rights
of mankind, and practised the mild virtues of huma¬
nity. The conquered nations enjoyed their ancient
laws and privileges j the rigours of despotism were soft¬
ened 5 arts and industry encouraged j and the proudest
Macedonian governors compelled, by the authority and
example ot Alexander, to observe the rules of justice
towards their meanest subjects. To bridle the fierce
inhabitants oi the Scythian plains, he founded cities
and established colonies on the banks of the laxartes
and Oxus j and those destructive campaigns usually
ascribed to his restless activity, and blind ambition,
appeared to the discernment of this extraordinary man
not only essential to the security of the conquests
which he had already made, but necessary for the more
remote and splendid expeditions which he still pur¬
posed to undertake, and which he performed with
singular boldness and unexampled success.” In an¬
other place, the same author gives his character in the
following words.
“ He was of a low stature, and somewhat deform¬
ed ; but the activity and elevation of his mind ani¬
mated and ennobled his frame. By a life of continual
labour, and by an early and habitual practice of the
gymnastic exercises, he had hardened his body against
M A C
the impressions of cold and heat, hunger and tlirist, Macedon.
and prepared his robust constitution for bearing such i—--v -
t xcitions ol strength and activity, as have appeared
incredible to the undisciplined softness of modern times.
In generosity and in prowess, he rivalled the greatest
heroes ol antiquity ; and in the race of glory, having
finally outstripped all competitors, became ambitious
to surpass himself. His superior skill in wrar gave un¬
interrupted success to his arms 5 and his natural hu¬
manity, enlightened by the philosophy of Greece,
taught him to improve his conquests to the best inte¬
rests ot mankind. In his extensive dominions he built
or founded not less than 70 cities ; the situation of
w hich being chosen with consummate wisdom, tended
to facilitate communication, to promote commerce,
and to diffuse civility through the greatest nations of
the earth. It may be suspected, indeed, that he mis¬
took the extent of human power, when in the course
of one reign he undertook to change the face of the
world : and that he miscalculated the stubbornness of
ignorance and the force of habit, when he attempted
to enlighten barbarism, to soften servitude, and to-
transplant the improvements of Greece into an Afri¬
can and Asiatic soil, where they have never been
known to flourish. Aetlet not the designs of Alex¬
ander be too hastily accused of extravagance. Who¬
ever seriously considers what he actually performed be¬
fore his 33d year, wfill be cautious of determining what
lie might have accomplished had he reached the ordi¬
nary term of human life. His resources w ere peculiar
to himself; and such views as well as actions became
him as would have become none besides. In the lan¬
guage of a philosophical historian, ‘ he seems to have
been given to the world by a peculiar dispensation of
Providence, being a man like to none other of the hu¬
man kind.”
“ From the part which his father Philip and him¬
self acted in the affairs of Greece, his history has been
transmitted through the impure channels of exagge¬
rated flattery, or malignant envy. The innumerable
fictions which disgrace the works of his biographers,
are contradicted by the most authentic accounts of his
reign, and inconsistent with those public transactions
which concurring authorities confirm. In the present
work it seemed unnecessary to expatiate on such topics,
since it is less the business of histox-y to repeat or even
to expose errors than to select and impress useful truths.
An author, ambitious of attaining that pui-pose, can
seldom indulge the language of general panegyric.
He will acknowledge, that Alexander’s actions were
not always blamelesshut, after the most careful ex¬
amination, he will affirm, that his faults were few in
number, and resulted from his situation rather than
from his character.
“ From the first years of his reign he experienced the
crimes of disaffection and treachery, which multiplied
and became xnore dangerous with the extent of his
dominions and the difficulty to govern them. Sevei'al
of his lieutenants early aspired at independence } others
formed conspiracies against the life of their master.
The first criminals were treated wuth a lenity becom¬
ing the generous spii’it of Alexander : but when
Philotas, the son of Parnienio, and even Parmenio
himself, afforded reason to suspect their fidelity j when
the Macedonian youths, who, according to the insti¬
tution
1 3<9 ]
t 3
Maced on.
MAC
tutxoil of Philip, guarded the royal pavilion, prepared
to murder their sovereign, he found it necessary to de¬
part from his lenient system, and to hold with a firmer
hand the reins of government. Elated by unexampled
prosperity, and the submissive reverence of vanquished
nations, his loftiness disgusted the pride of his Euro¬
pean troops, particularly the Macedonian nobles, who
had been accustomed to regard themselves rather as
his companions than subjects. The pretensions which
sound policy taught him to form and to maintain, of
being treated with those external honours ever claim¬
ed by the monarehs of the East, highly offended the
religious prejudices of the Greeks, who deemed it im¬
pious to prostrate the body or bend the knee to any
mortal sovereign. Yet had he remitted formalities
consecrated by the practice of ages, he must insensibly
have lost the respect of his Asiatic subjects. With a
view to reconcile the discordant principles of the vic¬
tors and vanquished, he affected an immediate descent
from Jupiter Ammon, a claim liberally admitted by the
avarice or fears of the Libyan priests; and which, he
had reason to expect, could not be very obstinately
denied by the credulity of the Greeks and Macedo¬
nians ; who universally acknowledged that Philip, his
reputed father, was remotely descended from the Gre¬
cian Jupiter. But the success of this design, which
might have entitled him, as a son of Jupiter, to the
same obeisance from the Greeks which the barbarians
; readily paid him as monarch of the East, was counter¬
acted, at first by the secret displeasure, and afterwards
by the open indignation, of several of his generals and
courtiers. Nor did the conduct of Alexander tend to
extricate him from this difficulty. With his friends
he maintained that equal intercourse of visits and en¬
tertainments which characterized the Macedonian man¬
ners ; indulged the liberal flow of unguarded conver¬
sation ; and often exceeded that intemperance in wine
which disgraced his age and country.”
We shall conclude this character of Alexander with
observing, that he had in view, and undoubtedly must
have accomplished, the ■sovereignty of the ocean as well
as of the land. The violent resistance made by the
Tyrians had shown him the strength of a commercial
nation •, and it was undoubtedly with a view to enrich
his dominions by commerce, that he equipped the fleet
on the Indus, and wished to keep up a communication
with India by sea as well as by land. “ It was chiefly
with a view to the former of these objects (says Dr Ro¬
bertson), that he examined the navigation of the Indus
with so much attention. With the same view, on his
return to Susa, he in person surveyed the course of the
Euphrates and Tigris, and gave directions to remove
the cataracts or dams with which the ancient mojiarchs
of Persia, induced by a peculiar precept of their reli¬
gion, which enjoined them to guard with the utmost
care against defiling any of the elements, had construct¬
ed near the mouths of tliesc rivers, in order to shut out
their subjects from any access to the ocean. By open¬
ing the navigation in this manner, he proposed that the
valuable commodities of India should be conveyed from
the Persian gulf into the interior parts of his Asiatic do-
. minions, while by the Arabian gulf they should he car¬
ried to Alexandria, and distributed to the rest of the
world.
“ Grand and extensive as these schemes were, the
20 ] M A C
precautions employed, and the arrangements made for Maccdon,
carrying them into execution, were so various and so1
proper, that Alexander had good reason to entertain
sanguine hopes of their proving successful. At the time
when the mutinous spirit of his soldiers obliged him to
relinquish his operations in India, he was not 30 jcai'S
of age complete. At this enterprising period of life, a
prince of a spirit so active, persevering, and indefati¬
gable, must have soon found means to resume a favour¬
ite measure on which he had been long intent. If he
had invaded India a second time, he would not, as for¬
merly, have been obliged to force his way through hos¬
tile and-unexplored regions, opposed at every step by
nations and tribes of barbarians whose names had never
x-eached Greece. All Asia, from the shores of the Io¬
nian sea to the banks of the Hypbasis, would then have
been subject to his dominion *, and through that im¬
mense stretch-of country he had established such a chain
of cities or fortified stations, that his armies might have
continued their march with safety, and have found a
regular succession of magazines provided for their sub¬
sistence. Nor would it have been difficult for him to
bring into the field forces sufficient to have achieved the
conquest of a country o populous and extensive as In¬
dia. Having armed and disciplined his subjects in the
east like Europeans, they would have been ambitious
to imitate and to equal their instructors; and Alexan¬
der might have drawn recruits, not from his scanty do¬
mains in Macedonia and Greece, but from the vast re¬
gions of Asia, which in every age has covered the
earth, and astonished mankind with its numerous ar¬
mies. When at the head of such a formidable power
he had reached the confines of India, he might have
entered it under circumstances very different from those
in his first expedition. He had secured a firm footing
there, partly by means of the garrisons which he left in
the three cities which he had built and fortified, and
partly by bis alliance with Taxiles and Porus. Ihese
two Indian princes, won by Alexander’s humanity and
beneficence, which, as they were virtues seldom dis¬
played in the ancient mode of carrying on war, excited
of course a higher degi’ee of admiration and gratitude,
had continued steady in their attachment to the Alace-
donians. Reinforced by their troops, and guided by
their information as well as by the experience which he
had acquired in his former campaigns, Alexander must
have i*ade rapid progress in a country where every in-
• vadcr from his time to the present age has proved suc¬
cessful.
“ But this and all his other splendid schemes were
terminated at once by his untimely death. In eon-
sequence of that, however, events took place which il¬
lustrate and confirm the justness of the preceding specu¬
lations and conjectures, by evidence the most striking
and satisfactory. When that great empire, which the
superior genius of Alexander had kept united and in
subjection, no longer felt his superintending controul,
it broke into pieces, and its various provinces were
seized by his principal officers, and parcelled out among
them. From ambition, emulation, and personal animo¬
sity, they soon turned their arms against one another j
and as several of the leaders were equally eminent for
political abilities and for military skill, the contest was
maintained long, and carried on with frequent vicissi¬
tudes of fortune. Amidst the various convulsions and
revolutions
”4
Causes of
the dissolu
tion of his
empire.
M A C [ -
Macedon. 1'evolutions which these occasioned, it was found that
''—'Y——' the measures of Alexander for the preservation of his
conquests had been concerted with such sagacity, that
upon the final restoration of tranquillity, the Macedo¬
nian dominion continued to be established in every part
of Asia, and not one province had shaken off the yoke,
tven India, the most remote of Alexander’s-conquests,
quietly submitted to Python the son of Agenor, and af¬
terwards to Seleucus, who successively obtained domi¬
nion over that part of Asia. Porus and Taxiles, not¬
withstanding the death of their benefactor, neither de¬
clined submission to the authority of the Macedonians,
nor made any attempt to recover independence,”
With the death of Alexander fell also the glory of
the Macedonians ; who very soon relapsed into a situ¬
ation, as bad, or worse, than that in which they had
been before the reign of Philip. This was occasioned
principally by his not having distinctly named a suc¬
cessor, and having no child of his own come to the
years of discretion to whom the kingdom might seem
naturally to belong. The ambition'and jealousy of his
mother Olympias, his queen Roxana, and especially of
the great commanders of his army, not only prevented
a successor from being ever named, but occasioned the
death of every person, whether male or female, who
was in the least related to Alexander. To have a just
notion of the origin of these disturbances, it is necessary
in the first place to understand the situation of the Ma¬
cedonian affairs at the time of Alexander’s death.
When Alexander set out for Asia, he left Antipater,
as we formerly observed, in Macedon, to prevent any
disturbances that might arise either there or in Greece.
The Greeks, even during the lifetime of Alexander,
bore the superiority which he exercised over them with
great impatience ^ and, though nothing could be more
gentle than the government of Antipater, yet he was
exceedingly hated, because he obliged them to be quiet.
One of the last actions of Alexander’s life set all Greece
in a flame. He had, by an edict, directed all the cities
ol Greece to recal their exiles; which edict, when it
was published at the Olympic games, created much con¬
fusion. Many of the cities were afraid, that, when the
exiles returned, they would change the government;
most of them doubted their own safety, if the edict took
place ; and all ot them held this peremptory decree to
be a total abolition of their liberty. No sooner, there¬
fore, did the news of Alexander’s death arrive than
they prepared for war.
. In Asia the state of things was not much better; not
indeed through any inclination of the conquered coun¬
tries to revolt, but through the dissensions among the
commanders.—In the general council which was called
soon alter the death of Alexander, after much confusion
and altercation, it Was at last agreed, or rather com¬
manded by the soldiers, that Aridaeus, the brother of
Alexander, who had always accompanied the king, and
had been wont to sacrifice with him, should assume the
sovereignty.—This Aridaeus was a man of very slender
parts and judgment, not naturally, but by the wicked
practices of Olympias, who had given him poisonous
draughts in his infancy, lest he should stand in the way
©flier son Alexander or any of his family; and for this,
or some other reason, Perdiccas, Ptolemy, and most of
the horse officers, resented his promotion to such a de¬
gree, that they quitted the assembly, and even the citv.
Vol. XII. Part I.
. u5
fidseus
ppuinted
injr.
J MAC
However, Meleager, at the head of the phalanx vigo- \lacetion
rously supported their first resolution, and threatened v—J
loudly to shed the blood of those who affected to rule
o^r their equals, and to assume a kingdom, which no¬
way belonged to them : Aridaeus was accordingly ar¬
rayed in royal robes, had the arms of Alexander put
upon him, and was saluted by the name of Philip, to
lender him more popular. Thus were two parties form- n6
ed, at the head of whom were Meleager and Perdiccas, A- party
both of them pretending vast concern for the publicfornied L>'
good, yet at bottom desiring nothing more than theirSonST*
own advantage. Perdiccas was a man of high birth, by Pcrdic-
and had a supreme command in the army, was much incas.
favour with Alexander, and one in whom the nobility
had put great confidence. Meleager had become for-
midable by having the phalanx on his side, and having
the nominal king entirely in his power; for Aridteus,
or Philip, was obliged to comply with whatever he
thought proper ; and publicly declared, that whatever
he did was by the advice of Meleager; so that he made
his minister accountable for Ins own schemes, and no¬
way endangered himself. The Macedonians also, be¬
sides their regard for the deceased king, soon began to
entertain a personal love for Philip on account of his
moderation.
It is remarkable, however, that notwithstanding all
the favours which Alexander had conferred upon his
officers, and the fidelity with which they had served
him during his life, only two of them were attached to
the interests of his family after his death. These were
Antipater, and Eumenes the Cardian, whom he had
appointed his secretary. Antipatcr, as we have al¬
ready seen, was embroiled with the Greeks, and could
not assist the royal family who were in Asia ; and Eu¬
menes had not as yet sufficient interest to form a party
in their favour. In a short time, however, Perdiccas Meleager
prevailed against Meleager, and got him murdered ; murdered,
by which means the supreme power for a time fell into and the era-
his hands. His first step, in consequence of this power, J’ff,0
w*as to distribute the provinces of the empire among the'1 e ‘
commanders in the following manner, in order to pre¬
vent competitors, and to satisfy the ambition of the
principal commanders of the army. Aridaeus, and the
son of Roxana, born after the death of his father, were
to enjoy the regal authority. Antipater had the go¬
vernment of the European provinces. Craterus had
the title of protector. Perdiccas was general of the
household troops in the room of Hephsestion. Ptolemy
the son of Lagos had Egypt, Libya, and that part of
Arabia which borders upon Egypt. Cleomenes, a man
of infamous character, whom Alexander had made re
ceiver-general in Egypt, was made Ptolemy’s deputy,
ry bordering      ,   r_
z.us; but these were not yet conquered, so that be was
a governor without a province. Antigonus bad Pam-
phylia, Lycia, and Phrygia Major; Cassander, Ca-
ria; Menander, Lydia; Leonatus, Phrygia on the
Hellespont. Il3
In the mean time, not only Alexander’s will, butAlexan-
Alexander himself, w as so much neglected, that his tier’s body
body was allowed to remain seven days before any no-nejj^teA
tice was taken of it, or any orders given for its being^
embalmed. The only will he left was a short merno-
f S s random
Mace d on.
MAC
ramlum of six things he would have
 v—- building of a fleet of 1000 stout galleys, to be made
use of against the Carthaginians and other nations who
should oppose the reduction of the sea-coasts of Africa
and Spain, with all the adjacent islands as far as Sicily.
2 A large and regular highway was to be made along
the coast of Africa, as far as Ceuta and Tangier. 3.
Six temples of extraordinary magnificence were to be
erected at the expence of 1500 talents each. 4. Cas¬
tles, arsenals, havens, and yards for building ships, to
be settled in proper places throughout his empire. _ 5.
Several new cities were to be built in Europe and Asia 5
those in Asia to be inhabited by colonies from Europe,
and those in Europe to be filled with Asiatics j that, by
blending their people and their manners, that hereditary
antipathy might he eradicated which had hitherto sub¬
sisted between the inhabitants of the different conti¬
nents. 6. Lastly, He had projected the building of a
pyramid, equal in bulk and beauty to the biggest 111
Egypt, in honour of his father Philip. All these de¬
signs, under pretence of their being expensive, were re¬
ferred to a council of Macedonians, to be held nobody
knew when or where. _ r -n r
The government, being now in the hands of 1 ertlic-
cas and Iloxana, grew quickly very cruel and distaste¬
ful. Alexander was scarce dead when the queen sent
for Statira and Drypetis the two daughters of Darius,
119 one of whom had been married to Alexander and the
Tlie daugli-other to Hephcestion : but as soon as they arrived at
ters of Da- Babylon, caused them both to be murdered, that no
son of Alexander by any other woman, or of Hephaes-
tion, might give any trouble to her or her son Alexan¬
der. Sisygambis, the mother of Darius, no soonei
heard that Alexander the Great was dead, than she laid
violent hands on herself, being apprehensive of the ca¬
lamities winch were about to ensue.
War was first declared in Greece against Antipater
revolt, but jn t|ie year 321 B. C. Through the treachery of the
are sub- Thessalians, that general was defeated, with the army
aUed' he had under his own command. Leonatus was there¬
fore sent from Asia, with a very considerable army, to
his assistance •, but both were overthrown with great loss
by the confederates, and Leonatus himself was killed.
In a short time, however, Craterus arrived in Greece
with a great army, the command of which he resigned
to Antipater. The army of the confederates amounted
to 25,000 foot and 3000 horse } but Antipater com¬
manded no fewer than 40,000 foot, 3000 archers, and
5000 horse. In such an unequal contest, therefore,
the Greeks were defeated, and forced to sue for peace j
which they did not obtain but on condition of their re¬
ceiving Macedonian garrisons into several of then.
cities.° At Athens also the democratic government was
abrogated 5 and such a dreadful punishment did this
seem to the Athenians, that 22,000 of them left their
121 country, and retired into Macedon.
Disturban- WEile these things were doing in Greece, disturb-,
ces in Asia ances began also to arise in Asia and in Thrace. The
and^hract. Greek mercenaries, who were dispersed through the
inland provinces of Asia, despairing ot ever being al¬
lowed to return home by fair means, determined to
attempt it by force. I or this purpose, they assembled
to the number of 20,000 foot and 3000 horse 5 hut
were all cut off to a man by the Macedonians. In
Thrace, Lysimachus was attacked by one Seuthes, a>
rius put to
death by
Iloxana.
120
The Greeks
[ 322 } MAC
,]nnP 1 The prince of that country, who claimed the dominions 01 Macedon.
his ancestors, and had raised an army of 20,000 foot' v '
and 8000 horse. But though the Macedonian com¬
mander was forced to engage this army with no more
than 4000 foot and 2000 horses, yet he kept the field
of battle, and could not be driven out of the countij.
Perdiccas, in the mean time, by pretending friendship
to the royal family, had gained over Eumenes entirely I22
to his interest; and at last put him in possession of the Ambition
province of Cappadocia by the defeat of Anarathes »n.l onal.
king of that country, whom he afterwards cruelly
caused to be crucified. His ambition, however, now.
began to lead him into difficulties. At the first division
of the provinces, Perdiccas, to strengthen his own an-
thority, had proposed to marry Nicsea the daughter ot
Antipater and so well was this proposal relished, that
her brethren Jollas and Archias conducted her to him,
in order to be present at the celebration of the nuptials.
But Perdiccas now had other things in view. He had
been solicited by Olympias to marry her daughter Cleo¬
patra, the widow of Alexander king of Epirus, and
who then resided at Sardis in Lydia. Eumenes pro¬
moted this match to the utmost of his power, because
he thought it would be for the interest of the royal fa¬
mily } and his persuasions bad such an eflect on Per¬
diccas, that he was sent to Sardis to compliment Cleo¬
patra, and to carry presents to her in name ot her new
lover. In the absence of Eumenes, however, Alce-tas,
the brother of Perdiccas, persuaded him to marry Ni-
coea *, but, in order to gratify his ambition, he resoned
to divorce her immediately after marriage, and many
Cleopatra. By this last marriage, he hoped to have a
pretence for altering the government of Macedon : and,
as a necessary measure preparative to these, he enteied
into contrivances for destroying Antigonus. Unfortu¬
nately for himself, however, he ruined all his schemes
by his own jealousy and precipitate cruelty. Cynane,
the daughter of Philip by his second wife, had biought
her daughter named Adda, and who was afterwards
named Eurydice, to court, in hopes that King Aridieus
might marry her. Against Cynane, Perdiccas, fiom
some political motives, conceived such a grudge, that he
caused her to he murdered. This raised a commotion,
in the army j which frightened Perdiccas to such a de¬
gree, that he now promoted the match between An-
daeus and Eurydice 5 to prevent which, he had muidei-
ed the mother of the young princess. But, in the mean
time, Antigonus, knowing the designs of Perdiccas
against himself, fled with his son Demetrius to Greece,
there to take shelter under the protection of Antipater
and Craterus, whom he informed of the ambition and
cruelty of the regent. 123
A civil war was now kindled. Antipater, Craterus,,^ conitk
Neoptolemus, and Antigonus, were combined against nation a
Perdiccas •, and it was the misfortune of the empire in gniiist
general, that Eumenes, the most able general, as well
as the most virtuous of all the commanders, was on
the side of Perdiccas, because he believed him to be
in tire interest of Alexander’s family. Ptolemy, in the.
mean time, remained in quiet possession of Egypt j- but
without the least intention of owning any person for
his superior : however, he also acceded to the league
formed against Perdiceas •, and thus the only person in
the whole empire who consulted the interest of the royal
family was Eumenes.
It
1,
Macedon
124
Alexander
buried in
Egypt.
T3S
Perdiccas
killed by
iiis own
mea.
126
A new di-
vision of
tlie empire.
MAC [3
It tvas now thought proper to bury the body of
Alexander, which had been kept for two years, during
all which time preparations had been making for it.
Andajus, to whose care zt was committed, set out from
Babylon for Damascus, in order to carry the king’s
body to Egypt. This was soi'e against the will of Per¬
diccas , foz it seems there was a supei'stitious report,
that wherever the body of Alexander was laid, that
country should flourish most. Perdiccas, therefore,
out of regard to his native soil, would have it conveyed
to the royal sepulchres in Macedon ; but Aridseus,
pleading the late king’s express direction, was deter¬
mined to carry it into Egypt, from thence to be con¬
veyed to the temple of Jupiter Ammon.—The funeral
was accordingly conducted with all imaginable mag¬
nificence. Ptolemy came to meet the body as far as
Syria: but, instead of burying it in the temple of
Jupiter Ammon, erected a stately temple for it in the
city of Alexandria ; and, by the respect he showed for
his dead master, induced many of the Macedonian
veterans to join him, and who were afterwards of the
greatest service to him.
No sooner was the funeral over, than both the
parties above mentioned fell to blows. Perdiccas
marched against Ptolemy : but was slain by his own
men, who, after the death of their general, submitted
to his antagonist: and thus Eumenes was left alone to
contend against all the other generals who had served
under Alexander. In this contest, however, he would
by no means have been overmatched, had his soldiers
been attached to him; but as they had been ac¬
customed to serve under those very generals against
whom they were now to fight, they were on all occa¬
sions ready to betray and desert Eumenes. However
he defeated and killed Neoptolemus and Craterus,
but then found himself obliged to contend with Anti¬
pater and Antigonus. Anti pater was now appointed
protector of the kings, with sovereign power ; and
Eumenes was declared a public enemy. A new di¬
vision ol Alexander’s empire took place. Egypt, Li¬
bya, and the parts adjacent, were given to Ptolemy, be¬
cause they could not be taken from him. Syria was
confirmed to Leomedon. Philoxcnus had Cilicia. Me¬
sopotamia and Arbelitus were given to Amphimachus.
Babylon was bestowed on Seleucns. Susiana fell to
Antigenes, wbo commanded the Macedonian Argyras-
pidie or Silver Shields, because he was the first wbo
opposed Perdiccas. Peucestas held Persia. Tlepole-
mus had Caramania. Python had Media as far as the
Caspian straits. Stasander had Aria and Drangia 5
Philip, Parthia j Stasonor, Bactria and Sogdia 5 Sy-
birtius, Aracopa; Oxyartes, the father of Roxana,
Parapomisis. Another Python had the country be¬
tween this province and India. Porus and Taxiles
held what Alexander had given them, because they
would not part with any of their dominions. Cappa¬
docia was assigned to Nicanoix Phrygia Major, Ly-
-caonia, Pamphylia, and Lycia, were given to Antigo-
mis ; Caria to Cassander, Lydia to Clytus, Phrygia the
Cess to Aridecus. Cassander was appointed general of
the horse ; while the command of the household troops
was given to Antigonus, with orders to prosecute the
War against Eumenes. Antipater having thus settled
-eyery thing as well as he could, returned to Macedon
with the two kings, to the great joy of his countrymen,
23 ] MAC
having left his son Cassantler to be a check upon Anti-
gonus in Asia. yuaceaon^
Matters now seemed to wear a better aspect than
they had. yet done j and, had Eumenes believed that
ms enemies really consulted the interest of Alexander’s
ramily, there is not the least doubt that the war
would have been immediately terminated. He saw
zowever, that the design of Antigonus was onlv to
set up for himself, and therefore he refused to submit,
r rom this time, therefore, the Macedonian empire
ceased in Asia : and an account of the transactions of
this part ol the world fall to be recorded under the
article Syria. The Macedonian affairs are now en¬
tirely confined to the kingdom of Macedon itself, and
to Greece.
Antipater had not long been returned to Macedon, Total de-
1 en he died ; and the last action of his life completed struction of'
the ruin of Alexander’s family. Out of a view to the A^e*ander’s
public good, he had appointed Polysperchon, the eldestfamily'
oi Alexander’s captains at hand, to be protector' and
governor of Maccdon. This failed not to disgust his
son Cassander ; who thought he had a natural right to
these offices, and of course kindled a new civil war in
Macedon. This was indeed highly promoted by his
first actions as a governor. He began with attempt¬
ing to remove all the governors appointed in Greece
by Anti pater, and to restore democracy wherever it
had been abolished. The immediate consequence of
this was, that the people refused to obey their magi¬
strates j the governors refused to resign their places,
and applied for assistance to Cassander. Polysperchou
also had the imprudence to recal Olympias from Epi¬
rus, and allow her a share in the administration ; which
Antipater, and even Alexander himself, had always
refused her. The consequence of all this was, that
Cassander invaded Greece, where he prevailed against
Polysperchon : Olympias returned to Macedon, where
she cruelly murdered Aridteus and his wife Eurydice.;
she herself was put to death by Cassander, who after¬
wards caused Roxana and her son to be murdered, and
Polysperchon being driven into Etolia, first raised to
the crown Hercules the son of Alexander by the daugh¬
ter of Darius, and then by the instigation of Cassander
murdered him, by which means the line of Alexander
the Great became totally extinct.
Cassander having thus-destroyed all the royal family, Various re-
assumed the regal title as he had for 16 years before v°lubons
had all the power. He enjoyed the title of king of111 the
Macedon only three years j after which he died, about ^rnmcnt
298 B. C. By Thessalonica, the daughter of Philip
king of Macedon, he left three sons, Philip, Antipa¬
ter, and Alexander. Philip succeeded him, but soon
after died of a consumption. A contest immediately
began between the two brothers, Antipater and Alex¬
ander. Antipater seized the kingdom ; and to secure
himself in it, murdered his mother Thessalonica, if
not with his own hand, at least the execrable act
was committed in bis presence. Alexander invited
Pyrrhus king of Epirus, and Demetrius the son of
Antigonus, to assist him and revenge the death of his
mother. But Pyrrhus being bought off, and a peace
concluded between the brothers, Alexander, being
afraid of having too many protectors, formed a scheme
of getting Demetrius assassinated. Instead of this, how¬
ever, both he and Antipater were put to death ; and
S 5 2 Demetrius
MAC
[ 32+ 3
M A. C
Macedon.
129
War with
the Ro¬
mans.
Demetrius became king of Macedon lours years after
the deatli of Cassander. , , 1 „
In 287 B. C. Demetrius was driven out by ryrrhus,
rvbo was again driven out by Lysimachns two years
after, who was soon after killed by Seleucus Ntcanor*,
and Seleueus, in his turn, was murdered by Ptolemy
Ceraunus, who became king of Macedon about 280
B C The new king was in a short time cut oil, with
his whole army, by the Gauls-, and Antigonus Gonatus,
the son of Demetrius Poliorcetes, became king of Ma¬
cedon in 278 B. C. He proved successful against the
Gauls, but was driven out by Pyrrhus king ot Lpirus-,
who, however, soon disobliged his subjects to such a
degree, that Antigonus recovered a great part ot his
kingdom. But in a little time, Pyrrhus being killed
at the siege of Argos in Greece, Antigonus was restor¬
ed to the whole of Macedon j but scarcely was he
seated on the throne, when he was driven from it by
Alexander the son of Pyrrhus. This new invader was,
in his turn, expelled by Demetrius the son of Antigo¬
nus -, who, though at that time but a boy, had almost
made himself master of Epirus. In this enterprise,
however, be was disappointed } but by bis means An-
tigonus was restored to his kingdom, which he govern¬
ed for many years in peace. By a stratagem he made
himself master of the city of Corinth, and from that
time began to form schemes for the thorough conquest
of Greece. The method he took to accomplish this
was, to support the petty tyrants of Greece against
the free states: which indeed weakened the power 01
the latter } but involved the whole country in so many
calamities, that these transactions could not redound
much to the reputation either of his arms or his ho¬
nour. About 243 B. C. he died, leaving the king¬
dom to his son, Demetrius II.
Neither Demetrius, nor his successor A ntigonus Do-
son, performed anything remarkable. In 221 B. C.
the kingdom fell to Philip, the last but one of the Ma¬
cedonian monarchs. To him Hannibal applied for
assistance after the battle of Cannse, which he refused -,
and the same imprudence which made him refuse this
assistance prompted him to embroil himself with the
Homans -, and at last to conclude a treaty with them, by
which he in effect became their subject, being tied up
from making peace or war but according to their plea¬
sure. In 179 B. C. be was succeeded by his eldest son
Perseus, under whom the war with the Romans was re¬
newed. Even yet the Macedonians were terrible in
war', and their phalanx, when properly conducted, seems
to have been absolutely invincible by any method of
making war known at that time. It consisted of
j 6,000 men, of whom 1000 marched abreast, and thus
was 16 men deep, each of whom carried a kind of
pike 23 feet long. The soldiers stood so close, that
the pikes of the fifth rank reached their points beyond
the front of the battle. The hindermost ranks leaned
their pikes on the shoulders of those who went before
them, and, locking them fast, pressed briskly against
them when they made the charge -, so that the first fi ve
ranks had the impetus of the whole phalanx, which
was the reason why the shock was generally irresistible.
The Romans had never encountered such a terrible
enemy j and in the first battle, which happened 171
B. C. they were defeated with the loss ot 2200 men,
while the Macedonians lost no more than 60. T-he ge-
4
Macer.
nerals of Perseus now pressed him to storm the enemy s Macrdon
camp : hut he being naturally of a cowardly disposi¬
tion, refused to comply, and thus the best opportunity ^
he ever had was lost. Still, however, the Romans gain¬
ed little or no advantage, till the year 168 B. C. when
Paulus yEmilius, a most experienced commander, was
sent to Macedon. Perseus now put all upon the issue ot
a general engagement j and iEmilius, with all his cou¬
rage and military experience, would have been defeat¬
ed, had the Macedonians been commanded by a gene¬
ral of the smallest courage or conduct. The light¬
armed Macedonians charged with such vigour, that
after the battle, some of their bodies were found with¬
in two furlongs of the Roman camp. When the pha¬
lanx came to charge, the points of their speais stuking
into the Roman shields, kept the heavy-armed troops
from making any motion j while, on the other hand,
Perseus’s light-armed men did terrible execution. On
this occasion, it is said, that JEmilius tore his clothes,
and gave up all hopes. However, perceiving that as
the phalanx gained ground it lost its order in several
places, he caused his own light-armed troops to chaige
in those places, whereby the Macedonians were soon
put into confusion. If Perseus with his horse had on
the first appearance of this charged the Romans brisk-
ly, his infantry would have been able to recover them¬
selves j hut instead of this, lie betook himself to flight,
and the infantry at last did the same, but not till
20,000 of them had lost their lives.
This battle decided the fate of Macedon, which
immediately submitted to the conqueror. The coward¬
ly king took refuge in the island ol Saroothrace . but
was at last obliged to surrender to the Roman consul,
by whom he was carried to Rome, led in triumph, and
afterwards most barbarously used. Some pretenders
to the throne appeared afterwards -, but being unable ^
to defend themselves against the Romans, the country Macedonia-
was reduced to a Roman province in 148 B. C. To becomes a
130
them it continued subject till the year 1357, when it^T^
wras reduced by the rl urkish sultan Baja2.et, and has
remained in the hands of the Turks ever since.
MACEDONIANS, in ecclesiastical history, the
followers of Macedomus, bishop of Constantinople,
who through the influence of the Eunomians, was
deposed by the council of Constantinople in 360, and
sent into exile. He considered the Holy Ghost as a
divine energy diffused throughout the universe, and
not as a person distinct from the Father and the Son.
The sect of Macedonians wras crushed before it had ar¬
rived at its full maturity, by the council assembled by
Theodosius in 381, at Constantinople. See Semi-
ARIANS.
MACEDONIUS. See Macedonians.
MACER, Emilies, an ancient Latin poet, was
born at Verona, and flourished under Augustus Caesar.-
Eusebius relates, that he died a few years after Virgil.
Ovid speaks of a poem of his, on the nature and quality
of birds, serpents, and herbs-, which he says Macer be¬
ing then very old had often read to him :
Sctpe suas volucres legit mihigrandior avo,
Quceqtie nocet serpens, quee juvat herba, Macer.
]Je Ponto, lib. iv. eleg. 10.
There is extant a poem upon the nature and power of
herbs under Macer’s name 5 but it is spurious. He also
wrote
MAC
BTacer
lj
Macliiavel
wrote a supplement to Homer, as Quintus Calaber did
afterwards in Greek :
[ 325 j
MAC
Tu canis ceterno qaicquid restabat Hoinero:
Nc carcant sumina Troica bdla manu.
De Ponto, lib. ii. eleg. 10.
MACERATION, is an infusion of, or soaking in¬
gredients in water or any other fluid, in order either to
soften them or draw out their virtues.
MACERATA, a town of Italy, in the territory of
the church, and in the Marche of Ancona, with a
bishop’s see, an university, and about 10,000 inhabi¬
tants. It is situated near the mountain Chiento, in E*
^ong- J3* 37- N- Lat. 43. 15.
MACHAON, a celebrated physician among the
ancients, son of iEsculapius and brother to Podalirius.
He went to the Trojan war with the inhabitants of
Trica, Ithome, and Oechalia. According to some, be
was king of Messenia. He was physician to the
Greeks, and healed the wounds which they received
during the Trojan war. Some supposed he\vas killed
before Troy by Eurypylus the son of Telephus. He
received divine honours after death, and had a temple
in Messenia.
MACHaERUS, in Ancient Geography, a citadel on
the other side Jordan, near the mountains of Moab, not
far from and to the north of the Lacus Asphaltites. It
was the south boundary of the Peraea : situated on a
mountain encompassed round with deep and broad
valleys ; built by Alexander king of the Jews j de¬
stroyed by Gabinius, in the war with Aristobulus, and
rebuilt by Herod, with a cognominal town round it.
Here John the Baptist was beheaded (Josephus).
MAC HI AN, one of the Molucca islands, in the
East Indian ocean, about 20 miles in circumference,
populous and fertile, producing cloves and sago y and
is in possession of the Dutch, who have three strong
forts built on it,
MACHIAVEL, Nicholas, a famous political
Writer of the 16th century, was born of a distinguish¬
ed family at Florence. He wrote in his native lan¬
guage with great elegance and politeness, though he
understood very little of the Latin tongue ; but he was
in the service of Marcellus \ irgilius, a learned man,
who pointed out to him many of the beautiful passages
in the ancients, which Machiavel had the art of pla¬
cing properly in his works. He composed a comedy
upon the ancient Greek model: in which he turned
into ridicule many of the Florentine ladies, and which
was so well received, that Pope Leo X. caused it to be
acted at Rome. Machiavel was secretary, and after¬
wards historiographer, to the republic of Florence.
The house of Medicis procured him this last office,
together with a handsome salary, in oi'der to pacify
his resentment for. having suflered the torture upon
suspicion of being an accomplice in the conspiracy of
the Soderini against that house, when Machiavel bore
his suflerings without making any confession. The
great encomiums he bestowed upon Brutus and Cas¬
sius, both in his conversations and writings, made him
strongly suspected of being concerned in another con¬
spiracy against Cardinal Julian de Medicis, who was
afterwards pope under the name of Clement VII. How¬
ever, they carried on no proceedings against him ; but
from that time he turned every thing into ridicule, and
gave himself up to irreligion. He died in 1530, of a tfachiavci
remedy which he had taken by way of prevention. Of j|
ail ins writings, that which has made the most noise, ^tacliinery.
and has drawn upon him the most enemies, is a politi-' v  
cal treatise entitled the Prince; which has been trans¬
lated into several languages. The world is not agreed
as to the motives ol this work 5 some thinking he meant
to recommend tyrannical maxims 5 others, that he only,
delineated them to excite abhorrence. Machiavel also
wrote. Reflections on Titus Livius, which are extreme¬
ly curious j the History of Florence, from the year 120 ?
to 1494 • and a quarto volume of Poems and other
pieces. Mr Harrington considers him as a superior
genius, and as the most excellent writer on politics and
government that ever appeared. See a view of his opi¬
nions in First Dissertation, Supplement, p. 32.
MACHINE, (Mac kina), in the general, signifies
any thing that serves to augment or to regulate mov¬
ing powers : Or it is any body destined to produce
motion, so as to save either time or force. The word
comes from the Greek “ machine, invention,
artAnd hence, in strictness, a machine is something
that consists more in art and invention, than in the
strength and solidity of the materials; for which rea¬
son it is that inventors of machines are called ingenieurs
or engineers.
Machines are either simple or compound. The sim¬
ple ones are the seven mechanical powers, viz. lever,
balance, pulley, axis and wheel, wedge, screw, and in¬
clined plane. See Mechanics.
From these the compound ones are formed by various
combinations, and serve for different purposes. See
Mechanics ; also Agriculture, Cannon, Centri¬
fugal, Steam, Furnace, Burroughs, Ramsden.
&c. &c.
Machines used in war amongst the Greeks were
principally these; I. KXipotKif, or scaling ladders;
2. The battering ram ; 3. The helepolis; 4. The yj'hain
or tortoise, called by the Romans testudo; 5. The trye.ipx
or agger, which was faced with stone, and raised higher
than the wall; 6. Upon the were built wvgyoi or
towers of wood ; 7. or osier hurdles ; 8. Cuta-
pnltce, or Kxlx7n?Clxt, from which they threw arrows
with amazing force ; and, 9. The X&oQoXot, Trir^oXoi,
or xptlvgtx, from which stones were cast with great ve¬
locity.
The principal warlike machines made use of by
the Romans were, the ram, the lupus or wolf, the
testudo or tortoise, the balista, the catapulta, and the
scorpion.
MACHINERY, in epic and dramatic poetry, is
when the poet introduces the use of machines ; or brings
some supernatural being upon the stage, in order to
solve some difficulty or to perform some exploit out of
the reach of human power.
The ancient dramatic poets never made use of ma¬
chines, unless where there was an absolute necessity for
so doing ; whence the precept of Horace,
Pfec Ileus inter sit, nisi dignus vindicc nodus
Inciderit.
It is quite otherwise with epic poets, who introduce
machines in every part of their poems ; so that nothing
is done without the intervention of the gods. In Mil-
ton’,s Paradise Lost, by far the greater part of the ac¬
tors
Machinery
Mackenzie
Plate
CCXCYIII
MAC [
tors are supernatural personages : Homer and Yirgil do
nothing without them ; and, in Voltaire’s Henriade, the
poet has made excellent use of St Louis.
As to the manner in which these machines should
act, it is sometimes invisibly, by simple inspirations and
suggestions*, sometimes by actually appearing under
some human form j and, lastly, by means of dreams and
oracles, which partake of the other two. However, all
these should he managed in such a manner as to keep
within the bounds of probability. .
MACHUL, an instrument of music among the
■ Hebrews. Kircher apprehends that the name was
given to two kinds of instruments, one of the stringed
and the other of the pulsatile kind. That of the
former sort had six chords though there is great rea¬
son to doubt whether an instrument requiring the aid
of the hair-bow, and so much resembling the violin,
'be so ancient. The second kind Was of a circular form,
made of metal, and cither hung round with little hells,
or furnished with iron rings suspended on a rod or bar
that passed across the circle. Kircher supposes that it
Was moved to and fro by a handle fixed to it, and thus
emitted a melancholy kind of murmur.
MACHYNLETH, a town of Montgomeryshire
in North Wales, 198 miles from London, and 32 from
Montgomery. It is an ancient town, and has a market
on Mondays, and several fairs. In 1811 it contained
1252 inhabitants. It is seated oil the river Douay, over
which there is a large stone bridge, which leads into
Merionethshire. It was here that Owen Glyndwr ex¬
ercised the first acts of his royalty in 1402. Here
he accepted the crown of Wales, and assembled a par¬
liament } and the house wherein they met is How stand¬
ing, divided into tenements.
"MACKENZIE, Sir George, an able lawyer,
a polite scholar, and a celebrated wit, was born at
Dundee in the county of Angus in Scotland in 1636,
and studied at the universities of Aberdeen and St An¬
drew’s ; after which he applied himself to the civil law,
travelled into France, and prosecuted his study in that
faculty for about three years. At his return to his
native country he became an advocate in the city of
‘Edinburgh ; and soon gained the character of an emi¬
nent pleader. He did not, however, suffer his abili¬
ties to be confined entirely to that province. He had
a good taste for polite literature 5 and he gave the pub¬
lic, from time to time, incontestable proofs of an un¬
common proficiency therein. He had practised hut a
few years, when lie wks promoted to the office of a
judge in the criminal court-, and, in 1674, was made
king’s advocate, and one of the lords of the privy coun¬
cil in Scotland. He was also knighted by his majesty.
In these stations he met with a great deal of trouble,
on account of the rebellions which happened in his
time * and his office of advocate requiring him to act
with severity, he did not escape being censured, as if
in the deaths of some particular persons who were exe¬
cuted he had stretched the laWs too far. But there
does not seem to have been any just foundation for this
clamour against him ; and it is generally agreed, that
he acquitted himself like an able and upright magi¬
strate. Upon the abrogation of the penal laws by
King James II. our advocate, though he had always
bsen remarkable for his loyalty, and even censured for
his zeal against traitors and fanatics, thought himself
3
326 ] M • A C
obliged to resign his post; being convinced, that he
could not discharge the duties of it in that point with a
good conscience. But he was soon after restored, and ^
held his offices till the Revolution ; an event which,
it seems, he could not bring himself to approve. He
had hoped that the prince of Orange would have re¬
turned to his own country when matters wrere adjusted
between the'king and his subjects ; and upon its prov¬
ing otherwise, he quitted all his employments in Scot¬
land, ami retired into England, resolving to spend the
t-emainder of his days in the university of Oxford. He
arrived there in September 1689, and prosecuted his
studies in the Bodleian library, being admitted a stu¬
dent there by a grace passed in the congregation, June
2. 1690. In the spring following, he went to Lon¬
don, where he fell into a disorder, of which he died
in May 1691. His corpse was conveyed by land to
Scotland, and interred there With great pomp and so¬
lemnity. “ The politeness of his learning, and the
sprightliness of his wit, were (says the reverend Mr
Granger) conspicuous in all his pleadings, and shone
in his ordinary conversation.” Mr Dryden acknow¬
ledges, that he was unacquainted with what he calls the
beautiful turn of words and thoughts in poetry, till they
were explained and exemplified to him in a conversa¬
tion with that noble wit of Scotland Sir George Mac¬
kenzie. -He wrote several pieces of history and anti¬
quities j Institutions of the laws of Scotland j Essays
upon various subjects, &c. His works were printed
together at Edinburgh in ly1^, in 2 vols. folio.
MACKEREL. See Scomber, Ichthyology
Index.
MACLAURIN, Colin, a most eminent mathema¬
tician and philosopher, was the son of a clergyman, and
horn at Kilmoddan in Scotland in 1698. He wns sent
to the university of Glasgow in I7°9'> where he con¬
tinued five years, and applied himself to study in a
most intense manner. His great genius for mathema¬
tical learning discovered itself so early as at twelve
years of age j when, having accidentally met with an
Euclid in a friend’s chamber, he became in a few days
master of the first six hooks without any assistance -,
and it is certain, that in his i6tb year he had invent¬
ed many of the propositions which Were afterwards
published under the title of Geometria Organica. In
his 15th year he took the degree of master of arts -, on
which occasion he composed and publicly defended a
thesis, On the power of Gravity, with great applause.
After this he quitted the university, and retired to a
country-seat of his uncle, who had the care of his
education 5 for his parents had been dead some time.
Here he spent two or three years in pursuing his fa¬
vourite studies; but, in ly1?* fie °ffered himself a
candidate for the professorship ol mathematics in the
Marischal College of Aberdeen^ and obtained it after
a ten days trial with a very able competitor. In ly1!?*
he went to London, where he became acquainted with
Dr Hoadley then bishop of Bangor, Dr Clarke, Sir
Isaac Newton, and other eminent men ; at which time
also he was admitted a member of the Royal Society ;
and in another journey in 1721, he contracted an in¬
timacy with Martin Folkes, Esq. the president of it,
which lasted to his death.
In 1722, Lord Polwarth, plenipotentiary of the king
of Great Britain at the congress of Cambray, engaged
him
Mackefisi |
It
Maclauri
MAC
Maclaurin. liini to go as a tutor and companion to Ins eldest son, who
v "" 1 was then to set out on his travels. After a short stay at
Paris, and visiting other towns in France, they fixed
in Lorrain ; where Maclaurin wrote his piece On the
Percussion of Bodies, which gained the prize of the
Royal Academy of Sciences for the year 1724. But
his pupil dying soon after at Montpelier, he returned
immediately to his profession at Aberdeen. He was
hardly settled here, when he received an invitation to
Edinburgh j the curators of that university being de¬
sirous that he should supply the place of Mr James
Gregory, whose great age and infirmities had render¬
ed him incapable of teaching. He had some difficul¬
ties to encounter, arising from competitors, who had
good interest with the patrons of the university, and
also from the want of an additional fund for the new
professor, which however at length were all surmount¬
ed, principally by the means of Sir Isaac Newton. In
November 1725, he was introduced into the university.
After this, the mathematical classes soon became very
numerous, there being generally upwards of 100 young
gentlemen attending his lectures every year 5 who being
ot different standings and proficiency, he was obliged to
divide them into four or five classes, in each of which
he employed a full hour every day, from the first of
November to the first of June.
He lived a bachelor to the year 1733: but being
not less formed for society than for contemplation, he
then married Anne, the daughter of Mr Walter Stew¬
art solicitor-general for Scotland. By this lady he
had seven children, of whom two sons and three daugh¬
ters, together with his wife, survived him. In 1734,
Berkeley, bishop of Cloyne, published a piece called
“ The Analystin which he took occasion, from
some disputes that had arisen concerning the grounds
of the fluxionary method, to explode the method it¬
self, and also to charge mathematicians in general
with infidelity in religion. Maclaurin thought him¬
self included in this charge, and began an answer to
Berkeley’s book: but, as he proceeded, so many dis¬
coveries, so many new theories and problems occurred
to him, that instead of a vindicatory pamphlet, his
work came out, A complete system of fluxions, with
their application to the most considerable problems in
geometry and natural philosophy. This w’ork was pub¬
lished at Edinburgh in 1742, 2 vols. 4to ; and as it
cost him infinite pains, so it is the most considerable
of all his works, and will do him immortal honour.
In the mean time, he was continually obliging the
public with some performance or observation of his
own ; many of which were published in the fifth and
sixth' volumes of the “ Medical Essays” at Edin¬
burgh. Some of them were likewise published in the
Philosophical Transactions j as the following: 1. Of
the construction and measure of curves, N° 336.
2. A new method of describing all kinds of curves,
359- 3- A letter to Martin Folkes, Esq. on equa¬
tions with impossible roots, May 1726, N° 394.
4. Continuation of the same, March 1729, N° 408.
5- December the 21st, 1732, on the description of
curves ; with an account of farther improvements, and
a paper dated at Nancy, November 27. 1722, N° 439.
6. An account ot the treatise of fluxions, January 27*
1742, N° 467.- 7. The same continued, March 10.,
*7'42»’ 469. 8. A rule for finding the meridional
[ 327 ]
MAC
parts of a spheroid with the same exactness as of a Maclauria
sphere, August 1741, N° 461. 9. Of the basis of the -y—~
cells wherein the bees deposite their honey *, Nov. 5.
*734, N° 471. < _
In the midst ot these studies, he was always ready
to lend his assistance in contriving and promoting any
scheme which might contribute to the service of his
country. When the earl of Morton set out in 1739
for Orkney and Shetland, to visit his estates there,
he desired Mr Maclaurin to assist him in settling the
geography of those countries, which is very errone¬
ous in all our maps ; to examine their natural history,,
to survey the coasts, and to take the measure of a de¬
gree of the meridian. Maclaurin’s family affairs, and
other connexions, would not permit him to do this 3
he drew, however, a memorial of what he thought
necessary to be observed, furnished the proper instru¬
ments, and recommended Mr Short, the famous op¬
tician, as a fit operator for the management of them.
He had still another scheme for the improvement of
geography and navigation, of a more extensive nature j
which was the opening of a passage from Greenland to
the South sea by the north pole. That such a pas¬
sage might be found, he was so fully persuaded, that
he has been heard to say, if his situation could admit
of such adventures, he would undertake the voyage,
even at his own charge. But when schemes for finding
it were laid before the parliament in 1744, and him¬
self consulted by several persons of high rank concern¬
ing them, before he could finish the memorials he pro¬
posed to send, the premium was limited to the disco¬
very of a north-west passage : and he used to regret,
that the word west wras inserted, because he thought
that passage, if at all to be found, must lie not far from
the pole.
In 1745, having been very active in fortifying the
city of Edinburgh against the rebel army, he was ob¬
liged to fly fi'om thence to the north of England ;
where he was invited by Herring, then archbishop of
York, to reside with him during his stay in this coun¬
try. In this expedition, however, being exposed to
cold and hardships, and naturally of a weak and ten¬
der constitution, he laid the foundation of an illness
which-put an end to his life, in June 1746, at the age
of 48.
Mr Maclaurin was a very good as well as a very
great man, and worthy of love as well as admiration.
His peculiar merit as a philosopher was, that all his
studies were accommodated to general utility 3 and we
find, in many places of his works, an application even
of the most abstruse theories, to the perfecting of me¬
chanical arts. He had resolved, for the same purpose,
to compose a course of practical mathematics, and to
rescue several useful branches of the science from the
bad treatment they often met with in less skilful hands.
But all this his death prevented 3 unless we should
reckon, as a part of his intended work, the translation
of Dr David Gregory’s “ Practical Geometry,”
which he revised,. and published with additions, 1745*
In his lifetime, however, he had frequent opportuni¬
ties of serving his friends and his country by his great
skill. Whatever difficulty occurred concerning the
constructing or perfecting of machines, the working of
mines, the improving of manufactures, the conveying
of water, or the execution of any other public work,
he
MAC
[ 328 j
M A C
ITackiuin. lie Was at hand to resolve it. He was likewise era-
1 ^ 1 ployed to terminate some disputes of consequence that
had arisen at Glasgow concerning the gauging 01 ves¬
sels 5 and for that purpose presented to the commission¬
ers of excise two elaborate memorials, with their de¬
monstrations, containing rules by which the officers
now act. He made also calculations relating to the
provision, now established by law, for the children and
widows of the Scots clergy, and of the professors m
'the universities, entitling them to certain annuities and
sums, upon the voluntary annual payment of a certain
sum by the incumbent. In contriving and adjusting
this wise and useful scheme, he bestowed a great deal
of labour, and contributed not a little towards bring¬
ing it to perfection. It may be said of such a man,
that “ he lived to some purpose j” which can hardly
be said of those, how uncommon soever their abilities
and attainments, who spend their whole time in abstract
speculations, and produce nothing to the real use and
service of their fellow creatures.
Of his works, we have mentioned his Geometria Or-
ganica, in which he treats of the description oi curve
lines by continued motion. We need not repeat what
has been said concerning his piece which gained the
prize of the Royal Academy of Sciences 111 In
1740, the academy adjudged him a prize, which did
him still more honour, for solving the motion ol the
tides from the theory of gravity j a question which
had been given out the former year, without receiving
any solution. He had only ten days to draw this pa¬
per up in, and could not hud leisure to transcribe a
fair copy j so that the Paris edition of it is incoirect.
Pie afterwards revised the whole, and inserted it in
his Treatise of Fluxions 5 as he did also the substance
of the former piece. These, with the Preatise. of
Fluxions, and the pieces printed in the Philosophical
Transactions, of which we have given a list, are all
the writings which out* author lived to publish. Since
his death, two volumes more have appeared ; his Al¬
gebra, and his Account of Sir Isaac Newton’s Philo¬
sophical Discoveries. His Algebra, though not finish¬
ed by himself, is yet allowed to be excellent in its
kind : containing, in no large volume, a complete ele¬
mentary treatise of that science, as far as it hath hither¬
to been carried. His Account of Sir Isaac Newton’s
Philosophy was occasioned in the following manner:
Sir Isaac dying in the beginning of 1728, his nephew,
Mr Conduitt, proposed to publish an account of his
life, and desired Mr Maclaurin’s assistance. The lat¬
ter, out of gratitude to his great benefactor, cheer¬
fully undertook, and soon finished, the history of the
progress which philosophy had made before Sir Isaac’s
time, and this was the first draught of the work in
hand ; which not going forward, on account of Mr
Conduitt’s death, was returned to Mr Maclaurin.—
To this he afterwards made great additions, and left
it in the state in which it now appears. Flkmain
design seems to have been, to explain only those parts
of Sir Isaac’s philosophy which have been, and still
are, controverted j and this is supposed to be the rea¬
son why his grand discoveries concerning light and
colours are but transiently and generally touched upon.
For it is known, that ever since the experiments, on
which his doctrine of light and colours is founded,
have been repeated with due care, this doctrine has Maclatiriii
not been contested*, whereas his accounting for the lacquer
celestial motions, and the other great appearances ol
nature, from gravity, is misunderstood, and even ridi¬
culed by some to this day.
MACQUER, Philippe, advocate of the parlia¬
ment of Paris, where he was born in 1720, being
descended from a respectable family. A weakness
in his lungs having prevented him from engaging^ in
the laborious exercises ol pleading, he dedicated him¬
self to literary pursuits. Flis works are, x. ISAbrege
Chromlogiqite de VHistoire Ecclesiastique, 3 vols. 8vo.
written in the manner of the present Henault’s Hi¬
story of France, but not possessed of equal spirit and
eleo-ance. 2. Les Annates Eomancs, 1756, 8vo ; ano¬
ther chronological abridgement, and much better sup¬
ported than the former. Into this work the author
has introduced every thing most worthy ol notice which
has been written by Saint Evremond, Abbe Saint-
Real, President Montesquieu, Abb6 Mably, &c. con¬
cerning the Romans j and, if we except a difference oi
style, which is easily discernible, it is, in other respects,
a very judicious compilation. 3* Ahrege Chronologiqi/e
de PHistoire d'Espagne et de Portugaly 1759, 1765, in
2 vols. 8vo. This book, in point of accuracy, ib
Worthy oi the president Henault, by whom it was be¬
gun *, hut it displays no discrimination of character nor
depth of research. The author received assistance from
M. Lacombe, whose talents for chronological abridge¬
ment are well known. Fhe republic of letters sustain¬
ed a loss by the death of M. Macquer, which happen¬
ed on the 27th of January 1770, at the age of 50. As
to his character, he was industrious, agreeable, modest,
and sincere, and an enemy to all loolish vanity and af¬
fectation. He had a cold imagination, but a coriect
taste. He had an eager thirst for knowledge of every
kind, and he had neglected no useful branch of study.
He had a share in the Dictionary ol Arts and Profes¬
sions, in 2 vols. 8vo, and in the .translation of the Sy¬
philis of Fracastor published by Lacombe.
Macquer, Pierre Joseph, brother to the former,
was hors at Paris the 9th of October, 1718, and died
there February 16. -^e was a
Academy of Sciences, and professor of pharmacy j
and was engaged in the Journal de Sfavans, lor the ar¬
ticles of medicine and chemistry* With the latter
science he was intimately acquainted. He had a share
in the Pharmacopoeia Parisiensis, published in 175^>
in 410. His other works are, 1. Etemcns de Chimte
theorique; Paris, 1749, 1753, X2moj which have been
translated into English and German.— 2. Etemens de
Chimiepratique, 1751, 2 vols. 121110. These two works
were republished together, in 175^* 3 vo^s# I2mo.
3. Plan ddun cours de Chimie expcrimentate et raisonee.
1757, X2moj in the composition of which he was
associated with M. Beaume. 4. Eormidce Medicamento-
rum Magistralium, 1763. 5. UArt de la Teinturc en
Soie, 1763. 6. Dictionnaire de Chimie, contenant te
Theorie et la Pratique de cet art, 1766, 2 vols. 8vo j
which .has been translated into German, with notes,
and into English, with notes, by Mr Kier. Macquer
has, by his labours and writings, greatly contributed to
render useful an art which formerly tended only to ruin
the health of the patient by foreign remedies, or to
reduce
M A C
JIaoqaer reduce the professors of it to beggary, while they
|j prosecuted the idle dreams of converting every thino-
Macros- into g0|d> ^ ^ t,
MACRIN, Salmon, one of the best Latin poets
of the 16th century, was born at Loudon. His true
name was John Salmon; but he took that of Macrin
from his being frequently so called in ridicule by Fran¬
cis I. on account of his extraordinary leanness. He
was preceptor to Claudius of Savoy, count of Tende •
and to Honorius the count’s brother ; and wrote se¬
veral pieces of poetry in lyric verse, which were so ad¬
mired, that he was called the Horace of his time. He
died of old age, at Loudun, in 1555.—Charles Macrin,
Ins son, was not inferior to him as a poet, and surpassed
him in his knowledge of the Greek tongue. He was
preceptor to Catharine of Navarre, the sister of Henry
the Great; and perished in the massacre on St Bartho¬
lomew’s day in 1572.
MACROBII, a people of Ethiopia, celebrated for
their justice, and the innocence of their manners: also
a people in the island of Meroe. The Hyperboreans were
also called Macrobii; they generally lived to their
120th year ; and from their longevity they obtained
their name /3taj, long lifef)
MACROBIUS, Ambrosius Aurelius Theodo¬
sius, an ancient Latin writer, who flourished towards
the latter part of the fourth century.—Of what win¬
try he was, is not clear: Erasmus, in his Ciceronianus,
seems to think he was a Greek ; and he himself tells
us, in the preface to his Saturnalia, that he was not a
Roman, but laboured under the inconveniences of
writing in a language which was not natural to him.
Of what religion he was, Christian or Pagan, is uncer¬
tain. Barthius ranks him among the Christians; but
Spanheim and Fabricius suppose him to have been a
heathen. This, however, is certain, that, he was a
man of consular dignity, and one of the chamberlains
or masters of the wardrobe to 1 heodosius : as appears
from a rescript directed to Florentius, concerning those
who were to obtain that office. He wrote a commen¬
tary upon Cicero’s Somnium Scijnonis, and seven books
of Saturnalia, which treat of various subjects, and are
an agreeable mixture of criticism and antiquity. He
was not an original writer, but made great use of other
people’s works, borrowing not only their materials, but
even their language, and for this he has been satirically
rallied by some modern authors, though rather unfairly,
considering the express declaration and apology which
he makes on this head, at the very entrance of his
work. “ Don’t blame me,” says he, “ if what I have
collected from multifarious reading, I shall frequently
express in the very words of the authors from whom I
have taken it: for my view in this present work is,
not to give proofs of my eloquence, but to collect and
digest into some regularity and order such things
as I thought might be useful to be known. I shall
therefore here imitate thedbees, who suck the best juices
from all sorts of flowers, and afterwards work them up
into various forms and orders with some mixture of
theii own proper spirit.” The Somnium Scipionis and
‘ aturnalia have been often printed ; to which has been
added, in the later editions, a piece entitled He JJifferen-
tiis et Societatibus Grceci iMtiniquc Verbi,
(( MACROCEPHALUS (compounded of
great,” and “ head,” denotes a person with
VOL. XII. Part I.
t 329 ]
M A C
a head larger or longer than the common size. Ma- Maeroc«.
ciocephali, or Long-heads, is a name given to a cer- phaius
tain people, who, according to the accounts of authors, II
were famous for the unseemly length of their heads : ^IacrooniP
yet custom so far habituated them to it, that instead of
looking on it as a deformity, they esteemed it a beauty,
and, as soon as the child was born, moulded and fa¬
shioned its head in their hands to as great a length as
possible, and afterwards used all such rollers and band¬
ages as might seem most likely to determine its grow¬
ing long. I he greater part of the islanders in the
Archipelago, some of the people of Asia, and even
some of those of Europe, still press their children’s
heads out lengthwise. \Ve may observe also, that the
Epirots, many people of America, &c. are all born
with some singularity in the conformation of their
heads j either a flatness on the top, twyo extraordinary
protuberances behind, or one on each side ; singularities
which we can only regard as an eflect of an ancient and
strange mode, which at length is become hereditary in
the nation. According to the report of many travel¬
lers, the operation of compressing the head of a child
lengthwise, while it is yet soft, is with a view insen¬
sibly to enlarge the interval betw'cen the two eyes, so
that the visual rays turning more to the right and left,
the sight would embrace a much larger portion of the
horizon j the advantage of which they are well ac¬
quainted with, either in the constant exercise of hunt-
ing, or on a thousand other occasions. Ever since the
16th century, the missionaries established in the coun¬
tries inhabited by the savages of America, have en¬
deavoured to destroy this custom ; and wre find in the
sessions of the third council of Lima, held in 1585, a
canon which expressly prohibits it. But if it has been
repressed one way, the free negroes and Maroons, al¬
though Africans, have adopted it, since they have
been established among the Caribs, solely with the
view of distinguishing their children, which are born
free, from those who are born in slavery. The Oma-
quas, a people of South America, according to P.
Veigh, press the heads of their children so violently
between two planks that they become quite sharp at
the top, and flat before and behind. They say they
do this to give their heads a greater resemblance to
the moon.
MACROCERCI, a name given to that class of ani¬
malcules, which have tails longer than their bodies.
MACROCOLUM, or Macrocollum (formed of
f.ictKg'Os, “ large, and koX^xu), “ I join,”) among the Ro¬
mans, the largest kind of paper then in use. It mea¬
sured sixteen inches, and frequently two feet.
MACROCOSM, a word denoting the great W'orld
or universe. It is compounded of the Greek words
[aukqo;, “ great,” and xoepos, “ world.”
MACROOMP, or Macroom, a town of Ireland
in the barony of Muskerry, county of Cork, and pro¬
vince of Munster, 142 miles from Dublin j it is situ¬
ated amongst hills, in a dry gravelly limestone soil.—-
Th is place is said to take its name from an old crook¬
ed oak, so called in Irish, which formerly grew here.
The castle was first built in King John’s time, soon af¬
ter the English conquest (according to Sir Richard
Cox), by the Carews 3 but others attribute it to the
Daltons. It was repaired and beautified by Teague
Macarty, who died in the year 1565, and was father to
f T t the
M A D [ 3
H»=t«omt. tl»e celebrated Sir Comae Mac Teague men tioaed by
|'i Camden and otlier writers as an active person m
Madagas- Queen Elizabeth’s time. The late earls ot Glancarty
0fllj , altered this castle into a more modern structure, it be-
• |jUrnt down in the wars of 1641. Opposite to
the bridge is the parish-church, dedicated to St Col-
man of Cloyne. Here is a barrack for a loot company,
a market-house, and a handsome Roman Catholic chapel.
A considerable number of persons have been employed
in this town in combing wool and spinning yarn, and
some salt-works have been erected here. At hall a
mile’s distance is a spaw, that rises on the very brink ot
a bog •, its waters are a mild chalybeate, and are ac¬
counted serviceable in hypochondriacal cases, and in
cutaneous eruptions. I he fairs are four in theyeai.
MACROURUS, a genus of fishes belonging to the
order Fhorcicici. See Ichthyology Index.
MACTATIO, in the Roman sacrifices, signifies
the act of killing the victim. This was performed
-either by the priest himself, or some ot his infenor
officers, whom we meet with under the names ol popec,
agones, cvltrarii, and victmiarn ; but, before the beast
was killed, the priest, turning himseli to the east, drew
a crooked line with his knife, from the forehead to
the tail. Among the Greeks, this ceremony Was per¬
formed most commonly by the priest, or, in his absence,
by the most honourable person present. If the sacri¬
fice was offered to the celestial gods, the victim s
throat was bent up towards heaven } if to the infernal,
or to heroes, it was killed with its throat towards the
ground. The manner <tf killing the animal was by a
stroke on the head, and, after it was fallen, thrusting
a knife into its throat. Much notice was taken, and
good or ill success predicted, from the struggles of the
beast, or its quiet submission to the blow, from the flow¬
ing of the blood, and the length of time it happened to
live after the fall, &c.
MACUL/E, in Astronomy, dark spots appearing on
the luminous surfaces of the sun and moon, and even
some of the planets. See ASTRONOMY Index.
MAD-apple. See Solanum, Botany Index.
MADAGASCAR, the largest of the African
islands, is situated between 43° and 510 of E.'-Long.
and between 12° and 26° of S. Lat. •, extending in
length near 1000 miles from north-nofth-cast to south-
south-west, and about 300 in breadth where broadest.
It was discovered in 1506 by Laurence Almeyda •, hut
the Persians and the Arabians were acquainted with it
from time immemorial under the name of Scrandib.
Alphonzo Albuquerque ordered Ruy Pereira dy Con-
thinto to visit the interior parts, and that general in¬
trusted Tristan d’Acunha with the survey. The Por¬
tuguese called it the. island of St Lawrence ; the French
who visited it in the reign of Henry IV. named it Isle
Daitphine ; its proper name is Madegasse. It is now,
however, by common consent, called Madagascar.
This large island, according to many learned geo¬
graphers, is the Cerne of Pliny, and the Menuthiasde
of Ptolemy. It is everywhere watered by large rivers,
streams and rivulets, which have their sources at the
foot of that long chain of mountains which runs through
the whole extent of the island from east to west,
v Voyage a The two highest promontories are called Vivagora and
Madagas- R0tistmenc.
PaA-fr/oi These mountains (according to the abhe Rochon*)
] MAD
enclose within their bosoms a variety of precious inir.e- Malagas
rals and useful fossils. The traveller (who for the first car.
time rambles over savage and mountainous countries, v "
intersected with valleys and with hills, where nature
left to herself brings forth the most singular and the
most varied productions) is involuntarily surprised and
terrified at the sight of precipices, the summits of which
are crowned with monstrous trees, that seem coeval
with the world. His astonishment is redoubled at the
noise of those grand cascades, the approach to which
is generally inaccessible. But to those views so sub¬
limely picturesque, rural scenes soon succeed ; little
hills, gently rising grounds, and plains, the vegetation
of which is never repressed by the intemperance or the
vicissitude of the seasons. The eye contemplates with
pleasure those vast savannas which nourish numberless
herds of bullocks and of sheep. You behold a nou¬
rishing agriculture, produced almost solely by the fer¬
tilizing womb of nature. The fortunate inhabitants
of Madagascar do not bedew the earth with their
sweat ; they scarcely stir the ground with a rake, and
even that slight preparation is sufficient. They scrape
little holes at a small distance from each other, into
which they scatter a few grains of rice, and cover them
with their feet} and so great is the fertility of the soil,
that the lands sown in this careless manner produce a
hundred fold.
The forests present a prodigious variety of the most
useful and the most beautiful trees j ebony, wood for
dyeing, bamboos of an enormous thickness, and palm
trees -of every kind. The timber employed in ship¬
building is no less common than those kinds so much
prized by the cabinetmaker. We are told by the
French governor Flacomt, in his history of this island t, f Hist, dehl
that in the year 1650 he sent to France 52,000 weight
of aloes of an excellent quality. All of these variousparis l66J
trees and shrubs are surrounded by an infinite number
of parasitical plants } mushrooms of an infinite diversity
of kinds and colours arc to be met with everywhere in
the woods : and the inhabitants know well how to di¬
stinguish those which are prejudicial to the health.
They collect large quantities of useful gums and resins ;
and out of the milky sap of a tree, denominated by them
fingnlore, a species ot jatropba, the inhabitants, by
means of coagulation, make that singular substance
known to naturalists by the name oigum clastic, or In¬
dian rubber.
Besides the aromatic and medicinal herbs which a-
bound in the forests, the island produces flax and hemp
of a length and strength which surpass any in Europe.
Sugar-canes, %vax, honey of different kinds, tobacco,
indigo, white-pepper, gum-lac, ambergris, silk, and cot¬
ton, would long since have been objects of commerce
which Madagascar would have yielded in profusion, if
the Europeans, in visiting the island, had f urnished the
inhabitants with the necessary information for preparing
and improving these several productions.
The sugar-canes (as we are informed by another tra- _ ^ ^
veller |) are much larger and finer than any in the West y0^a„e ^
Indies ; being as thick as a man’s wrist, and so full ^
juice, that a foot of them wfill weigh two pounds.
When the natives travel, they carry a sugar-cane along
with them, which will support them for two or three
days. Here are also plenty of tamarinds; and such
quantities of limes and oranges, that very large casks
may
MAD
[
may be filled with their juices at a trifling expence, as
they may be purchased for iron pots, muskets, powder,
ball, &c. During the short time that Admiral Wat¬
son’s squadron staid here in 1754, Mr Ives preserved
about half a hogshead full of those juices, which prov¬
ed afterwards of the greatest service to the ships crews.
It must be observed, hovvevei', that no good w'ater is
to be had at St Augustine in the south-west part of the
island, where ships usually touch, unless boats are sent
for it four or five miles up the river ; and instead of
filling their casks at low water (as is the case in most
other rivers), they must begin to fill at about a quarter’s
flood : The reason assigned for this is, that the river
has a communication with the sea at other places be¬
sides this of St Augustine’s bay $ and it has been found
by experience, that the sea water brought into the river
by the flood tide is not discharged till a quarter’s flood
of the next tide in St Augustine’s bay j and for three
miles up the river, the water is always very brackish, if
not quite salt.
The abundance and variety of provisions of every
kind, which a fine climate and fertile soil can produce,
are on no part of the globe, according to M. Rochon,
superior to those of Madagascar: game, wild-fowl,
poultry, fish, cattle, and fruits, are alike plentiful. The.
oxen, Mr Ives also informs us, are large and fat, and
have each a protuberance of fat between the shoulders,
weighing about 20 pounds. Their flesh is greatly
esteemed by all the European nations trading to In¬
dia, and ships are sent to Madagascar on purpose to
kill and salt them on the island. The protuberance
of fat above mentioned is particularly esteemed after
it has lain some time in salt j but our author says,
that he could not join in the encomiums either on this
piece or the beef in general; as the herbage on which
the creatures feed gives their flesh a particular taste,
which to him was disagreeable. The sheep difler little
from the goats ; being equally hairy, only that their
heads are somewhat larger : their necks resemble that
of a calf, and their tails weigh at least ten pounds.
Vast quantities of locusts rise here from the low lands
in thick clouds, extending sometimes to an incredible
length and breadth. The natives eat these insects, and
even prefer them to their finest fish. Their method
of dressing them .is to strip off their legs and wings,
and fry them in oil.
The inhabitants (termed Melagackes or Madecasses'),
M. Rochon informs us, are in person above the middle
size of Europeans. The colour of the skin is different
in difterent tribes : among some it is of a deep black,
among others tawney} some of the natives are of a copper
colour, but the complexion of by far the greatest number
is olive. All those who are black have woolly hair like
the negroes of the coast of Africa : those, on the other
hand, who resemble Indians and Mulattocs, have hair
equally straight with that of the Europeans j the nose
is not broad and flat; the forehead is large and open $
m short, all the features are regular and agreeable.
I heir physiognomy displays the appearance of frank¬
ness and of satisfaction } they are desirous only of learn¬
ing such things as may administer to their necessities 5
that species of knowledge which demands reflection is
indifferent to them; sober, agile, active, they spend the
greatest part of their time either in sleep or in amuse¬
ment. In fine, according to the Abbe, the native of
] MAI)
Madagascar, like savages in general, possesses a charac¬
ter equally devoid ol vice and of virtue 5 the gratifications
ot the present moment solely occupy his reflections j
he possesses no kind of foresight whatever ; and he can¬
not conceive the idea that there are men in the world
who trouble themselves about the evils of futurity.
I he population of the island has been estimated at
four millions j but this calculation is thought exag¬
gerated by our author, and indeed it appears incredible
to us. Every tribe or society inhabits its own can¬
ton, and is governed by its own customs. Each of
these acknowledges a chief 5 this chief is sometimes
elective, but more usually hereditary. The lands are
not divided and portioned out, but belong to those
who are at the trouble of cultivating them. These
islanders make use of neither locks nor keys j the
principal part of their food consists in rice, fish, and
flesh j their rice is moistened with a soup which is sea¬
soned with pimento, ginger, saffron, and aromatic
herbs. Ihey display wonderful cunning in catching
a variety of birds, many of which are unknown in Eu¬
rope j they have the pheasant, the patridge, the quail,
the pintado, the wild duck, teal of five or six different
kinds, the blue hen, the black paroquet, and the turtle¬
dove, in great plenty j and also a bat of a monstrous
size, which is much prized on account of its exquisite
flavour. Ihese last are so hideous in their appearance,
that they at first terrify the Europeans sailors : but after
they have vanquished their repugnance to them, they
prize their flesh infinitely before that of the pullets of
their own country. The Melagaches also catch an im¬
mense quantity of sea-fish : such as the dorado, tho
sole, the herring, the mackarel, the turtle, &c. with
oysters, crabs, &c. The rivers afford excellent eels,
and mullets of an exquisite flavour.
The inhabitants near St Augustine’s bay, Mr Ives
informs us, speak as much broken English as enables
them to exchange their provisions for European ar¬
ticles. These, on the part of the Melagaches are cattle,
poultry, milk, fruit, rice, salt, porcelain, potatoes,
yams, fish, lances, and shells. From the Europeans
they receive muskets, powder, bullets, flints, clouties,
(including handkerchiefs, and linen of all kinds),
beads, iron pots, &c.—Silver, which they call manila^
is in great esteem with them, and is made by them
into bracelets for their wives.
That part of the island at which the English squa¬
dron touched, is in the dominions of the king oi Baba,
who, by the account of Mr Ives, seemed greatly to
affect to be an Englishman. They had no sooner
touched at the island, than they were waited on by one
called Babin Hood, and another person, both of whom
bore the office of pursers. Along with these were
Bhilibcy the general •, John Anderson and Frederic
Martin, captains. Nor did the king himself and his
family disdain to pay them a visit 5 who, in like man¬
ner, were distinguished by English names ; the king’s
eldest son being called the prince of Wales, and the
court not being without a duke of Cumberland, a
Prince Augustus, princesses, &c. as in England. All
these grandees came on board naked, excepting only
a slight covering about their loins and on their shoul¬
ders, made of a kind of grass growing on the island;
which they had adorned with small glass heads by way
of border or fringe. Their hair resembled that of the
T t 2 Indians
Madagas-
Madagas¬
car.
T-
MAD [ 332 ]
M A 1)
Indians in being long and black, rather tnan tne wool-
>\y heads of the African negroes. “ The wives of the
Melagaches (according to our author) take great pains
with their husbands hair j sometimes putting it in
large and regular curls ; at other times braiding it in
great order, and making it shine with a particular oil
which the island produces. The men always carry in
their hands a wooden lance headed with iron, which
is commonly made very neat j and they are such ex¬
cellent marksmen, that they will strike with it a very
small object at 30 or 40 yards distance. They have
also commonly a musket, which they get from Euro¬
peans in exchange for cattle, and are always sure to
keep in excellent order. I am sorry to say (continues
Mr Ives) that the English are frequently guilty of
great impositions in this kind of traffic, by disposing
of cheap and ill-tempered barrels among the poor in¬
habitants, who sometimes lose their lives by the burst¬
ing of these pieces. Such iniquitous practises as these
must in the end prove injurious to the nation ; and has
indeed already made the name of more than one-hall of
these traders truly infamous among the deluded but
hitherto friendly Madagascarians.
“ They are a civil and good-natured people, but
(easily provoked, and apt to show their resentment on
the least provocation, especially when they think
themselves injured or slighted. Another characteris¬
tic of them is, the very high notions of dignity they
entertain of their king; which is carried to such a
height, that they are never more sensibly hurt than
when they imagine he is treated with incivility or dis¬
respect. This mighty monarch resides in a town
built with mud, about 12 miles up the country from
St Augustine’s bayo. On the east side of the bay, as
you enter, there resided one Prince William, a rela¬
tion and tributary to the king; but who in most cases
acted as an independent prince, and always used his
utmost endeavours with the officers to cause them buy
their provisions from him, and not from the king or
his subjects. In this prince’s territories, not far from
the sea, are the remains of a fort built by Avery the
pirate.
“ All the women of Madagascar, excepting the
very poorest sort, wear a covering over their breasts
and shoulders, ornamented with glass beads, and none
go without a cloth about their loins. They common¬
ly walk with a long slender rod or stick. The men
are allowed to marry as many women as they can
support.
“ During our stay at this island (says Mr Ives), I
observed with great concern, several miserable objects
in the last stage of the venereal disease. They had
not been able to find any cure; and as far as I could
learn, their doctors are totally ignorant of medicine.
The only method they use for curing all distempers,
as well external as internal, is the wearing on the arm
or neck a particular charm or amulet ; or besmearing
the part affected with earth moistened with the juice
of some plant or tree, and made up into soft paste.
“ I took some pains to learn their religious tenets;
and find that they worship one Universal Father :
whom, when they speak in English, they call God;
and in whom they conceive all kinds of perfection to
reside. The sun they look upon as a glorious body ;
gild, I believe., as a spiritual l e ng, but created and
dependent. They frequently look up to it with won- Madagas-
der, if not with praise and adoration. 'Ihey make car.
their supplications to the One Almighty, and offer sa-' v *
crilices to him in their distresses. I had the curiosity
to attend a sacrifice, at the hut of John Anderson,
whose father had for a long time been afflicted with
sickness. About sunset an ox was brought into the
yard ; and the son, who officiated as a priest, slew it.
An altar was reared nigh, and the post of it was
sprinkled with the blood of the victim. The head,
after its being severed from the body, was placed,
with the horns on, at the foot of the altar r the caul
w7as burned on the fire, and most of the pluck and en¬
trails boiled in a pot. The sick man, who was brought
to the door, and placed on the ground so as to face
the sacrifice, prayed often, and seemingly with great
fervency. His eyes were fixed attentively towards the
heavens, and his hands held up in a supplicating pos¬
ture. The ceremony ended with the son’s cutting up
the ox into small pieces; the greatest part of which
he distributed amongst the poor slaves belonging to his
father and himself; reserving, however, some of the
best pieces for his own use. Upon the whole, I saw
so many circumstances in this Madagascarian sacrifice,
so exactly resembling those described in the Old Te¬
stament as offered up by the Jews, that 1 could not
turn my thoughts back to the original, without being
sensibly struck by the exactness of the copy.'’
When the squadron first arrived at Madagascar, the
Idng of Baba, a man of about 60 years of age, was
ill of the gout. Having demanded of Admiral Watr
son some presents, the latter complimented him, among
other things, with some brandy. The monarch then
asked him if he had any doctor with him, and if he
was a great doctor, and a king’s doctor ? 'Io all which
being answered in the affirmative, he desired him to
bring some mahomets (medicines) for his sick knee.
With this requisition Mr Ives designed to comply ;
but having waited until some officers should be ready
to aeccompany him, his majesty in the mean time,
took such a dose of brandy as quickly sent the gout
into Lis head, and occasioned his death. Mr Ives ob¬
serves, that it happened very luckily tor him that the
monarch’s decease happened without bis having taken
any of the medicines intended for him, as it would
have been impossible to avoid the imputation of having
poisoned him, which would certainly have been resent¬
ed by his loyal subjects.
The king’s death occasioned great confusion ; the
grandees being desirous that it should be concealed for
some time. This, however, was found impossible ; on
which they set off for the Mud Town about 11 o’clock
the same evening. All the inhabitants of the village
followed their example ; leaving only the dogs, who
set up the most hideous howling. Captain Ercdenc
M artin coming to take leave of the English, begged
with great earnestness for a fresh supply of gunpow¬
der; whispering that the king was dead, and that
they should in all probability go to war about making
another. They bad been formerly (old, that one who
had the title of duke of Baba would certainly succeed
to the throne ; but they afterwards learned, that Phi-
libey the general having espoused the cause of
phani the late king’s son, and taken him under his tu-.
telage and protection, this youth, who was only ab.opfc
M AD [ .
Madagas’ lo years oi age, succeeded his father us kino- 0f
car. Baba.
_ The following is a description of the southern divi¬
sion of the island, from the Abbe Rochon.
“ That part of Madagascar in which Fort-Dauphin
is situated is very populous. Almost all the villages
are placed on eminences, and surrounded with two rows
ot strong palisadoes, somewhat in the manner of such
ot our fences as are composed of hurdles and turf.
Within, is a parapet of solid earth about four feet in
height j large pointed bamboos placed at the distance
of five feet from each other, and sunk in a pit, form
a kind of loop-holes, which contribute towards the de¬
fence of these villages, some of which are besides for¬
tified with a ditch ten feet in breadth and six in
depth. The dwelling of the chief is called a do/mc.
When the chiefs go abroad, they are always provided
with a musket and a stick armed with iron, and adorn¬
ed at the extremity with a little tuft of cow’s hair.
They wear a bonnet of red wool. It is chiefly by the
colour of their bonnet that they are distinguished'from
their subjects. Their authority is extremely limited :
however, in the province of Carcanosst, the lands by
custom belong to their chiefs, who distribute them
among their subjects for the purposes of cultivation •,
they exact a trifling quit-rent in return, which in their
language is called fuetisa. The people of Carcanossi
are not altogether ignorant of the art of writing ; they
even possess some historical works in the Madagascar
tongue : but their learned men, whom they term Om-
biasses, make use of the Arabic characters alone. They
have treatises on medicine, gcomancy, and judicial
astrology ; the most renowned live in the province of
Maiatanc j it is in that district that magic still remains
in all its glory; the Matanes arc actually dreaded by
the other Madecassees on account of their excellence
in this delusive art. The Ombiasses have public schools
in which they teach geomancy and astrology. The
natives have undoubtedly learned the art of writing
from the Arabians, who made a conquest of this island
about 300 years since.
“ 1 he people of the province of Afiossi, near Fort
Dauphin, are lively, gay, sensible, and grateful 5 they
are passionately fond of women j are never melancholy
in their company 5 and their principal occupation is
to. please the sex ; indeed, whenever they meet their
wives, they begin to sing and dance. The women, from
being happy, are always in good humour. Their live¬
ly and cheerful character is extremely pleasing to the
Kuropeans. I have often been present at their assem¬
blies, where affairs of importance have been agitated 3
I have observed their dances, their sports, and tlieiy
amusements, and I have found them free from those
excesses which are but too common among polished
nations. Indeed I was too young at this, time for my
observations to be of much weight 5 but if my experi¬
ence be insufficient to inspire confidence, I beg the
reader will rather consider the nature of tilings, than
the relations given by men without principles or intel¬
ligence, who fancy that they have a right to tyrannize
over the inhabitants of every country which they can
subdue. If the people of Madagascar have sometimes
availed themselves ot treachery, they have been forced
^0 it by the tyranny of the Europeans. The weak
iiave no other arms against the strong. Could they
33 j M A D
defend themselves by any other means from our artil- Ma.larra,.;
lery and bayonets ? They are uninformed and helpless j cai\
and we avail ourselves ot their weakness, in order to '-"•‘-v—
make them submit to our covetousness and caprice.
.They receive the most cruel and oppressive treatment,
in return for the hospitality which they generously be¬
stow on us ; and we call them traitors and cowards,
when we force them to break the yoke with which we
have been pleased to load them.”
In the second volume of Count Benyowsky’s Me¬
moirs and I ravels we have the following account of
the religion, government, &c. of the people of this
island.
. “ The Madgascar nation believe in a Supreme Be¬
ing, whom they call Zanhare, which denotes creator of
all things. They honour and revere this Being 3 but
have dedicated no temple to him, and much less have
they substituted idols. They make sacrifices, by kill¬
ing oxen and sheep, and they address all these libations
to God. It has been asserted, that this nation likewise
makes offerings to the devil : but in this there is a de¬
ception 3 for the piece of the sacrificed beast which is
usually thrown into the fire is not intended in honour
of the devil, as is usually pretended. This custom is
very ancient, and no one can tell the true reason of it.
With regard to the immortality of the soul, the Ma¬
dagascar people are persuaded, that, after their death,
their spirit will return again to the region in which the
Zanhare dwells 3 but they by no means admit that the
spirit of man, after his death, can suffer any evil. As
to the distinction of evil or good, they are persuaded
that the good and upright man shall be recompensed,
in this life, by a good state of health, the constancy
of his friends, the increase of his fortunes, the obedi¬
ence of his children, and the happiness of beholding
the prosperity of his family : and they believe that the
wicked man’s fate shall be the contrarv to this. The
wicked man’s fate shall be the contrary to this. The
Madagascar people, upon this conviction, when they
make oaths, add benedictions in favour of those who
keep them, and curses against those who break them.
In this manner it is that they appeal to the judgment
of Zanhare, in making agreements3 and it has never
been known, or heard of, that a native of Madagascar
has broken his oath, provided it was made in the usual
manner, which they say was prescribed by their fore?
fathers.
“ As to their kings and form of government, &c.
the Madagascar people have always acknowledged
the line of Ramini, as that to which the rights of Am-
pansacabe or sovereign belongs. They have consider¬
ed this line as extinct since the death of Dian Rami¬
ni Larizon, which happened 66 years ago, and whose
body was buried upon a mountain, out of which the
river Manangourou.springs 3 but having acknowledged
the heir of this line on the female side, they re-esta¬
blished this title in the year 1776. The right of the
Ampansacabe consists in nominating the Rohandrians
to assist in the cabars, at which all those who are ci¬
ted are bound to appear, and the judgment of the Am-
pansacabe in his cabar is decisive. Another preroga¬
tive of the Ampansacabe is, that each Rohandrian
is obliged to leave him by will a certain proportion
of his property, which the successors usually purchase
by a slight tribute or fine. Thirdly, The Ampansa¬
cabe has a right to exact from each Rohandrian one-
tenth
MAD
[ 33+ 1
M A D
tenth of the produce of his land, and a number of
horned cattle and slaves, in proportion to the riches of
the country possessed by each Rohandrian. The second
order is composed ot the Rohandrians, or princes.
Since the loss of the Ampansacabe, three of these Ro¬
handrians have assumed the title of kings, namely the
Rohandrian of the province of Mahavelou, named
Hiavi; of the province of Voemar, named Lamhouin ;
and a third at Bombetoki, named Cimanounpmi. The
third order consists of the Voadziri, or lords of a dis¬
trict, composed of several villages. The fourth order
consists of the Lohavohits, or chiefs of villages. The
fifth order, Ondzatzi, who are freemen, compose the
attendants or followers of the Rohandrians, Yoadziri,
or Lohavohits. The sixth order consists of Ombiasses,
or learned men ; and this order forms the warriors,
workmen, physicians, and diviners : these last possess
no charge. The seventh order consists of Ampurias or
slaves.
“ H aving made inquiries from Bombetoki passing to
the northward, and as far as Itapere, the result proved
that there are 38 Rohandrians actually reigning, and
287 Voadziri. With respect to the Lohavohits, Ond¬
zatzi, and Ombiasses, it was not possible to obtain any
accurate determination of their number. These or¬
ders preserve a regular gradation, respecting which it
would be very difficult to give a detailed account.
They live in the manner we read of concerning the
ancient patriarchs. Every father of a family is priest
and judge in his own house, though he depends upon
the Lohavohits, who superintends his conduct. This
last is answerable to his Voadziri, and the Vbadziri to
the Rohandrian.
“ The Madagascar people having no communication
with the main land of ^Ethiopia, have not altered
their primitive laws j and the language throughout
the whole extent of the island is the same. It would
be a rash attempt to determine the origin of this na¬
tion j it is certain that it consists of three distinct
races, who have for ages past formed intermixtures
which vary to infinity. The first race is that of Zafe
Ibrahim, or descendants of Abraham ; but they have
no vestige of Judaism, except circumcision, and some
names, such as Isaac, Reuben, Jacob, &c. This race
is of a brown colour.—The second race is that of Za-
feramini: with respect to this, some books which are
still extant among the Ombiasses, affirm that it is
not more than six centuries since their arrival at Ma¬
dagascar.—With respect to the third race of Zafe
Canambou, it is of Arabian extraction, and arrived
much more lately than the others from the coasts of
/Ethiopia : hence it possesses neither power nor cre¬
dit, and fills only the charges of writers, historians,
poets, &c.
“In regard to arts and trades, the Madagascar na¬
tion are contented with such as are necessary to make
their moveables, tools, utensils, and arms for defence *,
to construct their dwellings, and the boats which are
necessary for their navigation •, and lastly, to fabricate
cloths and stuffs for their clothing. They are de¬
sirous only of possessing the necessary supplies of im¬
mediate utility and convenience. The principal and
most respected business, is the manufacture of iron
and steel. The artists in this wTay call themselves am-
panefa vihe. They are very expert in fusing the ore,
and forging utensils, such as hatchets, hammers, an- Madaga
vils, knives, spades, sagayes, razors, pincers, or tweez- car
ers for pulling out the hair, &c. The second class con- /
sists of the goldsmiths {nmpanefa vola mena) : they cast
gold in ingots, and make up bracelets, buckles, ear¬
rings, drops, rings, &c. The third are called ompavil-
langa, and are potters. The fourth are the ompuneva-
ta, or turners in wood, who make boxes called vatta,
plates, wooden and horn spoons, bee-hives, coffins, &c.
The fifth ompan cacasou, or carpenters. They are very
expert in this business, and make use of the rule, the
plane, the compasses, &c. The sixth are the ompania-
vi, or ropemakers. They make their ropes of different
kinds of bark of trees, and likewise of hemp. The se¬
venth, ampan lamba, or weavers. This business is per¬
formed by women only, and it would be reckoned dis¬
graceful in a man to exercise it. The ombiasses are
the literary men and physicians, who give advice only.
The herauvit'Z are comedians and dancers.
“ The Madagascar people always live in society ;
that is to say, in towns and villages. The towns are
surrounded by a ditch and pallisades (as already men¬
tioned), at the extremities of which a guard of from 12
to 20 armed men is kept. The houses of private peo¬
ple consist of a convenient cottage, surrounded by se¬
veral small ones : the master of the house dwells in the
largest, and his women or slaves lodge in the smaller.
These houses are built of wood, covered with leaves of
the palm tree or straw'.
“ The houses of the great men of the country are
very spacious ; each house is composed of two w'alls
and four apartments : round about the principal house
other smaller habitations are built for the accommoda¬
tion of the women, and the whole family of the chief j
but the slaves cannot pass the night within them.—
Most of the houses inhabited by the Rohandrians are
built with taste and admirable symmetry.”
The French attempted to conquer and take jiosses-
sion of the whole island, by order, and for the use of,
their Most Christian Majesties Louis XIII. and XIV.
and they maintained a footing on it from the year
1642 to 1657. Luring this period, by the most cruel
treachery, they taught the native princes the barbarous
traffic in slaves, by villanously selling to the Lutch go¬
vernor of Mauritius a number of innocent people, w'bo
had been assisting them in forming a settlement at Fort
Dauphin.
The Abbe Rochon tells u«, that the insalubrity of the
air in Madagascar determined his countrymen in 1664
to quit that immense island, in order to establish them¬
selves at so inconsiderable a place as the isle of Bour¬
bon, which is scarcely perceptible in a map of the
globe : but it is apparent, from the account of the state
ol the French affairs on the island of Madagascar, in
1661, when Flacourt’s narrative was published, that
their ill treatment of the natives had raised such a ge¬
neral and formidable opposition to their residence in the
country, that the French were obliged to abandon their
possessions for other reasons than the unhealthy qualities
of the climate. We have not room here for a detail of
all the oppressive measures of the French, which the
abbe himself candidly censures in the strongest terms 5
but shall extract the following narrative, both because
it is interesting in itself, and exhibits the causes and
the means of their expulsion.
La
Madagas¬
car.
M A D [ 3
La Case, one of tlie French officers employed by
^ the governor of Fort Dauphin against the natives,
was so successful in all his enterprises, that they called
him Deoan Pons, the name of a chief who had for¬
merly conquered the whole island. The French go¬
vernor, jealous of his renown, treated him harshly, and
refused to^ allow him the rank or honours due to his
valour. I he sovereign of the province of Amboulle,
called Deaan llascitat, taking advantage of his discon¬
tent, prevailed on him to become his general. Five
Frenchmen followed him. Deaan Nong, the daugh¬
ter of Rascitat, captivated by the person and heroism
of La Case, offered him her hand with the consent of
her father. The chief, grown old, infirm, and arrived
at the last stage ot existence, had the satisfaction of
securing the happiness of his subjects, by appointing
his son-in-law absolute master ot the rich province of
Amboulle. La Case, in marrying Deaan Nong, re¬
fused to take the titles and honours attached to the
sovereign power : he would accept of no other cha¬
racter, than that ot the first subject of his wife, who
Was declared sovereign at the death of her father. Se¬
cure in the aflection of this princess, who was not
only possessed of personal charms, hut of courage and
great qualities, he was beloved and respected byr her
family, and by all the people ot Amboulle, who reve¬
renced him as a father j and yet, how much soever he
wished it, he was unable to contribute to the prosperity
of his countrymen at Fort Dauphin, whom he knew to
be in the utmost distress. The governor, regarding
him as a traitor, had set a price on his head, and on
the heads ot the five Frenchmen who had followed
him. The neighbouring chiefs, irritated at this treat¬
ment ot a man ivhom they so much venerated, unani¬
mously refused to supply the fort with provisions. This
occasioned a tamine in the place, which, with a conta¬
gious fever and other maladies, reduced the French
garrison to 80 men.
file establishment at Fort Dauphin, on the point
of being totally destroyed, was preserved for a short
time from ruin by the arrival of a vessel from France,
commanded by Kercadio an officer of Brittany, who,
with the assistance of a young advocate who had been
kidnapped on hoard the vessel, prevailed on the envi¬
ous and implacable governor Chamargou to make
peace with La Case and his sovereign spouse Deaan
Nong. This peace, however, lasted hut for a short
time; the French, restless and insolent to the neigh¬
bouring nations, again drew on them the vengeance
of the natives. Even the few friends whom they had
been able to acquire by means of La Case, were ren¬
dered hostile to them by the tyrannic Zeal of the mis¬
sionaries; who, not contented with being tolerated
and allowed to make converts, insisted on Deaan Ma-
nang, sovereign of Alandrary, a powerful, courageous,
and intelligent chief, well disposed to the French, to
divorce all his wives but one. This prince, not con-
vinced ot the necessity ot such a measure, assured them
that he was unable to change his habits and way
ot living, which were those of his forefathers. “ You
would allow me (says he) to have one wife; hut if
the possession of one women is a blessing, why should
a numerous seraglio be an evil, while peace and con¬
cord reign among those of whom it is composed ?
Do you see among us any indications of jealousy or
2
35 j M A D
hatred ? No, all our women are good j all try to make
me happy ; and I am more their slave than their mas¬
ter. . 11ns speech had no effect on Father Stephen
superior of the Madagascar mission. lie perempto¬
rily ordered him instantly to repudiate all his wives
except one ; and threatened, in presence of the wo¬
men, to have them taken from him by the French
soldiers, it he hesitated in complying with his com-
mands; Jt is easy to imagine, says M. Bochin, with
what indignation this language must have been heard
in the aonac or palace of this prince. The females as¬
sailed the missionary on all sides j loaded him with ex¬
ecrations and blows; and in their fury, would doubt¬
less have afforded him no more quarter than the Thra
cian women did Orpheus, if Deaan Manang, notwith¬
standing his own agitation, had not made use of all his
authority to save him.
In order to free himself from the persecution of this
priest, he removed with his family 70 or 80 miles up
into the country 5 but he was soon followed by Father
Stephen and another missionary, with their attendants.
J lie chief, Manang, still received them civilly j but he
in treated them no longer to insist on the conversion of
him and his people, as it was impossible to oblige them
to quit the customs and manners of their ancestors.
The only reply which Father Stephen made to this
intreaty, Was by tearing off the olt, and the amulets
and charms which the chief wore as sacred badges of
his own religion j and, throwing them into the fife, he
declared war against him and his nation. This violence
instantly cost him and his followers their lives : they
were all massacred by ftrder of Manang, who vowed
the destruction of all the French in the island j in which
intention he proceeded in a manner that has been re¬
lated by an eye witness, who was afterwards provincial
commissary of artiliefy, in a narrative published at
Lyons in 1 ’] 2 2, entitled" / oyage de Madagascar. “ Our
yoke (says the Abbe.Bochon) was become odious and
insupportable. Historians, for the honour of civilized
nations, should bury in oblivion the afflicting narratives
ot the atrocities exercised on these people, whom We
are pleased to call barbarous, treacherous, and deceit¬
ful, because they have revolted against European ad¬
venturers, whose least crime is that of violating the sa¬
cred lites of hospitality.”
It was about the year 1672 that the French were
totally driven from the island of Aladagascar ; and no
considerable attempts were made to form fresh establish¬
ments there till within these few years, by M. de AIo-
dave, and by Count BenyoWski 5 neither ot which was
attended with success, for reasons given by the Abbe,
but which we have not room to detail.
AIADDER, a plant used in dyeing. Sec Bueia,
Botany Index; and for its dyeing properties, see
Dyeing.
MADEFBAS, a cluster of islands, belonging to Poia
tugal, situated in the Atlantic ocean, in AV. Long. 160,
and between 32° and 330 N. Lat.—The largest of them,
called Madeira, from which the rest take their name,
is about 55 English miles long, and 10 miles broad j
and was first discovered on the 2d of July, in the year
14X9, by Joao Gonzales Zarco, there being no histori¬
cal foundation for the fabulous report of its discovery
by one Alachin an Englishman. It is divided into two
capitanias, named Funchal and Maxico, from the towns
of
MAD [ 33
M'ticiras of tliose names. The former contains two judicature^,
V.—-s W viz. Funchal and Galhetta j the latter being a town
with the title of a county, belonging to the family of
Castello Melhor. The second capltanla likewise com¬
prehends two judicatures, viz. Maxico (read Maslnco)
and San Vicent^. . .
Funchal is the only citadel or city in the island,
which has also seven villas or towns} of which there
are four, Calhetta, Camara de Lohos, Kibeira Uraba,
and Ponta de Sol in the capitania of Funchal, which
is divided into 26 parishes. The other three are in
the capitania of Maxico, which consists of 17 parishes }
these towns are called Max/'co, San T iccntc, and Sa?ita
Cruz. <
There is one curiosity in the town of Funchal, which
deserves to be taken notice of, and that is a chamber
in one of the corners of the Franciscan convent, the
walls and ceiling of which are completely covered with
rows of human skulls and human thigh bones, so ai-
ranged that in the obtuse angle made by each pair of
the latter, crossing each other obliquely, is placed a
skull. The only vacant space that appears is in the
centre of the side opposite to the door, on which theie
is an extraordinary painting above a kind of altar, but
what the subject it is intended to represent, it is difficult
to determine. A figure probably intended for St Fran¬
cis, the patron saint, seems to be intent on trying in a
balance the comparative weight of a sinner and a saint.
A dirty lamp suspended from the ceiling, and just glim¬
mering in the socket, serves dimly to light up this dis¬
mal den of skulls. The monk who attends as shew-
man, is careful to impress on the minds of those who
\ ist it, the idea that they arc all relicks of holy men
who died on the island, although Mr Barrow is of opi¬
nion that the church yard must have been frequently
robbed, in order to accumulate such a prodigious num¬
ber of skulls, which from a rough computation made by
that gentleman, could not be under 30DQ.
The governor is at the head of all the civil and mi¬
litary departments of this island, of Porto-Santo, the
Salvages, and the llhas Desertas *, which last only con¬
tain the temporary huts of some fishermen, who resort
thither in pursuit of their business *, his salary is com¬
puted to be worth 2000I. per annum, 200I. of which
is in the form of a present from the English mer¬
chants.
The law department is under the corregidor, who is
appointed by the king of Portugal, commonly sent
from Lisbon, and holds his place during the king’s
pleasure. All causes come to him from inferior courts
by appeal. Each judicature has a senate ) and a Jut*
or judge, whom they choose, presides over them. At
Funchal he is called Juiz da Fora; and in the ab¬
sence, or after the death of the corregidor, acts as
his deputy. The foreign merchants elect their own
judge, called the Provider, who is at the same time
collector of the king’s customs and revenues, which
amount in all to about i2,oool. sterling. Far the
greatest part of this sum is applied towards the salaries
of civil and military officers, the paj of troops, and
the maintenance of public buildings. This revenue
arises, first from the tenth of all the produce of this
island belonging to the king, by virtue of his office as
grand master of the order of Christ} secondly, From
ten per cent duties laid on all imports, provisions ex-
6 ] M A D
cepted ) and lastly, From the eleven per cent, charged Muddnu
on all exports.
The island has but one company of regular soldiers
of 100 men : the rest of the military force is a militia
consisting of 3000 men, divided into companies, each
commanded by a captain, who has one lieutenant un¬
der him and one ensign. There is no pay given to
either the private men or the officers of this militia i
and yet their places are much sought alter, on account
of the rank which they communicate. These troops
are embodied once a-year, and exercised once a-month.
All the military are commanded by the Serjeante Alor.
'[’lie governor has twro Capitanos de Sal about him, who
do duty as aides-de-camp.
The secular priests on the island are about 1200,
many ot whom are employed as private tutors. Since
the expulsion of the Jesuits, no regular public school
is to be found here ; unless w e except a seminary,
where a priest, appointed for that purpose, instructs
and educates ten students at the king’s expence. These
wear a red cloak over the usual black gowns worn
by ordinary students. All those who intend to go
into orders, are obliged to qualily themselves by study¬
ing in the university of Coimbra, lately re-established
in Portugal. There is also a dean and chapter at Ma¬
deira, with a bishop at their head, whose income is con¬
siderably greater than the governor’s j it consists of
110 pipes of wine, and of 40 mays of wheat, each con¬
taining 24 bushels } which amounts in common years
to 3000I. sterling. Mere are likewise 60 or 7Q Fran¬
ciscan friars, m four monasteries, one of winch is at
Funchal. About 300 nuns live on the island, in four
convents, of the order ol Merci, Sta Clara, lncana§ao,
and Dom Jesus. Those of the last-mentioned institu¬
tion may marry whenever they choose, and leave their
monastery.
In the year 1768, the inhabitants living in the 43
parishes of Madeira, amounted to 63,913, of whom
there were 31,341 males and 32,572 females. But
in that year 5243 persons died, and no more than
2198 children w’ere born j so that the number of the
dead exceeded that of the born by 304J' Ft is high¬
ly probable that some epidemical distemper carried off
so disproportionate a number in that year, as the
island w'onld shortly be entirely depopulated if the
mortality were always equal to this. Another circum¬
stance concurs to strengthen this supposition, name¬
ly, the excellence of the climate. The weather is in
general mild and temperate: in summer, the heat is
very moderate on the higher parts of the island, whither
the better sort of people retire for that season j and in
the winter the snow remains there for several days,
whilst it is never known to continue above a day or two
in the lowrer parts.
The common people of this island are of a tawney
colour, and well shaped ; though they have large feet,
owing perhaps to the efforts they are obliged to make
in climbing the craggy paths of this mountainous
country. Their faces are oblong, their eyes dark}
their black hair naturally falls in ringlets, and begins to
crisp in some individuals, which may perhaps be owing
to intermarriages with negroes} in general, they are
hard featured, but not disagreeable. Their women
are too frequently ill-favoured, and want the florid
complexion, which, when united to a pleasing assem¬
blage
[
MAD
Madeira^, bkge of regular features, gives our northern fair ones
>   the superiority over all their sex. They are small
have prominent cheek hones, large feet, an ungraceful
gait, and the colour of the darkest brunette The
just proportion of the body, the fine form of their
hands, and their large lively eyes, seem in some mea¬
sure to compensate for those defects. The labour¬
ing men, in summer, treat linen trowsers, a coarse
shirt, a large hat, and boots ; some have a short jacket
made of cloth, and a long cloak, which they some¬
times carry over their arm. The women wear a pet¬
ticoat, and a short corselet or jacket, closely fitting
their shapes, which is a simple, and often not an in¬
elegant dress. They have also a short but wide
cloak j and those that are unmarried tie their hair on
the crown of their head, on which they wear no co¬
vering.
The country people are exceeding sober and frugal;
their diet in general consisting of bread and onions,
or other roots, and little animal food. However, they
avoid eating tripe, or any olfals, because it is proverbi-
dly said of a very poor man, “ He is reduced to eat
tnpe. I heir common drink is water, or an infusion
of the remaining rind or skin of the grape (after it has
passed through the wine press), which when fermented
acquires some tartness and acidity, but cannot be kept
very long. The wine for which the island is so famous,
and which their own hands prepare, seldom if ever re¬
gales them.
Their principal occupation is the planting and rais¬
ing of \ines } but as that branch of agriculture re¬
quires little attendance during the greatest part of the
year, they naturally incline to idleness. The warmth
of the climate, which renders great provision against
the inclemencies of weather unnecessary, and the ease
with which the cravings of appetite are satisfied, must
tend to indolence, wherever the regulations of the
legislature do not counteract it, by endeavouring, with
the prospect of increasing happiness, to infuse the spi¬
rit of industry. It seems the Portuguese government
does not pursue the proper methods against this dan¬
gerous lethargy of the state. They have lately order¬
ed the plantation of olive trees here, on such spots as
are too dry and barren to bear vines; but they have
not thought of giving temporary assistance to the la¬
bourers, and have offered no premium by which these
might be induced to conquer their reluctance to inno¬
vations and aversion to labour.
Ihe vineyards are held only on an annual tenure,
and the farmer reaps but four-ten tils of the produce,
since other four-tenths are paid in kind to the owner
of the land, one-tenth to the king, and one to the
olergy. Such small profits, joined to the thought of
toiling merely for the advantage of others, if improve¬
ments were attempted, entirely preclude the hopes of
n future increase. Oppressed as they are, they have
however preserved a high degree of cheerfulness and
contentment; their labours are commonly alleviated
with songs, and in the evening they assemble from
< ifjerent cottages to dance to the drowsy music of a
guitar.
The inhabitants of the towns are more ill-favoured
t ian the country people, and often pale and lean.
ie men wear French clothes, commonly black, which
o not seem to fit them, and have been in fashion in
Vol. XII. Part I.
337 ] M AI)
the polite world about half a century ago. Their ladies ,!
are delicate and have agreeable features: but the '
characteristic jealousy of the men still locks them up
and deprives them of a happiness which the countrv
women, amidst all their distresses, enjoy. Many of the
better people are a sort of petite noblesse, which we
would call gentry, whose genealogical pride makes
them unsociable and ignorant, and causes a ridiculous
affectation of gravity. The landed property is in the
hands of a few ancient families, who live at Funchal,
and in the various towns on the island.
Madeira consists of one large mountain, whose
branches rise everywhere from the sea towards the
centre of the island converging to the summit, in the
imdst of which is a depression or excavation, called the
, V,ie 1,nhabltants’ always covered with a fresh
and delicate herbage. This and another cavity of the
same description are supposed on good grounds to have
been craters of volcanoes. The rocks consist of three
or four different species of lava, some of which have
assumed a regular prismatic form, some of the prisms
being extremely perfect, and of 30 or 40 feet in length
Ihey also contain olivine, and occasionally carbonate,
of lime and zeolite 5 and intermixed with the strata
of lava are beds of clay, with layers of pumice ami
ashes. I he soil of the island is clay on the surface
ami large masses of it as hard as brick are found un¬
derneath.
Many brooks and small rivulets descend from the
summits in deep chasms or glens, which separate the
various parts of the island. The beds of the brooks are
in some places covered with stones of all sizes, carried
down from the higher parts by the violence of winter
rains or floods of melted snow. The water is conduct¬
ed by wears and channels in the vineyards, where each
proprietor has the use of it for a certain time; some
being allowed to keep a constant supply of it, some
to use it thrice, others twice, and others only once a-
week. As the heat of the climate renders this supply
of water to the vineyards absolutely necessary, it is
not without great expence that a new vineyard ean be
planted; for the maintenance of which, the owners must
purchase water at a high price, from those who are
constantly supplied, and are thus enabled to spare some
of it.
Wherever a level piece of ground can he contrived
in the higher hills, the natives make plantations of ed-
does, enclosed by a kind of dyke to cause a stagnation,
as that plant succeeds best in swampy ground. Its leaves
serve as food for hogs, and the country people use the
roots for their own nourishment.
1 he sweet potato is planted for the same purpose,
and makes a principal article of diet; together with
chesnuts, which grow in extensive woods, on the higher
parts of the island, where the vine will not thrive.
Wheat and barley are likewise sown, especially in
spots where the vines are decaying through age, or
where they are newly planted. But the crops do not
produce above three months provisions; and the in¬
habitants are therefore obliged to have recourse to
other food, besides importing considerable quantities
of corn from North America in exchange for wine.
The want of manure, and the inactivity of the people,
are in some measure the causes of this disadvantage;
but supposing husbandry to be carried to its perfection
f U u here.
I 338 ]
MAD
\Ku]pirn ; and their mutton and beef.
M A D
here they could not raise corn sufficient tor their con¬
sumption.' They make their threshing-floors of a cir¬
cular form, in a corner of a field, which is cleared and
beaten solid for the purpose. The sheaves are laid
round about it; and a square board, stuck lull of sharp
flints below, is dragged over them by a pair ol oxen,
the driver getting on it to increase its weight. Ihis
machine cuts the straw as if it had been chopped, and
frees the grain from the husk, from which it is aiter-
wards separated. . . „
The great produce of Madeira is the wine, irom
which it has acquired fame and support. Where the
soil, exposure, and supply of water, will admit of it,
the vine is cultivated. One or more walks, about a
yard or two wide, intersect each vineyard, and are
included by stone walls two feet high. Along these
walks which are arched ovfer with laths about seven
feet high, they erect wooden pillars at regular di¬
stances^ to support a latticework of bamboos, which
slopes down from both sides df the walk, till it is only
a foot and a, half or two feet high, in which elevation
it extends over the whole vineyard. The vines are in
this manner supported from the ground, and the peo¬
ple have room to root out the weeds which spring up
between them. In the season of the vintage, they
creep under this lattice-work, cut ofl" the grapes, and
lay them into baskets : some bunches of these grapes
weigh six pounds and upwards. This method of keep¬
ing the ground clean and moist, and ripening the grapes
in the shade, contributes to give the Madeira wines
that excellent flavour and body for which they are re¬
markable. The owners of vineyards are however
obliged to allot a certain spot of ground for the growth
of bamboos j for the lattice-wrork cannot be made with¬
out them : and it is said some vineyards lie quite ne¬
glected for wrant of this useful reed.
The wines are not all of equal goodness, and con¬
sequently of different prices. The best, made of a
vine imported from Candia by order of the Infante of
Portugal, Don Henry, is called Madeira Malmsey, a
pipe of which cannot be bought on the spot for less
than 40I. or 42I. sterling. It is an exceeding rich
sweet wine, and is only made in a small quantity. The
next sort is a dry wine, such as is exported for the Lon¬
don market, at 30I. or 31I. sterling the pipe. Inferior
sorts for the East India, West India, and North Ameri¬
can markets, sell at 28I. 25I. and 20I. sterling. About
40,000 pipes are annually exported, one half of which
goes to the British settlements in the East and West
Indies. The best vines grow on the south side of the
island, and on the side of the hill which points to the
east. The inhabitants import Indian corn and wheat
from North America, great quantities of salt fish from
Newfoundland, and fresh meat and live sheep and oxen
from Barbary. The total amount of imports fiom
England in the 17 years ending in 1809, was 3,278,043!.
and of exports to England only 216,167k
The enclosures of the vineyards consist of walls, and
hedges of prickly pear, pomegranates, myrtles, bram¬
bles, and wild roses. The gardens produce peaches,
apricots, quinces, apples, pears, walnuts, chesnuts, and
many other European fruits j together with now and
then some tropical plants, .such as bananas, goavas, and
pine-apples.
All the common domestic animals of Europe are
though small, is very well tasted. 'Iheir horses are
small, hut sure-footed j and w’ith great agility climb
the difficult paths, which are the only means of com¬
munication in the country. They have no wheel-cai-
riages of any kind : but in the town they use a sort
of "drays or sledges, formed of two pieces of plank
joined bv cross pieces, which make an acute angle be¬
fore j these are drawn by oxen, and are used to trans¬
port casks of wine, and other heavy goods, to and liom
the warehouses. .
The animals of the feathered tribe, which live wild
here, are more numerous than the wild quadrupeds j
there being only the common grayr rabbit here, as a
representative of the last-mentioned class. lame buds,
such as turkeys, geese, ducks, and hens, are veiy rare,
which is perhaps owing to the scarcity ot corn.
There are no snakes whatsoever in Madeira j but
all the houses, vineyards, and gardens, swarm with liz¬
ards. The friars of one of the convents complained;
to Mr Forster, that these vermine destroyed the fruit
in their garden j they had therefore placed a brass-
kettle in the ground to catch them, as they are con¬
stantly running about in quest of food. In this man¬
ner they daily caught hundreds, which could not get
out on account of the smooth sides of the kettle, but
were forced to perish.
The shores of Madeira, and of the neighbouring
Salvages and Desertas, are not without fish j but as
they are not in plenty enough for the rigid observance
of Lent, pickled herrings are brought from Gotten-
burg in English bottoms, and salted cod fiom New
York and other American ports, to supply the defici¬
ency.
MADIAN, in Ancient Geography, a town of Arabia
Petraea, near the Arnon j so called from one ol the
sons of Abraham by Neturaj in ruins in Jerome’s time.
Jerome mentions another Madian, or Midian, beyond
Arabia, in the desert, to the south of the Red sea »
and hence Madiancei, and Madianitcei, the people j and
Madiancea Jlegio, the country.
MADNESS, a most dreadful kind of delirium,
without fever. See Medicine hidex.
MADRAS. See St George.
MADRE DE Popa, a town and convent of South
America, in Terra Firma, seated on the river Grande..
It is almost as much resorted to by pilgrims ol Ame¬
rica as Loretto is in Europe ; and the image ol the.
Virgin Mary is said to have done many miracles in
favour of the seafaring people. W. Long. 70. o. JN..
Lat. 11. o.
MADREPORA, in Natural History, the name of a.
genus of submarine substances j belonging to the order
lithophyta. See Helminthology hidex.
MADRID, a town of New Castile in Spain, and
capital of the whole kingdom, though it never had the
title of a city, is situated in W. Long. 3. 5. N. Lat.
40. 26. It stands in the centre of a large plain, sur¬
rounded with mountains, and in the very heart of
Spain, on the banks of the little river Manzanares,
which is always very low and shallow, except when it is
swelled by the melting of the snow on the mountains.
The city is in general well laid out; the streets are very
handsome ; and the houses are fair and lofty, but built
of brick, with lattice-windows, excepting those of the
MAD
Madrid, ncli, who have glass in their windows j only, during
summer heats, they use gauze, or some such thin
stuff, instead of it, to let in the fresh air. There are
two stately bridges here over the Manzanares, a great
many magnificent churches, convents, hospitals, and
palaces. The royal palace, which stands on the west
side of the town, on an eminence, is spacious and mag¬
nificent, consisting of three courts, and commanding a
fine prospect. At the east end of the town is the pra-
do, or pardo j which is a delightful plain, planted with
regular rows of poplar trees, and watered with a great
many fountains ^ where the nobility and gentry take
the air on horseback, or in their coaches, and the com¬
mon people on foot, or divert themselves with a variety
of sports and exercises. Almost all the streets of Ma¬
drid are straight, wide, clean, and well paved. The
largest and most frequented are the street of Alcala,
that of Atocha, that of Toledo, and the Qalle Grande
or great street. Madrid has also several squares, which
in general are not very regular. The principal axe
those of San Joachim, Sol, Lasganitas, San Domingo,
Ta Cevado, and the Plaza Mayor. The latter espe¬
cially deserves notice for its spaciousness and regularity,
and the elegant and lofty houses it contains. It is 1536
feet in circuit. The houses, of which thei'e are 1 36,
are of five stories, ornamented with balconies ; the fixst
of which, supported by pillar’s, forms a piazza round
the square, where the inhabitants many walk under co¬
ver. In the middle of the square a market is kept.—
Ihe streets and squares of Madrid, except the Plaza
Alayor which has been just described, are ornamented
with fountains in a very ill taste. Those most to be
distinguished in this particular are the fountain of the
small irregular square called Plaza di Antonio Marlin,
and that of the square named Puerto del Sol. The
others ai’e not more magnificent, though less ridiculous.
The water of all these fountains is excellent; and the
aii of Madrid, though the weather be valuable and un¬
certain, is extremely pure. This purity of the air
and excellent quality of the water which induced
Philip II. and his successors to fix their residence
in this city, arises from its great height, the plain on
which the city stands being more than 2000 feet
above the level of the sea. It is also well supplied
with provisions of all kinds at reasonable rates j and
the court, with the resort and residence of the
quality, and the high colleges and offices that are
kept here, occasion a brisk trade and circulation of
money.
I he sacred edifices in this city have nothing remark¬
able in their architecture j those of St Pasqual, St Isa¬
bella, and the Carmelites, contain highly valuable col¬
lections of pictures, which may be seen with admiration
even after the paintings of the Escurial and the new
palace. Ihe church of St Isidro, which heretofore be¬
longed to the Jesuits, has a portal which has escaped
the contagion of the age in which it was built. There
is another church, much more modern, which on ac¬
count of its mass has a venerable appearance, but which
true taste may justly disavow : it is that of St Salesas,
or the \ isitation, founded by Ferdinand VI. and the
queen Barbara his wife.—Besides a variety of chari¬
table foundations, there ai'e here three confraternities,
the revenues of which are appropriated to the succour
13* wretched } and an institution similar to the Mont
[ 339 ]
MAD
de Piete in Paris, the principal object of which is to
advance money to the necessitous.
Ihe city of Madrid contains 15 gates, 18 parishes,
35 convents of monks, and 31 of nuns j 39 colleges,
hospitals, or houses of charity ; 7398 dwelling-houses,
and about jtSS,000 inhabitants. The Lombard tra¬
veller lather taimo, tells us, that 50,000 sheep and
12,000 oxen are annually consumed there ; to which
his editor has added a ludicrous estimate of the onions
and leeks devoured there, which he says amounts to
9700000000000000000000000000000045. But this
writer (M. Bourgoanne observes) would not at pre¬
sent have any reason to complain of the disagreeable
smells of the streets, nor would he find all the per¬
fumes of Arabia necessary to defend himself from them.
By the vigilance of the modern police, for which (M.
Bourgoanne informs us) it is indebted to the Count
d Aranda, it is rendered one of the cleanest cities in
Europe.
There are four academies in Madrid: The first is
the Spanish academy, founded in 1714, in imitation of
the Trench academy, and consisting of 24 members,
including the president. Its device is a crucible on
burning coals, with the motto lympia,fixa, y da esplen-
der; “ it purifies, fixes, and gives lustre.” Its first
object was the compilation of a dictionary of the Spa¬
nish language, which was published in six volumes folio,
and of which a new edition, with great additions, has
been lately put to the press. The same academy is
also employed on a superb edition of Don Quixotte,
adorned with elegant engravings far superior to the.
last, and collated with all the former editions. The
second is the academy of history 5 which owes its ori¬
gin to a society of individuals, the object of whose
meetings was to preserve and illustrate the historical
monuments of the kingdom of Spain. Their labours
met the approbation of Philip V. who in 1738 con¬
firmed the statutes by a royal cedula. This academy
consists of 24 members, including the president, secre-
tary, and censor. Its device is a river at its source ;
and the motto, In patriam populumque jluit. The other
two academies are, the academy of the fine arts,
painting, sculpture, and architecture; and the aca¬
demy of medicine. The latter is held in no great
esteem.
Ihe environs of Madrid contain several royal seaEts^
among which are El Buen Retiro, Casa del Campo,
Tlorida, Le Pardo Sarsuela, and St Ildefonso; but the
most magnificent, not only in this country but perhaps
in the whole world, is the Escurial, which takes its
name from a small village near which it stands, about
22 miles north-west from Madrid 5 and of which a de¬
scription is given under the article Escurial. Ano¬
ther royal palace, greatly admired, particularly for its
delicious gardens and surprising water-works, is Aran-
juez, which is situated on the Tagus, about 30 miles
south of Madrid. See Aranjuez.
MADRIGAL, a short amorous poem, composed of
a number of free and unequal verses, neither confined
to the regularity of a sonnet, nor to the point of an epi¬
gram ; but only consisting of some tender and delicate
thought, expressed with a beautiful, noble, and elegant
simplicity.
Menage derives the word from mandra, which in
Latin and Greek, signifies “a sheep-fold j” imagining
. U u 2 it
Madrid,
Madrigal.
MAE
[ 34° 3
MAE
Madvtgal it to have been originally a kind of pastoral or shep-
II herd’s song} whence the Italians formed their madrt-
-eaecepa5’. ^aie^ aRlj we madrigal. Others rather choose to derive
* it from the word madrugar, which in the Spanish lan¬
guage signifies “ to rise in the morning the madn-
gales being formerly sung early in the morning by those
who had a mind to serenade their mistresses.
MADURA, a province of Asia, in the peninsula on
this side the Ganges } bounded on the east by 'lanjour
and Marava, on the south-east by the sea, on the west
by the Balagate mountains, which separate it from Ma¬
labar, and on the north by Visiapour and Carnate.
The inhabitants are Gentoos, and of a thievish disposi¬
tion. The commodities are rice, elephants teeth, and
cotton cloth } of which last a good deal is made here,
and very fine. At this place is a pearl fishery, which
brings in a large sum annually.
MyEANDER, in Ancient Geography, a celebrated
river of Asia Minor, rising near Celeente. It flows
through Caria and Ionia into the yEgean sea between
Miletus and Priene, after it has been increased by the
waters of the Marsyas, Lycus, Eudon, Lethseus, &c.
It is celebrated among the poets for its windings, which
amount to no less than 6oo, and from which all obli¬
quities have received the name of mceanders. It forms
in its course, according to the observation of some tra¬
vellers, the Greek letters e £ ! 5 ? and from its
windings Daedalus is said to have had the first idea of
his famous labyrinth.
MyEATiE, anciently a people of Britain, near Se-
f erus's wall,, inhabiting the district now called Lauder¬
dale, in Scotland.
MAECENAS, Caius Cilnius, the great friend and
counsellor of Augustus Caesar, was himself a very polite
scholar, but is chiefly memorable for having been the
patron and protector of men of letters. He was de¬
scended from a most ancient and illustrious origin, even
from the kings of Hetruria, as Horace often tells us }
but his immediate forefathers were only of the eques¬
trian order. He is supposed to have been born at Rome,
because his family lived there} but in what year anti¬
quity does not tell us. It says as little about his educa¬
tion : but we know it must have been of the most libe¬
ral kind, and perfectly agreeable to the dignity and
splendour of his birth, since he excelled in every thing
that related to arms, politics, and letters. How Mae¬
cenas spent his younger years is also unknown to us,
any farther than by effects ; there being no mention
made of him by any writer before the death of Julius
Caesar, which happened in the year of Rome 709.
s Then Octavius Caesar, who was afterwards called Au¬
gustus, went to Rome, to take possession of his uncle’s
inheritance} and then Maecenas became first publicly
known, though be appears to have been Augustus’s in¬
timate friend, and as it should seem guardian, from his
childhood. From that time he accompanied him
through all his fortunes, and was his counsellor and
adviser upon all occasions } so that Paedo Albinovanus
justly called him Cecsans dextram, “ Caesar’s right-
hand.”
In A. R. 710, the year that Cicero was killed and
Ovid born, Maecenas distinguished himself by his cou¬
rage and military skill at the battle of Modena, where
the consuls Hirtius and Pansa were slain in fighting
against Antony} as he did afterwards at Philippi.
4
After this last battle began the memorable friendship
between Maecenas and Horace. Horace, as Suetonius
relates, was a tribune in the army of Brutus and Cas¬
sius, and upon the defeat of those generals made a pxi-
soner of war. Maecenas, finding him an accomplished
man, became immediately his friend and protector }
and afterwards recommended him to Augustus, who
restored him his estate with no small additions. In
the mean time, though Maecenas behaved himself well
as a soldier in these and other battles, yet his principal
province was that of a minister and counsellor. He
was the adviser, the manager, the negociator, in every
thing that related to civil aflairs. When the league
was made at Bruudusium between Antony and Au¬
gustus, Maecenas w’as sent to act on the part of Au¬
gustus. This we learn from Horace in his journey to
Brundusium :
Hue venturus erat Meecenas optimusy atque
Cocccius, missi magnis de rebus uterqite
Legati, aversos soldi componere amicos. Sat. v. lib. I.
And afterwards, when this league was near breaking,
through the suspicions of each party, Maecenas was sent
to Antony to ratify it anew'.
In the year 717, when Augustus and Agrippa went
to Sicily to fight Sextus Pompeius by sea, Maecenas
went with them} but soon after returned to appease
some commotions which w'ere rising at Rome : for
though he usually attended Augustus in all his military
expeditions, yet whenever there was any thing to be
done at Rome either w ith the senate or people, be wras
always despatched thither ior that purpose.
Upon the total defeat of Antony at Actium, Maece¬
nas returned to Rome, to take the government into his
hands, till Augustus could settle some necessary affairs
in Greece and Asia. Agrippa soon followed Maecenas }
and when Augustus arrived, he placed these two great
men and faithful adherents, the one over his civil, the
other over his military concerns. While Augustus w as
extinguishing the remains of the civil w ars in Asia and
Egypt, young Lepidus, the son of the triumvir, was
forming a scheme to assassinate him at his return to
Rome. This conspiracy was discovered at once, by the
extraordinary vigilance of Maecenas } who, as Velleius
Paterculus says, “ observing the rash councils of the
headstrong youth with the same tranquillity and calm¬
ness as if nothing at all had been doing, instantly put
him to death, without the least noise and tumult} and
by that means extinguished another civil war in its very
beginning.”
The civil wars being now at an end, Augustus re¬
turned to Rome } and from this time Maecenas indulged
himself at vacant hours in literary amusements, and the
conversation of men of letters. In the year 734 V irgil
died, and left Augustus and Maecenas heirs to what he
had. Maecenas w'as excessively fond of this poet, who,
of all the wits of the Augustan age, stood highest in his
esteem } and if the Georgies and the JEneid be owing
to the good taste and encouragement of this patron, as
there is some reason to think, posterity cannot comme¬
morate him with too much gratitude. Horace may be
ranked next to Virgil in Maecenas’s good graces : we
have already mentioned how and at what time their
friendship commenced. Propertius also acknowledges
Meecenas for his favourer and protector, lib. ii. eleg. 7.
Nor
MAE [ 3^!
Maecenas.* Nor must vrarius be forgot, though we have nothing of
» his remaining j since we find him highly praised by both
Virgil and Horace. He was a writer of tragedies j and
Quintilian thinks he may be compared with any of the
ancients. In a word, Maecenas’s house was a place of
refuge and welcome to all the learned of his time 5 not
only to Virgil, Horace, Propertius, and Varitis, but to
Pundarius, whom Horace extols as an admirable writer
ot comedies ; to Fuscus Aristius, a noble grammarian,
and Horace’s intimate friend j to Plotius Tucea, who
assisted Varius in correcting the ^Fneid after the death
of Virgil; to Valgius, a poet and very learned man,
who, as Pliny tells us, dedicated a book to Augustus,
De usu Herbarum ; to Asinius Pollio, an excellent tra¬
gic writer ; and to several others, whom it would be
tedious to mention. All these dedicated their works,
or some part of them at least, to Mmcenas, and cele¬
brated his praises in them over and over : and we may
observe farther, what Plutarch tells us, that even Au¬
gustus himself inscribed his Commentaries to him and
to Agrippa.
Maecenas continued in Augustus’s favour to the end
of his life, but not uninterruptedly. Augustus had an
intrigue with Maecenas’s wife : and though the minister
bore this liberty of his master very patiently, yet there
was a coldness on the part of Augustus, which, how¬
ever, soon went off. Maecenas died in the year 74J j
hut at what age we cannot precisely determine, though
we know he must have been old. He must have been
older than Augustus, because he was a kind of tutor to
him in his youth : and we find him often called an
old man by Paedo Albinovanus, a contemporary poet,
whose elegy upon his dead patron is still extant. He
made Augustus his heir j and recommended his friend
Horace to him in those memorable last words, 11 liara-
iii Flacci, ut mei, memor esto,” &c. Horace, how¬
ever, did not probably survive him long, as there is no
elegy ol his upon Maecenas extant, nor any account of
one having ever been written, which there certainly
would have been had Horace survived him any time.
Nay, bather banadon, the French editor of Horace,
will have it, that the poet died before his patron j and
that these last words were found only in Alsecenas’s
will, which had not been altered.
^ Maecenas is said never to have enjoyed a good state
of health in any part of his life : and many singularities
are related of his bodily constitution. Thus Pliny tells
us, that he was always in a fever ", and that, for three
years before his death, he had not a moment’s sleep.
Though he was certainly an extraordinary man, and
possessed many admirable virtues and qualities, yet it is
agreed on all hands, that he was very luxurious and ef¬
feminate. “ Maecenas (says Velleius Paterculus) was
of tne equestrian order, hut sprung from a most illus¬
trious origin. He was a man, who, when business re¬
quired, was able to undergo any fatigue and watching 5
Wiio consulted properly upon all occasions, and knew as
well how to execute what he had consulted ; yet a man
who in seasons of leisure was luxurious, soft, and effe¬
minate, almost beyond a woman. He was no less dear
to Caesar than Agrippa, but distinguished by him with
fewer honours *, for he always continued of the eques¬
trian rank, in which he was born : not that he could
not have been advanced upon the least intimation, but
ae never solicited it.”
1 mae
But let moralists ami politicians determine of Mace- ,
lias as they please, the men of letters are under high MocSrom.
obligations to celebrate bis praises and revere bis memo-v  
ry: for he countenanced, protected, and supported, as
tar as they wanted his support, all the wits and learn-
ed men of his time $ and that too, out of a pure and
disinterested love of letters, when he had no little views
ot policy to serve by their means: whence it is no
wonder, that all the protectors and patrons of learning
ever since, have usually been called Meecanas’s.
1IALLSTROM, a very dangerous whirlpool on the
the coast of Norway, in the 68th degree of latitude,
in the province ot Nordland, and the district of Lofo-
den and near the island of Moskoe, from whence it also
takes the name of Moskoe-strom. Its violence and
roarings exceed that of a cataract, being heard to a
gieat distance, and without any intermission, except a
quarter every sixth hour, that is, at the turn of high
and low water, when its impetuosity seems at a stand,
which short interval is the only time the fishermen can
venture in ; but this motion soon returns, and, however
calm the sea may be, gradually increases with such a
draught and vortex, as absorb whatever comes within
their sphere of action, and keep it under water for
some hours, when the fragments, shivered by the
rocks, appear again. This circumstance, among o-
thers, makes strongly against Kircher and others, who
imagine that there is here an abyss penetrating tbe
globe, and issuing in some very remote parts, which
Kirchei is so particular as to assign, for he names the
guli of Bothnia. But after the most exact researches
which the circumstances will admit, this is but a con¬
jecture without foundation; for this and three other
vortices among the Ferroe islands, but smaller, have
no other cause than the collision of waves rising and
falling, at the flux and reflux, against a ridge of rocks
and shelves, which confine the water so that it precipi¬
tates itself like a cataract; and tints the higher tbe
flood rises, the deeper must the fall be ; and the na¬
tural result of this is a whirlpool or vertex, the pro¬
digious suction whereof is sufficiently known by lesser
experiments. But what lias been thus absorbed, re¬
mains no longer at the bottom than the ebb lasts ; for
the suction then ceases, and the flood removes all at¬
traction, and permits whatever had been sunk to make
its appearance again. Of the situation of this amazing
Moskoe-strom we have the fallowing account from Mr
Jonas Ramus: “ The mountain of Helseggen, in Lo-
foden, lies a league from the island Ver, and betwixt
these two runs that large and dreadful stream called
Moskoe-strom, from the island Moskoe, which is in the
middle ol it, together with several circumjacent isles,
as Amhaaren, half a quarter of a, league northward,
Iflesen, Hoeholm, Kieldholm, Suarven, and Buck-
halm. Moskoe lies about half a quarter* of a mile
south of the island of Ver, ami betwixt them these
small islands, Otterholm, Flimen, Sanflesen, Stock¬
holm. Betwixt Lofoden and Moskoe, the depth of
the water is between 36 and 40 fathoms ; but on the
other side, towards Ver, the depth decreases, so as not
to afford a convenient passage for a vessel, without the
risk of splitting on the rocks, which happens even in
the calmest weather: when it is flood, the stream runs
up tire country between Lofoden and Moskoe with a
boisterous rapidity: but the roar of its impetuous ebb
to
MAE
Maelstrom to tlie sea is scarcely equalled by the loudest and most
II dreadful cataracts j the noise being heard several leagues
Maeonides. an^ vortices or pits are of such an extent and
v ' depth, that if a ship conies within its attraction, it is
inevitably absorbed and carried down to the bottom,
and there beat to pieces against the rocks ; and when
the water relaxes, the fragments thereof are thrown up
again. But these intervals of tranquillity are only at
the turn of the ebb and flood, and in calm weather : and
last but a quarter of an hour, its violence gradually re¬
turning. When the stream is most boisterous, and its
fury heightened by a storm, it is dangerous to come
within a Norway mile of it : boats, ships, and yachts
having been carried away, by not guarding against it
before they were within its reach. It likewise happens
frequently, that whales come too near the stream and
are overpowered by its violence j and then it is impos¬
sible to describe their bowlings and bellowings in their
fruitless struggles to disengage themselves. A bear
once attempting to swim from Lofoden to Moskoe,
With a design of preying upon the sheep at pasture in
the island, afforded the like spectacle to the people
the stream caught him, and bore him down, whilst he
roared terribly, so as to be heard on shore. Large
stocks of firs and pine trees, after being absorbed by
the current, rise again, broken and torn to such a de¬
gree as if bristles grew on them. This plainly shows
the bottom to consist of craggy rocks, among which
they are whirled to and fro. This stream is regulated
by the flux and reflux of the sea ; it being constantly
high and low water every six hours. In the year 1645,
early in the morning of Sexagesima Sunday, it raged
with such noise and impetuosity, that on the island of
Moskoe, the very stones of the houses fell to the ground.”
MiEMACTERIA, sacrifices oft’ered to Jupiter at
Athens in the winter month Maemacterion. The god
stirnamed Maemactes was entreated to send mild and
temperate weather, as he presided over the seasons, and
was the god of the air.
MyEMACTERION, was the fourth month of the
Athenian year, containing twenty-nine days, and an¬
swering to the latter part of our September, and the
beginning of October. It received its name from the
festival Mcemacteria, which was observed about this
time. This month was called by the Boeotians Alai-
comenius.
MiENA. See Sparus, Ichthyology Index.
M JEN ALUS, in Ancient Geography, a mountain of
Arcadia sacred to the god Pan, and greatly frequented
by shepherds. It received its name from Meenalus a
son of Lycaon. It was covered with pine trees, whose
echo and shade have been greatly celebrated by all the
ancient poets.
MjEONIA, or Moeonia, a country of Asia Minor,
and forming part of Lydia ; namely the neighbourhood
of Mount Tmolus, and the country watered by the
Pactolus. The rest on the sea coast was called Lydia.
See Lydia.
MJEONIDiE, a name given to the muses, because
Homer, their greatest and worthiest favourite, was
supposed to be a native of Maeonia.
MiEONIDES, a surname of Homer, because, ac¬
cording to the opinion of some writers, he was born in
Mteonia, or because his father’s name was Maeon.
M A F
MiEOTIS palus or lacus, Aide otic a Pains, or Meed- Mseoti*
ticus Lacus, in Ancient Geography, a large lake or part Talus
of the sea between Europe and Asia, at the north of ^.
the Euxine, to which it communicates by the Gimme-. , "
rian Bosphorus. It was worshipped as a deity by the
Massagetae. It extends about 390 miles from south¬
west to north-east, and is about 6oo miles in circum¬
ference. Still called Palus Mceotis, reaching from
Grim Tartary to the mouth of the Don.
M^ESTLIN, Michael, in Latin ALxstlinus, a ce¬
lebrated astronomer of Germany, wras born in the duchy
of Wittemberg j but spent his youth in Italy, where he
made a speech in favour of Copernicus’s system, which
brought Galilaeo over from Aristotle and Ptolemy, to
whom he had been hitherto entirely devoted. He af¬
terwards returned to Germany, and became professor
of mathematics at Tubingen; where, among his other
scholars, he taught the great Kepler, who has praised
several of his ingenious inventions, in his Astroncynia
Optica. Though Tycho Brahe did not assent to Macst-
lin’s opinion, yet he allowed him to be an extraordinary
person, deeply skilled in the science of astronomy.
Mxstlin published many mathematical and astronomical
works $ and died in 1590.
MAESTRICHT, an ancient town of the Nether¬
lands j is about four miles in circumference, and strong¬
ly fortified. The inhabitants, the number of whom is
estimated at i8,0C0, are noted for making excellent
fire arms. It contains an arsenal, a handsome town-
house, and a good library. Both Papists and Prote¬
stants are allowed the free exercise of their religion,
and the magistrates are composed of both. It is seat¬
ed on the river Maese, which separates it from Wyck,
and with which it communicates by a handsome bridge.
Maestricht revolted from the Spaniards in i^O, but
W'as reduced in 1579. Louis XIV. became master ot
it in 1673 ; but it was restored to the states by the
treaty of Nimeguen in 1678. It was again taken by
the French in 1794, and remained in their possession
till 1814. It now belongs to the kingdom of the Ne¬
therlands. E. Long. 5. 50. N. Lat. 50. 52.
MAFFiEUS, Vegio, a Latin poet, born in Lom¬
bardy in 1407, was greatly admired in his time.
He wrote epigrams, and a humorous supplement to
Virgil, which he called The thirteenth look oj the
JEneid: this wTas as humorously translated into Eng¬
lish a few years since by Mr Ellis. Maflaus wrote
also some prose works. He was chancellor of Rome
towards the end of the pontificate of Martin V.; and
died in 1458.
MAFFEI, Scipio, a celebrated Italian poet, born
of an illustrious and ancient family at Verona, in 1675.
After having finished his studies, he took arms, and
distinguished himself by his valour at the battle of Do-
nawert j but he more particularly distinguished himself
by his love of learning, which made him undertake se¬
veral voyages into France, England, and Germany.
He conversed with the learned in all those countries,
and obtained their friendship and esteem. He was a
member of the academy of the Arcadia at Rome, an
honorary foreign member of that of Inscriptions at
Paris $ and died in 1755. He wrote many works in
verse and prose, which are esteemed •, the most known
of which are, 1. The tragedy of Merope, of which
there
[ 342 1
MAG
Mallei there are two French translations in prose.
11 _ mony, a comedy. 3. A translation, into Italian verse
Magazine. t|le ^rst jjomei^s ^ Many other
pieces of poetry, in a collection entitled Rhyme and
Prose, quarto. His principal works in prose are, 1. Ve-
rona illustrata. 2. Istoma- diplomatic a* 3. Scien^a ca-
valleresca; an excellent work, in which he attacks duel¬
ling. 4. An edition of Theatro Italiano. 5. An edi¬
tion of Cassiodorus on the Epistles, Acts of the Apostles,
and Apocalypse. 6. Gallia: Antiquitates qua dam se¬
lectee, atque in plurcs cpistolus distributee; and sevex-al
other works.
MAGADA, in Mythology, a title under which Ve¬
nus was known and worshipped in Lower Saxonv ;
where this goddess had a famous temple, which w'as
treated with respect even by the Huns and Vandals
when they ravaged the country. It is said to have been
destroyed by Charlemagne.
MAGADOXO, the capital town of a kingdom of
the same name, in Africa, and on the coast of Ajan.
It is seated near the mouth of a river of the same name,
defended by a citadel, and has a good harbour. The
inhabitants are Mahometans. E. Long. 45. 13. N.
Lat. 3. o.
MAGAS, MagaDIS, (from /uxyud^iiv, “ to sing, or
play in unison or octave,”) the name of a musical in¬
strument in use among the ancients.
I here were two kinds of magades, the one a string
instrument, formed of 20 chords arranged in pairs,
and tuned to unisen or octave, so that they yielded
ten sounds : the invention wdiereof is ascribed by some
to Sappho; by others to the Lydians; and by some,
to 1 imotheus of Miletus. The other w'as a kind of
flute, which at the same time yielded very high and
very low notes. The former kind was at least much
improved by Timotheus of Miletus, who is said to
have been impeached of a crime, because by increasing
the number of chords he spoiled and discredited the
ancient music.
MAGAZINE, a place in which stores are kept,
of arms, ammunition, provisions, &c. Every fortiU
ued town ought to be furnished with a large mag'a-
zine, which should contain stores of all kinds, suffi¬
cient to enable the garrison and inhabitants to hold
out a long siege j and in which smiths, carpenters,
wheelwrights, See. may be employed in making every
thing belonging to the artillery, as carriages, wag¬
gons, &.c.
f 343 ] MAG
2. Cere- up at the handies, even tvith a straight horiionta! ex-
trados, and still much more so in powder magazines
whose outside at top is formed like the roof of a house’
by two inclined planes joining in an angle over the top
ot the arch, to give a proper descent to the rain ; which
enects are exactly what might be expected agreeable
to the true theory of arches. Now, as this shrinking-
ot the arches must be attended with very ill consequen¬
ces, by breaking the texture of the cement after it has-
been in some degree dried, and also by opening the
joints of the youssoirs at one end, so a remedy is pro¬
vided for this inconvenience with regard to* bridges
by the arch of equilibration in Mr Hutton’s book' on
bridges j but as the ill eflect is much greater in powder
magazines, the same ingenious gentleman proposed to
hud an arch of equilibration for them also, and to con¬
struct it when the span is 20 feet, the pitch or height
10 (which are the same dimensions as the semicircle),
the inclined exterior Avails at top forming an angle of
JI3 degrees, and the height of their angular point a-
bove the top of the arch equal to seven feet. This very
curious question AA-as answered in 1775 by the reverend
Mr Wildbore, to be found in Mr Hutton’s Miscellanea
Mathematical
Artillery Magazine. In a siege, the magazine is
made about 25 or 30 yards behind the battery, toAvards
the parallels, and at least three feet under ground, to
hold the poAvder, loaded shells, portfires, &c. Its sides
and roof must be Avell secured with boards to prevent
the earth from falling in : a door is made to it, and a
double trench or passage is sunk from the magazine to
the battery, one to go in and the other to come out at,
to prevent confusion. Sometimes traverses are made in
the passages to prevent ricochet shot from plunging into
them.
Magazine, on shipboard, a close room or store¬
house, built in the fore or after-part of the hold to
contain the gunpoAvder used in battle. This apartment.
is strongly secured against fire, and no person is allow¬
ed to enter it Avith a lamp or candle: it is therefore
lighted, as occasion requires, by means of the candles
or lamps in the light-room contiguous to it.
Magazine Air-Gun. See Air-Gun.
Magazine, Literary; a Avell-knoAvn species of pe¬
riodical publications, of which the first that appeared
Avas The Gentleman'1 s, set on foot by the projector Mi-
Magazine
     J   
Edward Cave in the year 1731: (see the article Cave).
. This, as Dr Kippis observes f, “ may be considered as f-B?og Brit.
1 oweler ^Magazine, is that place where the powder something of an epocha in the literary history of this v°b ui. Art
is-kept in very large quantities. Authors differ great- country. The periodical performances before that time^A'F'
ly both Avith regard to their situation and construction j AArere almost Avfiolly confined to political transactions,
and to foreign and domestic occurrences 5 but the
monthly magazines have opened a A\ray for every kind
of inquiry and information. The intelligence and dis¬
cussion contained in them are very extensive and va¬
rious : and they have been the means of diflusing a ge¬
neral habit of reading through the nation, Avhich in a
certain degree hath enlarged the public understanding.
Many young authors, who have afterwards, risen to con¬
siderable eminence in the literary world, have here
but all agree that they ought to be arched and bomb¬
proof. In fortifications, they are frequently placed in
the rampart; but of late they have been built in dif¬
ferent parts of the toAvn. rlhe first powder magazines
were made with Gothic arches: but M. Vauban find¬
ing them too weak, constructed them in a semicircular
form ; Avhose dimensions are 60 feet long within, and
25 broad •, the foundations are eight or nine feet thick,
and eight leet high from the foundation to the spring
of the arch, the floor is two feet from the ground,
Avhich keeps it from dampness.
One of our engineers of great experience some time
since had observed, that after the centres of semicircu¬
lar arches are struck, they settle at the crown and rise
made their first attempts in composition. Here too are
preserved a multitude of curious and useful hints, obser¬
vations, and facts, which otherAvise might have never
appeared j or if they had appeared in a more evanescent
form- vvould have incurred the danger of being lost. If
it
Magde¬
burg.
MAG [
Maenziae were not an tnvtilious task, tlie history of them would
■> be no incurious or uncntertaining subject. I he maga¬
zines that unite utility with entertainment are undoubt¬
edly preferable to those (if there have been any such)
which have only a view to idle and frivolous amuse¬
ment. It may be observed, that two ot them, J-hc
Gentleman's and The London, which last was begun the
year after the former, have, amidst their numerous ri¬
vals, preserved their reputation to the present day.
They have both of them, in general, joined instruction
'with pleasure ) and tins likewise hath been the case
with some others ot a later origin.—’l he original Lon¬
don Magazine, it has been believed, has been discon¬
tinued for some years past.—The next oldest publica¬
tion of this kind, is that entitled The Scots Magazine:
which was commenced at Edinburgh a few years pos¬
terior to the appearance ot the Gentleman's at London •,
which, like it, has survived many rivals, and has been
continued, under different proprietors and editors, with
various degrees of merit.
MAGDALEN, Mary. See Mary.
Religious of St Magdalen, a denomination given
to divers communities of nuns, consisting generally of
penitent courtezans; sometimes also called Magdale-
nettes. Such are those at Metz, established in 1452 ;
those at Paris, in 1492 ; those at Naples, first esta¬
blished in 1324, and endowed by Queen Sancha, to
^serve as a retreat for public courtezans, who should be¬
take themselves to repentance ; and those of Rouen and
Bourdeaux, which had their original among those ot
Paris in 1618. In each of these monasteries there are
three kinds of persons and congregations; the first con¬
sist of those who are admitted to make vows, and these
bear the name of St Magdalen ; the congregation of St
Martha is the second, and is composed of those whom
it is not judged proper to admit to vows ; finally, the
congregation of St Lazarus is composed of such as are
detained there by force.
The religious of St Magdalen at Rome were establish¬
ed by Pope Leo X. Clement VIII. settled a revenue
on them ; and farther appointed, that the effects of all
public prostitutes, dying intestate, should fall to them ;
and that the testaments of the rest should be invalid
unless they bequeathed a portion of their effects, which
was to be at least a fifth part, to them.
Magdalen Hospital. See London, N° 115.
MAGDALENA, one of the Marquesas islands,
about five leagues in circuit, and supposed to be in
8. Lat. 10. 25. W. Long. 138. 50. It was only
seen at nine leagues distance by those wTho discover¬
ed it.
MAGDALENE’S Cave, a cave of Germany, and
in Carinthia, 10 miles east of Gortz. It appears like
a chasm in a rock, and at the entrance torches arfe
lighted to conduct travellers. It is divided into several
apartments, or halls,with avast number of pillars form¬
ed by nature, which give it a beautiful appearance,
they being as white as snow, and almost transparent.
The bottom is of the same substance, insomuch that a
person may fancy himself to be walking among the ruins
of an enchanted castle, surrounded with magnificent pil¬
lars, some entire and others broken.
MAGDEBURG, a duchy of Germany, in the
circle of Lower Saxony; bounded on the north by
the duchy of Mecklenburgh, on the south and south-
344 ] MAG
west by the principality of Anhalt and Halberstadt,
on the east by Upper Saxony with part of Branden¬
burg, and on the west by the duchy of Wolfenbuttle. “
The Saale circle, and that of Luxkenwalde, are sepa¬
rated from the rest, and surrounded on all sides by a
part of Upper Saxony. This country is for the most
part level; but sandy, marshy, or overgrown with
woods. There are salt springs in it, so rich that
they are sufficient to supply all Germany w'ith that
commodity. The Holz circle is the most fruitful
part of it. In the Saale circle, where wood is scarce,
there is pit-coal; and at Rothenburg is a copper-mine
worked. The duchy IS well watered, for tne Elbe
passes through it; and the Saale, Havel, Aller, Dffie,
and Elsfcer, either rise in, or wash some part ol it in
their course. The whole duchy, exclusive of that part
of the county of Mansfeldt, which is connected with it,
is said to contain 29 cities, six towns, about 43® v^*
ages, and 330,000 inhabitants. The states oi the
country consist ot the clergy, the nobility, and de¬
puties of the cities. Before it became subject to the
electoral house ot Brandenburg, frequent diets were
held in it; but at present no diets are held, nor
have the states the direction of the finances as for¬
merly. Before the Reformation, it was an aich-
bishopric, subject in spirituals to the pope alone, and
its prelate was primate of all Germany ; but embracing
the Reformation, it chose itself administrators, till the
treaty of Munster, in 1648, when it was given, toge¬
ther with the bishopric of Halberstadt, to the elector
of Brandenburg, as an equivalent for the Hither Po¬
merania, granted by that treaty to the king of Sweden.
Lutheranism is the predominant religion here ; but Cal¬
vinists, Jews, and Roman Catholics, are tolerated. Ot
the last there are five convents, who never embraced
the Reformation. All the Lutheran parishes, amount¬
ing to 314, are subject to 16 inspectors, under one ge¬
neral superintendant; only the clergy of the old ton n
of Magdeburg are under the direction of their senior.
The Jews have a synagogue at Halle. The manufac¬
tures of the duchy are cloth, stuffs, stockings, linen, oil¬
skins, leather, and parchment; of which, and grain
of all sorts, large quantities are exported. I he arms
of it are, Party per pale, ruby, and pearl. 1 he king
of Prussia, as duke of Magdeburg, sits and votes be¬
tween the elector of Bavaria, as duke ot Bavaria, and
the elector palatine, as palsgrave of Lantern. Of the
states of the circle of Lower Saxony he is the first. His
matricular assessment for the duchy is 43 horse and 196
foot, or 1300 florins monthly; and to the chamber of
Wetzlar, 343 florins and 40 kruitzers. l or the civil
government of the duchy there is a council of regency,
with a war and demesne chamber ; and for the eccle¬
siastical a consistory and general superintendant. I he
revenues of the duchy, arising from the salt-works,
demesne, and taxes, some of which are very heavy and
oppressive, are said to amount to 800,000 rixdollars
annually. W ith respect to salt, every housekeeper in
the Prussian dominion is obliged to buy a certain
quantity for himself and wife ; and also for every child
and servant, horse, cow, calf, and sheep, that he pos¬
sesses. The principal places are Magdeburg, Halle,
and Glauche.
Magdeburg, a city of Germany, in a duchy of the
same name, of which it is not only the capital, but that
of
Magde-
buro-.
Magde¬
burg.
MAG j" -
of all Lower Saxony, and formerly of even all Germany
It stands on the Kibe, in E. Long. 11. 38. Jsf. Lat
52. JO. It is a city of great trade, strongly fortified"
and very -ancient. Its name signifies the maiden city
which, some imagine, took its rise from the temple of
enus, which is said to have stood here anciently, and
to have been destroyed by Charlemagne. The founder
ot the city is supposed to have been Otho I. or his em
press Ed,tha daughter to Edmund the Saxon king of
England. I he same emperor founded a Benedictine
convent here, which he afterwards converted into an
archbishopric, of which the archbishop was a count-
palatine, and had very great privileges, particularly'that
of wearing the archiepiscopal pallium, and having the
cross borne before him, besides many others. The first
tournament in Germany is said to have been appointed
near this city, by the emperor Henry the Fowler : but
these pastimes were afterwards abolished, because they
occasioned such envy and animosity among the nobi’-
iity, that several of them killed one another upon the
spot. I lie situation of the city is very convenient and
pleasant, upon the banks of the Elbe, amidst spacious
iruitrul plains, and on the road betwixt High and
Low Germany. It has been a great sufferer by fires
and sieges j but by none so much as that in 1621
when the emperor’s general, Count Tilly, took it by
storm plundered and set it on fire, by which it was
entirely reduced to ashes, except the cathedral, the
convent of our Lady, and a few cottages belonmng
to fishermen 5 ol 40,000 burghers, not above 400
escaping, fhe soldiers spared neither age nor sex ;
but ripped up women with child, murdered sucking
infants 111 sight of their parents, and ravished young
women in the streets ; to prevent which violation,
many of them flung themselves into the Elbe, and
others into the fire. The city is now populous, large,
and well built, particularly the broad street and ca¬
thedral square. The principal buildings are the king’s
palace, the governor’s house, the armoury, guildhall,
and cathedral. The last is a superb structure in the
antique taste, dedicated to St Maurice, which has a
fine organ, the master pipe of which is so big, that a
man can scarce clasp it with both arms ; it also con-
tains the tombs of the emperor Otho and the empress
Editha ; a fine marble statue of St Maurice, a por¬
phyry font, an altar in the choir of one stone of di¬
vers colours, curiously wrought, and many other cu¬
riosities. They show here a bedstead and table which
e onged to Martin Luther, when he was an Augus¬
tine friar in a cloister of this city before the Refor¬
mation. Among the relics, they pretended to have
the bason in which Pilate washed his hands after his
condemnation of our Saviour 5 the lantern which Judas
made use of when he apprehended him; and the lad¬
der on which the cock crowed after St Peter denied
* ini. I he chapter consists of a provost, sixteen major
and seven minor canons ; besides which, there are four
other Lutheran collegiate foundations, and a Lutheran
convent dedicated to our Lady, in which is a school
or seminary. . Here is also a gymnasium, with an aca-
emy, in which young gentlemen are instructed in
the art ol war. The canons of the chapter, which,
except the change of religion, is upon the same footing
as before the Reformation, must make proof of their
mobility. The prebends and dignities are all in the
Vol. XII. Part I. f
Magde¬
burg
j M A G
gilt oi the elector ; and the revenue of the provost is
computed at 12,000 crowns a-year. Here is a great
trade, and a variety of manufactures. The chief are II
those or woollen cloths and stuffs, silks, cottons, linen MaSdlau'
stockings, hats, gloves, tobacco, and snuff. The citv '
was- formerly one of the Hanse and Imperial towns.
-miha consort to Otho I. on whom it was conferred
as a dowry, among many other privileges and advan-
tages, procured it the grant of a yearly fair. The bur
gravate of this city was anciently an office of great
power ; having the civil and criminal jurisdiction, the
office ol hereditary cupbearer being annexed to it, and
was long held as a fief of the archbishopric, but after¬
wards became an imperial fief, which was again con¬
ferred on the archbishopric by the elector of Saxony
upon certain conditions.
MAGDOLUM, or Magdalum, in Ancient Geo-
mtphj, a town of _ the Lower Egypt, twelve miles to
the south of Pelusium (Herodotus, Antonine), which
doubtless is the Migdal or Magdol of Jeremiah.—Ano-
ther Magdalum, or Migdol, denoting literally “ a
tower or place of strength,” near the Red sea, (Moses) *;
far to the south of the former.
MAGELLAN, Ferdinand be, an eminent na¬
vigator, was by birth a Portuguese, of a good family.
He served m the East Indies with reputation for five
years under Albuquerque, and in 1510 he greatly di¬
stinguished himself at the battle of Malacca. Deeming
his services poorly repaid by his own court, he entered
into the employment of Charles V. king of Spain. He
has been charged with peculation by some of his coun¬
trymen, who have assigned this as the reason why he
quitted Portugal. In conjunction with Ruy Folero he
formed the bold design of discovering a new passage bv
the west to the Molucca islands, which he oflered To
pi o\ e fell within the division of the globe assigned by
the pope to the crown of Castile. It 'is said that he
first proposed this enterprise to Emanuel king of Por-
tugal, who rejected it, as opening a way for other na¬
tions to have access to the East Indies, the trade of
which was now monopolized by the Portuguese. The
proposition was agreed to by the king of Spain, and on
the 20th of September 1519 Magellan sailed from San
Lucar with five ships and 236 men under his command.
His officers soon murmured at this appointment, consi¬
dering it as a disgrace to be commanded by a rene¬
gade Portuguese ; and when the fleet was lying at a
port in South America which they named San Julian,
a conspiracy was formed against him by three of the
captains, which he discovered and quelled. He caused
the captain ot one of the ships to be assassinated, he
boarded a second, and secured the mutineers, and the
third submitted.
The coast on which they lay was that of Patagonia;
and this first voyage contains accounts of the extraordi¬
nary stature of the natives. About the end of October
they reached a cape, to which they gave the name of
Dee 1 as \ irgines, forming the entrance of the straits
which bear the name of Magellan. He exerted all his
authority to induce his men to venture on this unknown
passage, with the view of crossing a vast ocean beyond
it, at the hazard of running short of provisions, of which
a supply for three months was all he had remaining.
One of his ships abandoned him, and made the best of
her way to Europe. The rest proceeded, and on the
X x 27th
MAG
[ 346 ]
MAG
Maggi.
Magellan 27th of November they discovered the South sea,
11 which made Magellan shed tears of joy. They conti¬
nued their voyage over this ocean, now visited tor tlie
' first time by Europeans, and were not long in sutlering
those evils from famine which they had ^apprehended.
The men were reduced to the necessity of eating^ the
hides with which the rigging was covered. The
weather proved so uniformly calm and temperate, that
they gave to the ocean the name of Pacific. I hey
came in sight of the Ladrones on the 6th of March, so
called from the thievish disposition of the inhabitants}
and from thence they sailed to the Philippines. At
Zebu Magellan obtained with little difficulty the con¬
version of the king ; and on condition of his becoming
a vassal of Spain, the Portuguese assisted him in re¬
ducing some neighbouring chieftains, and the cross was
erected over some burnt villages.
With about 50 men Magellan landed upon Matan,
whose chief refused to submit to Zebu, had an engage¬
ment between them lasted for the greater part of the
day. His troops having spent all their ammunition,
found it necessary to retreat, during which Magellan
was wounded in the leg by an arrow, beaten down, and
at last slain with a lance. ibis happened in 1521.
By this act of imprudence he lost the honour of being
the first circumnavigator of the globe, which fell to the
lot of Cano, who brought his ship home by the East In¬
dies. Yet Magellan has secured an immortal name
among maritime discoveries, by the commencement of
this great enterprize, in which he displayed extraordi¬
nary skill and resolution, but disregarded justice and
humanity, then almost universal among adventurers of
tins class*
Straits of Magellan, a narrow passage between the
island of Terra del Fuego and the southern extremity
of the continent of America. rl his passage was first
discovered by Ferdinand Magellan, who sailed through
it into the South sea, and from thence to the East Indies.
Other navigators have passed the same way 5 but as
these straits are exceedingly difficult, and subject to
storms, it has been common to sail by Cape Horn,
rather than through the straits of Magellan. See Straits
le Maire, and Terra del Fuego.
MAGELLANIC CLOUDS, whitish appearances like
clouds, seen in the heavens towards the south pole, and
having the same apparent motion as the stars. Ihey
are three in number, twro of them near each other.
The largest lies far from the south pole 5 but the other
two are not many degrees more remote from it than
the nearest conspicuous star, that is, about 11 degrees.
Mr Boyle conjectures, that if these clouds were seen
through a good telescope, they would appear to be mul¬
titudes of small stars, like the milky-way.
MAGGI, Jerome,.in Latin Magius, one of the
most learned men of the 16th century, was born at
Anghiari in Tuscany. He applied himself to all the
sciences, and even to the art of war ^ and distinguished
himself so much in this last study, that the Venetians
sent him into the island of Cyprus in quality of judge
of the admiralty. When the Turks besieged Fama¬
gusta, he performed all the services that could be ex¬
pected from the most excellent engineer: he invented
mines and machines for throwing fire, by means of
which he destroyed all the works of the besiegers, and
in an instant overthrew what had cost the 1 urks infi¬
nite labour. But they had their revenge *, for, taking
the city in 1571, they plundered his library, carried
him loaded with chains to Constantinople, and treated
him m the most inhuman and bai barous mannei • He
nevertheless comforted himself from the example of
iEsop, Menippus, Epictetus, and other learned men ;
and after passing the whole day in the meanest drud¬
gery, he spent the night in writing. He composed,
bv the help of his memory alone, treatises filled with
quotations, which he dedicated to the Itnperial and
French ambassadors. These ministers, moved by com¬
passion for this learned man, resolved to, purchase him ;
but while they were treating for his ransom, Maggi
found means to make his escape, and to get to the
Imperial ambassador’s house *, when the grand visir be¬
ing enraged at his flight, and remembering the great
mischief he had done the Turks during the siege of
Famagusta, sent to have him seized, and caused him
to be strangled in prison in 1572. His principal works
are, 1. A Treatise on the Bells of the Ancients. 2. On
the Destruction of the World by Fire. 3. Commen¬
taries on iEmilius Probus’s Lives of Illustrious Men.
4. Commentaries on the Institutes. These works are
written in elegant Latin. He also wrote a treatise on
fortification in Italian ; and a book on the situation of
ancient Tuscany.
He ought not to be confounded with his brother
Bartholomew Maggi, a physician at Bologna, who
wrote a treatise of gunshot wounds : nor with Vincent
Maggi, a native of Bresse, and a celebrated professor
of humanity, at lerrara in Padua, who was the author
of several works.
MAGGIORE, L AKE OF, a beautiful lake, situated
on the confines of Switzerland and Italy, on the south
side of the Alps. It is about 50 miles long and 4 or
5 miles broad, and is bent into a very irregular figure.
Its height above the level of the sea, according to Count
Moroso, is 732 feet. Its greatest known depth is 1800
feet. It receives the waters of the Tesino, Magia,
and other rivers from the surrounding mountains. There
are several islands in it, and two of these, called the
Borromean islands, which have been beautified with
gardens and buildings at a great expence, aie much
admired by travellers.
MAGGOT, the common name of the fly-worm
bred in flesh, from the egg of the great blue flesh fly.
Notwithstanding the distaste lor this animal, its figuie
and structure of parts are greatly worth attending to j
and may serve as a general history of the class of worms
produced from the eggs of flies.
This animal is white and fleshy its body is composed
of a number of rings, like the bodies of caterpillars and.
other similar insects } and is capable, at the pleasure of
the animal, of assuming different figures *, being at times
more or less extended in length, and consequently more
or less thick. . .
Notwithstanding that this animal has no legs, it is
able to move itself very swiftly *, and in its first attempt
to move, its body is extended to its greatest length,
and assumes something of the figure of a pointed cone.
The pointed part of the cone is the head of the ani¬
mal, and is not separated from the next ring by any
deeper furrow than the rest of the rings are from one
another. In sonic states of the animal, one may see
two short horns thrust out from the head j but more
generally
Maggi,
Maggot.
M AG [ 347 ] MAG
\fajrrrot. generally two scaly hooks are observable: these are,
—V—1 however, sometimes hid, and have each of them a case
or sheath, into which the animal can retract them at
pleasure. These hooks are bent into an arch, the con¬
cavity of which is towards the plane on which the crea¬
ture is placed ; and they are thickest at their insertion
in the head, and thence diminish gradually, till they
terminate in a fine sharp point.
These two hooks are placed in a parallel direction,
and can never come together, and therefore cannot
serve in the place of teeth for grinding the food; but
merely to pull and sever it in pieces, that it may be of
a proper size for the mouth of the creature. Besides
these hooks, the maggot has a kind of dart, which is
about a third part of their length, and is placed at an
equal distance between them. This is also brown and
scaly like them ; it is quite straight, and terminates in
a line point. The hooks have as it were twro scaly
thorns at their points ; and this dart seems intended,
by reiterated strokes, to divide and break the pieces
of flesh these have separated from the rest into smaller
parts. Immediately below' the apertures for the egress
of the hooks, is placed the mouth of the animal ; the
creature does not show this little opening unless press¬
ed : but if the pi*essui*e is properly managed it will
sufficiently open it, and there may be discovered with¬
in it a small protuberance, which may very naturally
be supposed either the tongue or the sucker of the ani¬
mal. The hooks in these creatures not only supply
the place of teeth, but also of legs ; since it is by fast¬
ening these hooks into the substance it is placed on,
and then drawing up its body to it, that it pulls itself
i along.
The back of this creature lowers itself by degrees as
it approaches the extremity of the belly : and near the
place where the back begins to lower itself, are placed
the creature’s two principal organs of respiration. One
may perceive there are two small roundish brown spots :
they are very easily distinguishable by the naked eye,
because the rest of the body of the creature is white ;
but if we take in the assistance of glasses, each of these
spots appears to be a brown circular eminence raised
a little above the rest of the body. On each of these
spots one may also discover three oblong oval cavities,
something of the shape of button holes; these are situ¬
ated in a parallel direction to one another, and their
length nearly in a perpendicular direction to that of
the body of tbe animal. These apertures are so many
stigmata or air-holes : openings destined to admit the
air necessary to the life of the animal. It has six of
these stigmata, three in each side of its body.
The great transparency of the body of this animal
gives us an opportunity also to distinguish that it has
on each side a large white vessel running the whole
length of the body. It is easy to follow the course of
these vessels through their whole length, hut they are
most distinct of all towards its hinder part; and they
are always seen to terminate each in the brown spot
above mentioned ; this leaves us no room to doubt that
they are the tw'o principal tracheae.
The ramifications of the two great tracheae are very
beautifully seen in this creature, especially on its belly ;
and it is remarkable, that no vessel analogous to the
great artery in the caterpillar class can be discovered
in these ; though, if there were anv such, their oreat
transparence must needs make them very easily distin- Magyot
guishable ; nor could its dilatations and contractions, 1)
it so considerable as in that class of animals, be less so. AIaS‘c-
See Caterpillar, Entomology Index. ^
MAGI, or Magians, an ancient religious sect in
Persia, and other eastern countries, who maintained
that there wrere two principles, one the cause of all
good, the other the cause of all evil: and, abominating
the adoration of images, they worshipped God only by
fire; which they looked upon as the brightest and most
glorious symbol of Oromasdes, or the good god ; as
darkness is the truest symbol of Arimanius, or the evil
god. This religion Was reformed by Zoroaster, who
maintained that there was one supreme independent
Being ; and under him two principles or angels, one
the angel of goodness and light, and the other of evil
and darkness; that there is a perpetual struggle be¬
tween them, which shall last to the end of the world ;
that then the angel of darkness and his disciples shall
go into a world of their own, where they shall he pu¬
nished in everlasting darkness ; and the angel of light
and his disciples shall also go into a world of their own,
where they shall be rewarded in everlasting light.
1 he priests of the magi were the most skilful ma
thematicians and jfliilosophers of the ages in which
they lived, insomuch that a learned man and a magi an
became equivalent terms. The vulgar looked on their
knowledge as supernatural; and hence those who prae
tised wicked and mischievous arts, taking upon them¬
selves the name of magians, drew on it that ill sig¬
nification which the word magician now hears among
us.
This sect still subsists in Persia under the denomina¬
tion of ganrs, where they watch the sacred fire wi.1i
the greatest care, and never suffer it to be extinguished.
MAGIC, (Magia, Mayiict), i'll its ancient sense,
the science or discipline and doctrine of the magi, or
wise men of Persia. See Magi.
The origin of magic and the magi is ascribed to
Zoroaster. Salmasius derives the very name from Zo¬
roaster, who, he says, was surnamed Mog, whence
Magus. Others, instead of making him the author of
the Persian philosophy, make him only the restorer
and improver thereof; alleging, that many of the Per¬
sian rites in use among the Magi were borrowed from
the Zabii among the Chaldeans, who agreed in many
things with the Magi of the Persians ; whence some
make the name magus common both to the Chaldeans
and Persians. Thus Plutarch mentions, that Zoroaster
instituted magi among the Chaldeans, in imitation
whereof the Persians had theirs too.
Magic, in a more modern sense, is a science which
teaches to perform wonderful and surprising effects.
The word magic originally carried with it a very'
innocent, nay, laudable meaning; being used purely
to signify the study of wisdom, and the more sublime
parts of knowledge; but in regard the ancient magi
engaged themselves in astrology, divination, sorcery,
&c. the term magic in time became odious, and was
only used to signify an unlawful and diabolical kind of
science, depending on the assistance of the devil and de¬
parted souls.
If any wonder how so vain and deceitful a science
should gain so much credit and authority over men’s-
minds, Pliny gives the reason of it. It is, says lie,
X x 2 because
M A G
[ 348 ]
M A. O
Magic.
* See Stil-
ling fleet's
Origines
Sacrce,
book ii.
c. a.
because it has possessed itself of three sciences ot the
most esteem among men : taking from each ail that
is great and marvellous in it. Nobody doubts but it
had its tirSt origin in medicine j and that it insinuated
itself into the minds of the people, under pretence of.
affording extraordinary remedies. To these hne pro¬
mises it added every thing in religion that is pompous
and splendid, and that appears calculated to blind and
captivate mankind. Lastly, It mingled judicial astro¬
logy with the rest *, persuading people,^ curious of fu¬
turity, that it saw every thing to come in the heavens.
Agrippa divides magic into three kinds y natural, ce¬
lestial, and ceremonial or superstitious.
jSfatut'al Magic is no more than the application of
natural active causes to passive subjects } by means
whereof many surprising, but yet natural, ellccts aie
produced.
In this way many of our experiments in natural
philosophy, especially those of electricity, optics, and
magnetism, have a kind of magical appearance, and
among the ignorant and credulous might easily pass
for miracles. Such, without doubt, have been some
of those miracles wrought by ancient magicians, whose
knowledge of the various powers of nature, there is
reason to believe, was much greater than modern va¬
nity will sometimes allow *.
Baptista Porta has a treatise of natural magic, or of
secrets for performing very extraordinary things by na¬
tural causes. The natural magic of the Chaldeans
was nothing but the knowledge of the powers ot
simples and minerals. The magic which they called
theurgia, consisted wholly in the knowledge of the ce¬
remonies to be observed in the worship of the gods, in
c i der to be acceptable. By virtue of these ceremonies
they believed they could converse with spiritual beings,
and cure diseases.
CcLstial Magic borders nearly on judiciary astrolo¬
gy : it attributes to spirits a kind of rule or dominion
over the planets, and to planets a dominion over men ;
and on those principles builds a ridiculous kind of sy¬
stem. See Astrology.
Superstitious or Goctic Magic consists in the invoca¬
tion of devils. Its effects are usually evil and wicked,
though very strange, and seemingly surpassing the
powers of nature 5 supposed to be produced by virtue
of some compact, either tacit or express, with evil spi-
1 its : but the truth is, these have not all the power that
is usually imagined, nor do they produce those effects
ordinarily ascribed to them.
This species of magic, there is every reason to be¬
lieve, had its origin in Egypt, the native country of
paganism. The first magicians mentioned in history
were Egyptians ; and that people so famed for early
wisdom believed not only in the existence of dasmons,
the great agents in magic (see Daemon), but also that
different orders of those spirits presided over the ele¬
ments of earth, air, fire, and water, as w:ell as over the
persons and affairs of men. Hence they ascribed every
disease with which they were afflicted to the immedi¬
ate agency of some evil daemon. When any person was
seized with a fever, for instance, they did not think
it necessary to search for any natural cause of the dis¬
ease : it was immediately attributed to some dtemon
which had taken possession of the body of the patient,
and which could not be ejected but by charms and in- Mh^Ic.
cantations.
These superstitious notions, which had spread trom
Egypt over all the east, the Jews imbibed during their
captivity in Babylon. Hence we find them in the
writings of the New Testament attributing almost every
disease to which they were incident to the immediate
agency of'devils (see Possession). Many of the same
impious 'superstitions were brought from Egypt and
Chaldea by Pythagoras, and transmitted by him and his
followers to the Platonists in Greece. This is apparent
from the writers of the life of Pythagoras. Jamblicus,
speaking of the followers of that philosopher, says ex¬
pressly, that they cured certain diseases by incantations;
and Porphyry adds, that they oured diseases both of
the mind and of the body' by songs and incantations.
This was exactly the practice of the Egyptian priests,
who were all supposed to keep up a constant inter¬
course with daemons, and to have the power of con-
trouling them by magical charms and sacred songs.
Agreeably to this practice of his masters, we are told
that Pythagoras directed certain diseases of the mind,
doubtless those which he attributed to the agency of
daemons, to be cured partly by incantations^ partly by
magical hymns, and partly by music—
votrovUxs TTXQtftviitlo iTru^xi? x-cu fixyuxn; T0V5 <i&
[A6VPtKVI.
That there are different orders of created spirits,
whether called daemons or angels, whose powers in¬
tellectual and active greatly surpass the powers of man,
reason makes probable, and revelation certain. Now
it was the universal belief of the ancient nations, says
the learned Mosheim-f-? ailti especially ot the orientals,
that certain sounds and words, for the most part bar¬
barous, were highly grateful, and that others were
equally disagreeable, to these spirits. Hence, when
they wished to render a daemon propitious, and to em¬
ploy him on any particular office, the magicians com¬
posed their sacred songs of the words which were be¬
lieved to be agreeable to him *, and when it was their
intention to drive him from themselves or others, they
sung in a strain which they fancied a daemon could not
hear but with horror. From the same persuasion arose
the custom of suspending from the neck of a sick per¬
son, whose disease was supposed to be inflicted by a
daemon, an amulet, sometimes made of gold and some¬
times of parchment, on which was written one or more
of those words which daemons could not bear either to
hear or to see : and in a didactic poem on the healing
art still extant, rve are taught by Serenus Sammonicus,
that the word Abracadabra is an infallible remedy
for a semitertian fever or ague •, and to banish grief of
heart, Marcellinus thinks nothing more effectual than
the word xx^ixyKuv. In more modern times, as we are
informed by Agrippa, the words used by those in com¬
pact with the devil, to invoke him, and to succeed in
what they undertake, are, Dies, mies,jesquet, bcncdoc-
fet, douvima, enitemaus. There are a hundred other
formulas of words composed at pleasure, or gathered
from several different languages, or patched from the
Hebrew or formed in imitation of it. And among
the primitive Christians there was a superstitious cu¬
stom, of which we suspect some remains may yet be
found among the illiterate vulgar indifferent countries,
of
f See his
edition of
Cudworth's
IntellectM:
System.
ipp,PM,i.|iim.iiiiiij in. mmMiw,jmrnSm
Magic
M A G [ 34y
of fastening to the neck ot a sick person, or to the bed
an which lie lay, some text from the New Testament,
and especially the first two or three verses of the gospel
of St John, as a charm undoubtedly efficacious to banish
the disease.
That magicians who could thus cure the sick, were
likewise believed to have the power of inflicting dis¬
eases, and of working miracles, by means of their sub¬
servient daemons, need not be doubted. Ancient
writers of good credit are full of the wonders which
they performed. We shall mention a few of those
which are best attested, and inquire whether they might
not have been effected by other means than the inter¬
position of daemons.
Hie first magicians of whom we read are those
who in Egypt opposed Moses. And we are told, that,
when Aaron cast down his rod, and it became a ser¬
pent, they also did the like with their enchantments 5
“ foi' they cast down every man his rod, and they be¬
came serpents.” This was a phenomenon which, it
must be confessed, had a very miraculous appearance j
and yet there seems to have been nothing in it which
might not have been effected by slight of hand. The
Egyptians, and perhaps the inhabitants of every coun¬
try where serpents abound, have the art of depriving
them of their power to do mischief, so that they may
be handled without danger. It was easy for the "magi¬
cians, who were favoured by the court, to pretend that
they changed their rods into serpents, by dexterous¬
ly substituting one of these animals in place of the rod.
In like manner they might pretend to change water
into blood, and to produce frogs •, for if Moses gave
in these instances, as we know he did in others, any
previous information of the nature of the miracles
which were to be wrought, the magicians might easily
provide themselves in a quantity of blood and num¬
ber of frogs sufficient to answer their purpose of de¬
ceiving the people. Beyond this, however, their
power could not go. It stopped where that of all
workers in legerdemain must have stopt—at the failure
of proper materials to work with. Egypt abounds
with serpents ; blood could be easily procured } and
without difficulty they might have frogs from the ri¬
ver : But when Moses produced lice from the dust of
the ground, the magicians, who had it not in their
power to collect a sufficient quantity of these animals,
were compelled to own this to be an effect of divine
agency.
The appearance of Samuel to Saul at Endor is the
next miracle, seemingly performed by the power of ma¬
gic, which we shall consider. It was a common pre¬
tence of magicians, that they could raise up ghosts
Irom below, or make dead persons appear unto them to
declare future events5 and the manner of their incanta¬
tion is thus described by Horace :
 -Pallor utrasque
t ecerat horrendas aspectu. Scalpere terrain
Unguibus, et pullam divellere mordicus agnam
Coeperunt: cruor in fossam confusus, ut inde
Manes elicerent, animas responsa daturas.
u With yellings dire they fill’d the place,
And hideous pale was either’s face.
Soon with their nails they scrap’d the ground,
And fill’d a magic trench profound
] M A G
M itli a black lamb’s thick-streaming gore,
Whose members with their teeth they "tore j
J hat they might charm the sprights to tell
Some curious anecdotes from hell.” Francis.
W hether the witch of Endor made use cf such infer¬
nal charms as these, the sacred historian has not in¬
formed us; but Saul addressed her, as if he believed
that by some form of incantation she could recal
from the state of departed spirits the soul of the
prophet who had been for some time dead. In the
subsequent apparition, however, which was produced,
some have thought there was nothing more than a
trick, by which a cunning woman imposed upon Saul’s
ci eduhty, making him believe that some confidant of
her own was the ghost of Samuel. But had that been
the case, she would undoubtedly have made the pretend¬
ed Samuel’s answer as pleasing to the king as possible,
both to save her own life, which appears from the con¬
text to have been in danger, and likewise to have pro¬
cured the larger reward. She would never have told
her sovereign, she durst not have told him, that he
himself should be shortly slain, and his sons with him ;
and that the host of Israel should be delivered into the
hands of the Philistines. For this reason many critics,
both Jewish and Christian, have supposed that the ap¬
parition was really a daemon or evil angel, by whose
assistance the woman was accustomed to work wonders,
and to foretel future events. But it is surely verv
incredible, that one of the apostate spirits of hell should
have upbraided Saul for applying to a sorceress, or
should have accosted him in such words as these : “ Why
hast thou disquieted me, to bring me up ? Wherefore
dost thou ask of me, seeing the Lord is departed from
thee, and is become thine enemy ! For the Lord hath
rent the kingdom out of thine hand, and given it to
thy neighbour, even to David. Because thou obeyedst
not the voice of the Lord, therefore the Lord hath done
this thing to thee this day.” It is to be observed far¬
ther, that what was here denounced against Saul was
really prophetic, and that the event answered to the
prophecy in every particular. Now, though we do
not deny that there are created spirits of penetration
vastly superior to that of the most enlarged human un¬
derstanding ; yet we dare maintain, that no finite intel¬
ligence could by its own mere capacity have ever found
out the precise time of the two armies engaging, the
success of the Philistines, the consequences of the
victory, and the very names of the persons that were
to fall in battle. Saul and his sons were indeed men
of tried bravery, and thei*efore likely to expose them¬
selves to the greatest danger : but after the menaces
which he received from the apparition, lie would have
been impelled, one should think, by common prudence,
either to chicane with the enemy, or to retire from
the field without exposing himself, his sons, and the
whole army, to certain and inevitable destruction; and
his acting differently, with the consequences of his
conduct, were events which no limited understanding
could either foresee or certainly foretel. If to these
circumstances we add the suddenness of Samuel’s ap¬
pearance, with the effect which it had upon the sor¬
ceress herself, we shall find reason to believe, that the
apparition was that of no evil daemon. There is not,
we believe, upon record, another instance of any per¬
son’s
Magic.
MAG t 350
son’s pretending to raise a giiost from belorv, without
previously using some magical rites or some form ot
incantation. As nothing of that kind is mentioned in
the case before us, it is probable that Samuel appear¬
ed before he was called. It is likewise evident from
the narrative, that the apparition was not what the
woman expected ; for we are told, that “ when she
saw Samuel, she cried out for fear.” And when the
king exhorted her not to be afraid, and asked what she
saw, “ the woman said, I see gods (elohirn) ascending
out of the earth.” Now, had she been accustomed to
do such feats, and known that what she saw was only
her subservient daemon, it is not conceivable that she
could have been so frightened, or have mistaken her
familiar for elohim in any sense in which that word can
be taken. We are therefore strongly inclined to adopt
the opinion of those who hold that it ivas bamuel him¬
self who appeared and prophesied, not called up by
the wretched woman or her daemons, but, to her utter
confusion, and the disgrace of her art, sent by God
to rebuke Saul’s madness in a most affecting and mor¬
tifying way, and to deter all others from ever ap¬
plying to magicians or daemons for assistance when re¬
fused comfort from heaven. For though this hypo¬
thesis may to a superficial thinker seem to transgress
the rule of Horace—Ncc cleus intersit, &c.—which is
as applicable to the interpretation of scripture, as to
the introduction of supernatural agency in human com¬
positions 5 yet he who has studied the theocratical con¬
stitution of Israel, the nature of the office which
was there termed regal, and by what means the admi¬
nistration was in emergencies conducted, will have a
different opinion 5 and at once perceive the dignits vin-
dice nodus.
The sudden and wonderful destruction of the army
of Brennus the Gaul, has likewise been attributed to
magic, or, what in this inquiry amounts to the same
thing, to the interposition of evil spirits, whom the
priests of Apollo invoked as gods. Those barbarians
had made an inroad into Greece, and invested the tem¬
ple of Apollo at Delphi, with a view to plunder it of
the sacred treasure. Their numbers and courage over¬
powered all opposition 5 and they were just upon the
point of making themselves masters of the place, when,
Justin informs us, that, to encourage the besieged, the
priests and prophetess “ advenisse deum clamant; eum-
que se vidisse desilientem in templum per culminis a-
perta fastigia. Dum omnes opem del suppliciter im-
plorant, juvenem supra humanum modum insignis
pulchritudinis, comitesque ei duas armatas virgines,
ex propinquis duabus Dianae Minervseque sedibus oc-
currisse, nec oculis tantum haec se perspexisse 5 audisse
] M A G
etiam stridorem arcus, ac strepitum armorum : pro-
hide ne cunctarentur, diis antesignanis, hostem coedere,
et victorice deorum socios se adjungere,” summis obse-
crationibus monebant. Quibus vocibus incensi, omnes
certatim in pnelium prosiliunt. Pnesentiam Dei et ipsi
statim sensere : nam et terrte motu portio mentis
abrupta Gallorum stravit exercitum, et confertissimi
cunei non sine vulneribus hostium dissipati ruebant.
Insecuta deinde tempestas est, quoe grandine et frigore
saucios ex vulneribus absumpsit (a).
This Was unquestionably an extraordinary event :
and it must be ascribed either to the immediate inter¬
position of the Supreme Being, to natural means, or
to the agency of daemons : there is no other alterna¬
tive. But it is altogether incredible that the Supreme
Being should have miraculously interposed to defend
the temple of a pagan divinity. It is very difficult to
suppose that an earthquake, produced in the ordinary-
course of nature, should have been foretold by the
priests, or that it could have happened so opportunely
for the preservation of their treasure from the hands
of fierce barbarians. Nothing, therefore, it has been
said, remains, but either to allow the earthquake to
have been produced by evil spirits, or to deny the
truth of the historian’s relation. But the catastrophe
of Brennus’s army is recorded in the same manner by
so many ancient writers of good credit, that we can¬
not call in question their veracity *, and therefore, be¬
ing unwilling to admit the agency of daemons into this
affair, it will be incumbent on us to show by what
human contrivance it might have been effected 5 for its
arrival at so critical a juncture will not easily suffer us
to suppose it a mere natural event.
“The inclination of a Pagan priest (says Bishop
"Warburton *) to assist his god in extremity, will *
hardly be questioned ; and the inclination of those at
Delphi was not ill seconded by their public manage¬
ment and address. On the first rumour of Brennus’s
march against them, they issued orders, as from the
oracle, to all the region round, forbidding the coun¬
try people to secret or bear away their wine and pro¬
visions. The effects of this order succeeded to their
expectations. The half-starved barbarians finding, on
their arrival in Phocis, so great a plenty of all things,
made short marches, dispersed themselves over the
country, and revelled in the abundance that was pro¬
vided for them. This respite gave time to the friends
and allies of the god to come to his assistance. Their
advantages of situation likewise supported the measures
which they had taken for a vigorous defence. The
tow n and temple of Delphi were seated on a bare and
cavernous rock, defended on all sides with precipices
instead
(a) “ Called aloud that the god had arrived : That they had seen him leap into the temple through the aper¬
ture in the roof: That whilst they were all humbly imploring his help, a youth of more than human beauty,
accompanied by two virgins in armour, had run to their assistance from the neighbouring temples of Diana and
Minerva ; and that they had not only beheld these things with their eyes, but had also heard the whizzing of
his bow and the clangor of his arms. They therefore earnestly exhorted the besieged not to neglect the heavenly
signal, but to sally out upon their enemies, and partake with the divinities of the glory of the victory.” With
these words the soldiers being animated, eagerly rushed to battle : and were themselves quickly sensible of the
presence of the god ; for part of the rock being torn away by an earthquake, rolled down upon the Gauls ; whose
thickest battalions being thus thrown into confusion, fled, exposed to the weapons of their enemies. Soon after¬
wards a tempest arose, which by cold and the fall of hailstones cut off the wounded.
Magic.
M A G [ 25
instead or walls. A large recess -within assumed the
form of a theatre; so that the shouts of soldiers',"and
the sounds of military instruments, re-echoing’from
rock to rock, and from cavern to cavern, increased the
clamour to an immense degree ; which, as the histo¬
rian observes, could net but have great effects on ig¬
norant and barbarous minds. The playing off these
panic terrors was not indeed of itself sufficient to re¬
pulse and dissipate an host of fierce and hungry invaders,
but it enabled the defenders to keep them at bay till
a more solid entertainment was provided for them, in
the explosion and fall of that portion of the rock at
the foot of which the greater part of the army lay en¬
camped.
“ Among the caverns in the sacred rock, there was
one which, from an intoxicating quality discovered
in the steam which issued from it, was rendered very
famous by being fitted to the recipient of the priestess
of Apollo (b). Now, if we only suppose this, or any
other of the vapours emitted from the numerous fis¬
sures, to be endowed with that unctuous, or otherwise
inflammatory quality, which modern experience shows
to be common in mines and subterraneous places, ive
can easily conceive how the priests of the temple
might, without the agency of daemons, be able to
work the wonders which history speaks of as effected
in this transaction. For the throwing down a lighted
torch or two into a chasm whence such a vapour
issued, would set the whole into a flame ; which, by
suddenly rarefying and dilating the air, would, ’like
fired gunpowder, blow up all before it. That the
priests, the guardians of the rock, could be long ig-
noiantof such a qualityj or that they would divulge
it when discovered, cannot be supposed. Strabo re¬
lates, that one Onomarchus, with his companions, as
they were attempting by night to dig their way through
to roo the holy treasury, were frightened from their
work by the violent shaking of the rock ; and he adds,
that the same phenomenon had defeated many other at¬
tempts of the like nature. Now, whether the tapers
which Onomarchus and his companions were obliged to
use while they were at work, inflamed the vapour, or
whether the priest of Apollo heard them at it, and set
hre to a countermine, it is certain a quality of this
kind would always stand them in stead. Such then
(presumes the learned prelate) was the expedient (c)
they employed to dislodge this nest of hornets, which
had settled at the foot of their sacred rock ; for the
storm of thunder, lightning, and hail, which followed,
'•as the natural eftect of the violent concussions given
to the air by the explosion of the mine.”
, instances more of the power of ancient ma¬
gic we shall just mention, not because there is any
Magic.
i ] M A G
thing particular or important in the facts, but because
some credit seems to have been given to the narration
by the discerning Cudworth. Philostratus, in his life
ot Apollonius Tyanaeus, informs us that a laue-hinr
demoniac at Athens was cured by that magician^ who
ejected the evil spirit by threats and menaces; and the
biographer adds, that the daemon, at his departure, is
said to have overturned a statue which stood before the
porch where the cure was performed. The other in¬
stance is of the same magician freeing the city of
-Lphesus from the plague, by stoning to death an old
ragged beggar whom Apollonius called the plague, and
who appeared to he a deemon by his changing himself
into the form of a shagged dog.
That such tales as these should have been thought
worthy of the slightest notice by the incomparable au-
1101 of the Intellectual System, is indeed a wonderful
phenomenon in the history of human nature. The
whole story of Apollonius Tyanaeus, as is now well
known, is nothing better than a collection of the most
extravagant fables * : but were the narrative such as * See Pri.
that credit could be given to the facts here related, deaux's
there appears no necessity in either case for calling in Conne*-
the agency of evil spirits by the power of magic—
1 he Athenians qf that age were a superstitious peo-^oeyo/^
pie. Apollonius was a shrewd impostor, long prac- Philosophy,
tised in the art of deceiving the multitude. For such !i,nd. Mo-
a man it was easy to persuade a friend and confidant S
to act the part of the laughing demoniac; and without Cadworth's
much difficulty the statue might be so undermined as Intellectual
inevitably to tumble, upon a violent concussion beingtydem.
given to the ground at the time of the departure of
the pretended daemon. If so, this feat of magic
dwindles down into a very trifling trick performed liy
means both simple and natural. The other case of the
poor man at Ephesus, who was stoned to death, is
exactly similar to that of those innocent women m our
own country, whom the vulgar in the last century
were instigated to burn for the supposed crime of witch¬
craft. We have no reason to suppose that an Ephesian
mob was less inflammable or credulous than a British
mob, or that Apollonius played his part with less skill
than a Christian demouologist; and as the spirits of
our witches, who were sacrificed to folly and fanati¬
cism, were often supposed to migrate from their dead
bodies into the bodies of hares ov cats accidentally pass¬
ing by, so might this impostor at Ephesus persuade
his cruel and credulous instruments, that the spirit of
their victim had taken possession of the body of the
shagged dog.
Still it may be said, that in magic and divination
events have been produced out of the ordinary course
of nature; and as we cannot suppose the Supreme
Beine
(R, n hoc rupis anfractu, media ferme montis altitudine, planities exigua est, atque in ea profundum terrte
oramen, quod in oraculo patet, ex quo frigidus spiritus, vi quadam velut vento in sublim& expulsus, mentes vatum
in 'ecoidiam vertit, impletasque deo responsa consulentibus dare cogit.” Just. lib. xxiv. c. io.
(c) The learned author, by arguments too tedious to be here enumerated, confirms the reasoning which we have
orrowed from him; and likewise shows from history, that the priests, before they came to extremities with the sa-
cre( lock, had entered into treaty with those barbarians, and paid them a large tribute to decamp and quit the
countiy. Phis adds greatly to the probability of his account of the explosion ; for nothing hut the absolute im¬
possibility of getting quit of their besiegers by any other means, could have induced the priests to hazard an ex-
p>nment so big with danger to themselves as well as to their enemies.
Magic.
MAG [ 35
Beirut to have countenanced such abominable practices
1 by the interposition of his power, we must necessarily
attribute those effects to the agency of demons, or
evil spirits. Thus, when yEneas consulted the bibyl,
the agency of the inspiring god changed her whole ap¬
pearance :
Poscere fata
Tempos,” ait: “ Deus, ecce, Deus.” Cwi talia fanti
Ante fores, subito non vultus, non color unus,
Non comptse mansere conne: sed pectus anhelum,
Et rabie fera corda tument; majorque videri,
Nec mortale sonans : afflata est numine quando
Jam propiore Dei.-    
 “ Aloud she cries,
“ This is the time, inquire your destinies.
He comes, behold, a god!” Thus while she said,
And shivering at the sacred entry staid,
Her colour chang’d, her face was not the same j
And hollow groans from her deep spirit came 5
Her hair stood up *, convulsive rage possess’d
Her trembling limbs, and heav’d her lab’ring breast;
Greater than human kind she seem d to look,
And with an accent more than mortal spoke.
Her staring eyes with sparkling fury roll,
When all the god came rushing on her soul.”
Dryden.
In answer to this, it is to be observed, that the
temple of Apollo at Cumse was an immense excava¬
tion in a solid rock. The rock was probably of the
same kind with that on which the temple of Delphi
was built, full of fissures, out of which exhaled per¬
petually a poisonous kind of vapour. Over one of
these fissures was the tripod placed, from which the
priestess gave the oracle. Now we learn from St
Chrysostom, that the priestess was a woman: “ Quae
in ti-ipodes sedens expansa malignum spiritum per in¬
terna immissum, et per genitales partes subeuntein exci-
piens, furore repleretur, ipsaque resolutis crinibus bac-
charetur, ex ore spumam emittens, et sic furoris verba
loquebatur.” By comparing this account with that
quoted above from Justin, which is confirmed both by
Pausanias and by Strabo, it is evident, that what
Chrysostom calls ’malignum spiritum was a particular
kind of vapour blown forcibly through the fissure of
the rock. But if there be a vapour of such a quality
as, if received per partes gcnitales, would make a wo¬
man furious, there is surely no necessity for calling into
the scene at Cumae the agency of a demon or evil spi¬
rit. Besides, it is to be remembered, that in all mys¬
tical and magical rites, such as this was, both the
priests, and the persons consulting them, prepared
themselves by particular kinds of food, and sometimes,
* Vide Lu- as there is reason to believe, by human sacrifices *, for
caniPhar- t{ie approach of the god or demon whose aid they in-
•Wwi,hb vi.v0ked, On the present occasion, we know from the
<1 Genies poet himself, that a cake was used which was compo-
Hb. i. sed of poppy-seed and honey j and Plutarch speaks of
a shrub called leucophyllus, used in the celebration of
the mysteries of Hecate, which drives men into a kind
of frenzy, and makes them confess all their wicked¬
ness which they had done or intended. 'Ibis being the
case, the illusions of fancy occasioned by poppy will
sufficiently account for the change of the sibyl’s ap-
2 ] M A G
pearance, even though the inhaled vapour should not Magic,
have possessed that efficacy which Chrysostom and —v~—
Justin attribute to it. Even some sorts of our ordi¬
nary food occasion strange dreams, for which onions
in particular are remarkable. Excessive drunkenness,
as is well known, produces a disorder named by the
bacchanalians of this country the blue devils, which
consists of an immense number of spectres, accompa¬
nied with extreme horror to the person who sees
them. From these facts, which cannot be denied,
there must arise a suspicion, that by using very unna¬
tural food, such as human blood, the vilest of insects,
serpents, and medicated cakes, by shutting themselves
up in solitude and caves, and by devising every me¬
thod to excite horrid and dreadful ideas or images in
the fancy, the ancient magicians might by natural
means produce every phenomenon which they attri¬
buted to their gods or demons. Add to this, that in
ancient times "magic was studied as a science. Now,
as we cannot suppose that every one who studied it
intended absolutely nothing, or that all who believed
in it were wholly deceived ; what can we infer, but
that the science consisted in the knowledge of those
drugs which produced the phantoms in the imagina¬
tion, and of the method of preparing and properly
employing them for that purpose ? The celebrated
Friar Bacon indeed, as far back as the 13th century,
wrote a book de Nullitate Magiee : but though we should
allow that this book proved to demonstration, that in
his time no such thing as magic existed, it never could
prove that the case had always been so. At that
time almost all the sciences were lost j and why not
magic as wmll as others ? It is likewise an undoubted
fact, that magic at all times prevailed among the A-
siatics and Africans more than among the Europeans.
The reason doubtless was, that the former had the re¬
quisites for the art in much greater perfection than
we. Human sacrifices were frequent among them 5
they had the most poisonous serpents, and the greatest
variety of vegetable poisons, together with that power¬
ful narcotic opium j all which were of essential use in
mystical and magic rites. They had, besides, a burn¬
ing sun, frightful deserts and solitudes; which, toge¬
ther with extreme fasting, were all called in to their
assistance, and were sufficient to produce, by natural
means, the most wonderful phenomena which have ever
been attributed to magical incantations. Even in our
own days, wre have the testimony of twro travellers,
whom W’e cannot suspect to be either liars or enthu¬
siasts, that both the Indians and Africans perform feats
for which neither they nor the most enlightened Eu¬
ropeans can account. The one is Mr Grose, who vi¬
sited the East Indies about the year 17625 and the
other is Mr Bruce, who informs us, that the inhabi¬
tants of the western coast of Africa pretend to hold
a communication with the devil, and verify their asser¬
tions in such a manner that neither he nor other tra¬
vellers know' what to make of it : but it does not from
this follow, that Mr Bruce believed that communica¬
tion to be real. We have all seen one of the most il¬
literate men that ever assumed the title of Doctor, per¬
form feats very surprising, and such as even a philo¬
sopher would have been puzzled to account for, if he
had not been previously let into the secret 5 and yet no
man supposes that Katterfelto holds any communica¬
tion
■ , ,M A ° i 353
iVIagic. tlon with the devil, although he has sometimes pre-
-■—v' ' tended it among people whose minds he supposed un¬
enlightened.
Still it be objected, that we have a vast nuni-
her of histories of witches, who in the last century
confessed, that they were present with the devil at cer¬
tain meetings } that they were carried through the air,
and saw many strange feats performed, too numerous
and too ridiculous to be here mentioned. The best
* Ranches-t0 th!s ob.icctlon seems to ^ that given by Dr
ter Trans- lernar in.,us essay on Popular Illusions *. « The so-
actions, lemn meeting of w itches ("says he) is supposed to be
vol. iii. put beyond ad doubt by the numerous confessions of
criminals, who have described their ceremonies, named
the times and places of their meetings, with the per¬
sons present, and who have agreed in their relations,
though separately delivered. But I would observe’
first, that the circumstances told of those festivals are
in themselves ridiculous and incredible j for they are
represented as gloomy and horrible, and yet with a
mixture of childish and extravagant fancies, more like¬
ly to disgust and alienate than conciliate the minds
of their guests. They have every appearance of un¬
easy dreams. Sometimes the devil and his subjects
say jjioss ; sometimes he preaches to them 5 more com¬
monly he was seen in the form of a black goat, sur¬
rounded by imps in a thousand frightful shapes ; but
none of these forms are new, they all resemble known
quadrupeds or reptiles. Secondly, I observe, that there
is direct proof furnished even by demonologists, that all
those supposed journeys and entertainments were no¬
thing more than dreams. Persons accused of witch¬
craft have been repeatedly watched about the time
they had fixed for their meeting : they have been seen
to anoint themselves with soporific compositions 5 af-
tci which they fell into profound sleep j and on atvak-
ing several hours afterwards, they have related their
journey through the air, with their amusement at the
festival, and have named the persons whom they saw
there. 1 his is exactly comformable to the practice
of the ancient magicians and diviners, and seems to be
the true way of accounting, as Well for many of the
phenomena of magic, as for that extravagant and
shameful superstition which prevailed so much during
pait of the last century, and by which such numbers
of innocent men and women were cruelly put to
death (c). We may indeed be assured, that the devil
has it not in his powder to reverse in a single instance
the laws of nature without a divine permission j and
we can conceive but one occasion (see Possession)
On which such permission could be given consistently
with the wisdom and the goodness of God. All the
tales, therefore, of diabolical agency in magic and
witchcraft must undoubtedly be false j for a power,
which the devil is not himself at liberty to exert, he
cannot communicate to a human creature. Were the
case otherwise 5 were those powers, “ which (according
to Johnson) only the controul of Omnipotence re¬
strains from laying creation waste, subservient to the
invocations of wicked mortals : were those spirits,—
Vol. XII. Part I. f
M A G
of which the le^st could wieltj
I he elements, and arm him with the force
Of all their regions,” permitted to work mi-
racles, and either to inflict or to remove diseases at the
desire of their capricious votaries, how comfortless and
wretched would be the life of man ! But the matter has
been long ago determined by the failure of Pharaoh’s
magicians j who, though by legerdemain they imitated
some of the miracles of Moses, could not form the vilest
insect, or stand before the disease which he inflicted up¬
on them as well as upon others;
Ihe revival of learning, and the success with which
the laws of nature have been investigated, have long
ago banished this species of magic from all the en¬
lightened nations of J-urope, Among ourselves, none
but persons grossly illiterate pay the least regard to
magical charms 5 nor are they anywhere abroad more
prevalent than among the inhabitants of Lapland and
Iceland. These people, indeed, place an absolute
confidence in the effects of certain idle words and ac¬
tions : and ignorant sailors from other parts of the
w orld are deceived by their assertions and their cere¬
monies. The famous magical drum of the Laplanders
is still in constant use in that nation j and Scheft'er, in
his History of Lapland, has given an account of its
structure;
Jhis instrument is made of beech, pine, or fir, split
in the middle, and hollowed on the flat side where the
drum is to be made. The hollow is of an oval figure ;
and is covered with a skin clean dressed, and painted
with figures of various kinds, such as stars, suns and
moons, animals and plants, and even countries, lakes,
and rivers j and of later days, since the preaching of
( hristianity among them, the acts and sufferings of
our Saviour and his apostles are often added among
the rest. All these figures are separated by lines into
three regions or clusters.
There is, besides these parts of the drum, an index
and a hammer. The index is a bundle of brass or iron
rings* the biggest of which has a hole in its middle,
and the smaller ones are hung to it. The hammer or
drumstick is made of the horn of a rein-deer ; and with
this they beat the drum so as to make these rings move,
they being laid on the top for that purpose. In the
motion of these rings about the pictures figured on tin?
drum, they fancy to themselves some prediction in re¬
gard to the things they inquire about.
What they principally inquire into by this instru¬
ment, are three things. 1. What sacrifices will prove
most acceptable to their gods. 2. What success they
shall have in their several occupations, as hunting, fish¬
ing, curing of diseases, and the like; and, 3. What is
doing in places remote from them. On these several
occasions they use several peculiar ceremonies, and
place themselves in Various odd postures as they beat
the drum j which influences the rings to the one or
the other side, and to come nearer to the one or the
other set of figures. And when they have done
this, they have a method of calculating a discovery*
which they keep as a great secret, but which seems
Y y merely
i
(c) lor some farther account of popular illusions, see Animal Magnetism,
MAG
[ 354 1
M A G
Magic, merely the business of the imagination in tne diviner or
Magic magician.
Square. Magic Square, a square figure, formed ot a senes
v , of numbers in mathematical proportion *, so disposed in
parallel and equal ranks, as that the sums of each row,
taken either perpendicularly, horizontally, or diagonal¬
ly, are equal.
Let the several numbers which compose any square
number (for instance, i, 2, 3, 4, 5, &c. to 25 inclusive,
the square number) be disposed, in their natural order,
after each other in a square figure of 25 cells, each in
its cell 5 if now you change the order of these numbers,
and dispose them in the cells in such manner, as that
the five numbers which fill a horizontal rank of cells,
being added together, shall make the same sum with
the five numbers in any other rank of cells, whether
horizontal or vertical, and even the same number with
the five in each of the two diagonal ranks : this dis¬
position of numbers is called a magic square, in opposi¬
tion to the former disposition, which is called a natural
square. See the figures following.
Natural Square. Magic Square.
20
One would imagine that these magic squares had
that name given them, in regard this property of all
their ranks, which, taken any way, make always the
same sum, appeared extremely surprising, especially m
certain ignorant ages, when mathematics passed for
magic : but there is a great deal of reason to suspect,
that these squares merited their name still farther, by
the superstitious operations they were employed in, as
the construction of talismans, &c.j for according to
the childish philosophy of those days, which attributed
virtues to numbers, what virtue might not be expected
from numbers so wonderful P
However, what was at first the vain practice of ma¬
kers of talismans and conjurers, has since become the
subject of a sei'ious research among mathematicians }
not that they imagine it will lead them to any thing
of solid use or advantage (magic squares savour too
much of their original to be of much use) j but only
as it is a kind of play, where the difficulty makes the
merit, and it may chance to produce some new views
of numbers, which mathematicians will not lose the
occasion of.
Eman. Moschopulus, a Greek author of no great
antiquity, is the first that appears to have spoken of
magic squares : and by the age wherein he lived, there
is reason to imagine he did not look on them merely
as a mathematician. However, he has left us some
rules for their construction. In the treatise of Cor.
Agrippa, so much accused of magic, we find the squares
of seven numbers, viz. from three to nine inclusive,
disposed magically \ and it must not be supposed that
those seven numbers were preferred to all the other
without some very good reason : in effect, it is because
their squares, according to the system of Agrippa and
his followers, are planetary. The square ot 3, for in¬
stance, belongs to Saturn ; that of 4 to Jupiter ; that Magior
of 5 to Mars; that of 6 to the Sun ; that of 7 to Ve- Square,
nus; that of 8 to Mercury; and that of 9 to the v
Moon. M. Bachet applied himself to the study of
magic squares, on the hint he had taken fiom the pni-
netary squares of Agrippa, as being unacquainted with
the work of Moschopulus, which is only in manuscript
in the French king’s library; and, without the assist¬
ance of any author, he found out a new method for
those squares whose root is uneven, for instance 25,
49, &c. but he could not make any thing of those
whose root is even.
After him came M. Frenicle, who took the same
subject in hand. A certain great algebraist was of
opinion, that whereas the 16 numbers which compose
the square might be disposed 20922789^^^
ent ways in a natural square (as from the rules of com¬
bination it is certain they may), they could not be
disposed in a magic square above 16 different ways j
but M. Frenicle showed, that they might be thus dis¬
posed 878 different ways : whence it appears how much
his method exceeds the former, which only yielded the
35th part of magic squares of that of M. I renicle.
To this inquiry he thought fit to add a difficulty
that had not yet been considered : the magic square of
7, for instance, being constructed, and its 49 cells fill¬
ed, if the two horizontal ranks of cells, and, at the
same time, the two vertical ones, the most remote from
the middle, be retrenched; that is, if the whole bor¬
der or circumference of the square be taken awray,
there will remain a square whose root w ill be 3, and
which will only consist of 23 cells. Nowr it is not at
all surprising that the square should be no longer ma¬
gical, because the ranks of the large ones were not in¬
tended to make the same sum, excepting when taken
entire with all the seven numbers tnat fill then seven
cells ; so that being mutilated each of two cells, and
having lost two of their numbers, it may be well ex¬
pected, that their remainders will not any longer make
the same sum. But M. Frenicle would not be satis¬
fied, unless when the circumference or border of the
magic square w'as taken away, and even any circum¬
ferences at pleasures, or, in fine, several circumferences
at once, the remaining square was still magical: which
last condition, no doubt, made these squares vastly more
magical than ever.
Again, He inverted that condition, and required
that any circumference taken at pleasure, or even se¬
veral circumferences, should be inseparable from the
square ; that is, that it should cease to be magical when
they were removed, and yet continue magical after the
removal of any of the rest. M. k renicfe, however,
gives no general demonstration of his methods, and
frequently seems to have no other guide but chance.
It is true, his book was not published by himself, not
did it appear till after his death, viz. in 1693.
In 1703, M. Poignard, canon of Brussels, publish¬
ed a treatise of sublime magic squares. Before him
there had been no magic squares made but for serieses
of natural numbers that formed a square j but M.
Poignard made two very considerable improvements,
x. Instead of taking all the numbers that fill a square,
for instance the 36 successive numbers, which would
fill all the cells of a natural square whose side is 6, he
only takes as many successive numbers as there are units
in
M A G
J-Tagic in tta side of the square, which, in this case, are six j
Square, and these six numbers alone he disposes m such manner
3^ cells, that none ol them are repeated twice
in the same rank, whether it be horizontal, vertical, or
diagonal ; whence it follows, that all the ranks, taken
all the ways possible, must always make the same sum,
which M. Poignard calls repeated progression. 2. In¬
stead of being confined to take these numbers accord¬
ing to the series and succession of the natural numbers,
that is, in an arithmetical progression, he takes them
likewise in a geometrical progression, and even in an
harmonical progression. But with these two last pro¬
gressions the magic must necessarily be different from
what it was : in the squares Idled with numbers in
geometrical progression, it consists in this, that the
products of all the ranks are equal ; and in the har¬
monical progression, the numbers of all the ranks con¬
tinually follow that progression : he makes squares of
each ol these three progressions repeated.
This book of M. Poignard gave occasion to M. de
la Hire to turn his thoughts the same way, which he
did with such success, that he seems to have well nigh
completed the theory of magic squares. He first con¬
siders uneven squares: all his predecessors on the sub¬
ject having found the construction of even ones by
much the most difficult j for which reason M. de la
Hire reserves those for the last. This excess of diffi¬
culty may arise partly from hence, that the numbers
are taken in arithmetical progression. Now in that
progression, it the number of terms be uneven, that in
the middle has some properties, which may be of ser¬
vice ; for instance, being multiplied by the number of
terms in the progression, the product is equal to the
sum of all the terms.
M. de la Hire proposes a general method for un¬
even squares, which has some similitude with the theo¬
ry of compound motions, so useful and fertile in me¬
chanics. As that consists in decompounding motions
and resolving them intoothers more simple; so does’
M. de la Hire’s method consist in resolving the square
that is to be constructed into tivo simple and primitive
squares. It must be owned, however, it is not quite so
easy to conceive these two simple and primitive squares
in the compound or perfect square, as in an oblique mo¬
tion to imagine a parallel and perpendicular one.
Suppose a square of cells, whose root is uneven, for
instance 7; and that its 49 cells are to be filled magi¬
cally with numbers, for instance the first 7 ; M. de la
Hire, on the one side, takes the first 7 numbers, be¬
ginning with unity, and ending with the root 7;
and on the other 7? and all its multiples to 49> exclu¬
sively; and as these only make six numbers, he adds o,
which makes this an arithmetical progression of 7
terms as well as the other; o. 7. 14. 21. 28. 35. 42.
I his done, with the first progression repeated, he fills
the square of the root magically : In order to this,
he writes in the first seven cells of the first horizontal
rank the seven numbers proposed in what order he
pleases, for that is absolutely indifferent; and it is
proper to observe here, that these seven numbers may
be ranged in 5040 different manners in the same rank.
Hie order in which they are placed in the first hori¬
zontal rank, be it what it will, is that which deter¬
mines their order in all the rest. For the second ho¬
rizontal rank, he places in its first cell, either the
[ 355 j
MAG
third, the fourth, the fifth, or the sixth number, from
the first number of the first rank ; and after that writes
the six others in order as they follow. For the third
horizontal rank, he observes the same method with re¬
gard to the second that he observed in the second with
regard to the first, and so of the rest. For instance
suppose the first horizontal rank filled with the seven
numbers m their natural order, 1, 2, 3, 4, c, 6, 7 •
t le second horizontal rank may either commence with
3, with 4, with 5, or with 6 : but in this instance it
commences with 3 ; the third rank therefore must com¬
mence with 5, the fourth with
7>. the fifth with 2, the sixth
with 4, and the seventh with 6.
The commencement of the ranks
which follow the lirst being thus
determined, the other numbers,
as we have already observed,
must be written down in the or¬
der wherein they stand in the
first, going on to 5, 6, and 7,  
and retaining to 1, 2, &c. till
every number in the first rank be found in every rank
underneath, according to the order arbitrarily pitched
upon at first. By this means it is evident,'that no
number whatever can be repeated twice in the same
lank ; and by consequence, that the seven numbers 1,
2> 3> 5> 6, 7, being in each rank, must of necessity
make the same sum.
^ It appears, from this example, that the arrangement
Oi the numbers in the first rank being chosen at plea¬
sure, the other ranks may be continued in four difl’er-
ent manners; and since the first rank may have 5040
difierent arrangements, there are no less than 20,160
different manners of constructing the magic square of
seven numbers repeated.
2 3
2 | 3
 7
Si 6
The order of the numbers in the first rank being de¬
termined ; if in beginning with the second rank, the
second number 2, or the last number 7, should be pitch¬
ed upon in one of these cases, and repeated ; and in
the other case, the other diagonal would be false un¬
less the number repeated seven times should happen
to be 4 ; for four times seven is equal to the sum of
x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7 : and in general, in every square
consisting of an unequal number of terms, in arithme¬
tical progression, one of the diagonals would be false
according to those two constructions, unless the term
always repeated in that diagonal were the middle term
of the pxogression. It is not, however, at all neces¬
sary to take the terms in an arithmetical progression ;
for, according to this method, one may construct a
magic square of any numbers at pleasure, whether
they be according to any certain progression or not.
If they be in an arithmetical progression, it will be
proper, out of the general method, to except those
Y y 2 two
Magic
Square.
Magic
Square.
MAG [ 356
two constructions which produce a continual repetition
of the same term in one of the two diagonals, and only
to take in the case wherein that repetition would pre¬
vent the diagonal from being just; which case being
absolutely disregarded when we computed that the
square of 7 might have 20,160 different constructions,
it is evident that by taking that case in, it must have
To begin the second rank with any other number
besides the second and the last, must not, however, be
looked on as an universal rule : it holds good lor the
square of 7 *, but if the square of 9, for instance, were
to be constructed, and the fourth figure ol the first
horizontal rank were pitched on for the first oi the
second, the consequence would be, that the tilth anil
eighth horizontal ranks would likewise commence
with the same number, which would therefore be re¬
peated three times in the same vertical rank, and oc¬
casion other repetitions in all the rest. The general
rule, therefore, must be conceived thus : .Let the
number in the first rank pitched on, for the commence¬
ment of the second, have such an exponent for its
quota ; that is, let the order of its place be such, as that
if an unit be taken from it, the remainder will not be
any iust quota part of the root of the square ; that is,
cannot divide it equally. If, for example, 111 the square
of 7, the third number of the first horizontal rank be
pitched on for the first of the second, such construc¬
tion will be just; because the exponent of the place
of that number, viz. 3, subtracting 1, that is, 2 can¬
not divide 7. Thus also might the fourth number ol
the same first rank be chosen, because 4—1, viz. 3,
cannot divide 7 and, for the same reason, the filth
or sixth number might be taken : but in the square of
9, the fourth number of the first rank must not be ta¬
ken, because 4—1, viz. 3, does divide 9. The rea¬
son of this rule will appear very evidently, by consi¬
dering in what manner the returns of the same num¬
bers do or do not happen, taking them always in the
same manner in any given series. And hence it fol¬
lows, that the fewer divisions the root of any square
to be constructed has, the more different manners of
constructing it there are; and that the prime numbers,
i. e. those which have no divisions, as 5, 7, 11, 13,
See. are those whose squares will admit of the most va¬
riations in proportion to their quantities. ,
The squares constructed according to this method
have some particular properties not required in the
problem ; for the numbers that compose any rank pa¬
rallel to one of the two diagonals, are ranged in the
same order with the numbers that compose the diago¬
nal to which they are parallel. And as any rank pa¬
rallel to a diagonal must necessarily be shorter, and
have fewer cells than the diagonal itself, by adding
to it the correspondent parallel,
First Primitive. which has the number of cells
by which the other falls short
of the diagonal, the numbers of
those two parallels, placed as it
were end to end, still follow the
same order with those of the di¬
agonal : besides that their sums
are likewise equal *, so that they
3 are magical on another account.
5 Instead of the squares which we
Second Primitive.
] MAG
have hitherto formed by horizontal ranks, one might
also form them by vertical ones ; the case is the same
in both.
All we have hitherto said regards only the first pri¬
mitive square, whose numbers, in the proposed ex¬
ample, were, 1, 2, 3, 4> 5> 6> 7 > here still remains the
second primitive, whose num¬
bers are o, 7, 14, 21, 28, 35,
42. M. de la Hire proceeds
in the same manner here as in
the former ; and this may like¬
wise he constructed in 20,160
different manners, as contain¬
ing the same number of terms
with the first. Its construction
being made, and of consequence
all its ranks making the same
sum, it is evident, that if Ave
bring the two into one, by adding together the num¬
bers of the two corresponding cells of the two squares,
that is, the two numbers of the first of each, the two
numbers of the second, of the third, &c. and dispose
them in the 49 corresponding cells of a third square, it
will likewise be magical in regard to its rank, formed
by the addition of equal sums to equal sums, which must
of necessity be equal among themselves. All that re¬
mains in doubt is, whether or no, by the addition 0
the corresponding cells of the two first squares, all the
cells of the third will be filled in such manner, as that
each not only contains one of the numbers oi the pro¬
gression from 1 to 49, but also that this number be di
ferent from any of the rest, which is the end and design
of the whole operation. . . '
As to this it must be observed, that if in the con¬
struction of the second primitive square care has been
taken, in the commencement of the second horizontal
rank, to observe an order with regard to the first, dif¬
ferent from what was observed in the construction oi
the first square ; for instance, if
the second rank of the first square
began with the third term of the
first rank, and the second rank
of the second square commence
with the fourth of the first rank,
as in the example it actually
does ; each number of the first
square may be combined once,
and only once, by addition with
all the numbers of the second. 
And as the numbers of the first
are here x, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, and those of the second,
o, 7, 14, 21, 18, 35, 42; by combining them m this
manner we have all the numbers in the progression irom
1 to 49, without having any of them repeated ; which
is the perfect magic square proposed.
The necessity of constructing the
Magic
Square.
Perfect Square.
3846
20
28
3644
two primitive
squares in a different manner does not at all hinder but
that each of the 20,160 constructions of the one may
be combined with all the 20,160 constructions of the
other: of consequence, therefore, 20,160 multiplied
by itself, which makes 406,425,600, is the number of
different constructions that may be made of the per¬
fect square, which here consists of the 49 numbers of
the natural progression. But as wTe have already ob¬
served, that a primitive square of seven numbers re¬
peated
MAG
Magic peated may have above 20,160 several constructions,
Square, the number 406,425,600 must come vastly short of ex-
" v ' pressing all the possible constructions of a perfect manic
square of the 49 first numbers.
As to the even squares, he constructs them like the
uneven ones, by two primitive squares; but the con¬
struction of primitives is different in general, and may
he so a great number of ways 5 and those general dif¬
ferences admit of a great number of particular varia¬
tions, which give as many different constructions of
the same even square. It scarce seems possible to de¬
termine exactly, either how many general differences
there may be between the construction of the primitive
squares of an even square and an uneven one, nor how
many particular variations each general difference may
admit of ; and, of consequence, we are still far from
being able to determine the number of different con¬
structions of all those that may be made by the primi¬
tive squares.
The ingenious Dr Franklin seems to have carried
this curious speculation farther than any of his prede¬
cessors in the same way. He has constructed not only
a magic square of squares, but likewise a magic circle
of circles, of which we shall give some account for
the amusement of our readers. The magic square of
squares is formed by dividing the great square, as in
Place CCXC\ III. The great square is divided into
256 small squares, in which all the numbers from 1
to 256 are placed in 16 columns, which may be taken
either horizontally or vertically. The properties are as
follow:
1. I he sum of the 16 numbers in each column, ver¬
tical and horizontal, is 2056.
2. Every half column, vertical and horizontal, makes
1028, or half of 2056.
3. Half a diagonal ascending added to half a diago¬
nal descending, makes 2056; taking these half diago¬
nals from the ends of any side of the square to the mid¬
dle thereof 5 and so reckoning them either upward or
downward, or sidewise from left to right hand, or from
right to left.
4. The same, with all the parallels to the half dia¬
gonals, as many as can be drawn in the great square j
for any two of them being directed upward and down¬
ward, from the place where they begin to that where
they end, their sums will make 2056. The same
downward and upward in like manner : or all the same
if taken sidewise to the middle, and back to the same
side again. N. Ji. One set of these half diagonals and
their parallels is drawn in the same square upward and
downward. Another such set may be drawn from any
of the other three sides.
5. The four corner numbers in the great square,
added to the four central numbers therein, make 1028 j
equal to the half sum of any vertical or horizontal co¬
lumn which contains 16 numbers j and equal to half a
diagonal or its parallel.
6. If a square hole (equal in breadth to four of
the little squares) be cut in a paper, through which
any of the 16 little squares in the great square may be
Been, and the paper be laid on the great square, the
t 357 ]
MAG
sum of all the 16 numbers, seen through the hole, is
equal to the sum of the 16 numbers in any horizontal
or vertical column, viz. to 2056.
The magic circle of circles, Plate CCXCYHI. is
composed of a series of numbers from 12 to 75 inclusive,
divided into eight concentric circular spaces, and ranged
in eight radii of numbers, with the number 12 in the
centre j which number, like the centre, is common to
all these circular spaces, and to all the radii.
. T.lie numbers are so placed, that the sum of all those
in either of the concentric circular spaces above men¬
tioned, together with the central number 12, make 3603
equal to the number of degrees in a circle.
The numbers in each radius also, together with the
central number 12, make just 360.
The numbeis in half of any of the above circular
spaces, taken either above or below the double horizon¬
tal line, with half the central number 12, make 180 ;
equal to the number of degrees in a semicircle.
If any four adjoining numbers be taken, as if in a
square, in the radial divisions of these circular spaces,
the sum of these, with half the central number, makes
180.
There are, moreover, included, four sets of other
circular spaces, bounded by circles which are eccentric
with respect to the common centre 5 each of these sets
containing five spaces. The centres of the circles
which bound them are at A, B, C, and D. The set
whose centre is at A is bounded by dotted lines ; the
set whose centre is at C is bounded by lines of short
unconnected strokes j and the set round D is bounded
by lines of unconnected longer strokes, to distinguish
them from one another. In drawing this figure by
hand, the set of concentric circles should be drawn
with black ink, and the four different sets of eccentric
circles with four kinds of ink of different colours j as
blue, red, yellow, and green, for distinguishing them
readily from one another. These sets of eccentric cir¬
cular spaces intersect those of the concentric, and each
other 5 and yet the numbers contained in each of the
eccentric spaces, taken all around through any of the
20 which are eccentric, make the same sum as those in
the concentric, namely 360, when the central number
12 is added. Their halves also, taken above or below
the double horizontal line, with half the central number,
make 180.
Observe, that there is not one of the numbers but
what belongs at least to two of the circular spaces,
some to three, some to four, some to five 5 and yet they
are all so placed as never to break the required number
360 in any of the 28 circular spaces within the primi¬
tive circle.
To bring these matters in view, all the numbers as
above mentioned are taken out, and placed in separate
columns as they stand around both the concentric and
eccentric circular spaces, alw’ays beginning with the
outermost and ending with the innermost of each set,
and also the numbers as they stand in the eight radii,
from the circumference to the centre: the common
central number 12 being placed the lowest in each co¬
lumn.
Magic
Square.
In
Magic
Square.
MAG [ 358 ]
I. In the eijrht concentric circular space?.
MAG
25
3°
41
46
57
62
73
12
360 360
72
63
56
47
40
31
24
!5
12
23
16
39
32
55
48
71
64
12
65
70
49
54
33
38
i7
22
21
18
37
34
53
50
69
66
12
67
68
51
52
35
36
*9
20
12
12
27
28
43
44
59
60
75
12
74
61
58
45
42
29
26
*3
12
360 360 360 360 360 360
2. In the eight radii.
I4
72
23
65
31
67
12
74
12
25
63
16
70
18
68
27
61
12
3°
56
39
49
37
51
28
58
12
41
47
32
54
34
52
43
45
12
46
40
55
33
53
35
44
42
12
57
31
48
38
50
36
59
29
12
62
24
71
J7
69
!9
60
26
12
73
15
64
22
66
20
75
!3
12
I4
63
39
54
33
48
24
73
12
72
16
49
34
53
38
71
r5
12
23
70
37
52
35
50
17
64
12
85
18
51
43
44
36
69
22
i 2
21
68
28
45
42
59
l9
66
12
47
55
38
J7
64
72
25
12
32
33
50
69
22
23
63
12
12
49
34
35
59
60
20
21
70
12
37
52
44
20
26
75
67
18
12
360 360 360 I360
5. In the five eccentric circular spaces whose centre is
at C.
46 4° 55 33
3l 48 3s 5°
71 17 69 19
22 66 20 75
65 21 67 12
16 70 18 68
56 39 49 3.7
41 47 32 54
12 12 12 12
360
360 360 360 360
360
53
36
60
6. In the five eccentric circular spaces whose centre is Magic
at 1). sq«are
360 360 360 360 360 360 360 360
3. In the five eccentric circular spaces whose centre is
at A.
360 360 360 360 360
4. In the five eccentric circular spaces whose centre is
at B.
3° 56 39
54
53
36
l9
66
65
16
J3
74
27
51
34
12
62
r5
24
70
49
32
40
57
12
24
64
65
18
37
54
55
31
12
71
22
21
68
51
34
33
48
12
360 360 360 360 360
r7
66
67
27
28
52
53
38
12
69
20
12
61
58
43
35
5°
12
m
2.
14
25
If, now, we take any four numbers,
a square form, either from N° 1. or Nl
(we suppose from Tv0 1.) as in the margin,
and add half the central number 1 2 to them,
the sum will be 180 ; equal to half the numbers in any
circular space taken above or below the double hori¬
zontal line, and equal to the number of degrees in a
semicircle. Thus, 14, 72, 25, 63, and 6, make 180.
Magic Lantern. See Dioptrics, art. x.
MAGICIAN, one who practises magic, or hath
the power of doing wonderful feats by the agency of
spirits.
Among the eastern nations it seems to have been
formerly common for the princes to have magicians
about their court to confer with upon extraordinary oc¬
casions. And concerning these there hath been much
disputation : some supposing that their power was only
feigned, and that they were no other than impostors
who imposed on the credulity of their sovereigns ;
while others have thought that they really had some
unknown connexion or correspondence with evil spirits,
and could by their means accomplish what otherwise
would have been impossible for men. See the article
Magic.
MAGINDANAO, or Mindanao. See Min¬
danao.
MAGISTERY, an old term in chemistry, given to
precipitates. Thus, magistery and precipitate are syno¬
nymous \ formerly precipitate was a general term, and
magistery applied to particular precipitates, such as the
magistery of bismuth, &c. See Bismuth, Chemistry
Jnde tX*.
MAGISTRATE, any public officer to whom the
executive power of the law is committed either wholly
or in part.
MAGLIABECHI, Antony, a person of great
learning, and remarkable for an amazing memory, was
born at Florence in 1633. ^*s fatllfcr died when he
was only seven years old. Ilis mother had him taught
grammar and drawing, and then put him apprentice
to one of the best goldsmiths in Florence. W hen he
was about 16 years old, his passion for learning began
to appear 5 and he laid out all his money in buy¬
ing books. Becoming acquainted with Michael Er-
mini, librarian to the cardinal de Medicis, he soon per¬
fected himself by his assistance in the Latin tongue,
and in a little time became master of the Hebrew.
His name soon became famous among the learned. A
prodigious memory was his distinguishing talent j and
he retained not only the sense of what he had read,
but
MAO
jtfagHa-
bechi
II
Magna¬
nimity.
byt frequently all the words and the very manner of
spelling. It is said that a gentleman, to make trial
of the force of his memory, lent him a manuscript he
was going to print. Some time after it was returned,
the gentleman, coming to him with a melancholy
countenance, pretended it was lost, and requested Ma¬
gi iabechi to recollect what he remembered of it; up¬
on which he wiote the wnole, without missing a word.
He generally shut himself up the whole day, and open¬
ed his doors in the evening to the men of letters who
came to converse with him. His attention was so ab¬
sorbed by his studies, that he often forgot the most
urgent wants of nature. Cosmo III. grand duke of
Florence, made him his librarian ; but he still conti¬
nued negligent in his dress, and simple in his manners.
An old cloak served him for a morning gown in the
tlay and for bed-clothes at night. 1 he duke, however,
provided for him a commodious apartment in his pa¬
lace, which he was with difficulty persuaded to take
possession of; but which he quitted four months after,
and returned to his house. He was remarkable for his
extraordinary modesty, his sincerity, and his benefi¬
cence, which his friends often experienced in their
[ .359 ]
MAG
wants. He was a patron of men of learning ; and had
the highest pleasure in assisting them with bis advice
and information, and in furnishing them with books
and manuscripts. He had the utmost aversion at any
thing that looked like constraint ; and therefore the
grand duke always dispensed with his personal attend¬
ance, and sent him his orders in writing. Though he
lived a very sedentary life, he reached the 8ist year of
his age; and died in the midst of the public applause,
after enjoying, during the latter part of his life, such
affluence as few have ever procured by their learning.
By Ins will, he left a very fine library to the public,
with a fund for its support.
MAGLOIRE, St, a native of Wales in Great
Britain, and cousin german to St Sampson and St Mal-
lo. Pie embraced a monastic life, and went into France,
where he was made abbot of Dol, and after that a pro¬
vincial bishop in Britanny. He afterwards founded a
monastery in the island of Jersey, where he died on the
14th of October 575, about the age of 80. His re¬
mains were transported to the suburb of St Jacques,
and deposited in a monastery of Benedictines, which
was ceded to the fathers of the oratory in 1628. It
is now the seminary of St Magloire, celebrated on ac¬
count of the learned men whom it has produced. 
Phis saint cultivated poetry with considerable success :
the hymn which is sung at the feast of All Saints
was composed by him ; Ccclo quos eadem gloria conse¬
crate &c.
MAGNA ASSISA ELtGENDA, is a writ anciently
directed to the sherift for summoning four lawful
knights before the justices of assize, in order to choose
12 knights of the neighbourhood, &c. to pass upon
the great assize between such a person plaintiff and such
a one defendant.
Magna Charta. See Charta.
MAGNANIMITY, denotes greatness of mind,
particularly in circumstances of trial and adversity.—
duties o/h has l;,een justly observed of it, that it is the good
sense of pride, and the noblest way of acquiring ap-
r r t e plause. It renders the soul superior to the trouble,
disorder, and emotion, which the appearance of great
1
the prisoner.
Home should
the generous
danger migat excite ; and it is by this quality that
heroes maintain their tranquillity, and preserve the
ree use ot their reason, in the most surprising and
xtadful accidents. It admires the same quality in its
enemy ; and tame, glory, conquests, desire of opportu-
mties to pardon and oblige their opposers, are what
glow in the minds of the brave. Magnanimity and
courage are inseparable. ^
1. The inhabitants of Privernum being subdued and
taken prisoners alter a revolt, one of them being ask¬
ed by a Homan senator, who was for putting them all
to death, what punishment he and his fellow captives
deserved, answered with great intrepidity, “We de-
serve that punishment which is due to men who are
jealous of their liberty, and think themselves worthy
ot it. I lautinus perceiving that his answer exaspe-
rated some of the senators, endeavoured to prevent
the ill effects ot it, by putting a milder question to
How would you behave (says he) if
pardon you ?” “ Our conduct (replied
captive) depends upon yours. If the
peace you grant be an honourable one, you may de¬
pend on a constant fidelity on our parts : if the terms
oi it be hard and dishonourable, lay no stress on our
adherence to you.” Some of the judges construed
these words as menaces; but the wiser part findino-
in them a great deal of magnanimity, cried out, that
a nation whose only desire was liberty, and their only
tear that ot losing it, was worthy to become Roman.
Accordingly, a decree passed in favour of the prison-
eis, and I rivernum was declared amunicipium. Thus
the bold sincerity of one man saved his country, and
gained it the privilege of being incorporated into the
Roman state.
2. SllbrJus Flavius, the Roman tribune, being im¬
peached for having conspired against the life of the
emperor Nero, not only owned the charge, but glo¬
ried in it. Upon the emperor’s asking him what pro¬
vocation he had given him to plot his death. Be¬
cause I abhorred thee (said Flavius), though there was
not in the whole army one more zealously attached to
thee than I, so Jong as thou didst merit affection ; but
1 began to hate thee when thou becamest the murderer
ot thy mother, the murderer of thy brother and wife,
a charioteer, a comedian, an incendiary, and a tyrant.”
I acitus tells us, that the whole conspiracy afforded no¬
thing which proved so bitter and pungent to Nero as
this reproach. He ordered Flavius to be immediately
put to death, which he suffered with amazing intrepidity.
When the executioner desired him to stretch out his
neck valiantly, “ I wish (replied he) thou mayest strike
as valiantly.”
3. When the Scythian ambassadors waited on Alex¬
ander the Great, they gazed attentively upon him for
a long time without speaking a word, being very pro¬
bably surprised, as they formed a judgment of men
from their air and stature, to find that his did not an¬
swer the high idea they entertained of him from his
tame. At last, the oldest of the ambassadors (accord¬
ing to Q. Curtius) addressed him thus: “ Had the
gods given thee a body proportionable to thy ambition,
the whole universe would have been too little for thee.
With one hand thou wouldst touch the east, and
with the other the west; and, not satisfied with this,
thou wouldst follow the sun, and know where he hides
himself.
Magna¬
nimity.
M agnani-
mity.
Rapin's
Hist, ann
1199-
m a a [
himself. But what have we to do with thee ? we lie-
ver set foot in thy country. May not those who in¬
habit woods be allowed to live, without knowing who
thou art, and whence thou comest ? Me will neither
command over, nor submit to, any man. And that
thou mayest be sensible what kind oi peop;e the Scy¬
thians are, know, that we received from heaven as a
rich present, a yoke of oxen, a ploughshare, a dart, a
javelin, and a cup. These we make use ol, both wit i
our friends and against our enemies. To our friends
we give corn, which we procure by the labour of our
oxen j with them we offer wine to the gods in our
cup 5 and with regard to our enemies, we combat them
at a distance with our arrows, and near at hand with
our javelins. But thou, who boastest thy coming to
extirpate robbers, thou thyself are the greatest robber
upon earth. Thou hast plundered all nations thou
"overcamest; thou hast possessed thyself of Lydia, in¬
vaded Syria, Persia, and Bactriana; thou art forming
a design to march as far as India ; and now thou com-
est hither to seize upon our herds of cattle. T-he great
possessions thou hast, only make thee covet more eager¬
ly what thou hast not. If thou art good, thou oughtest
to do good to mortals, and not deprive them of their
possessions. If thou art a mere man, reflect always on
what thou art. They whom thou shalt not molest will
be thy true friends, the strongest friendships being con¬
tracted between equals y and they are esteemed equals
who have not tried their strength against each other-,
but do not imagine that those whom thou conquerest
can love thee.”
4. Richard I. king of England, having invested the
castle of Chains, was shot in the shoulder with an ar¬
row 5 an unskilful surgeon endeavouring to extract the
weapon, mangled the flesh iff such a manner, that a
gangrene ensued. TLhe castle being taken, and per¬
ceiving he should not live, he ordered Bertram de
Gourdon, who had shot the arrow, to be brought in¬
to his presence. Bertram being come, “ \\ hat haim
(said the king) did I ever do thee, that thou
shouldest kill me ?” The other replied with great mag¬
nanimity and courage, “ You killed with your^ own
hand my father and two of my brothers, aim you
likewise designed to have killed me. You may now
satiate your revenge. I should cheerfully suffer all
the torments that can be inflicted, were I sure of hav¬
ing delivered the world of a tyrant who filled it with
blood and carnage.” This bold and spirited answer
struck Richard with remorse. He ordered the pri¬
soner to be presented with one hundred shillings, and
set at liberty : but Maccardec, one of the king’s
friends, like a true ruffian, ordered him to be flayed
alive.
5. The following modern instance is extracted
from a French work, entitled, Ecole historique et mo¬
rale du soldat, See. A mine, underneath one of the
outworks of a citadel, was intrusted to the charge of
a serjeant and a few soldiers of the I iedmontese
guards. Several companies of the enemy’s troops had
made themselves masters of this work 5 and the loss of
the place would probably soon have followed had they
maintained their post in it. The mine was charged,
and a single spark would blow them all into the air.
The serjeant, with the greatest coolness, ordered the
soldiers to retire, desiring them to request the king to
360 ] MAG
take care of his wife and children 5 struck fire, set a MagtiaUi
match to the train, and sacrificed himself for his conn- “'ty
try. ,, ■ 1 ■ * n / Magnet
M AGNES A, or Magnesia, m Ancient lxtograp/iy,,—
a town or a district of ! hessalj, at the foot of Mount
Pelius, called by Philip, the son of Demetrius, one of
the three keys of Greece, (Pausanias).
MAGNESIA, or Magnesia alba, in Chemistry,
a peculiar kind of earth. See Chemistry Index.
Black Magnesia. See Manganese, Chemistry
and Mineralogy Index.
Magnesia, in Ancient Geography, a maritime di¬
strict of Thessaly, lying between the south part of the
Sinus Thermai'cus and the Pegasteus to the south, and
to the east of the Pelasgiotis. Magnetes, the people.
Magnci.tJS and Magnessus, the epithet j (Horace).
Magnesia, a town of Asia Minor on the Miean-
drr, about 15 miles from Ephesus. Themistocles died
there : it was one of the three towns given him by
Artaxerxes, with these words, “ to furnish his table
with bread.” It is also celebrated for a battle which
was fought there, 190 years before the Christian era,
between the Romans and Antiochus king of Syria.
The forces of Antiochus amounted to 70,000 men ac¬
cording to Appian, or 70,000 foot and 12,000 horse
according to. Livy, which has been exaggerated by
Florus to 300,000 men j the Roman army consisted
Df about 28,000 or 30,000 men, 2000 of whom were
employed in guarding the camp. Ihe Syrians lost
50,000 foot and 4000 horse -, and the Romans only
300 killed, with 25 horse. It was founded by a co¬
lony from Magnesia in Thessaly j and was commonly
called Magnesia ad Mceandrum, to distinguish it from
another called Magnesia ad Sipylvm in Lydia at the
t foot of Mount Sipylus.
Magnesia ad Sipylum, anciently Tantalis, the resi¬
dence of Tantalus, and capital of Mseonia, where now
stands the lake Sale. A town of Lydia, at the foot ol
Mount Sipylus, to the east of the Hermus 5 adjudged
free under the Romans. It was destroyed by an earth¬
quake in the reign of Tiberius.
MAGNET {Magnes) the Loadstone j a species
of iron ore. See Magnetism, and Mineralogy
Index.
The magnet is also called Lapis Heracleus, irom
Heraclea, a city of Magnesia, a port of the ancient
Lydia, where it is said to have been first found, ana
from which it is usually supposed to have taken its
name. Though others derive the word from a shep¬
herd named Magnes, who first discovered it with the
iron of his crook on Mount Ida. It is also called
Lapis Nauticus, from its use in navigation ; and side-
rites, from its attracting iron, which the Greeks call
The ancients reckoned five kinds of magnets, difter-
ent in colour and virtue } the Ethiopic, Magnesian,
Boeotic, Alexandrian, and Natolian. They also took
it to be male and female: but the chief use they made
of it was iff medicine j especially for the cure ol burns
and defluxions on the eyes.—The moderns, more for¬
tunate in its application, employ it to conduct them m
their voyages. See Navigation.
The most distinguished properties of the magnet are,^
That it attracts iron, and that it points to the poles of
the world j and in other circumstances also dips or in¬
clines
MAG [ 36i
Miafttet. clitics to a point beneath the horizon, directly under the
pole ; and that it communicates these properties, by
touch, to iron. On Which foundation are built the'ma-
riner’s needles, both horizontal and inclinatory.
Attractive Power of the Magxet was known to the
ancients j and is fnentioned even by Plato and Euri¬
pides, who call it the Herculean stone, because it com¬
mands iron, which subdues every thing else : but the
knowledge ot its directive power, whereby it disposes
its poles along the meridian of eveiy place, and occa¬
sions needles, pieces of iron, &c. touched with it, to
Ipoint nearly north and south, is of a much later date ;
though the exact time of its discovery, and the disco¬
verer himself, are yet in the dark. The first mention we
have of it is in 1260, when Marco Polo the Venetian is
said by some to have introduced the mariner’s compass $
though not as an invention of his own, but as derived
fro-n the Chinese, who are said to have had the use of
it long before j though some imagine that the Chinese
father borrowed it from the Europeans.
Flavie de Gioia, a Neapolitan, who lived in the 13th
3 mag
century, is the person usually supposed to have the lest Magnet
title to the discovery j and yet Sir G. Wheeler men- Magneti-
tions, that he had seen a book of astronomy much old- caI-
er, which supposed the use of the needle ; though —'
not as applied to the uses of navigation, but of astro¬
nomy. And in Guyot de Provins, an old French
poet, who wrote about the year 1180, there is express
mention made of the loadstone and the compass, and
their use in navigation obliquely hinted at.
The Variation of the Magnet, or its declination
trom the pole, was first discovered by Seb. Cabot, a
Nenetian, in 1500 j and the variation of that variation,
by Mr Gellibrand, an Englishman, about the year
1625. See V ariatiGn.
Lastly, The dip or inclination of the needle, when
at liberty to play vertically, to a point beneath the ho¬
rizon, was first discovered by another of our country¬
men, Mr R. Norman, about the year 15^6. See the
article Hipping Needle.
MAGNETIC AL needle. See Need-le, Mag-
netical. *
MAGNETISM.
General
idea of
magnetism
Magnetic
polarity 01
directive
lower.
.3
ieclina-
‘on of the
mgnet.
INTRODUCTION.
General Principles.
TF the mineral body called magnet or loadstone (an
ore of iron which will be described under Minera¬
logy) is brought within a moderate distance from a
piece of iron or steel, or other ferruginous body, such
as a small key, a sewing needle, or the like, the ferru¬
ginous body will approach the magnet \ and if no ob¬
stacle intervene, will come in contact with it, and the
two bodies will adhere together, so as to require an
evident force to separate them from each other.
Again, if a magnet be freely balanced, so that it
be left at liberty to assume any direction, as if it be
suspended by a thread, or made to float on the surface
of water by placing it on a piece of cork, or Wood,
it will soon settle itself in one particular direction, so as
to turn one part of its surface towards the northern point
of the horizon, and the opposite part of course towards
the southern point. These two parts of the surface of
the magnet are called its north and south poles j this
property of the magnet, of assuming this particular di¬
rection, is called its polarity-, or its directive power;
and when a magnet is placed so as to arrange itself in
such a direction, it is said to traverse.
The direction in which a suspended magnet finally
settles is called the magnetic meridian, and it is differ¬
ent in difterent places, and at different times. It is ge¬
nerally, however, very different from the real meridian
line, so that the north pole of a magnet declines a little
to the east or west, and the south pole to the west or
east. The diilerence of the magnetic from the astrono¬
mical meridian, is called the declination, or variation of
the magnet j and the declination is said to be east or
west, according as the north pole of the magnet verges
to the one or the other of these points.
If an oblong magnet be suspended on a pivot by its
VOL. XII. Part i,
4
centre of gravity, it does not settle in a perfectly hori- Dippmg
■zontal position, but one of its poles is depressed belowthc maSllet*
the horizontal line, and the other elevated as far above
it, making an angle with the horizon that is also dif¬
ferent on different parts of the earth’s surface. This
depression of one of the poles is called the dipping of
the magnet.
If two magnets that are each freely suspended, be £
brought within a moderate distance from each other, so
that the north pole of the one is opposed to the south
pole of the other, they will attract each other ; and if
no obstacle intervene, will rush together: but if the
two north poles, or the two south poles, be mutually
opposed, the magnets will repel each other.
Such are the leading properties of what is called the & I
natural magnet; but what is of more importance, as
we shall see hereafter, any piece of iron or steel may,
by being rubbed with a natural magnet, or by some
other processes to be afterwards explained, be made to
acquire the same properties, and thus in every useful
respect serve the same purposes as the natural magnet.
These pieces of iron or steel, thus magnetised, are called
artificial magnets j and when they are of a slender
oblong form, they are termed magnetic needles. When
afterwards we speak of the polarity, the declination, or
the dipping of the magnetic needle, we would be un¬
derstood as alluding to these slender, oblong, artificial
magnets. ^
A straight line joining the two poles of a magnet is Axis and
called its axis, and a line drawn transversely on the sur- equator of
face of the magnet, perpendicular to the axis, is called a ma8uet*
the equator. g
The properties of natural and artificial magnets Magnetic
above enumerated, are attributed to the agency of somePowei*
unknown force or power, either inherent in the mag¬
net, or imparted to it by the processes to which it is
subjected. This force is sometimes called magnetism,
hut we shall for the present denominate it the ina retie
t Z £ power,.
362
magnetism
General power, restricting the term magnetism to the science
principles, that illustrates and attempts to explain the pheno-
v men a. . .
TT .rt0 . The most important property of the magnet is its
S'netim. polarity, as it is by means of this that the manner is
enabled to find his way along the trackless ocean,
where, before the discovery of this important property,
he had no other guide but the stars, and could there¬
fore seldom venture far from the coast. It is by this
property too, that the miner is enabled to pursue a di¬
rect course through the bowels of the earth, or the tia-
veller direct his steps through immense forests, or over
sandy deserts. The uses of the magnet are therefore
obvious and important, and the science which places
these uses in the best point of view, and thus enables us
to turn them to the greatest advantage, is well deserv¬
ing our attention. Many of the facts to be related un¬
der this article are highly curious, and form a pleasing
addition to those scientific amusements which are so well
calculated to excite the attention of beginners in the
IO study of experimental philosophy. ...
Works on R is unnecessary for us to attempt giving here a 1ns-
magnetism, <-ory 0f the origin and progress of our knowledge in
magnetism. To a general reader, it would be uninte¬
resting, and to such as are better informed, superflu¬
ous. We shall only mention the most important works
that have appeared on the subject.
Few treatises expressly on magnetism have appeared
in this country. In the year 1600* Dr Gilbert, a phy¬
sician of Colchester, and the friend of Lord Bacon,
published an excellent work De Magnete et Corporibvs
Magncticis, which is still perhaps the most valuable
that we possess. Mr Cavallo’s Treatise on Magnetism,
first published in 1787, contains a great variety ot facts
and experiments ; and a neat compendium of it is given
in the 3d volume of the same author’s Elements of Na¬
tural and Experimental Philosophy. Mr Cavallo’s
Treatise, and Mr Adams’s Essay on Magnetism, form
' the substance of most of the compilations on this subject
that have lately appeared.
To those who wish to enter minutely on the study of
magnetism, the following list of foreign publications re¬
commended by the late Professor Robison of Edinburgh
will be acceptable.
TEpini Tentamen Theorise Magn. et Electr.
Eberhard’s Tentam. Theor. Magnetism!, 1720.
Dissertations sur 1’Aimant, par Dufay, 1728.
Muschenbroek Dissert. Physico-Experimentalis de
Magnete.
Pieces qui ont emporte la prise de 1’Acad. des Scien¬
ces h Paris sur la meilleure construction des Boussoles de
declination. Recueil des pieces couronnees, tom. v.
Euleri Opuscula, tom. iii. continens Theoriam Mag^
netis. Berlin, I75li
iEpini Oratio Academica, 1758.
iEpini item Comment. Petrop. nov. tom. x.
Anton. Brugmanni Tentamen Phil, de Materia Mag-
netica. Franquerae,
There is a German translation of this work by Eisen-
bach, with many valuable additions.
Scarella de Magnete, 2 tom, fol.
Van Swinden sur 1’Analogic entre les plienomenes
Electriques et Magnetiques, 3 tom. 8vo.
Dissertation sur les Aimants Artificielles, par Nicho¬
las Fuss, 1782.
Chap. I.
Essai sur 1’Origine des Forces Magnetiques, par M. jyiagnetical
Prevost. Apparatus.
Sur les Aimants artificielles, par Rivoir. Paris, 1752.' v 1
Dissertatio de IVIagnetismo, par Sam. Klingenstein
et Jo. Brander. Holm. IJS2’
Description des Courants Magnetiques. Strasbourg,
*753*
Traite de 1’Aimant, par Dalance. Amst. 1687.
Besides the abo-ve original works, there are several
valuable dissertations on magnetism by Des Cartes,
Bernoulli, Euler, Du Tour, Coulomb, &c. either pub¬
lished in the miscellaneous works ot these authors, or
in the journals and transactions of academies.
We shall divide this article into three chapters. In
the first we shall briefly describe the principal instru¬
ments made use of in magnetical experiments j in the
second we shall endeavour to arrange under distinct
heads or propositions, the leading principles of magne¬
tism, point out how these may be illustrated by experi¬
ment, and explain the construction and uses of the mag¬
netical apparatus, as they are deducible from the prin¬
ciples laid down ; and in the third we shall notice the
more important theories of magnetism, and exemplify
the illustration of some of the preceding facts by that
theory wrhich we shall feel most disposed to adopt.
Chap. I. Of Magnetical Apparatus.
The principal instruments employed in magnetical Magnetical •
experiments and observations, are. reducible to tinee
heads : First, Magnets of various kinds and forms •,
Secondly, Magnetic needles and compasses j and, third¬
ly, the Dipping needle. Of compasses we have nothing
to say here, having fully treated of them under Com¬
pass. . 12
Magnets, as we have said, are either natural or arti- Magnets.
fcial. The natural magnet may be cut into various
forms, according to the experiments that are to be
made with it. The most usual shape is oblong, having
the poles at the two most distant extremities. Dr Gil¬
bert, whom we shall mention more at large hereafter,
made his magnets of a spherical shape, so as to resem¬
ble the terrestrial globe. Magnets of this shape are
called terrellce, or little earths, and have usually mark¬
ed upon, their surface the magnetic poles, meridian, and
equator. I3
Natural magnets of an oblong shape have usually a
piece of soft iron attached to each pole, called the con-0 m ^
ductor; and another piece of soft iron placed so as to
join two of the extremities of the former pieces, and
usually furnished with a hook or hole in the middle. p]ate
The magnet thus fitted up, as represented at fig. I. iscCXCVIII
said to be armed, and the iron pieces CD, CD, are cal- l'
led the armature of the magnet AB. The magnet
with its armature is commonly inclosed in a brass box,
repi’esented in the figure by the dotted lines DC, CC,
CD : and to the upper part of the box is fixed a ring
E, for holding the magnet.
One of the most common forms of the artificial mag¬
net is that of an oblong bar, as NS, fig. 2. of which ‘S-1
N is the north pole, and S the south, having the north
end marked with a transverse notch. These bars are
made of hardened steel, and are either sold separately,
or, what is more common, in sets of six in a box.
Another very common form of the artificial magnet
i$.
.
Magnetic
needle.
Chap. II. M A G N
Experi- is that of a horse shoe, such as fig. 3. having the two
mental II- poles N, S, brought near each other, and commonly
lustrations. umted by a piece of soft iron or conductor. The horsc-
Fig. 3. slloe magnets sometimes consist only of a single crooked
bar ; but they are frequently composed of several such
bars united together by their flat surfaces, and inclosed
in a leathern covering that envelopes all but the poles
and thus preserves the bars from rusting.
Instead oi the very arched foi'm of which horse-shoe
magnets are usually made, they are sometimes construct¬
ed so as to form nearly a semicircle, and in this shape
they are very convenient for several experiments.
Artificial magnets, like the natural, when of an ob¬
long shape, are sometimes armed at each end, so as to
enable them to apply both poles to a ferruginous body
at the same time. One material advantage of the horse¬
shoe magnet is, that in it such an armature is unneces¬
sary, as the poles are brought so near each other as ea¬
sily to be applied to the object it is proposed to lift, as
a key, &c.
A magnetic needle is an oblong piece of steel, tem¬
pered so as commonly to assume the blue tinge that is
seen in watch-springs, and supported on a brass point,
so as, when left at liberty, to arrange itself in the mag¬
netic meridian, but in a horizontal position. These
needles are sometimes made pointed at both extremi¬
ties ; sometimes the northern extremity is made in the
form of a cross j but perhaps the best form is that of the
oblong, with extremities that are nearly obtuse, such as
is represented at fig. 4. To balance the needle on its
pivot, it is furnished near its middle with a hollow cap,
which is formed of some substance that is not attracted
by the magnet. The cap is usually of brass ; but for
nice experiments it is sometimes made of agate, as this
latter does not wear so fast as brass, and consequently
the needle will longer retain its original suspension.'
The dipping needle, fig. 5. consists of an oblong bar
of steel, AB, balanced between two horizontal slips of
brass, CD, CD, so as when magnetised to form an
angle with the horizon, equal to the dipping of the
needle at the place where the instrument is made. The
two horizontal slips of brass are either fixed to a gra¬
duated semicircle that is supported on a stand of wood,
or more commonly they form diameters to a brass ring
which is graduated on its circumference, and furnished
with a ring, H, by which it may be held on the
finger.
The construction and uses of these instruments will
be fully explained in the next chapter ; our only object
here being to bring the reader acquainted with the
names and general form of the instruments that are
made use of in the experiments which xve are about to
describe, for illustrating the principles of magnetism.
Several smaller articles will be required by the expe¬
rimentalist 5 but these are easily procured, and need no
particular description. Such are a number of sewing
needles of various sizes, soft iron bars, pieces of iron
wire, small iron balls, iron filings, &c.
lipping
;edle.
'%• 5-
Chap. II. Experimental Illustrations of the Principles
of Magnetism.
Sect. I. Of Magnetical Polarity.
We have stated (N° 3.) that when a magnet is sus-
ETtSM. ,
pended at perfect freedom, it assumes a certain determi- r . J
note position mth respect to the astronomical meridian. mmK-
ms is but a particular case of a much more general lustrations,
tact, which may be expressed by the following proposi- ' v  
II oblong piece of iron be so adjusted, as to be at Jroll it
ibcrtij to take any position-, it will assume a certain de- ranges itself
terminate direction with respect to the axis of the earth in a deter-
djjjenng according to the place where the experimentminate t10-
ts made. 1 sition.
Experiment!.—Take a moderatelysized straight iron
rod, as a piece of iron wire about the thickness of a
goose quill, and about eight or ten inches long $ pass it
t iiough one^extremity ol a large wine cork, so "that it
may be at right angles to the axis of the cork, and ad¬
just it in such a manner that it may swim in water in a
horizontal position. Now, provide a pretty large
earthen vessel, as a hand bason or round deep dish,
nearly filled with water; and when the water is free
11 om agitation, cautiously put in the wire, in such a di¬
rection as not to be very far from the north and south
line. The iron rod will, after some time, be found to
have arranged itself so as, in Britain, to form an angle
with the meridian of about 25 degrees.
This experiment requires some nicety, and it will
sometimes be long before the iron assumes its proper po¬
sition but if due attention be paid to all the particu¬
lars above mentioned, it will at length arrange itself in
the magnetic line. It is necessary that the rod should
be placed not too far from the magnetic line, as, if it be
laid at right angles to that line, it will never acquire
the proper direction. The situation of the rod in this
experiment is in the true magnetic line, so far as re¬
spects the meridian 5 but, as it is horizontal, it is not
in the position that a magnet would assume, if freely
suspended by its centre of gravity. An iron rod may,
however, be made to take such a position, as well as a
magnet.
Exper. 2.—Instead of passing the iron rod through
the extremity of a cylindrical or conical piece of cork,
let it be passed through the centre of a spherical piece
of cork or wood, so that the centre of gravity may
coincide with the centre of the sphere, and let the
whole be of such a specific gravity as to remain suspend¬
ed in any part of the water, without ascending or de¬
scending. If the iron rod thus fitted be placed as in the
last experiment, it will at length arrange itself in the
true magnetic direction, so as to make an angle of
about 25 degrees with the meridian, and with one ex¬
tremity depressed below the horizon at an angle of a-
bout 73 degrees.
These experiments were contrived by Dr Gilbert, Polarity of
and fully shew that the property of assuming a determi-iron tempo-
nate direction with respect to the earth’s axis is not con-rarj'*
fined to magnets, or iron rendered magnetical by the
usual processes. There is, however, a remarkable dif¬
ference between the polarity of unmagnetised iron and
that of natural and artificial magnets. It is of no con¬
sequence in the former which extremity be placed to¬
wards the north, or which below the suface of the wa¬
ter, as either will retain the position it first acquired,
unless disturbed by agitation, or by the proximity of a
magnet 5 and both extremities may easily be made to
change situations. The effect produced on the iron is
therefore temporary. But if a magnetic needle be
Z z 2 freely'
364
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations
18
Of magnets
peimanent
magnetism.
Chap. II.
T9
T)eclina-
ttou varies.
freely Suspended, the same extremity always points to¬
wards the north, and this northern extremity always
dips below the horizon, at least in these northern lati¬
tudes ; and if the position of the needle be disturbed by
mechanical motion, or by the application of a magnet,
it will be resumed when the disturbing cause is removed.
The polarity of magnets therefore is permanent.
We have said that the magnetic line varies at ditter-
ent times, and in different places.. The declination ol
the magnet is so uncertain as to impose great impedi¬
ments to the art of navigation, as it is necessary in the
course of a long voyage, frequently to ascertain the de¬
cree of variation for any particular time or place. 1 he
method of doing this is mentioned under Compass.
The declination observed in difierent places at ditterent
times, has been laid down in tables 5 and as such tables
are very useful, we shall here subjoin one, given by
Mr Cavallo.
Latitude.
North.
7°° I7'
69 38
66 36
65 43
63 58
59 39
58 *4
55
53 37
50 8
48 44
40 41
33 45
31 8
28 30
23 54
20 30
19 45
16 37
15 25
13 32
12 21
51
8 55
6 29
Longitude.
jyeclination
4 23
3 45
2 40
1 14
° 51
o 7
South.
1 13
2 48
3 37
4 22
5 °
West.
163° 24'
164 11
167 55
17° 34
165 48
149 8
i39 19
I3S 0
i34 53
4 4°
5 °
ii 10
14 5°
15 3°
17 o
18 20
20 3
20 39
22 50
23 36
23 45
23 54
24 5
22 50
20 5
21 2
22 34
24 10
26 2
27 10
27 o
28 58
29 37
30 14
30 29
31 4°
East.
30° 21'
31 o
27 So
27 58
26 25
22 54
24 40
23 29
20 32
West.
20 36
22 38
22 27
18 7
17 43
14 o
15 4
14 35
13 11
10 33
9 55
25
48
8 19
8 58
9 44
9 1
8 27
Years in
which the
observations
were made.
1779
1778
1776
42
35
59
27
3 12
2 52
2 14
2 54
1 26
Latitude.
Longitude.
South.
6 45
7 5°
8 43
10 4
12 40
13 23
14 11
15 33
16 12
18 30
20 8
21 37
24 17
26 47
28 19
3° 25
33 43
35 37
38 52
40 36
42 4
44 52
46 15
48 41
Declination.
Years in
which the
observations
ivere made.
West.
32° 5°'
33 3°
34 20
34 20
34 5°
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 49
34 4°
35 20
35 5°
36 1
36 9
36 8
34 27
32 20
26 28
16 30
9 3°
23 20
East.
173 34
167 32
i55 47
144 50
69 10
West.
o° 6'
East.
0 35
West,
o 7
° 15
East,
o 44
West,
o 38
East.
1 12
9
15
4
2
26
24
24
44
58
37
West.
4 44
5 5i
22 12
East.
13 47
13 !7
West.
9 28
14 48
27 39
1776
Experi¬
mental II-
lustrations.
It is of still more importance to know the progres¬
sive change of the declination at any certain place,,
and we shall therefore give here the following table o£
the declination as observed at London in diflerent years*
from 1576 to 1808.
Years.\
Declination.
!576
1580
1612
1622
!633
J^34
1656
1665
1666
1672
East.
Ii° 15'
II 11
6 10
West,
o o
I 22-J
1 354-
2 30
Observers.
Burrows.
Gunter.
Gellibrand
Bond.
Gellibrand.
Halley.
‘iJhap. II.
MAGNETISM.
Experi¬
mental II-
Iwstrations.
Years.
1683
1692
1700
1717
I723
1748
1760
i?65
1770
x773
1775
1780
1785
1787
1790
J795
1800
1802
1805
Declination.
West.
4 3°
6 o
8 o
10 42
14 17
17 40
19 12
20 o
20 35
21 9
21 30
22 10
22 50
23 !9
23 34
23 57
24 7
24 6
24 8
Observers.
Graham.
Heberden.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
Gilpin.
From 1792 to 1794 2ic
In 1798 - 22
1799 \ 22
1800 - 22
1801 - 22
1802 - 21
1803 - 21
1804 - 22
At Jamaica 1805 - 6
54' Stationary.
J7
o
12
r
45
59
10
30 E.
365
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations.
At Alexandria in Egypt,
4'W.
6
2s'Vi.
From this last table it appears that when the decli¬
nation was first observed, the north pole of the magnetic
needle declined to the eastward of the meridian of Lon¬
don, that since that time it advanced continually to¬
wards the west till 1657, when the needle pointed due
north and south, and that ever since it has continually
declined more and more towards the west, in which di¬
rection it appears to be still advancing.
At Paris, in different years, the declination has been
observed as follows:
In 155°
1640
1660
1681
J759
1760
8°
3
o
2
18
18
o' East.
o
o
2 West.
10
20
In 1761 - ii°
1798 - 13
At Cairo,
In 1761 - 120
1798 - 12
The declination of the magnetic needle has been
found to be different, even at different hours of the day.
The following table contains the result of some observa¬
tions made by Mr Canton on the daily variation, and
on the mean variation of each month.
The declination observed at different hours of the
same day. June 27. 1759.
Degrees
Decl. W. of the
Therm.
2' 62°
58 62
55 65
54 67
57 69
4 68£
9 7°
8 70
8 68
61
r
£
H. M.
O 18
6 4
8 30
9 2
10
11
o
1
3
7
9 12
. n 40
I 2U
18
l8
l8
18
*9
19.
*9
*9
18
r9
18
59
6
51
59
57^
The mean Variation for
each Month in the
Year.
January,
February,
March,
April,
May,
June,
July,
August,
September,
October,
November,
December,
7' 8"
8 52
11 17
12 26
13 O
I^ 21
J3 H
12 19
11 43
10 36
8 9
6 58
Table of the Mean Monthly Variation of the Magnetic Needle for 20 Years at London *.
Years
1786
1787
1788
*789
179°
1791
1792
1793
x794
*795
j796
*797
1798
1799
180c
1801
1802
1803
1804
1803
January.
22 10.2
23 25*6
38-9
35-6
41
46.9
54-2
February, March.
o 1
23 19.8
23 48-3
o 1
23 20.3
23 48.8
57-5
1.1
1.3
0.6
1.1
3-6
5-2
6.9
8.0
94
8.7
April.
23 18.5
23 36-
23 46.
May.
23 17.O
23 41.9
23 47-3
June.
July.
23 48.5
57
58.7
0.2
59-4
0.6
1.8
2.8
5-3
7.0
6.0
7.8
23
23 j8-3
23 28.923
23 34*2
23
23
23
23
23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
19.6
29.8
39-°
36-7
5°-5
54-4
57-1
59-2
°-3
0.0
1.8
3-o
4.1
6.0
7-9
8.4
7.8
August. Septemb.
23 21.9
43-6
48.6
57-2
16.4
22.8
43-9
52.6
58
0.4
0.1
I-4
1.4
2.9
3*6
3-8
8.7
10.5
89
10.0
October.
23 18.4
23 24.5
23 32.I
45-6
52-3
Novemb
23 I7-3
23 25.0
23 45-
23 51-
Decemb.
o /
18.3
25.8
* Phil.
Trans.
1806.
p. 4i5.
23 41.2
933
9 23
23
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
24
45-2
52.3
59-4
1
1
M
2- 3
3- 3
5-4
6.8
10.7
9.0
9.4
Charts
366
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations.
20
Polarity
disturbed
by the ap¬
proach of
iron.
Charts have been constructed for shewing the decli¬
nation of the needle in various parts ot the earth by
means of curve lines. Respecting these charts and se¬
veral other circumstances with regard to this subject,
see Variation of the Compass.
It mav not be improper here to point out the gene¬
ral method of applying the polarity of the magnet to
the useful purposes of navigation, mining, occ.
A mariner’s compass, or magnetic needle in a case,
is so placed as to be as little as possible disturbed by the
motion of the vessel, person, See. In a ship, it is pla¬
ced in the binnacle (see Binnacle), or suspended trom
the upper deck in the cabin. Then the head oi the
vessel is kept by the helm in such a direction as to make
any required angle with the line of the needle, or
the person (in mining or travelling) advances in a
similar manner. Thus, supposing that a vessel sets out
from a certain part, in order to go to another place
that is exactly westward of the former; as for example,
from the Land’s End in Cornwall to Newfoundland on
the coast of North America. The vessel must be direct¬
ed in such a way, as that its course may be always at
right angles with the direction of the magnetic needle,
or so that the part of the needle or compass card,
which points to the northward, (allowing for the varia¬
tion) may be always kept to the right hand of the man
at the helm, Or to the starboard side of the vessel. The
reason of this is evident; for, supposing the needle to
point duly north and south, the direction of east and
west being perpendicular to it, this must be the tiue
course of the vessel. From this example, a little re¬
flection will easily point out how a vessel may be steered
in any in other course (a).
The declination of the magnetic needle is disturbed by
the near approach of a ferruginous body, especially if this
be of considerable si%e.
On holding the extremity of a pretty large iron rod,
such as a poker, near one end of a magnetic needle pro¬
perly suspended, the needle will be found to turn con¬
siderably from its usual direction. This circumstance,
though proper to be mentioned here, will be better un¬
derstood when we have considered the attractive power
of the magnet. The fact is useful, as it teaches us to
keep magnetic needles in such a situation as not to be
acted on by any considerably body of iron.
A magnet, whether natural or artificial, has a great-
MAGNETISM. Chap.
er effect in disturbing the polarity of a magnetic needle Exper
than is produced by iron. mental
Magnetic polarity seems also to be affected by ;llstlatif'
changes in the state of the atmosphere; and the follow-^“v'“
ing axioms respecting this effect on the declination of
the needle, collected by M. la Cotte, are deserving of
attention.
x. The greatest declination of the needle from the
north towards the west, takes place about two in the
afternoon ; and the greatest approximation of it towards
the north, about eight in the morning ; so that from
the last-mentioned hour till about two in the afternoon,
it endeavours to remove from the north, and between
two in the afternoon and the next morning, to ap¬
proach it.
2. The annual progress of the magnetic needle is as
follows :—Between January and March, it removes
from the north ; between March and May it ap¬
proaches it; in June it is stationary; in July it re¬
moves from it ; in August, September, and October it
approaches it ; its declination in October is the same
as in May; in November and December it removes
from the north ; its greatest western declination is at
the vexmal equinox, and its greatest approximation to
the north, at the autumnal equinox.
3. The declination of the magnetic needle is differ¬
ent, according to the latitude ; among us, (i. e. in
France) it has always increased since 1657 ; before that
period it was easterly.
4. Before volcanic eruptions and earthquakes, the
magnetic needle is often subject to very extraordinary
movements.
5. The magnetic needle is agitated before and af¬
ter the appearance of the northern lights : its declina¬
tion on these occasions is about noon greater than
usual.
So much has already been said respecting the pheno¬
mena, &c. of the dipping needle, under the article
Dipping Needle, that it is unnecessary here to add
much more on the subject. It was there noticed, that
at the equator the dipping needle lies quite horizontal,
and that one of its extremities inclines more towards the
earth, according as the instrument is carried farther
from the equator. We may here add, that from some
late observations made by experimentalists with bal¬
loons, it appears that the higher we ascend above the
(a) In reply to some inquiries respecting the mode of employing the compass in mining, we were favoured by
an ingenious friend, who is manager of one of the most extensive coalworks in this island, with the following re¬
marks : “ The compass is used in all mines where great accuracy is required. In some coal-mines the cleats or
faces of the coal are the guides to the miners in excavating the mine, and the compass is used to ascertain the si¬
tuation and extent of the excavations. In other coal-mines the courses of the excavations are at first directed by
the compass. In doing this, the compass is placed in a given situation, and is made to point the desired course.
Then from the centre of one sight a perpendicular line is conveyed to the roof of the mine, and a small mark is
there made with chalk; then a person looks at a candle (placed so as nearly to touch the roof), through the lower
part of the sight of the compass nearest to him, and through the upper part of the opposite sight. The candle at
the roof is moved in any direction until he sees it through both sights of the compass. It is then in a proper place,
and a chalk mark is made in the roof immediately above it. A line struck with a chalked cord, between these
two marks upon the roof, marks the proper course, by which the workmen are directed in making the excavation.
By applying one part of a chalked cord along part of the course or white line thus begun on the roof, and ex¬
tending the other part of the cord past it to any required distance, and then striking the cord, the course may be
•continued from time to time as the excavation advances.
3
lhap II.   
Experi- surface ot the eartii, the less is the angle of inclination
mental Jl- which the dipping needle makes with the horizontal
jstrations. ^9
It is worthy of remark that, under the same circum¬
stances, the declination of the needle was not found dif¬
ferent from what it would have been on the earth at
the same place, and its polarity with respect to iron was
unchanged.
M A G N E T I S M.
:6y
> a,n ''"y.g; made at St Peterslurgh in E,0eri
i8 4Jb.a &a,cl,arof a"J Kobertson, it -was ob- mental II-
rved that the sout/i pole of a magnetic needle, balan- lustrations.
ced on a pin, dipped below the horizon nearly 10 de- ‘ * 
grees. J
The following table shows the magnetic dip as ob¬
served at several different places at various times.
Latitude.
North.
53° 55'
49 36
44 5
38 53
34 57
29 18
24 24
20 47
15 8
12 1
10 o
? 2
Longitude.
East.
'93° 39'
222 10
West.
8 10
12 i
14 8
16 7
18 11
19 36
23 38
23 35
22 52
20 10
A7. Pole below
the Horizon
leans of
Observation
69° 1 o'
72 29
71 34
70 30
66 12
62 17
59 o
56 15
51 o
48 26
44 12
37 25
!778
1776
Latitude.
South.
0° 2'
4 4°
3
25
16
l9
21
45
28
8
35 55
41 5
45 47
Longitude.
27° 38'
3° 34
33 21
34 24
East.
208
204
185
18
12
11
o
20
»74 13
166 18
Prince of Wales’s
Island.
}
A. P olebelow
the Horizon.
3°° 3'
22 1 c
*7 57
o 9 15
S. Pole below.
29 28
41 O
39 1
45 37
63 49
70 3
5 10
Years of
Observation
Table of the Magnetic Dip at London from 1786 to 1805.*
Poles Reversed.
1786 September
October
November
December
1787 January
February
March
April
May
June
July
August
September
October
November
December
1788 January
1789 January
December
1790 January
1791 January
1795 October
1797 October
1798 April
October
1799 October
1801 April
1803 October
1805 August
Face east.
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
7i
7i
71
70
70
70
70
70
28.7
29.9
7.6
10.6
11.4
*9>4
19,1
24j4
24.4
22.6
22,6
22,3
22,3
23>l
23>T
22.8
22,8
16,0
J7>5
16.9
43>9
12,8
4>9
4>7
55>6
56>°
47>4
3°>9
25*2
Face west.
72
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
71
7i
7*
71
71
71
7.1
7i
7i
70
M
59>°
17.6
2,2
1,8
10.8
11.9
9»5
9.6
7>9
7>9
6.7
6,7
2,5
2.5
2,0
2,0
0,0
59>4
57,7
36,1
9> 5
10,9
I4>5
14>5
I3>5
5.6
9>9
55>7
Face east.
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
7i
71
7i
7i
70
71
7i
71
70
70
70
57>3
0,4
2,4
2.2
1,0
I>5
0>5
°»5
4.2
4.2
59.9
59>3
2,9
2,9
2,7
2,7
2.6
5T,9
38.9
40.2
37>2
J3,9
56.3
2.3
7.7
”>5
5M
40,5
26.9
Face west
72
72
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
71
70
70
70
70
69
69
69
5.1
1.2
46.7
58.4
56,0
55.8
52,2
52.2
52.9
52.9
55>i
55.2
5I,o
5I,o
50.3
50,3
48.8
31.1
42.8
40.2
17.5
9,4
44.7
19.8
22.2
7.9
38.2
46,7
36.3
True dip.
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
72
71
71
71
7r
71
70
70
70
70
70
70
70
8,1
7.6
3.6
3>4
2.5
6.9
5.9
6.6
7.8
6.8
6.4
5.9
5.7
4.9
4.7
4.4
4,o
54>8
54.6
53 >7
23.7
n,4
59>2
55,4
55,°
52,2
35,6
32,0
21,0
J777
J774
1777
J773
I799
* Phil.
Trans.
1806.
p. 491.,
To
368
M A G N
E.™t; To wliat was saui umlei- Dimso Needle, respecting
menal II- the construction of that instrument, we may add that
I»istravions. notwithstanding the great improvements that ha>e
   lately made in the arts, the making of a dipping nee-
A\e ^ one of the most delicate and difficult tasks that an
instrument-maker can undertake. The needle must he
made of tempered steel which we are certain has no
magnetism before it is touched *, it must be poised so
nicely, and with such a perfect coincidence of its cen¬
tre of gravity and axis of motion, that it will retain any
position (before being magnetised) that is given it. A
good dipping needle cannot be had below twenty gui¬
neas.
it
A magnet
Sect. II. On Magnetic Attraction and Repulsion
A magnet attracts iron, and all bodies, into the com
attrarts position of which iron enters in any considerable degree.
imn and all This principle is illustrated by very simple experiments,
ferruginous which will readily occur to every reader. It is ot con-
bodies.
[it]
sequence here to observe, that the purer and softer the
iron to which the magnet is presented, the stronger will
he the attraction *, thus, a magnet attracts a piece ot
soft and clean iron much more strongly than it attracts
any other ferruginous body of the same shape and
weight. Hard steel, or the harder ores of iron, are
less forcibly attracted than soft steel, and still less than
soft iron *, and all pieces of iron are less forcibly attract¬
ed in proportion as they are oxygenated. ^
The attractive power of a magnet is not equally
1“! me auracuve pu»ci ui — ..— ^
Attraction- ■ rt 0f [ts surface. It is most powerful
greatest at / 5, _1 U found tn diminish
greatest
the poles
magnet.
atlUUg 111     _ . - . • • 1
at the poles of the magnet, and it is found to diminish
in proportion as the part of the surface is more distant
from the poles. Thus, in an oblong magnet, the at¬
traction is least at about its middle, where it is often
very trifling.
23 It is by this property of the magnet that we are en-
ftndin^the abled to discover the poles of a magnet, where they are
poleTof a not yet ascertained 5 a circumstance which is often ne¬
cessary with respect to natural magnets, in which,
when of an irregular shape, it would otherwise be diffi¬
cult to discover the poles. The usual method of ascer¬
taining the poles of a magnetic body is, to present va¬
rious parts of the body to be examined, successively to
the poles of a magnetic needle, when it will soon be
discovered which parts of the body have most influence
on the needle, by the pole of the latter standing per¬
pendicularly to that part of the body. It will presently
appear, that in this way it may also be ascertained
which of these poles is the north, and which the south,
as the south pole of the body under examination will
have most influence on the north pole of the needle, and
vice versa.
A good magnet should have no more than two poles,
and these should be situated in the extreme surface of
the magnet j but it sometimes happens, especially in na¬
tural magnets, and in artificial magnetic bars, if they
be very long, that there are more than two poles, or
that the poles are very confused. For example, in a
very long magnetised bar, there may be a strong north
pole at one extremity, a south pole a little farther on,
then a weaker north pole, and so on to the extremity,
which will he found possessed of a still weaker south
polarity. These poles are to be discovered by presenting
-to several parts of the bar one or other of the poles
4
E T I S M. Chap. II
of a magnetic needlefor, as wfi shall immediately Experi
mention, each pole of the needle will be attracted to- mental Jl
wards that part of the rod which is possessed of the con- Oration
trary polarity. .
The attractive power of the magnet and the iron is
most forcible when the two bodies are 'in contact, and
it diminishes as they are made to recede from each
other. The exact law according to which this diminu*
tion takes place, has not yet been completely ascertain¬
ed. We shall see in the" next chapter, what approxi¬
mation has been made to it. _ 54
A magnet is not capable of lifting above a certain Differeir
weight of iron*, and all magnets of the same form andattracti*.
size are not able to lift the same weight. Among tbeP™6^
natural magnets the smallest seem in general to possess a
a greater attractive power in proportion to their size,
than those of larger dimensions. Mr Cavallo mentions a
small magnet that weighed not more than 6 or 7 grains,
and was capable of lifting about 30O grains^ and Sir
Isaac Newton possessed a magnet that he wore in a ring,
weighing hut about 3 grains, which is said to have lift¬
ed 746 grains, or nearly 250 times its own weight.
The larger natural magnets are very weak in proportion
to these. Those of two pounds scarcely lift more thart
ten times their own weight. It seems extraordinary,
that a piece cut off from a large magnet is sometimes
much stronger in respect of its attractive power, than
the magnet from which it was taken.
It has been said that the attractive power of magnets
is greatest at their poles. Both poles, however, are
seldom equal in this respect} and it appears, that in
these nothertt parts of the world, the northern pole of
magnets is more powerful than the south. In the south¬
ern hemisphere the contrary effect is said to take place.
The attractive power of the magnet is most forcible
when both poles are made to act conjunctly 5 hence an
armed magnet, or one of the horse-shoe form, is best
adapted for experiments on the force of magnetic at¬
traction.
It is of little consequence whether the iron that is
presented to the magnet be in one piece, or consist of
several pieces. The attraction is indeed stronger in the
former case *, but if several pieces of iron are presented
to the magnet, they will either all adhere about the
pole of the magnet, or will adhere to each other, so as
to form a sort of chain. If a small iron ball be made
to adhere to the pole of a magnet, this ball will support
a second *, and this latter, if the magnet be pretty
strong, will support a third. If the magnet be of the
horse-shoe form, and have these three balls hanging by
one ball, if two others be suspended from the other
pole, all the five may be made to adhere, so as to form
a curved chain. It will be evident, that pieces of iron
which present a greater extent of surface than the above
spherical balls, will he more powerfully attracted.
One of the most pleasing experiments on the attrac-Action '
tion of the magnet for iron, is shewn by means of iroumagne!
filings.
Exper.—\jet a paper be placed above a bar magnet,
and let iron filings be shaken on the paper through a
gause sieve. They will arrange themselves roufld the
magnet in a very beautiful manner, forming curves and
arches of curves, as represented in fig 6. At the two pig
ends of the magnet, as a a, there are chains of filings
standing out nearly perpendicular j and along the sides
they
2S
16'
Chap. II.
Expen- they form complete curves,
M A G N
, bending outwards away
mental 11- from the magnet towards its middle, and having their
lustrations.extremities bounded by the poles of the magnet; and
at the corners there are a number of arches that seem
to form imperfect curves.
A similar effect may be produced by strewing iron
filings on a piece of paper, so as to leave a vacancy in
the middle, capable of receiving a bar magnet. W hen
the magnet is placed on the paper, and the paper gently
tapped, so as to agitate the filings, these will arrange
themselves about the magnet, in curves, as above de¬
scribed.
The form of these curves will be better defined if the
magnet be laid at the bottom of an earthen or glass
vessel ol water, and the iron filings be sifted over it so
as to pass through the water.
rlne attraction between a magnet and a ferruginous
27
Attraction
between 77 • ,
the magnet^™ mutual.
and iron
mutual
28
Magnetic
h.vper. 1 lace a piece of iron or other ferruginous
body upon a piece of cork or wood, so that it may float
on the surface of water in an earthen or wooden vessel.
Bring a magnet within a moderate distance of the float¬
ing bod}, and the latter wTill approach the former, and
may be drawn by it in any direction. Again, place
the magnet on cork or wood, so as to float °on the wa¬
ter, and present to it a piece of iron or other ferrugi¬
nous body. The magnet will now approach the iron,
and may be drawn by it as the iron was before. Last-
ly, Place both the magnet and the iron on separate
pieces of Avood or cork, Avithin a moderate distance of
each other, on the surface of the Avater. They Avill
gradually approach each other, with a velocity that
becomes greater in proportion as they approach nearer
each other.
ttraM. Magnetic attraction is not sensibly impeded by the in-
wt sensibly ^'P^on of bodies of any kind, that do not contain iron
ssened by m thetr imposition.
he inter- Exper.—Suppose that a magnet, placed at the dis-
t,anCe °f/n inch from a of iron, exerts a certain
^Snons degree °f att1ractl0n’ wi» be found that the attraction
is not sensibly weakened by the interposition of a plate
o g ass, a sheet of paper, a piece of copper, or any
other similar substance. A needle, inclosed in a glass
i9 globe, will be still attracted by the magnet.
■ meaTur-6, ^ n,0t Cas>'to ascertain correctly the degree of at-
ig the at- ractlve l°rce exerted betAveen a magnet and a ferrugi-
active yous body* The usual method of observing this is, to
asten a magnet to one arm of a balance, and placing
V body to be attracted at different distances below
t e magnet, to counterpoise the attraction Avith weights
p aced in the opposite scale of the balance. Proceeding
in this Avav, then, if we find that it requires the weight
ot an ounce to counterpoise the attractive poAver of a
magnet, when presented immediately to a piece of iron,
it Avill be found that it requires the same counterpoise,
1 a plate of any matter that is not ferruginous be in¬
terposed.
Not only is iron attracted by the magnet, hut under
certain circumstances, one piece of iron exerts an aU
tractive power on another piece of iron.
-Eayjer.——Let an oblong piece of iron be fixed in a
sp erical piece of wood or cork, so as to float in water
m the true magnetic line, as in Exper. 2. of N° 16.
hen the iron is nearly in the magnetical position,
Vol. XII. Part I. D 1 t
E T I S M. 6c
0f. a.large lrot.1 rod, as the point of Expert
rce.
, 1 Vi- . . 5 as me point ox Exm-ri
a neAV poker, holding it in a position not very different menLl 11-
11 om mat ot the iron wire, within about a quarter of lustnttio,1'<*
an mcli of the upper extremity of the floating iron, and ' '
hold it there for some time, a little towards one side.
Ihe floating wire will gradually approach the iron rod
with an accelerated motion, will at length touch it, and
may he drawn through the water in any direction. A
similar attraction Avill take place between the head of
the poker and the extremity of the wire that is below
the water.
2he attractive power of the magnet is increased by Magnetic
the near approach of a piece of iron. J attraction
Exper. r. Suppose avc have a magnetic bar that fs increased
ipable ot sunnnrtimr n cmnll u—  c •, by iron.
30
w at-
I cts iron
certain
lations.
ti f 1   - ” liv. uai mat is
capable ot supporting a small key by one of its extre¬
mities but which Avill not lift a key somewhat larger.
we bring a considerable oblong piece of iron near
the opposite extremity of the bar, it will be found
capable of supporting the larger key, or at least of
mting a Aveight someAvhat greater than it sustained be¬
fore.
. h*Pcr' 2.—Let an oblong magnetic bar be supported
in a horizontal position, and let a piece of iron wire,
about an inch in length, be hung by a short thread, so
that its extremity is just opposite one of the poles of the
magnetic bar, hut so far out of the reach of the bar’s
attractive power as not to be brought from the perpen¬
dicular. Noxv, if a considerable iron bar be brought
with one end Avithin a moderate distance of the opposite
pole of the magnet, the suspended wire will be drawn
towards the magnet, thus shewing that the poAver of the
latter has been increased by the juxtaposition of the
bar of iron. If the bar of iron be brought still nearer
the opposite pole of the magnet, the suspended wire will
be drawn still nearer its adjacent pole ; but if the bar
of iron be draAvn back from the magnet, the aamtc AATiii
fall into its original position.
This fact leads to many important practical conclu¬
sions in the management of magnets. As the juxta¬
position ot iron to the poles of a magnet improves its
powers, we may infer, that if avc keep a piece of soft
iron in contact Avith the poles, the magnet will be im-
jiroveii by it; and this is in fact the case, and it shews
the utility of the armature and conductor mentioned in
N° 13. But of this more hereafter.
The attractive poiver of a magnet may be improved by Power of a
increasing the weight appended to it. magnet in-
This is best shoAvn by a horse-shoe magnet, having acreas.ed by
conductor of soft iron attached to its two poles, and ahaI?f]ing
brass ring at the convex part by Avhich it may be sus-^, tS tC
pended. If a small bag be hung to the conductor, and
if the magnet is capable of sustaining a certain Aveight
at any particular time, it will, by adding a little more,
suppose a few shot, to the bag, at moderate intervals,
be made to support gradually a much greater weight.
If the magnet, on a first trial, was able to lift a small
key, it will soon be able to lift a larger one, &c. Hoav
far this increase of poAArer may be carried, has not, avc
believe, yet been ascertained.
It sometimes happens that a magnet does not sbexv
any great attractive poAver, as exemplified in its poA\rer
of lifting a considerable weight of iron, though it may
have a great effect in exciting or in altering magnetic
polarity. This Avas observed by Dr Gilbert, who re-
3 A marks
57°
M A G N
E„cri- marks that the directive power of a magnet extends
mental 11- farther than its attractive power. _
lastrations/ The contrary poles of two magnets at tract each other ,
t/iat ;s f/ie north the south, and vice versa.
33 Fever i—Place two oblong magnets on cork, or
poTefo? wood,"so as to float in water, or suspend each by a pret-
magnets at-tv long thread, with the north pole of the one opposed
tract each to tlie south pole of’the other. They will gradually ap-
othcr’ nroach, and will at length rush together.
A similar effect will be produced, if the north pole
of a bar magnet be held near the south pole of a mag¬
netic needle •, the latter will be attracted, and the same
thing will happen if.the south pole of the bar is brought
near the north pole of the needle.
Exper. 2.-—Take two semicircular magnets, and dip
their extremities into iron filings. The filings will of
course adhere to the extremities of the magnets, and
will appear as if radiating from them. Now, present
the two magnets with their adhering filings to each
other, so that the north and south pole of the one is
opposite to the contrary poles of the other, and the iron
filings at their extremities will approach each other, and
coalesce, as represented in fig. 7.
7‘ The attraction exerted between two magnets is not
so strong in proportion, as between a magnet and a
piece of soft iron in contact-, hut it has been found to
commence at a greater distance.
Correspond- The corresponding poles of two magnets repel each
ing poles other ; that is, the north the north, and the souJi the
repel each south.
other.
Fig. 5..
35 ,
"Usual mode
of ascer¬
taining
whether a
tody is
magnetic.
Exper. 1 .•—Make the two magnets float onwrater, or
suspend them by threads, so that the north or south
pole of the one may he opposite to the north or south
pole of the other. They will recede from each other y
and the repulsion will evidently he greater, in pioporr
tion as they, are brought nearer together.
Exper. 2.—Take two semicircular magnets, and dip
their ends in iron filings, as mentioned above. 1 resent
them to each other, so that their corresponding poles
may he mutually opposed. The filings at their extre¬
mities will start back, and leave a vacancy between the
opposed poles of the magnets, somewhat like what is
represented in fig. 8.
It sometimes happens that the corresponding poles of
two magnets do not repel each other, but either nui-
tnally attract, or are quite indifferent. In this case, it
will, in general, be found that one of them is stronger
than the other and the reason of the phenomenon will
appear hereafter.
The repulsive power of a. magnet is generally in a.
less proportion than its attractive power.
It is by the attractive power of the magnet that we
usually ascertain whether any substance he magnetic y
that is, whether the magnet possess any attractive power
for it. If the body contain any considerable quantity
of iron in its composition, its magnetism is easily ascer¬
tained, by approaching it with the pole of a pretty
strong magnetic bar. If, however, the magnetism is
too feeble to be discovered in this way, it may be as¬
certained by placing the body on a piece of cork or
wood, so that it may float on the surface of water or
mercury, in an earthen or wooden vessel, and bringing
the pole of the magnet within a small distance of the
floating body. It will sometimes be necessary to bring
E T I S M. Chap. II.
the magnet within one-tenth of an inch of the body, Experi- j
when, if it possesses any magnetism, it will gradually mental tl-
approach the magnet. This experiment is most satis- »strations.
factory when the body to bo examined is made to float
on mercury but in that case the vessel containing the
mercury must uot he too small, otherwise the natural
convexity of. the surface of the mercury will cause tlie
floating body perpetually to fall down towards the sides
of the vessel. A common soup plate will answer the
purpose very well. It is also necessary that the mer¬
cury be very pure, and as clean as possible. To insure
this, it will be proper, before using the mercury, to.
pass it through a conical piece of writing paper, rolled
up so as to terminate in a very small aperture ; or, what
is better, to squeeze it through a. pretty thick piece of
shamois leather. It needscarcely.be remarked, that,
in these delicate experiments, the air of the room should
be kept as still as possible.
By the above methods, Mr Cavallo and others dis¬
covered, that the following substances are in some mea¬
sure affected by the magnet. Most metallic ores, espe¬
cially after their having been exposed to a fire j zinc,
bismuth, and particularly cobalt, as well as their ores,,
ax-e almost always attracted. Of the earths, the calca¬
reous is the least,if at all, and the siliceous is the most
frequently, attracted. The ruby, the chrysolite, and
the tourmalin, are attracted. The emerald, and parti¬
cularly tlie garnet, are not only attracted, but frequents
lv acquire a permanent polarity. The opal is weakly,
attracted, especially after combustion. Most animal
and vegetable substances, after combustion, are attract¬
ed. Even soot, and the dust which usually falls upon
whatever is left exposed to the atmosphere, are sensiblyi
attracted by the magnet. . r
“ It has long ago been remarked, that platma, mt'k* 0
el, and several other bodies, acquire a sensible degree 0 on univer-.
magnetism j but some philosophers attribute this pio- sal magne-
perty only to a portion of iron not easy to be separated, tism.
and conclude, that by obtaining a greater degree of
purity, we might succeed in rendering them perfectly
indifferent to the action of tlie magnetic bar.
it The new experiments which Citizen Coulomb has>
made and repeated before the Institute, lead us on the
contrary to think, that the action of magnetism extends-
through all natuie y for none of the bodies he has yet
tried was found to resist this-power.
“ But however real,this action may he, it. is not a—
like in all bodies, and in most of them it must be ne¬
cessarily very small, to have escaped tlie attention on
philosophers to this time. In order therefore to exhi¬
bit and to measure these results, we must begin by pla¬
cing the bodies in a situation which shall allow them to
yield to the weakest action.
“ For this purpose, Citizen Coulomb fashioned his
subjects into the form of a cylinder or small bar 5 and
in this state he suspended them to a silken thread,.such
as is drawn from the silk- worm’s cone, and in this state
he placed them between the opposite poles of two mag¬
netic bars of steel. The single thread of silk could
hardly bear the weight of a quarter of an ounce with¬
out breaking, consequently it became necessary to form
small bars very light and thin. Citizen Coulomb made
them about seven or eight millimetres in length (or less-
than half an inch% with three-fourths of a millimetre
Chap. II. M A G N
Experi- (or abdut an hundredth part of an inch) in thickness,
mental 11- and he gave the metals about one-third of this thick-
lustrations,
v~ ' “ In his experiments he placed the steel bars in the
same right line, their opposite poles being five or six
millimetres farther asunder than the length of the
needle intended to oscillate between them. The result
of the experiment shewed, that whatever might be the
substance of the needle, it always disposed itself accord¬
ing to the direction of the two bars ; artd that if they
were turned from this direction, they always recovered
it, after oscillations of which the number was often
more than 30 per minute. It was therefore easy in
every case to determine, from the weight and figure
'of the needle, the force which had produced the oscilla¬
tion.
“ These experiments were Successfully made with
small needles of gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, small
cylinders of glass, a piece of chalk, a fragment of bone,
and different kinds of wood.
“ Citizen Coulomb has proved, that the force of tor¬
sion of the silk thread is so slight, that in order to draw
it round the entire circle, it would require a force
scarcely equal to the one hundred thousandth part of a
gramm, (or about one seven hundredth part of a grain).
A quantity so minute cannot therefore sensibly derange
the measure of magnetic force in the different bodies ;
and its effect, even if it were admitted to be of percep¬
tible magnitude, may also be urged in proof of the ge¬
neral conclusion of Citizen Coulomb, because the mag¬
netic power must overcome this resistance of the thread
in order to manifest itself. Our author gives, in the
third volume of the Memoirs of Natural Philosophy and
Mathematics of the National Institute, a very simple
formula to determine the magnetic forte of a body from
the time of its oSfciliations •, and he means to shew in
another fnemoir, the method of determining this result
in different bodies of the same figure placed between
the poles of two bars. He thinks it now proved, that
all the elements which enter into the composition of
our globe are subjected to the magnetic power, and
that the whole mass collectively forms one single
magnet.
“ In favour of those who might be desirous of repeat¬
ing his experiments, and rendering them very sensible,
the author remarks, that the method of succeeding con¬
sists in diminishing the size of the oscillating bodies.
T rom some essays, of which the results terminate this
memoir, it seems to follow, that the accelerating forces
are inversely as the masses, or very nearly in the direct
proportion of the surfaces ; hut Citizen Coulomb gives
this rule only as a first deduction, which requires to be
Kichol. confirmed*.”
n>n. 8vo. The opinion of the general influence of magnetism
on all terrestrial bodies was, as we shall see hereafter,
maintained by our countryman Dr Gilbert, though
Coulomb has certainly the merit of having put it to the
test of experiment.
Besides the experiments which we have related, there
I its^Cn" are some ttat depend on the attractive power of the
magnet, and which are ranked among scientific amuse¬
ments. We shall here describe a few of these.
Before We relate the manner of making these expe¬
riments, it may be proper to describe an instrument
Gat is employed in some of them. This, from its form
E T I S M.
and apparent use, is called the magnetic perspective r.:,,',u'
glass, and is thus constructed. mental jL
Provide an ivory tube about inches long, and of ^stvations.
such a form as is expressed in fig. 9. The sides of this '    
tube must be so thin as to admit a considerable quanti- ConsWuc-
ty of light. It is to open at one end with a screw, andtion of the
at that end must be placed an eye-glass of about twomaKnet,c
inches focus, and at the other end any glass you please. P(‘rsPec^<-
Have a small mao-netlr Kw that in a compass!
37 .
tertain-
Have a small magnetic needle like   „
It must be strongly touched, and so placed at the bot¬
tom of the tube that it may turn freely round. It is
to be fixed on the centre of a small ivory circle C, of
the thickness of a counter, placed on the object-glass
D, and painted black on the side next it. This circle
must be kept fast by a circular rim of pasteboard, that
the needle may not rise off its pivot, in the same man¬
ner as in the compass. This tube will thus become v.
kind of compass sufficiently transparent to show the mo¬
tions of the needle. The eye-glass serves more clearly
to distinguish the direction of the needle, and the glass
at the other end, merely to give the tube the appear¬
ance of a common perspective glass. It will appear,
from what has been already stated, that the needle in
this tube, when placed over and at a small distance
from a magnet, or any machine in which it is contain¬
ed, will necessarily place itself in a position directed by
that magnet, and Consequently show where the north
and south pole of it is placed ; the north end of the
needle constantly pointing to the south end of the mag¬
net. This effect will take place, though the magnet
be enclosed in a case of wood, or even metal. You
must observe, however, that the at tracting magnet must
not be very far distant from the needle, especially if it
be small, as in that case its influence extends but to a
short distance. This tube may be differently construct¬
ed, by placing the needle in a perpendicular direction,
011 a small axis of iron, on which it must turn quite
freely, between two small plates of brass placed on
each side of the tube ; the two ends of the needle
should be in exact equilibrium. The north and south
ends of the needle will, in like manner, be attracted
by the south and north ends of the magnetic bar. The
former construction, however, appears preferable, as it
is more easily excited, and the situation of the needle
much more easily distinguished.
Exp. 1. T/ie Communicative Piece of Money.
Take a crown or dollar, and drill a hole in the side Communi-
of it, in which place a piece of wire, or a large needle cat*ve piece
well polished, and strongly touched with a magnet.ot money*
Then close the hole with a small piece of pewter, that
it may not be perceived. Now, the needle in the mag¬
netic perspective before described, when it is brought
near to this piece of money, will fix itself in a direction
Corresponding to the wire or needle in that place. De¬
sire any person to lend you a crown piece or dollar,
which you dexterously change for one that you have
prepared as above. Then give the latter piece to ano¬
ther person, and leave him at liberty either to put it
privately in a snuff-box, or not; he is then to place the
box on a table, and you are to tell him by means of
your glass, whether the crown is or is not in tile box.
Then bringing your perspective close to the box, you
will know, by the motion of the needle, whether it be
there or not; for as the needle in the perspective will
3 A 2 always
3121
M A G N E T I S M.
Expcvi- always keep to the north of itselt, if you tlo not per-
mental LI- ceive it has any motion, you conclude the croAvn is not
lustrations. ;n t]ie ])0X> [t may happen, however, that the wire in
'' the crown may be placed to the north, in which case
you will be deceived. Therefore, to be sure of success,
when you find the needle in the perspective remain sta¬
tionary, you may, on some pretence desire the person to
move the box into another position, by which you will
certainly know whether the crown-piece be there or
not. You must remember that the needle in the per¬
spective must here be very sensible, as the wire in the
crown cannot possibly have any great attractive force.
4°.
Magnetic
table.
41
Mysterious
watch.
42
Magnetic
dial
Eig. 10.
and 11.
Exp. 2. The Magnetic Table.
Under the top of a common table place a magnet
that turns on a pivot, and fix a board under it, that
nothing may appear. There may also be a drawer
under the table, which you pull out to shew that there
is nothing concealed. At one end of the table there
must be a pin that communicates with the magnet, and
by which it may be placed in different positions ; this
pin must be so placed as not to be visible to the specta¬
tors. Strew some steel filings or very small nails over
that part of the table where the magnet is. Then ask
any one to lend you a knife or a key, which will then
attract part of the nails or filings. Then placing your
hand in a careless manner on the pin at the end of the
table, you alter the position of the magnet, and giving
the key to any person, you desire him to make the ex¬
periment, which be will then not be able to perform.
You then give the key to another person, at the same
time placing the magnet, by means of the pin, in the
first position, when that person will immediately perform
the experiment.
Exp. 3. The Mysterious Watch.
You desire any one in company who has a watch
with a steel balance (b), to lend it you for a few mi¬
nutes, asking him whether it will continue to go when
laid on the table. He will probably say it will. To
prove to him that he is wrong, you lay it on that part
of the table below which you have previously placed
a strong bar-magnet (as in Exp. 2.), so that the watch
may be above one of the poles. It will immediately
stop. Now, if you shift the position of the magnet,
anti give the watch to another person to lay it on the
table, it will not stop j but replacing the magnet, and
desiring a. third person to try the experiment, he will
succeed. All this, to those who are not acquainted
with the secret, will appear very extraordinary.
Exp. 4. The Magnetic Dial.
Provide a circle of wood or ivory, of about five or
six inches diameter, as fig. 10. which must turn quite
free on the stand B (fig. 11.), in the circular border
A : on the circle must be placed the dial of pasteboard
C (fig. 10.), whose circumference is to be divided into
12 equal parts, in which must be inscribed the numbers
from 1 to 12, as on a common dial. There must be a
small groove in the circular frame D, to receive the
Chap. II
pasteboard circle and observe that the dial must be Experi-
made to turn so freely that it may go round without mental II
moving the circular border in which it is placed. Be- lustration*
tween the pasteboard circle and the bottom of the
frame, place a small artificial magnet E (fig. 12.) yig.
that has a hole in its middle, or a small protuberance.
On the outside of the frame place a small pin P, which
serves to shew where the magnetic needle I, that is
placed on a pivot at the centre of the dial, is to stop.
This needle must turn quite freely on its pivot, and its
two sides should be in exact equilibrium. Then pro¬
vide a small bag, that has five or six divisions, like a
lady’s work-bag, but smaller. In one of these divisions
put small square pieces of pasteboard on which are writ*
ten the numbers from 1 to 12, and if you please you may-
put several of each number. In each of the other divi¬
sions vou must put 12 or more like pieces, observing,
that all the pieces in each division must be marked
with the same number. Now the needle being placed
upon its pivot, and turned quickly about, it will ne¬
cessarily stop at that point where the north end of the
magnetic bar is placed, and which you previously knew
by the situation of the small pin in the circular border.
You therefore present to any person that division of the
bag which contains the several pieces on which is writ¬
ten the number opposite to the north end of the bar,
and tell him to draw any one of them he pleases. Then
placing the needle on the pivot, you turn it quickly
about, and it will necessarily stop, as we have already
said, at that particular number.
Another experiment may be made with the same
dial, by desiring two persons to draw each of them one
number out of two different divisions of the bag ; and
if their numbers, when added together, exceed 12, the
needle or index Avill stop at the number they exceed it}
but if they do not amount to 12, the index will stop at
the sum of those two numbers. In order to perform
this experiment, you must place the pin against the
number 5, if the two numbers to be drawn from the
bag be 10 and 7 } or against 9, if they be seven and
two. If this experiment be made immediately, after
the former, as it easily may, by dexterously moving the
pin, it will appear the more extraordinary.
Exp. 5. The Divining Circles.
Oil the top of a thin box, as AB fig. 13. paste two Divining
circles drawn on paper, as F, G, each of which is di- circles,
vided into compartments. In those of one circle, as ‘
are written questions, and in those of the other, as I,
appropriate answers. Through the centre ot the circle
G an axle passes, carrying a toothed wheel, and which
works into the pinion d, to the axis of which is fixed
another pinion, and this receives the teeth of another
wheel g, whose axis is passed through the centre of the
circle F. On the axis of the wheel c is to be fixed an
index a above the paper circle, and to the axis of the
wheel g, just below the cover of the box, is fixed a bar
magnet q q, turning together with the axis} while on
the part of the axis that projects above the circle F a
loose needle x x is balanced, so as to move independent¬
ly of the axis. A carton of strong paper’, of the size
of
43
(b) The balance of a watch is sometimes, though very seldom, made of brass, when it is scarcely susceptible of
magnetic influence,.
(Chap. II.
44
ron be-
omes mag
etical by
roximity
a a mag-
let.
Experi- of F should cover the pasted circle, and turn easily on
mental II- the centre k ; and it should have a triangular piece as
castrations, jp cut out, in order to see the answers. If now the
v needle be taken off its point, and a person be desired to
ask some of the questions on the circle G, the index
must be turned to the question, and then the needle
placed on its pivot, giving it a whirl round. When it
stops, its point will stand over the proper answer
which may be seen by turning the open part of the car¬
ton to that place.
Sect. ILL Of the Communication and Production of
Magnetism.
. The whole of this important part of the subject may
be said to depend on one general fact, which we shall
therefore first lay down and illustrate.
Any piece of iron when in the neighbourhoodof a mag-
■ net, is itself a magnet, and possesses all the material pro¬
perties of that body.
Exp. i.—Let there be a large and strong magnet pro¬
perly supported in the horizontal direction, at a distance
from iron or other similar bodies, and with its poles per¬
fectly free. T ake also any small piece of common iron,
not more than two or three inches long, such as a com¬
mon small key, and take another piece of iron, as a
smaller key, or short piece of wire about the size of a
goose quill.
In the first place hold the key in a horizontal posi¬
tion, with one end opposite one of the poles of the mag¬
net, but so as not to be in contact with it. Then bring
the other piece of iron to the other end of the key, and
it will hang by the key, and will so continue to hang,
though we withdraw the key from the magnet horizon-
tally, till there is a certain interval between the key
and the magnet, when the former will be no longer
able to support the piece of iron. Even at this distance
the key will, however, be found capable of supporting a
piece of iron considerably smaller than the former, till
its distance from the magnet is increased.
Again, hold the key with one extremity below one
of the poles of the magnet, and touch the other extre¬
mity with the small piece of iron, the latter will adhere
till the key be removed too far below the magnet.
Thirdly, Hold the key with one of its extremities
above one of the poles of the magnet, but at such a
distance that there is room for the small piece of iron
to go between the key and the magnet, without touch¬
ing the latter. The piece of iron will be supported by
the key, as in the two former instances.
Fourthly, Let the magnet be placed in a vertical po¬
sition, and hold the key with one extremity immedi¬
ately below or above one of the poles. The piece of
iron will be supported in a similar manner, in the form¬
er case by tbe extremity of the key that is most remote
from the magnet, and in the latter by that which is ad¬
jacent.
If, instead of approaching the magnet with the key,
we reverse the circumstances, the effect of the magnet
in rendering the key magnetical will be still more evi¬
dent. Suppose the piece of iron to be lying on the
table; let one end of it be touched with the key, and
there will be found no attraction between them : but if
while we hold the key very near one extremity of the
wire, we biing the pole of the magnet near the other
magnetism.
373
end of the key, we shall see the wire rise from the ta- Exneri
ble, and adhere to the key. meX 11-
In all these cases the attractive power of the key lustrations,
that is, its magnetism, is evidently derived from its ' 
juxtaposition to the magnet.
Exp. 2—Let two pieces of iron be suspended by
separate ends of a piece of thread, so that they may be
hung from a pm in the wall in a situation parallel to
each other, or in contact. Now bring one end of a bar
magnet a little below the wires, and they will repel each
other, if these wires are of soft iron, they will collapse
immediately on the magnet being withdrawn; but if
they are formed of hard iron or of steel, they will con¬
tinue apart for a considerable time.
Here the two wires are, by the proximity of the
magnet, become magnets, and the extremities next the
bar have each acquired a similar polarity, i. e. both
contrary to that of the adjacent pole of the bar. They
therefore, repel each other. 7 *
E.vp. 3.—Let a bar-magnet, such as N, S, fig. 14. Fig. 14,
be laid in a horizontal position, and let a small key, as
B, C, be held near the north pole of the magnet, in
the direction of its axis. Let a very small magnetic
needle, supported on a sharp pivot, be brought near that
end of the key C, which is most remote from N. The
needle rvill immediately turn its south pole towards
as is indicated by the feathered part of the arrow c.
Hence it appears that the key has acquired a directive
power like a magnet, and that its remote extremity
performs the office of a north pole, as it attracts the
south pole of the needle, and repels its north pole. If
it be said that the magnetic needle in this case is affect¬
ed directly by the directive power of the magnet, as it
would take the above position though the key were not
present; to shew that the effect is produced through
the medium of the key, remove the needle into another
situation as b, and it will still, arrange itself with the
same pole opposite C, and if it be carried to the prox¬
imate extremity of the key, as at a, it will turn round,
and present its north pole to B, thus shewing that it is,
at least in some measure, influenced by the key.
In general, when a piece of iron is presented to the Nearest
pole of a magnet, the extremity next that pole is pos-end ac-
sessed of the contrary polarity, and the remote extre-<luiresa P°-
mity has acquired a similar polarity. The situation oflanty con"
the poles, however, depends much on the form of the [IXof’tlie
piece of iron, and on the part of its surface which is adjacent
presented to the pole of the magnet. If the form be pole of the
that of an oblong bar, one extremity of which is pre-maSnet-
sented to the pole, which is the most usual case, the
circumstances will be as we have just mentioned. If
the oblong bar be presented to the pole in a perpendi¬
cular direction, with its middle very near the pole of
the magnet, this middle point will be possessed of a po¬
larity contrary to that of the adjacent pole, while the
two extremities have acquired the same polarity. If
the presented iron be in the form of a circular plate,
and its centre be held near the pole of the magnet,
this centre will have the contrary polarity, and every
point of the circumference tbe same polarity. If the
plate have its circumference fashioned into points, each
of these points will acquire a very strong polarity, con¬
trary to that of the pole near which tbe centre of tbe
plate is held.
The communication of magnetic power from the
magnet
'S74
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations.
. 46
Induced
"magnetism.
47
Apparent
exception.
48
Real ex¬
ception.
tttoet to the key in ttie foregoing experiments, will
be still more strongly illustrated by bolding anotbet
piece of wire to the wire that is already suspended by
the key. The new piece of wire wdll also be suspend¬
ed, and so several more may be suspended by one ano¬
ther, like the links of a chain, according to the strength
of the magnet. rJ.his fact was known to the ancients,
who speak of a loadstone causing an iron ring to carry
another ring} and that a third, till the whole puts oil
the appearance of a chain. . ;
It will be found that the magnet has lost none of its
power by producing magnetism in the iron, and of
course, that nothing has been transferred from the
magnet to the iron. The magnetism of the iron thus
caused by its juxtaposition to a magnet is called induced
magnetism, or magnetism by induction.
'There is an apparent exception to the universality of
the above proposition. It the key be held in such a
position as that it shall he perpendicular to the magnet,
with one extremity either opposite one of the poles, or
a little above the centre of the magnet, the bit of wire
will not be attracted by that extremity, and we may
hence suppose that the key has acquired no magnetic
'powrer by its proximity to the magnet. But if we bring
a needle or a piece of iron wife near its remote end, it
will be strongly attracted, and shew that end to have
the same polarity with the nearest pole of the magnet.
NoW, the ends both of the key and the wire that are
next the magnet, having the same polarity with the pole
of the magnet nearest them, cannot attract each other,
hut on the contrary will repel each other, and there¬
fore the wire cannot adhere to the key, though by the
change produced by the other extremity, it is evident
that the key has acquired magnetic power.
There is, however* one exception. If the key in the
first experiment, with the wire hanging Co it, be carried
from any of the situations there described, towards the
middle of the magnet, the wire will fall off as soon as it
arrives very near the middle. If we suppose a plane to
pass through the centre of the magnet in a direction
perpendicular to its axis, so as to form the magnetic
equator, a slender piece of iron held any where within
this plane can acquire no sensible magnetism, which is
demonstrated by its shewing no signs of polarity, and not
being attracted by the magnet. Now it is Well knoWn
that the greatest activity of a magnet resides in its two
poles, and that those magnets are the best in which
this activity is least diffused. A certain circumference
of every magnet is entirely inactive, as we see in the
experiment with the iron filings described in N° 26.
where the filings collect themselves principally on two
points of the surface, between which there is a space all
round, to which no filings are attached. Many cir¬
cumstances shew that the two poles of a magnet have
contrary actions 5 the north pole producing a strong
northern polarity in the remote etid of an iron bar
brought near it, and a south polarity in the proximate
end, while an opposite effect is produced by its south
pole. Now, adopting this principle, that the actions of
the two poles are opposite, it follows that if these actions
are equal, and act in a similar manner, each must coun¬
teract and prevent the action of the other, and pro¬
duce what may he called a magnetic equilibrium.
' Therefore if a slender iron rod or thin plate be placed
so that every part of it lies within the magnetic equa-
4
MAGNETISM. Chap. II
tor, it will exhibit no magnetisrti, will not oe attracted Experi-
hy’the magnet, and will not attract iron. This will be mental II..
seen more satisfactorily when w"e have Explained the, ra^tlonf'
theory of magnetism.
The consideration of the above important facts Tvill
enable us to explain, especially after what will be stated
in the next chapter, the production or communication
of magnetism in all the methods by which these are
usually effected. # 49
Macnetism may he produced artificially in a piece of Artificial
iron or steel, by various methods. .pScS*
1. By touching the iron or steel either With a natural co
magnet, or with a steel bar already magnetized. by touch-
The process of communicating magnetism by natural with e
or artificial magnets, or by what has been called /cwc/i-maSuet
ing, has undergone various improvements and modifica¬
tions, which we shall endeavour briefly to trace. 51
The most simple method of magnetizing a bar of Old me*
steel is to apply the ndfth pole df a magnet to that ex-t1iods-
tremity of the bar which we wish to acquire a south po¬
larity.' In this way, merely by contact, a slight degree
of magnetic power will, after some time, be imparted to
the bar, and the communication will be expedited by
striking the bar so as to make it sound. Only a slight
degree of magnetism can, however, be communicated
in this way, and unless the steel bar be very short, its
poles will be mUch confused.
Another method of communicating magnetism to a
bar of this kind is, to apply the pole of a magnet to one
end of the bar, and pass it on to the other end, giving
a moderate degree of pressure. This is repeated several
times on both sides of the bar, taking care always to
begin the stroke at the same end as at first, and instead
of drawing the magnet back along the bar, lifting it up
every time that we Come to the other end. T. he fol¬
lowing description will best explain the mode of com¬
municating magnetism in this way, by orte or two mag¬
netic bars.
When only one magnetic bar is to be made use of*
one of its poles must be applied as represented fig. 15. Fig-
where CD represents the needle or steel bar to he im¬
pregnated. The magnet AB is tlieU to be drawn all
along the surface of it, till it reaches the extremity D.
The magnet being theU removed, must be applied to
the extremity C, and drawn over the needle as before.
Thus the needle hiust he rubbed several times, by
which means it Will acquire a considerable degree of
magnetism. In this method, the other extremity ot
the needle which the magnet touched last acquires the
contrary magnetism 5 that is, it B be the north pole of
the magnet, C will he the north pole and D the south
of the needle. This method, however, is never found
to he equally effectual with that in which tWo magnets,
or both poles of one magnet, are made use of.
To communicate magnetism by means of two mag¬
netic bars, place the bar or needle AB, fig. 16. upon a j-jg if,
table j then set the two magnetic bars CD, EF,
straight upright upon it at a little distaUce, equal on
both sides from the middle of the bar AB, and in such
a manner that the south pole D of one of the bars may
be nearest to that end of the bar AB which is to be¬
come the north pole, &c. These two bars must then
he slid gradually towards one extremity of the bar,
keeping them constantly at the same distance from each
Other ; and when one of them, for instance CD, is ar¬
rived
Experi¬
mental II
lustration.'
52
Method of
ouching
Pig. 17.
Chap. lh M A G N
r.ivc<h they must be slid the contrary way,
till El auives at B 3 and thus the bar AB must be
’•rubbed a greater or smaller number of times, till it
will be found by trial to have acquired a considerable
power. W hen the magnetic bars are powerful, and
the bar AB of very good steel, and not very large, a
dozen of stiokes are fully sufficient 3 but when the bars
are to be. removed from the bar AB, care must be ta¬
ken to bi mg them to the same situation where they were
first placed ; viz. a little and equal distance from the
middle 01 the bar AB, from which they may be lifted
up.
The moue of employing two bars instead of one was
an impi ovement, and the method was still farther im¬
proved by placing them in an inclined position, with
their extremities C, E, remote from each other, and
sliding them contraryways from the middle towards
each extremity of the bar AB, lifting them up when
they come to the extremities, and replacing them on
the middle of the bar, thus repeating the operation as
often as required.
Horse-shoe bars, or those of a semicircular form, may
be magnetized in a similar-manner, except that the
me ars-magnetic bars employed for the purpose must follow the
curvature of the bar to be impregnated. The follow¬
ing is the method usually employed for magnetizing
bars of this kind. The crooked bar is laid flat upon a
table, and to each of its extremities is applied a straight
magnetic bar, as HE, EG, fig. 17. and the remote ex-
tiemities of these bars 1, G, are joined by the conductor
or piece of soft iron tG. Then to its middle are to be
applied two magnetic bars, with their opposite poles at
at little oistance from each other, H, J, and with these
tne crooked bar is to be stroked from end to end, fol¬
iowing the direction of the crooked bar, so that on one
side of it the magnetic bars may stand in the direction
represented by the dotted lines at K and L. When in
this manner the piece of steel ABC has been rubbed
a sufficient number of times on the one side, it is to be
turned, and the same operation repeated on the other side,
taicing care that the adhering, magnetic bars, and the
conductor of soft iron, be preserved in the same situation
as at first. It must be observed that in this process the
magnets DF, X)G, as well as the magnets H, I, must be
placed so that their south poles shall be towards that exr
ti emity of the bar which is to be made a north pole.
. A material- improvement in the process for commu¬
nicating magnetism from artificial magnets to steel bars,
was^ introduced by Duhamel. He formed a right-
angted parallelogram, two of the sides of which were
made by two equal bars of steel, that were intended to
be magnetized, while the other two were formed by
joining the extremities of the steel bars by two pieces of
bolt iron, also equal to each other in length, but much
shelter than the steel bars. Then taking two parcels of
oars already magnetized, he brought together their op¬
posite poles towards the middle of one of the steel bars
forming the parallelogram, and inclining the parcels as
m fag. 18. he made them glide gently, separating them
fiom each other towards the extremities of the bar 3
and this operation was repeated as often as required,
when the inclined parcels of magnetic bars were car¬
ried to the opposite bars of the parallelogram, and this
'tta.s rubbed in a. similar manner.. After the bars were
5.3
unamcl
prove-
nt.
18
E T 1 5 M. 37.
rubbed sufficiently on one side, they were, as in former p
cases, turned on the other. mcmaUl-
1 lus method is one of the best that we can employ lustrations,
for magnetizing the needles of compasses, and such ’’
steel bars as are of a moderate thinness, especially if we
employ magnetic bars strongly impregnated for the pur-
2>ose of rubbing the steel bars.
Much about the time that M. Duhamel contrived Improve-
the above method, the same object was employing the ment by
attention of experimental philosophers in Engfand Mitcliell
where the process of magnetizing bars was much ina-andCaiUon*
proved by Mr Mitchell and Mr Canton.
Mr Mitcliell employed two parcels of bars already
strongly magnetized, joined together in a parallel di¬
rection, with their opposite poles united at each extre¬
mity, but in such a manner, that there remained be¬
tween the two parcels a small interval. He then placed
a number of equal steel bars in a straight line, and
made one extremity of the magnetized bars slide over
the line formed by the steel bars at right angles 3 and
this he repeated as usual. In this way he found that
the intermediate bars in the straight line acquired a
great degree of magnetic power.
Mr Canton placed the bar which he wished to mag¬
netize, so as form part of a parallelogram, as in the
method of M. Duhamel, and then employed the same
means as Mr Mitchell for impregnating the bar 3 after
which he separated the two parcels of magnets, and in¬
clining them to each other in the manner of Duhamel
upon the bar, he made them slide from the needle to¬
wards the extremities. This last method considerably,
augmented, according to Mr Canton, the magnetic
power of the bar 3 but by Coulomb it is considered as
the only effectual part of the process. These methods
of Mitchell and Canton constitute what has been call¬
ed the double touch, which was still farther improved,
by the celebrated iEpinus.
This philosopher, after having, formed a parallelo-Method of
gram with steel bars, and pieces of soft iron, in the man-iEpinus.
ner of Duhamel, placed upon the bar to be magne¬
tized, two parcels of magnetic bars inclined in such a
way that each of them formed on its own side an angle
of 150 or 20° with the steel bar on which it was placed 3
their opposite poles being at a very small distance from
one another. Keeping the parcels of magnetic, bars in
the same relative situation with respect to. each other,
he made both parcels slide along alternately from the
middle of the bar towards each.extremity, beginning at
every renewal of the operation from the middle of the,
bar. This method has a very great advantage over the,
former, as by it we may magnetize bars of considerable
length and thickness, by means of magnetic bars that
have no great magnetic power.
In all these processes, it must be remarked, that, in ^,^5^
order to proceed properly, it is necessary to employ a
considerable degree of pressure. A parallelogram of steel
bars and soft,iron should. be kept firm by wedges, some¬
what in the manner of printers types, and the extremi¬
ties of the magnetic bars should be perfectly cleaned.
Dr Robison supposed, that wetting these extremities
considerably aided the process 3 but be found that the
least particle of oil between the bars greatly obstructed
it, as did the smallest piece of the thinnest gold leaf.
He found that bars which were rough acquired a more
powerful
31$
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations.
57
Improve¬
ments of
Coulomb.
Fig. 19.
M A G N
powerful magnetism than those which were moderately
polished •, but that, if moderately rough, they acquired
the first degrees ot magnetism more expeditiously than
smooth bars, but did not receive so strong an impregna¬
tion as the latter.
The method of making artificial magnets has been
greatly improved by M. Coulomb, who in a series o^
memoirs, printed in the Memoirs of the Academy of
Sciences, and of the National Institute of Paris, has
communicated a number of valuable observations and
experiments, that have contributed, perhaps more than
any preceding labours, to the advancement both of the
theory and practice oi magnetism. Many years ago
he published his process for making very powerful arti¬
ficial magnets.
In his operations he uses four very strong magnets
previously impregnated. He placed his two strongest
magnets, (as NS, NS, fig. 19.) on a horizontal plane
ill one right line, at such a distance that they might be
a few lines nearer to each other than the length of the
needle n s intended to be magnetized. He afterwards
took the two magnets N' S', and inclining them as in
the method of JEpinus, he placed them first on the
middle of the needle, or with their poles nearly in con¬
tact. He then drew each magnet, without changing
its inclination, to the extremity of the needle, and re¬
peated this operation 5 or 6 times on each face of the
needle. It is clear, that in this operation the poles of
the needle n s remain fixed and invariable at the extre¬
mities of the needle, by means of the two strong mag¬
nets NS on which it rests. The effect produced by
these can only be augmented by the action of the two
superior magnets, which concur in magnetizing all the
particles of the needle in the same direction.
He found likewise, that in this method of magneti¬
zing there is a greater certainty of giving to both sur¬
faces of needles intended to determine the magnetic
meridian, an equal degree of magnetism j a circum¬
stance deserving of the greatest attention in the con¬
struction of compasses, if the needle be suspended with
its broadest surface parallel to the horizon.
After these previous processes, he took 30 bars of
steel hardened and tempered to the temper of a spring,
five or six lines broad, two or three lines thick, and 36
inches long. The blades of fencing foils, such as are
found in the shops, make pretty good magnets. Eng¬
lish sheet steel cut into pieces one inch wide, harden¬
ed and lowered to spring temper, is preferable. When
each compound magnet is to contain no more than 15
or 20 pounds of steel, it is sufficient to make the bars
30 or 36 inches long.
He magnetized each bar singly, according to the me¬
thod already described. He then took two rectangular
parallelopipedons of very soft iron, well polished, six
inches in length, between 20 and 24 lines broad, and
10 or 12 lines thick. With these two parallelopipedons,
Fig. ao. represented fig. 20. at N and S, he formed the armour
of his magnet, by enveloping one extremity of each
parallelopipedon with a stratum of his magnetic bars, so
that the extremities of the parallelopipedons may project
beyond the extremities of the bars 20 or 24 lines, and
the other end may be enveloped by the ends ot the set
of bars. On this first layer of steel bars of three or four
lines thick he places a second, three inches shorter than
the first, so that the first projects beyond the second
3
E T I S M.
Chap. 13
about 18 lines on each side. The whole is secured Experi-
at the ends bv two binding pieces of copper, which mental 111!
press the bars close together, and prevent the armour lustration*
from escaping.
Fig. 20. represents two artificial magnets composed pjg
according to the method just described. N and S are
the extremities of the two iron parallelopipedons. The
two other extremities are inclosed by the bars. Each
magnet thus compounded is solidly connected together
by the copper pieces marked a, b, a', b'. The pieces
of contact A, II, join the opposite poles of the mag¬
nets.
He found by experience, that with an apparatus of
this form, each part weighing 15 or 2clbs. a force of
80 or loolb. will be required to separate the pieces of
contact •, and that when an ordinary needle of the com¬
pass is placed on the two extremities of the compound
bars, fig. 20. they become magnetized to saturation,
without its being necessary to rub them with the upper
pair. When magnets of greater force are desired, it is
necessary, in proportion as the number of bars is in¬
creased, to augment their length also, and the dimen¬
sions of the parallelopipedons of iron which serve for
the armour. It would be easy to ascertain the differ¬
ent dimensions which the magnets ought to have, in a
manner sufficiently acurate for practice, from the laws
of magnetism, and the position of the centre of action of
the bars of steel of different lengths and thickness.
2. bvn or steel is rendered magnetical by being placed iron or
in a position corresponding to the magnetic meridian, steel be¬
lt has been often observed, that a bar of iron which
has stood for a long time exactly or nearly in the ^g-poJtLn'
netic direction, has acquired a degree of magnetic
power, the extremities possessing opposite polarity. In
this and other northern parts of Europe, old vanes of
turrets, window bars, and even pokers that have stood
long inclined in the chimney corner, are often very sen¬
sibly magnetic, their lower extremity becoming a north,
and the upper a south pole. In the highest part of the
steeple of St Giles’s church in Edinburgh, on the north
side, the upper bar of a hand-rail leading to a stair is
very magnetical. It is worthy of remark, that those
parts of such old bars which have become foliated and
crumbly by exposure to the air are the most magneti¬
cal. This magnetic state of perpendicular iron bars
was, as we are informed by Hr Gilbert, first obser¬
ved in the vane spindle of the Augustine church at
Mantua. ^
3. A bar of steel long hammered or exposed to violent By ham-
friction, while lying in the magnetic meridian, becomes mwing 0:
magnetic.
This fact was well known to Hr Gilbert, who in
a plate represents a blacksmith hammering a bar of
steel in the magnetic position. Many smiths tools,
such as long drills, that receive great pressure while in
motion, broaches that are worked with a long le-
so as to act very fast, become very sensibly mag-
S8
friction.
netical j the lower end, in these latitudes, being always
a north pole. When a steel punch is driven hard into
a piece of iron, the punch has sometimes been render¬
ed magnetical by a single blow. There is scarcely a
cutting or boring tool in a smith’s shop that does
not possess some degree of magnetic power. Even soft
steel and iron will acquire it by being violently twisted
or exposed to great friction, and the magnetism thus ac¬
quired
Chap. II.
Experi- quired is commonly permanent. From this circum-
S-a"Ce ‘f “ dl*Cul5 I,ro“re nice experiments
pieces of iron that do not possess some degree of mao-.
netxsm, and hence these experiments do not always suc¬
ceed. ^ It is therefore convenient to know how to de¬
prive iron and steel of magnetism, and the method of
doing this will appear from what will he said in the
next section.
-the steel balances of watches are often magnetic
sometimes even shewing evident polarity ; a circum¬
stance which is found to have some effect in disturbing
the proper going of such watches or time-pieces. Hence
it is recommended to make the balances of brass. See
a paper on this subject by Mr Varley, in the first vo-
iume of the Philosophical Magazine.
4. Magnetism may be induced on substances that are
60 susceptible of it, by heat.
Hylieat- Hr Gilbert remarks that such ores of iron as are in
that particular metallic state, which he considers as
most susceptible of magnetism, will acquire this power
b7 being kept long in a red heat, while in a magnetic
direction ) and that their polarity corresponds to their
position, that end of the mass which is opposite the
north becoming a north pole. J}y many experiments
made both by Hr Gilbert, and since his time by Hr
Hooke, on iron and steel bars, it appears that these
acquiie permanent magnetism by being exposed to a
stiong heat, and suffered to cool gradually while lying
in the magnetic direction } but that the magnetism thus
acquired by steel rods is much stronger and more du-
lable, it they are suddenly quenched with cold water,
so as to give them a very hard temper. Hr Hooke
found that the end of the bar next the north, or the
lower end of a vertical bar, always became its perma¬
nent north pole, and the upper end, even when quench¬
ed, while the rest was suffered to cool gradually, be¬
came a \ery sensible south pole. If these operations
aeie performed on bars placed in a position at right
angles to the magnetic direction, no magnetism was
acquired. Hr Gilbert makes a remarkable observation
respecting the position of a magnetic needle brought
near an ignited bar of iron, which was some years ago
repeated in the Philosophical Transactions as a new dis¬
covery. “ Bacillum ferreum, valide ignitum appone ver-
sorio excito : stat versonum, nec ad tale ferrum conver-
< itur : sed statim ut primum de candore aliquantulum
remiser it, conjluit illicod^ Thus it appears that iron is
not susceptible of magnetism when red hot, but that it
acquires magnetic power during its cooling. Hr Gil¬
bert ascertained the degree of heat most favourable to
the production of magnetism, but from his want of pro¬
per thermometers he did not succeed. Hr Robison
found that though a bright red or a white heat does
not make iron susceptible of magnetism while it is ex¬
posed to such a heat, it predisposes it for becoming
magnetical. He found, that when a bar of steel was
made to acquire magnetism by being tempered in the
magnetic direction, the acquired magnetism was much
stronger when the bar was first made very hot, even
though allowed to acquire its most magnetical state be¬
fore being quenched, than if it had been heated only to
t is latter degree. Nay, he always found it stronger
ii quenched while red hot.
He also found that when he heated a small steel bar
yed hot, and quenched it while lying between two
^ol. XII. Parti. t
M A G N E T I S M.
377
magnets, it acquired a much stronger magnetic power Experi
than it would acquire in any other way. mental II-
. Panton contrived the following method of produ- lustiations.
cing magnetism in steel bars, without the assistance   *
either ot natural or artificial magnets. 6
Take twelve bars, six of soft, and six of hard steel, Canton’s
ae oimer three inches long, one-fourth of an inchmet^0^
broad, and one-twentieth of an inch thick: with twomakinff ar'
pieces of iron, each half the length of one of the bars :
but of the same breadth and thickness. The six hard
bars shonM be each five inches and a half long, one-
i:!, inc'1 bfoa^» anc^ three twentieths of an inch thick
with two pieces of iron of half the length, but of the
same breadth and thickness as one of the hard bars:
and let all the bars be marked with a line quite round
hem at one end ; then take an iron poker and tongs,
or two bars of iron, the larger they are, and the longer
they have been used, the better 5 and fixing the poker
upright, or rather in the magnetical line between the
knees, hold to it, near the top, one of the soft bars,
having its marked end downwards, by a piece of sew¬
ing silk, which must be pulled tight by the left hand,
that the bar may not slide ; then grasping the tongs
with the right hand, a little below the middle, and
holding them nearly in a vertical position, let the bar
be stroked by the lower end from the bottom to the
top about ten times on each side, which will give it a
magnetic power sufficient to lift a small key at the
marked end ; which end, if the bar were suspended on
a point, would turn towards the north, and is there¬
fore called the north pole, and the unmarked end, for
the same reason, is called the south pole. Four of the
soft bars being impregnated after this manner, lay the
other tw’o parallel to each other, at a quarter of an
inch distant, between the twm pieces of iron belonging
to them, a north and a south pole against each piece of
non ; then take two ol the bars already made magne-
tical, and place them together so as to make a double
bar in thickness, the north pole of the one even with
the south pole of the other, and the remaining two be¬
ing put to these, one on each side, so as to have two
north and twm south poles together, separate the north
from the south poles at one end by the interposition of
some hard substance (I, fig. 21.), and place them per-Fig. 21.
pendicularly with that end downward on the middle of
one of the parallel bars AC, the two north poles to¬
wards its south end, and the two south poles towards its
north end. Slide them three or four times backward
and forward the whole length of the bar 5 then remo¬
ving them from the middle of this bar, place them on
the middle of the other bar BB as before directed,
and go over that in the same manner 5 then turn both
bars the other side upwards, and repeat the former ope¬
ration : this being done, take the two bars from between
the pieces of iron, and placing the turn outermost of
the touching bars in their stead, let the other two be
the outermost of the four to touch these with; and this
process being repeated till each pair of bars have been
touched three or four times over, will give them a con¬
siderable magnetic power.
When the small bars have been thus rendered mag¬
netic, in order to communicate the magnetism to the
large bars, lay two of them on the table, between their
iron conductors as before; then form a compound mag¬
net with the six small bars, placing three of them with
3 B the
378
Experi¬
mental Il¬
lustrations.
Fig. 22.
62
Marcel’s
method.
M A G N 1
the north poles downwards, and the three others with
the south poles downwards. Place the two parcels at
an angle, as was done with four of them, the north ex¬
tremity of the one parcel being put contiguous to the
south extremity of the other, and with tins compound
magnet stroke four of the large bars, one alter another,
about twenty times on each side, by which means they
will acquire some magnetic power.
When the four large bars have been so far rendered
magnetic, the small bars are laid aside, and the large
ones are strengthened by themselves, in the manner
followed with the small bars.
To expedite the operation, the bars ought to be hx-
ed in a groove, or between brass pins, otherwise the
attraction and friction between the bars will be conti¬
nually deranging them when placed between the con¬
ductors. ,
This whole process may be gone through m about
half an hour, and each of the large bars, if well har¬
dened, will lift about 28 ounces troy, and they are fit¬
ted for all the purposes of magnetism in navigation and
experimental philosophy. 1 he half dozen being put
into a case in such a manner, as that no two poles of
the same name may be together, and their irons with
them as one bar, they will retain the virtue they have
received ; but if their power should, by making experi-.
ments, be ever so much impaired, it may be restored
without any foreign assistance in a few minutes.
These bars must be kept in a wooden box, arranged
in such a manner that their opposite poles may he to¬
gether, as represented at fig. 22.
There are various methods of communicating a per¬
manent magnetism to ferruginous bodies, by means of
a bar rendered magnetic, by position, of which the most
simple is that described by Mr Marcel, whose experi¬
ments were made in the year 1726. Being employed
in making some observations on the magnetic power
which he found in great pieces of iron, he took a large
vice weighing 90 pounds, in which he fixed a large
anvil weighing I2lbs. The steel to which he wished
to give the magnetic power was laid upon the anvil in
a north and south position, which happened to be the
diagonal of the square surface of the latter. He then
took a four-cornered piece of iron an inch thick every
wav, 33 inches long, weighing about 81bs. having one
end rounded and brightly polished, the other being
tapered. Holding then the steel fast upon the anvil
with the one hand, he took the iron bar in the other,
and holding it perpendicularly, he rubbed the steel
hard with the rounded part towards him from north to
south, alwavs carrying the bar far enough round about
to begin at" the north. Having thus given 10 or 12
strokes, the steel was turned upside down, and rubbed
as much on the other side. Proceeding in this manner
till it had been rubbed 400 times, the steel was as
stronpiv magnetic as if it had been touched by a power¬
ful loadstone. The place where he began to rub was
always the north pole. In these experiments it some¬
times happened that the virtue was imparted by a few
strokes j nay, by a single stroke a small needle was
made to receive a very considerable power. Thus he
imparted to two compass needles such a degree of mag¬
netic power, that one lifted three-fourths, and another
a whole ounce of iron, and although these needles were
anointed with lintseed oil to keep them from rusting,
E T I S M. Chap. II.,
and a hard coat was thus formed upon them, i""py Experi. i|
nevertheless retained their power. Thus also a knife mental II- j
was made so strongly magnetical, that it would take up ignitions, j
an ounce and three-fourths of iron. Four small pieces
of steel, each an inch long, and one-twelfth of an inch
broad, as thin as the spring of a watch, were thus im¬
pregnated with the magnetic power, and then joined
into a small artificial magnet j which at its first foima-
tion took up eight times its own weight of iron 5 and
after being six years kept in the most careless mannei,
was found to have gained rather than lost any thing of
its power. In the course of Ins experiments, iVIr INlai-
cel found, that the end at which he began to rub was
always the north pole, whatever position the steel was
laid in. On rubbing a piece of steel from one end to
the middle, and then from the other end to the middle,
it acquired two north poles, one at each end, the middle
being a south pole. Beginning to rub from the middle
towards each end, he found a north pole m the middle,
and a south pole at each extremity. # 63
Magnetism may be communicated to a small piece Method of j
of soft steel in the following manner: take two iron magneti- |
bars of about an inch square, and upwards of three feet
in length j keep them in the magnetical line, or m a
perpendicular posure, as represented fig. 23. Let the Fig. 23.
piece of steel CB be either fastened to the edge of a
table, or held by an assistant ; and placing the lower
extremity of the bar AB, and the upper extremity ot
the bar CD, on opposite sides, and in the middle of
the steel, stroke the latter from the middle towards
its extremities, moving both bars at the same time.
When both are arrived at the extremities of the steel,
remove them from it, and apply them again to the
middle. Do so for 40 or 50 times, and the steel will
be found to have a considerable degree of magnetic
power. Care, however, must be taken, in removing
the bars, not to draw them along the suiface of the
steel, or the experiment will not succeed, because the
magnetism is destroyed by the contrary strokes. . .
The late Dr Gowin Knight possessed a surprising Di-Knight’
skill in magnetism, being able to communicate an ex-artificial
traord inary degree of attractive or repulsive power, and ^oa
to alter or reverse the poles at pleasure 3 but as he re¬
fused to discover his methods upon any terms what¬
ever (even as he said, though he should receive in re¬
turn as many guineas as he could carry), these curious
and valuable secrets have died with him. In the 69th
volume ol the Philosophical transactions, however, Mr
Benjamin Wilson has given a process, which jit least
discovers one of the leading principles of Dr Knight s
art, and may perhaps be a means ot discovering the
whole to those who shall he less reserved. The doc¬
tor’s process, according to Mr Wilson, was as follows.
Having provided himself with a great quantity of clean
iron filings, he put them into a large tub, that was
more than one-third filled with clean water ; he then,
with great labour, w'orked the tub to and fro for many
hours together, that the friction between the grains of
iron by this treatment might break oft such smaller
parts as would remain suspended in the water for a
time. The obtaining of these very small particles in
sufficient quantity seemed to him to be one of the prin¬
cipal desiderata in the experiment. The water being
by this treatment rendered very muddy, he poured the
same into a clean iron vessel, leaving the filings be¬
hind
Chaj
IL
Lind
M A G N
Lad stood long" enoug-L to
E T I S M.
-r, • , and wLen tLe water
Expcn- 7 . - ^
mental il- be clear, lie poured it out caretuily, witliout disturLing
lustrations such of the sediment as still remained ; which now ap-
v peared reduced almost to an impalpable powder. This
powder was afterwards removed into another vessel in
order to dry it; but as he had not obtained a proper
quantity thereof by this one step, he Was obliged to re¬
peat the process many times. Having at last procured
enough of this very line powder, the next thing was to
make a paste of it, and that with some vehicle which
would contain a considerable quantity of the inflammable
matter } for this purpose he had recourse to lintseed oil
in preference to all other iluids. With these two in¬
gredients only he made a still’ paste, and took particular
care to knead it well before he moulded it into conve¬
nient shapes. Sometimes, while the paste continued in
its soft state, he would put the impression of a seal upon
the several pieces 5 one of which is in the British Mu¬
seum. This paste was then put upon wood, and some¬
times on tiles, in order to hake or dry it hefoi’e a mo¬
derate lire, at about the distance of a foot. He found
that a moderate fire was most proper, because a greater
degree of heat made the composition frequently crack
in many places. The time required for the baking or
drying of this paste was generally about five or six
hours before it attained a sufficient degi'ee of hardness.
When that wras done, and the several baked pieces
xvere become cold, he gave them their magnetic power
in any direction he pleased, by placing them between
the extreme ends of his large magazine of artificial
magnets for a few seconds or more as he saur occasion.
By this method the power they acquired was such, that
when any of these pieces wTere held between two of his
best ten guinea bars, with its poles purposely inverted,
it immediately of itself turned about to recover its na¬
tural direction, which the force of those very powerful
bars wras not sufficient to counteract.
In the 66th volume of the Philosophical Transactions
we have the following account from Dr Fothergill, of
Dr Knight’s method of imitating natural magnets, but
Which is by Mr Cavallo supposed to be some mistake
or misinformation. “ I do not know,” says he, “ that
ever the doctor (Dr Knight) left behind him any de¬
scription of a composition he had made to form artifi¬
cial loadstones. I have seen in his possession, and many
other of his friends have likewise seen, such a composi¬
tion, which retained the magnetic virtue in a manner
much more fixed than either any real loadstone, or any
magnetic bar, however wTell tempered. In the natural
ones he could change the poles in an instant, so like¬
wise in the hardest bars, but in the composition the
poles were immoveable. He had several small pieces
of this composition which had strong magnetic powers.
The largest wras about half an inch in breadth, very
little longer than broad, and near one-fourth of an inch
thick. It was not armed, but the ends were powerfully
magnetic 5 nor could the poles be altered, though it
was placed between two of his largest bars, and they
w’ere very strongly impregnated. The mass was not
very heavy, and had much the appearance of a
piece of black lead, though not quite so shining. I
believe he never divulged the composition, but I think
lie once told me, the basis of it was filings of iron re¬
duced by long-continued attrition to a perfectly impal-
79
pable state, and then incorporated with some pliant Expcrj-
matter to give it due consistence. mental JI-
I rom these accounts it appears that the basis of Dr lustrations.
Knight’s artificial loadstones w'as the black powder to 1 v-™1-
which iron filings are reduced by being shaken with
water, or the black oxide of iron, formerly called mar¬
tial sethiops. Hence Mr Cavallo supposes that the fol¬
lowing receipt for imitating the natural magnets will
answer the purpose.
lake some martial tethiops, reduced into a very fine
powder, or, which is more easily procured, black oxide
of iron, the scales which fall from red-hot iron when
hammered, and are found abundantly in smiths shops.
Mix this powder with drying lintseed oil, so as to form
it into a very stiff paste, and shape it in a mould so as
to give it any form you require, whether of a terrella, a
human head, or any other. This done, put it into a
warm place for some weeks, and it will dry so as to be¬
come very hard ; then render it magnetic by the ap¬
plication of pow erful magnets, and it will acquire a con¬
siderable power*
Sect. IV. Of the Circumstances which tend to impair
or destroy the Magnetic Power.
65.
The magnetic power in all its modifications, whether Magnetism
of attraction, repulsion, or polarity, is in general tem-*°st 01 ,de*
porary and perishing. The best magnets, whether na- ^
tural or artificial, unless carefully preserved, with at¬
tention to certain circumstances that will presently ap¬
pear, are observed to have their magnetic power dimi¬
nished. Natural magnets, and artificial magnets made
of steel tempered as hard as possible, retain their poAver
most obstinately, and seldom entirely lose it except un¬
der circumstances which we know to be unfavourable
to its durability. Magnets of steel of a spring temper,
ai'e much sooner weakened, lose more of their force
merely by keeping, and finally retain little or none of
it. Soft steel and iron seldom retain magnetic power
when removed from the magnet where they acquired
it, unless their metallic state undergoes some change.
The following circumstances have been observed to
he most powerful in diminishing or destroying the power
of magnets. > 65
1. Improper position. Nothing lias so much efiect in fry impfo-
impairing the power of a magnet as keeping it in an |)V^(>0s!'
improper position, that is, too far from the magnetic ’
line. If the axis of the magnet be placed in a direc¬
tion that is at right angles with the magnetic meridian,
that is, in this latitude nearly E. N. E. and W. N. W.
it will soonest lose its magnetic power j and if it be
placed in the magnetic line, but in a contrary position,
or with the north pole wliere the south pole should be,
if permitted to vibrate freely, it will gradually become
weaker every day, and unless it be a natural magnet,
or an artificial one made ol veiy hard tempered steel,
it will, in no very long time, entirely lose its magnetic
power.
67
2. Heat. The dissipation of magnetic power is great-fry heat;
ly promoted by heating the magnet. The heat of
boiling water has a sensible effect in this way j but ii
the magnet be exposed to a red heat, its power is en¬
tirely destroyed, as has been long known. Di Gilbeit
observed that the power of magnets was destroyed by a
3 B 2 heat
*
38°
Theory, heat that was not sufficient to make the metal visible in
v——the dark; and Air Canton found that the heat of boil¬
ing water weakened the power ot a magnet, but that
. the greatest part of this was recovered as the magnet
cooled. If the heat be applied when the magnet lies
in a position most favourable to the dissipation ot mag¬
netism, the power is soonest destroyed j hence, the best
way to deprive iron or steel of accidental magnetism
is, to heat it red hot, and allow it to cool while
lying in a direction perpendicular to the magnetic
line.
AI. Coulomb has ascertained that at 200 degrees ot
heat, two-fifths of the magnetism of a magnet is dissi-
6S pated, and that at 500 degrees the whole is lost,
by violent 3. By violent treatment. It is veiy extraordinary
treatment; ^]1C p0wer 0f a magnet is impaired by rough usage.
Dr Gilbert observed that a magnet which he had
powerfully impregnated was greatly weakened by a
single fall on the floor j and since his time it has been
observed that when a magnet falls on a stone, or re-
ceives any concussion that makes it ring, it is injured
much more than by being beaten with any thing soft
and yielding. When a natural magnet is ground with
coarse powders, in order to bring it to any required
form, it is considerably weakened. This shows the
propriety of altei’ing the natural form of loadstones as
little as possible, and when this is necessary, of doing
it as expeditiously as may be, by cutting them briskly
/>9 in the thin disks of a lapidary’s wheel,
poles^bdno- 4" ^tem near each other with their similar
opposite, ''poles opposite. Magnets situated in this way always
weaken each other, and when a powerful magnet is
placed near a weaker, with their similar poles opposed,
the polarity of the weaker is frequently reversed, that
is, if the pole were north it becomes south, and vice
versa. When the weaker magnet is a natural loadstone,
or has been made of hard tempered steel, its original
polarity is restored when the improper position is
changed j but if it has been made of spring-tempered
steel, the alteration is generally permanent, and often
as complete as while the magnets were in the neigh¬
bourhood of each other.
Chap. III. Theory of Magnetism.
Opinions of RESPECTING the notions which the ancient philo-
tiie anci- sophers entertained about the cause of magnetic pheno-
ents. mena, we know very little. One curious opinion which
they entertained of the reason why a magnet was im¬
proved by the contact of iron, is worth noticing. They
conceived that the magnet /ta/ upon the iron, and hence
acquired additional attractive power : and when de¬
prived of this pabulum, it grew weak and languid.
 “ Nam ferro nurunt vitam, ferrique vigore
ATscitur; hoc dulces epulas, hoc pabula novit \
Hinc proprias renovat vires, hinc fusa per artus
Aspera secretum servant alimenta vigorem.
Hoc absente peril, tristi morientia torpent
Atembra fame, venasque sitis consumit apertas.”
Claudian.
In the 16th century, the philosophers of modern
times first began to speculate about the cause of magne¬
tic polarity, a phenomenon which then became interest¬
ing on account of the difference of declination observed
Chap. Ill,
by navigators. \rarious trifling opinions were published Theory,
on the subject. Some said that the needle was directed v~"““
by a certain point in the heavens, which was little more
than saying that it pointed one way. Others ascribed
the direction of the needle to vast magnetic rocks situa¬
ted in the earth j but as to the exact situation of these
rocks, they did not give themselves the trouble to in¬
quire, till Fracasteri observed, that, if these rocks are
supposed to be situated in any part of the globe yet vi-
sited by navigators, and if, as we must suppose, they
act like loadstones, they will cause the direction to be
very different from what is observed. He therefore
placed them somewhere in the inaccessible polar regions,
though not immediately at the poles. Norman, who,
as we have seen (Z)/pp/.\tg needle'), discovered the dip
of the magnetic needle, and observed that in every part
of Europe, the north pole pointed very far below the
horizon, was naturally led to ascribe this effect to the
influence of the earth, though he does not express him¬
self as if he thought that the needle was attracted by
any point within the earth, but only that it was always
directed to such a point. ^
From comparing the different positions of the eorR-Gilbert’*
pass needle, as described by Norman, with the positions theory,
which he had himself observed small needles to assume
in relation to a magnet, Dr Gilbert was naturally led
to consider the earth as a great loadstone, or else con¬
taining a great loadstone within it, which arranged the
dipping needle, or the needle of the compass, in the
same manner as he observed a small needle poised on its
pivot, to be arranged by a large magnet. Dr Gilbert
has explained his theory at large in his Physiologia Nova
de Magnete, et de Tellure Magno Magnete. It may be
briefly expressed in the following terms. All the ap¬
pearances of natural magnetism are similar to what
wrould be observed in the earth, were a large magnet
with its poles situated near the poles of the equator, viz.
the north pole not far from Baffin’s bay in North Ame¬
rica, and the south pole in about the opposite part of
the globe. If a dipping needle wrere exposed to the
influence of such a large magnet, it must arrange itself
in a plane passing through the magnetic poles, a posi¬
tion indicated very nearly by the mariners needle j and
the more we recede from the equator of the great mag¬
net, the more must the dipping needle be inclined to
the horizon.
Dr Gilbert’s theory was equally ingenious and im- 73
portant, and affords, if firmly established, a complete
explanation of all the phenomena of magnetism. At
the time it was first published, however, observations
were neither sufficiently numerous, nor sufficiently ac¬
curate, to enable the author to assign the real position
of the great magnet, nor to ascertain its laws of action.
The theory was chiefly founded on observations made
by the dipping needle, and though those instruments
made by Noiman were more accurate than might have
been expected at so early a period of the science, the ob¬
servations made with them cannot, from many circum¬
stances, be implicitly relied on. We are still in want of a
numerous collection of observations on the dip, in order
to perfect our knowledge of the magnetic poles. We can
only say that the earth acts on the compass needle in
the same manner as a large magnet w'ould act", but the
appearances do not seem to resemble the effects of what
we should consider as a good loadstone having two vi-
MAGNETISM.
|)Dhap.
Theory.
73
HT. M A G N
gorous poles, but rather such as would result from the
"J action of a very irregular loadstone with its poles very
much diffused. J
It is unfortunate that our most numerous observations
of the dip have not been made in those places where
they would be the most instructive. Dr Robison vvas of
opinion that a series of observations should be obtained,
extending from New Zealand northward, across the
j. acifie ocean to Cape I airweather on the western coast
of Noi th America, whence it should be continued
through that part of the continent. A second series
might extend from the Cape of Good Hope along the
western coast of Africa to the tropic of Capricorn }
thence across the interior of the African continent
through Sicily, Italy, Dalmatia, the eastern part of
Germany, the gulf of .Bothnia, Lapland, and the west¬
ern part of Greenland. This series would be nearly in
a plane passing through the probable situations of the
poles, xl third series might extend at right angles to
the last, so as to form a small circle crossing the former,
passing near Japan, through the island of Borneo, and
the western part of New Holland ; near IVIexico, and
a few degrees west of Easter island. Here and at Bor¬
neo there would be a considerable inclination of the
magnetic plane to the horizon, though this cannot be
found out. There are, however, other points of this
circle in which the dip is considerable, where the incli¬
nation may be discovered. In short, all circumstances
seem to indicate a multiplicity of poles, or, what renders
calculation most difficult, an irregular magnetism in
which the polarity is very much diffused.
Philosophers are very much divided respecting the
situation of the magnetic poles of the earth. We shall
here state only a few of their opinions, reserving a fuller
account of some of them for the article Variation of
the Compass.
Dr Halley thought that the north magnetic pole was
near Baffin’s bay in North America.
Professor Krafft (see Pete rsburgh Comment, vol.xvii.)
. loces the north pole in N. Lat. 70° and W. Long.
23° fr°m London ; and the south pole in S. Lat. co°
and E. Long. 920.
Wilcke of Stockholm places the north pole in
N. Lat. 750 near Baffin’s bay, and in the longitude of
California, while he fixes the south pole in S. Lat. 70°
in the Pacific ocean.
Churchman supposes the north pole to be in N. Lat.
59”, and W. Long. 1350, a little inland from Cape
Fairweather j and the south in S. Lat. 590, and E.
Long. 165°, directly south of New Zealand. (See
Variation).
Euler (Memoirs of the Acad, of Berlin, vol. xvi.)
places the north pole in N. Lat. 7 S0- Lemounier
(Lois du Magnctisme) in N. Lat. 73°. Buffon in N.
Lat. 710.
La Lande places it in N. Lat. 770 4', and in about
W. Long. 98° from Paris. (See Connoissance dcs
Lems, an. xii.).
However ingenious this hypothesis of Dr Gilbert was,
it appears to have been nothing more than a sagacious
conjecture. The hypothesis, however, is confirmed in-
*° a ra^<?lla^ theory by many observations and experi-
% uth ments \vllieh were unknown or unthought of in Dr Gil-
4theo-bert’s time.
Mr Hindshaw’s beautiful experiment on the effect of
E T ] S M.
,7.4
tnions
to the
ittion of
magne- 1
poles. Places
an upright iron bar on the opposite ends of a compass-
neecHe, according as one end or the other of the bar is
next the earth (see Variation of the Compass') is an
abundant proof of the justness of this theory.
'e can imitate that experiment in a very satisfactory
manner by artificial magnetism; thus forming a just
comparison between the action of the earth and that of
a magnet.
Let a large bar magnet, as SAN (fig. 24.) be sup-Fiir
ported so as to have its ends detached from surrounding g' 4’
bodies. 1 hen place a small needle nicely poised, as B
about three inches below N, the north pole of the mag¬
net, and so that its directive power for the magnet may
be very weak. Now take a small piece of soft iron, and
mid it m such a position as is represented at C: its
lower end becoming a north pole, will attract the south
pole of the needle. Now, while the needle is kept in
the same position, turn round the piece of iron into the
position D 5 the south pole of the needle will be seen to
avoid it, and the north pole will be attracted. Here
the magnet may be compared to the earth, and the
small piece of iron to the iron bar in Mr Hindshaw’s
experiment.
Again, it has been seen that magnetism may be pro¬
duced in iron or steel by hammering or heating them
while in a determinate position with respect to the earth.
1 he same effect will be produced by the same processes
while the iron or steel is in the neighbourhood of a
powerful magnet.
Lastly, the circumstance of the magnetic inclination
of the north pole of the dipping needle being diminish¬
ed, and the horizontality of the compass needle de¬
stroyed, as we ascend above the earth, is an additional
and certain evidence of the truth of this theory.
In short, we may consider it as demonstrated, that
the earth is. a great magnet, or contains a great mag¬
net, by the influence of w hich the direction of the needle
and all the magnetic power acquired by iron, when
placed in a proper position, are produced/
A further illustration and application of this theory
will be given presently, when we have considered some
other hypotheses posterior to that of Dr Gilbert.
It was very early an object with philosophers to as-Theories of
sign, the immediate cause of magnetic attraction and re-impulsion,
pulsion, and of that faculty of mutual impregnation
which so remarkably distinguishes iron from all other
substances. In particular, the curious arrangement of
iron filings strewed round a magnet forcibly attracted
their attention. It is scarcely possible to observe this
arrangement without conceiving the idea of a stream of
matter issuing from one of the poles of the magnet,
moving round it, entering by the other pole, and again
issuing by its former outlet. Accordingly, such an
idea was entertained in the earliest times ; but very dif¬
ferent notions prevailed as to the manner in which such
a stream produced the effects observed. One of the
simplest methods was, to conceive it acting by impul¬
sion, like any other stream of fluid matter. This idea
wTas entertained by Lucretius, who supposed the sur¬
rounding air to be swept out of the way by the impul¬
sion of the fluid, which thus rushing round the magnet
carried the iron filings towards it.
In the last century Euler framed an hypothesis ofEuler’s by-
magnetism on this theory of impulsion. He supposes,pothesis.
that the two principal causes which concur in producing
the
M A G N E T I S M.
1’ig. 25.
Letters a
wie Prin-
4'csse d’Al-
hmagne.
73
the wonderful properties of a magnet, are, First, A
particular structure of the internal pores of the magnets,
and of magnetical bodies j and, Secondly, An external
agent or fluid, which acts upon, and passes through
these pores. This fluid he supposes to be the solar at¬
mosphere, or that subtle matter called ether, which hils
our system. , . . .
Indeed, most writers on this subject agreed in suppo¬
sing that there are corpuscles of a peculiar form and
energy, which continually circulate around and uuough
a magnet \ and that a vortex of the same kind circulates
around and through the earth. ....
“ A magnet, besides the pores which it has in com¬
mon with other bodies, has also other pores consider¬
ably smaller, destined only for the passage of the mag¬
netic fluid. These pores are so disposed as to commu¬
nicate one with the other, forming tubes or channels,
by which the magnetic fluid passes from one end to the
other. The pores are so formed, that tins fluid can
only pass through them in one direction, but cannot re¬
turn back the same way; similar to the veins and lym¬
phatic vessels of the animal body, which are furnished
with valves for this purpose : So that the pores of the
magnet may be conceived to be formed into se\tiai
narrow contiguous tubes, parallel to each other, as at
A, B, fig. 25. through which the finer part ol t.ie
ether passes freely from A to B, but cannot return back
on account of the resistance it meets with at a, a, b, b,
nor overcome the resistance of the grosser ether, which
occasions and continues the motion. X' or supposing the
pole A of a magnet, filled with several mouths or open
ends of similar tubes, the magnetic fluid, pressed by the
grosser part of the ether, yvill pass towards B with an
inconceivable rapidity, which is proportionable to the
elasticity of the ether itself ; this matter yvhich, till it
arrives at B, is separated from the tubes by the grosser
parts, then meets with it again, and has its velocity re¬
tarded, and its direction changed; the stream, reflect¬
ed by the ether, yvith which it cannot immediately mix,
is bent on both sides towards C and II, and describes,
but with less velocity, the curves DE and CF e, and
approaching by the curves d and c, falls in with the
effluent matter mm, and again enters the magnet; and
thus forms that remarkable atmosphere, yvhich is visible
in the arrangement of steel filings on a piece of paper
that is placed over a magnet*.’’
' We have already had occasion (see the article Im¬
pulsion) to make some observations on the general
doctrine of impulsion, and these need not be here re¬
peated. Respecting the explanations afforded by the
canals and dock-gates in Euler’s hypothesis, opening in
one direction and shutting in the other, we may ob¬
serve, that as these constructions are altered in a mo¬
ment in a bar of soft iron, merely by changing the po¬
sition of the magnet, it is astonishing that they should
ever have been conceived by so acute a philosopher.
Even supposing such circumstances to take place, the
effects resulting from them should be the reverse of what
are actually observed, as the impelling stream should
move those bodies least which afford the readiest chan¬
nels for its passage. If the iron filings were arranged
by this impelling stream, they should be carried along^
with it, and if they are carried towards one pole of
the magnet, they should be driven away from the
other.
Chap. lH
yEpinr.s, of the academy of Petersburg!!, whose theory Theory,
of electricity we have explained and illustrated at con-1
siderable length, was led by the analogy observed be-^79 ^
tween the phenomena of electricity and those of magrie‘^Ephnis.
tism, and in particular from the resemblance between
the attractions and repulsions of the tourmalin and
those of a magnet, to conceive the idea that both classes
of phenomena might be explained in a similar manner,
or that the phenomena of magnetism, like those of elec-
tricity, were to be attributed to the motions of a cer¬
tain fluid existing in all bodies susceptible of magne¬
tism. This conjecture was confirmed by observing, that
when magnetism was induced on a piece of iron by its
proximity to a magnet, the power of the magnet is not
sensibly diminished. The following is an abstract of
Mr ALpinus’s hypothesis.
1. There exists in all magnetic bodies a substance
which may be called the magnetic fluid, the particles
of which repel each other with a force that decreases
as the distance increases.
2. There is a mutual attraction, varying according
to the same law, between the particles of the magnetic
fluid, and the particles of iron.
3. There is a mutual repulsion among the particles
of iron, following the same law.
4. The magnetic fluid is capable of moving through
the pores of iron, and soft steel, without any conside-
able difficulty : hut its motion is more and more ob¬
structed as the steel receives a harder degree of temper ;
and in steel of the hardest temper, and the ores of iron,
it moves with the greatest difficulty.
5. From the supposed attraction between the magne¬
tic fluid and iron, the latter may contain a certain de¬
terminate quantity of the former, and this quantity will
be such that the accumulating attraction of a particle
of it for the whole of the iron, balances the repulsion
between the particles of the whole fluid contained in the
iron ; supposing the quantity of fluid competent to a
particle of iron to be such, that the repulsion between
it and the fluid competent to another particle of iron,
is also equal to its attraction for that particle of iron.
Therefore the attraction between the fluid in one iron
bar A, and the iron of another bar B, is just equal to
the repulsion between the iron in A and the iron in B.
This determinate quantity of fluid in the iron is called
> its natural quantity.
6. From the mobility of the fluid through the pores
of iron, it may, by the agency of a proper external
force, be abstracted from one end of an iron bar, and
.condensed in the other end. This, however, is a vio¬
lent state, and the mutual repulsion between tlm parti¬
cles of condensed fluid, together with the attraction be¬
tween the fluid and that ^part of the iron which it has
quitted, tend to produce a more uniform distribution.
It is evident that something of this tendency must take
place in every state of condensation and rarefaction, an
that a perfect equilibrium can be produced only when
the fluid is diffused with perfect uniformity. Ihis state
of uniformity may be called the natural state of the
body. .... -ii
y. The production of such a uniform distribution w'iJ
depend on the nature of the resistance to the motion of
the fluid, opposed by the iron in its various states. It
this resistance arises merely from the communication 0
motion, like that which perfect fluids oppose to the mo-
2
Chap.
Theory.
80
,aw of
agnetic
:tion.
pen-
nts of
isc he 11-
eck.
82
Sawks-
and Dr
'ok Tay-
III. M A G N
tlon of solid bodies, such resistance may be overcome
J by the weakest tendency to uniform diffusion j but if,
as seems most likely, the obstruction is like that of a
clammy fluid, or of a soft plastic,body like clay, after
the accumulation arising from the action of an external
force, it may remain after that force is removed; and the
diffusion will cease when there is a perfect equilibrium
between the obstruction and the diffusing force.
As the illustration of this theory in general cases is
precisely similar, mutatis mutandis, with that of electri¬
city, so fully detailed under the article Electricity,
from N° 299. to 348. we need not repeat it here, but
may refer the reader to that treatise, requesting him
to consider the illustration as relating to the magnetic
fluid.
It is proper, however, to remark here, that the phe¬
nomena of magnetism are limited by this circum¬
stance ; that magnets always contain their natural
quantity of fluid. Of course, their action on iron, and
on each other, depends entirely on its unequal distribu¬
tion.
The most important part of this theory is that which
explains the induction of magnetism on iron and steel
by juxtaposition to a magnet ; but before we can
properly enter on that, we must notice some other
particulars respecting the theoretical part of our sub¬
ject.
A very material point in magnetism, as in electricity,
is to ascertain the law of action, according to which this
powrer acts on the particles of iron and other matter;
and accordingly this has long been an object of atten¬
tion with philosophers. The difficulty of ascertaining
this law is extremely great, as will readily appear by
the following consideration.
In the action of two magnets on each other, as A
and B, there are four different actions to be considered
that act at the same time, though with difl’erent de¬
grees of force, and in different directions. Thus the
north pole of A repels the north pole of B, and at¬
tracts its south pole, while The south pole of A exerts
a repulsion on the south pole of B, and an attraction on
its north pole. Now the force, which we attempt to
measure, is compounded of these four forces; and these
we cannot measure separately. The attraction observed
is the excess of two attractions that are unequal above
two unequal repulsions, and v. v. with respect to the
observed repulsion. Further, if we reflect that it is pos¬
sible for a mutual action to exist between every two par¬
ticles of the different magnets, and that the intensity of
this action may vary, not only at different distances,
but at the same distance, the difficulty will be greatly
increased.
Numerous experiments have been made with a view
of ascertaining this law'. Mr Cavallo has detailed many
of those made by Muschenbroeck ; but their results are
so anomalous, that their inaccuracy is apparent. In¬
deed, the attempt to ascertain this law by observing
merely the attractions and repulsions, was veryunphilo-
sophical. The method employed by Mr Hawksbee and
Dr Brook Taylor, viz. observing how far the action of
a magnet made a compass needle deviate from the meri¬
dian at different distances, was much more scientific, as
this deviation is occasioned by the difference of the two
sums of the same forces ; and this may be made many
times greater than the other, and must of course be
83
E T I S M.
much more sensible. 'I he shape ol the magnets cm- Theory.
ployed by them was, however, very improper. Some 1 r—
experiments made by Mr Lambert of the academy of
Berlin, were very judicious. He placed a magnetic°i Lam'
needle at various distances from a magnet, but in the Clt
direction of its axis, and marked the declination from
the magnetic line produced by the action of the mag¬
net, and the obliquity of the magnet to the axis of the
needle. Thus the action of the magnet and the natu¬
ral polarity of the needle were placed in opposition and
equilibrium ; but the great difficulty was to discover
the proportional change of these forces by their obli¬
quity of action on this small lever.
Mr Lambert observed, that when the obliquity of
the magnet to the axis of the needle was ~30°, the
needle was made to decline 150 j and when the obli¬
quity was —750, the needle declined 30°. Let us call
the obliquity 0 and the declination d, and let us put^
for that function of the angle which is proportional to
the action. Also let us call the natural polarity of the
needle 7;, and the force of the magnet m. Then it is
evident that p X f ■ 15 — 'X.J'. 30 ; and p :
f 2>0 : f I5 3 ail(l f°r the same reasonp : mzzf 75 :
/, 30, and therefore/, 15 :/ 30=/ 30 :f, 75. But
sine 13 : 30—sine 30 : s 73 ; hence Mr Lambert con¬
cluded, that the sine was that function of the angle
which was proportional to the action of magnetism on
a lever. As this point, however, could not be deter¬
mined by one experiment, he compared several other
obliquities and declinations with the same distances, and
with different distances of the magnet, and fully proved
that he was right in his conjecture.
1 he result of Mr Lambert’s experiments fully proves
the fallacy of the theories of impulsion, which pretend
to explain magnetic action by the impelling power of a
stream of fluid, or by pressure produced by the motion
of such a stream ; as in such a case the pressure on the
needle must have diminished in the duplicate ratio of
the sine ; oir with the angle 90° the directive power
must have been four times as much as with the angle
of 30°, whereas it is shewn by observation to be only
twice as much.
When Mr Lambert had ascertained the effect of ob¬
liquity, he proceeded to examine that of distance ; and
he found, that if we put/ for the force of the magnet,
and 5 for the distance of the nearest pole of the magnet
from the centre of the needle, and a for a constant
quantity nearly equal to two-thirds of the length of the
needle,/will be proportional to (5—n1).
Dr Robison endeavoured to investigate this law in aDrR&bi-
very simple manner. Tie caused to be made some mag- son’s invest
nets consisting of two balls connected by a slender rod. ligations.
By a particular mode of impregnation (which we sup¬
pose to be quenching them, after being red hot, be¬
tween two magnets) he gave them a pretty good mag¬
netism ; and the force of each pole appeared to be near¬
ly confined to the centre of the ball, which was his ob¬
ject in making them of such a shape, as it reduced the
examination of their attractive and directive power to a
very easy computation. The result of his experiments
was, that the force of each pole varied inversely as the
squares of the distances, or at least the error arising
from such an hypothesis was very small, amounting on¬
ly to one-fifteenth of the whole.
Dr Robison made a near approximation to the law
of
M A G N
of action, by supposing that the function of the distance
expressing that law, represented by the ordinates oi a
curve similar to the hyperbola, referred to its assymp-
tote as an axis, towards which its curve was of course
alway convex. On this supposition he explained the
atractions and repulsions of magnets nearly in the fol¬
lowing manner: c ^ \ i
Let there be two magnets, A and B (ng. 20.) pla-
-ced so that their four poles, S, N, s, «, may be m a
straight line. Now, in the straight line O q take O w,
O p, O n, O s, N n, Ss,Sn; and let MPNQ be a
curve line, whose asymptotic axis is the said line O q.
.Draw the ordinates m M, y? F, N «, </ Q to the curve,
and these will represent the intensities of the forces ex¬
erted between the poles of the magnets. The distance
between w, », or between p and q— the length ot the
magnet A, and in p or n q— that ot B, and M m, 1 p,
N «, and Q q, are pairs of ordinates that are equally
distant. Now, it is easy to see from the figure, that in
whatever situation the pairs of equidistant ordinates may
be, Mm-f-Q q will always exceed P/i + N ?/, or the
sum of the attractions will always he greater than that
of the repulsions.
Let the chords MQ, PN, MP, NQ be drawn. Bi¬
sect them in B, D, E, F, and join EF. ^ Draw the or¬
dinates E e, F/, and BD b (cutting EF in C). Draw
P u parallel to'the axis, cutting E c in t. Draw also
Qf parallel to the axis, cutting Yf in p. Also draw
FHL parallel to the axis, and P o t parallel to QN j
and draw PL /, and Vex, cutting M m in l and v.
Let each ordinate he represented by the letter at its
intersection with the axis. 1 hus, the ordinates, M
and Q (j may be represented by th and &c. Be-
cause MP is bisected in E, M t is double of E e, M /
is double EL, and M x double of E c. Again, P t
being parallel to Q «, and P u to Q i, t u equals
N i.
If these ordinates are supposed to represent the mu¬
tual action of the magnetic poles, their tendency to or
from each other, that is, their attractions or repulsions,
may be expressed by (wi-j-y)—(w-pp) which represent
the excess of the sum of the actions ot the nearest and
most remote poles above the sum ot the action ot the in¬
termediate distant poles. This tendency may often be
conveniently represented by (?z—•/>)—(«—<7) or the ex¬
cess of the difference of the actions exerted by the near¬
est pole of A on the two poles of B, above the differ¬
ence of the actions of the remote pole of A on the same
poles of B. Now, 1. If we suppose the dissimilar poles
of A and B to front each other, m-\-q will represent
attractions, andyi-f-zw, repulsions ; but m-\-q is greater
than p-{-n, therefore A and B will attract each other.
\crain (pn~\~q)—equals M — 2 E 0 zz: 2BD
= 4 CD.
The above action will be increased by any one of
four circumstances, as, 1. By increasing the strength of
either magnet. 2. By lessening the distance between
the two magnets. 3. Increasing the length of A, the
distance between it and B remaining the same. 4. By
increasing the length of L, the distance between it and
A remaining the same.
2dly, Let us place the magnets, so that their similar
poles front each other. Here it is evident that the or¬
dinates which in the former case represented attrac¬
tions, will now represent repulsions, and that the repel-
E T I S M. Gimp. Ill
ling forces of the magnet are equal to the former at- Theory,
tracting forces at the same distances. As magnets are v—-j
seldom^perfect, the repelling forces are, however, usual¬
ly weaker than the attracting. 87
To explain the directive power of magnets, Dr Ro-Explana- |
bison supposed the magnet A not to be at liberty to ap-
proach B or recede from it, but to be suppoited at ilsp0Wer.
centre B, so as to turn round it. Now, its south pole ,
s being more attracted by N than it is repelled by S,
B is on the whole attracted by A, and by this attrac¬
tion would vibrate like a pendulum supported at the
centre B. Again, the north pole 71 being repelled by
N more than it is attracted by S, will be on the whole
repelled, and B n would also vibrate round B. Thus B
would be kept in the position s B ?i. This will be more
evident if we suppose the magnet B arranged at right
angles to the line AB, as in the dotted representation
s> B ri j for now s' and ri are urged in opposite con¬
spiring directions with equal force, which, it the mag¬
net be very small, will act nearly at right angles to n 6.
If the position were oblique, the forces would be some¬
what unequal j and allowances must be made lor the ob¬
liquity of the action, that we may know the precise ro¬
tative momentum. This modification of the action of
A on B, we call the directive power of A j and the
modification ol B, by which it tends to or from r\e
call the polarity of B.
Now, the directive power of A and the polarity ot
B may be increased, 1. By increasing the strength of
either A or B, or both ; 2. By diminishing the distance
between A and B j 3’ increasing the length ol A ;
and, 4. By diminishing the length of B, the distance be¬
tween them remaining the same. #
We may remark, that the directive power of A is
always greater than its attractive power, by a certain
measure which we may represent by the formula
2 (p q') which is thus derived. The difference be¬
tween them may be expressed by tl—'l 0 L ; but er—
P p=p, and e L=Pp—F/=Pp—Q q—F p=I />—
Q q — 0 s j therefore 0 L =2 P p—Q q-, and t l —
2 q?)=2 (/>—?)• . . . ,
This picture ol the forces, attentively examined, iviil
suggest to the reader many interesting and instructive 8S
particulars. Dr Robison used to relate a curious and Curious
instructive phenomenon that he was long puzzled toP“lf
explain respecting the mutual action of large magnets.
Amusing himself with some experiments on magnetism,
with two large strong magnets, as AB. fig. 27. which _pjg. 27.
were placed at about the distance of three inches with
their opposite poles fronting each other, he had placed
a small needle balanced on a point between them as at
D, which arranged itself in the same line with the mag¬
nets j hut happening to set it oft to a considerable dis¬
tance on the table, as at F, he was surprised to see it
instantly turn round on the point, and arrange itseli in
au opposite direction. When brought back to 1), it
reassumed its former position, hut when he carried it
out gradually along the line DF, perpendicular to N a1,
he found it grow sensibly more feeble, vibrating more
slowly ) and when arrived at a certain point E, it shew¬
ed no polarity towards either A or B, but retained any
position given it: but when carried farther out, it again
acquired polarity to the magnets, though in a contrary
direction, arranging itself parallel to NS, with its
north pole next to N, and south pole next to S. Being
interrupted
Chap. nr. ^ M A G N
Theory, interrupted in the prosecution of this experiment but
* * ' having marked the line DF on the table, he afterwards
replaced the magnets and needle, placing the latter
at E, where he expected it to be neutral ; but it now
turned its north pole towards B, and did not become
neutral till carried further out. When standing there,
something happened to move the magnets A°and B*
which instantly rushed together, and at the same
instant the needle turned itself briskly, and arranged
itself as before at F. Ill short, by gradually withdraw¬
ing the magnets from each other, he found that the
heedle first became weaker, theii neutral, and then
turned into the opposite position.
Dr Robison explained this curious phenomenon by
what he calls primary and secondary maometic curves
such as NHM, NEL, and SGK, SEI j but our limits
do not permit Us to enter here On the investigation of
these curves.
From all Dr Robison’s experiments and calculations,
tances.
89
Law of ac   
mprotm- he appears to have been fully convinced, thatThTwue
mdy as magnetic action is in the inverse duplicate ratio
hs squares QJ ^ ie distances,and his opinion is still farther strengthen-
■fthe du ed by the ingenious experiments of M. Coulomb related
in the Memoirs of the Academy of Sciences at Paris
for 1786 and 1787, or the Jour, de P/vj. vol. xliii.
We are now prepared to examine the induction of
magnetism in iron or steel by juxtaposition to a magnet,
the general facts of which are mentioned and illustrated
in N° 44.
It was remarked in N° 46, that the induction of mag¬
netism in the iron by being near a magnet was not pro^-
duced by a transference ot something from the magnet
to the iron. It follows that there must be some inhe¬
rent property in iron, which is only excited, as it were,
or roused into action, by the proximity of the magnet.
It has been remarked, that the magnetism of iron is
momentary j but this must be understood only of the
finest and purest iron, as when this metal is in the state
of ore, or has undergone any change, as by exposure to
the air, or bv cementation, its magnetism becomes
permanent, in proportion to the hardness of the tne-
tal.
. It; is of great importance to observe that the acquisi¬
tion of induced magnetism is gradual and progressive,
and that this gradation is more perceptible according as
the iron is in a harder state. In soft iron the induction
appears to be instantaneous throughout, unless the bat¬
he exceedingly long j but when a magnet is brought
near a bar of tempered steel, the near end acquires a
contrary polarity long before the remote end appears
affected, and it is a long time before the remote end
acquires the same polarity with the proximate end of
the magnet.
ted on- From what has been said we may infer, that a piece
. ecause of iron brought near a magnet, is attracted only be-
n S MaUSe lt b.ecomes magnetical by induction, and that
•'the attraction of a loadstone for iron, or the tendency
of iron to the loadstone, is the consequence of the pro¬
per disposition of the magnetism induced in the iron.
It has already appeared, that this phenomenon arises
fiom the excess of two attractions above two repulsions,
and this is farther proved by the following considera¬
tions: 1. That the magnetism of the two poles is evi¬
dently of an opposite nature, the one attracting what
t.ie other repels, and vice versa. If a piece of iron is
Vol. XII, Part I,
90
lUced
[gnetism
idual.
9i
at-
E ? I S M.
attracted by one, it ought therefore to be repelled by
he other j but each pole, by inducing on the near end
ot the iron a magnetism opposite to its own, and on the
remote end a similar magnetism, and its action dimi-
ishing as the distance increases, the attraction must
a ways be in excess, and the iron must on the whole be
attracted. 2. When we have two magnets placed in a
parallel position, with their opposite poles together
11 a piece of common iron be brought near their extre¬
mities, the different poles counteracting each other, the
piece of n-on will not be supported by the two magnets
together, unless there is an inequality of action : hut ih
is evident that either of them alone would be capable
ot supporting the iron. 3. In all the cases where the
induction of magnetism is slow, the attraction is pro¬
portionally weak, and the attraction increases exactly
according to the increase of the progressive induction
4. An ore of iron that Js not capable of acquiring
magnetism, is not attracted by the magnet, and on the ‘
other hand it is an universal fact, that no substance
Which is not attracted by the magnet, can be rendered
magnetical.
I he induction of magnetism by juxtaposition affords Arrange..
a complete explanation of the curious arrangement 0Fmei,t f
iron filings round a magnet. Let us suppose a great1™1}1—8
many small oblong pieces of iron to be lying near each c - nsd'
other on the surface of mercury, and that a strong
magnet be brought into the midst of them. They are
all immediately rendered magnetical by induction 5 any¬
one that is nearest the north pole of the magnet acquiring
two poles, one a north and the other a south pole, turns
the south pole towards the north pole of the magnet,
and the north pole away from it 5 a similar effect is pro¬
duced on another piece or filing that lies near the first,
and so on of the rest. All those that lie near each
other must mutually attract, as the magnetism of each
is so disposed that both ends of it are in a state of at¬
traction towards one or other of its neighbours. They
will therefore arrange themselves by coalescence in a
particular manner j if they are near enough, they will
unite by their extremities, and if they are at some di¬
stance they will point towards each other, forming
Curved lines.
It is found that the magnetism of magnets, whether Magnetism
natural or artificial, is continually tending to decay.can be re-
Now as we find that this magnetism may be induced veise<*-
merely by the approach of a magnet, and as we know
that in producing magnetism, magnets may oppose each
other, it is reasonable to conclude, that when a slight
though permanent magnetism has been acquired by a
piece of iron by its vicinity to a magnet, it may be
destroyed, and the contrary magnetism induced, by
applying a magnet in the opposite direction. Accord-
ingly it is a well-known fact, that the poles of magnets
made of soft steel can be reversed at pleasure.
This explains why magnetic repulsion is always
weaker than attraction at the Same distance, as magnets,
when placed with their similar poles fronting each
other, in Order to try their repulsion, are thereby weak¬
ened j whereas, on the Contrary, magnet applied with
their opposite poles, so as to attract each other, are
thereby improved, and their attractive powers are
made to appear greater than they really are.
It has been observed that a mapnet is not weakened
by inducing magnetism on iron. In fact, it is rather
f 3 F improved
94
Objection
to terres¬
trial mag¬
netism an¬
swered.
95
Observa-
M A ONE
improved by such induction, and this will increase the
effect} for as the magnet is improved, the induced
magnetism of the iron will be thereby increased, and
thus the magnet will be thus farther improved.
After what has been said, we need not enter further
into an explanation of the phenomena, or of the pro¬
cesses employed in making artificial magnets. Ihe.v
are all referable to this one fact of the induction of
magnetism bv juxtaposition, and explanations will rea¬
dily suggest themselves to readers who carefully consi¬
der the preceding facts, and compare them with Dr
Gilbert’s theory of terrestrial magnetism.
It is now time for us to return to Dr Gilbert’s hypo¬
thesis, and consider an objection that has been strongly
urged against it.
There is observed no tendency in the magnetic needle
towards the great terrestrial magnet, that is, though,
when made to float on water, it speedily acquires directive
power, it does not in these latitudes approach the north
side of the vessel, nor does an iron bar appear heavier
when its south pole is uppermost, as ought to be the
case on account of the attraction of the great magnet.
Dr Gilbert saw this objection, and it appears to have
given him some concern. He attempted to get rid of
it by observing that the directive power of a magnet is
greater than its attractive force } a fact in support of
which he brings many experiments. A much more
satisfactory answer may be derived from what has been
stated respecting the actions of the four poles. We
thence find, that the polarity of the needle depends on
the difference of the sums of the actions of each pole of
the magnet on both poles of the needle; whereas its
tendency towards the magnet arising from the attraction
between them, depends on the difference of the differ¬
ences of the same actions. Hence the former may be
very great, while the latter is very small. We find
that small iron filings are much less forcibly attracted
by magnets than coarse ones, and, if we consider that
the largest magnets which we employ do not bear so
great a proportion to the earth, as the finest iron filings
to an ordinary magnet, we shall not wonder that the
attractive power of the earth is not very sensible.
As this objection is one of the strongest that can be
brought against the theory, and as we may consider
this as done away, we may now receive the theory as
just so far as it goes. We must remark, that though
we call that pole of a magnet which inclines towards
the earth in the northern latitudes, a north pole, it is
properly speaking a south pole j for as we must call
that pole of the great magnet the north pole which is
in the north, and as this pole produces the contrary
polarity in the proximate end of a needle, that end must
he possessed of south polarity. We shall return to this
subject in the article Variation.
Some valuable observations on terrestrial magnetism
have lately been made in France by M. M. Humboldt
and Biot, and as they would suffer materially by a-
bridgement, we shall present our readers with the great¬
est part of the memoir nearly as translated in the Phi¬
losophical Magazine, vol. xxii.
After explaining the object of the memoir, and giv
T I S M. Chap. Ill
magnetism under different points of view7, correspond- Theory.
tions of jng an aceount 0f the share that he had in conducting
the observations, M. Biot proceeds as follows.
It is necessary to consider the action of terrestrial
3
ing to the different classes of the phenomena which it
produces. > Man-net' I
If we consider it first in general, we find that it ac'ts on^
acts on the whole surface of the globe, and that it ex-^oie jur.
tends beyond it. This fact, which was doubted, has face of tin
been lately proved by M. Guy-Lussac, during his two
aerostatic voyages. And if these observation made
with all the care possible, have not shewn the least sen¬
sible diminution in the intensity of the magnetic force,.
at the greatest height to which man can attain, we
have a right to conclude that this force extends to an
indefinite distance from the earth, where it decreases,
perhaps, in a very rapid manner, but which.at present
is unknown to us.
If we now consider magnetism at the surface even
of the earth, we shall find three grand classes of pheno¬
mena which it is necessary to study separately, in order
to have a complete knowledge ol its mode ol action.
These phenomena are, the declination ol the magnetic
needle, its inclination, and the intensity ot the magne¬
tic force, considered either comparatively in different
places or in themselves, paying attention to the varia¬
tions which they experience. It is thus that, after hav¬
ing discovered the action of gravity as a central force,
its variation, resulting from the figure of the earth, was
afterwards ascertained in different latitudes.
The declination of the magnetic needle appears to
be that phenomenon which hitherto has more particu¬
larly fixed the attention of philosophers, on account, no
doubt, of the assistance which they hoped to derive
from it in determining the longitude ; but when it was
known that the declination changes in the same place,
in the course of time, when its diurnal variations were
remarked, and its irregular traversing occasioned by
different meteors, in a word, the difficulty of observing
it at sea, within one degree nearly, it was necessary to
abandon that hope, to consider the cause of these phe¬
nomena as much more complex and abstruse than had
been at first imagined. _ 97
In regard to the intensity of the magnetic power Magnctii
in different parts of the earth, it has never yet been power m
measured in a comparative manner. The observations^^
of M. Humboldt on this subject have discovered a veiy equator t
remarkable phenomenon ; it is the variation ot the in- the poles
tensity in different latitudes, and its increase proceed¬
ing from the equator to the poles.
The compass, indeed, which at the departure of M.
Humboldt gave at Paris 245 oscillations in 10 minutes,
gave no more m Pern than 211, and it constantly
varied in the same direction j that is to say, the number
of the oscillations always decreased in approaching the
equator, and always increased in advancing towards
the north.
These differences cannot be ascribed to a diminution
of the force in the magnetism of the compass, nor can
we suppose that it is weakened by the effect of time
and of heat 5 for after three years residence in the warm¬
est countries of the earth, the same compass gave again
in Mexico oscillations as rapid as at Pans.
There is no reason to doubt the justness of M.
Humboldt’s observations, for he often observed the
oscillations in the vertical plane perpendicular to that
meridian ) and by decomposing the magnetic force in
the
Chap. 111.
M A G N
Theory, the latter plane, and comparing it with its total action
which is exercised in the former, wc may from these
data calculate its direction, and consequently the di¬
rection of the needle (c). This inclination, thus cal¬
culated, is found always conformable to that which
M. Humboldt observed directly. When he made his
experiments, however, he could not foresee that they
would be subjected to this proof by which M. Laplace
verified them.
As the justness of these observations cannot be
contested, we must allow also the truth of the result
which they indicate, and which is the increase of the
magnetic force proceeding from the equator to the
98 P°Jes*
Humboldt’s To follow these results with more facility, it will
determina- be proper to set out from a fixed term j and it appears
magnetic natUral to.ma.ke choice for that purpose of the points
lequator. where the inclination of the magnetic needle is null,
because they seem to indicate the places where the op-
. posite action of the two terrestrial hemispheres is equal.
The series of these points forms on the surface of the
earth a curved line, which difi'ers very sensibly from the
terrestrial equator, deviating from it to the south of the
Atlantic ocean, and to the north in the south sea. M.
Humboldt found this equator in Peru about 70 1' S. Lat.
which for that part of the earth places it nearly in the
spot where Wilke and Lemounier had fixed it.
1 he places situated to the north of that point may
be divided into four z.ones, the three first of which, be¬
ing nearer the equator, are about 40 of latitude, while
the latter, more extensive and more variable, is 140.
So that the system of these zones extends in America
from the magnetic equator to 230 of north latitude,
and comprehends in longitude an internal of about
50°;
The first zone extends from 70 1' of south lati¬
tude to 2° 54'. The mean number of the oscillations
of the needle in the magnetic meridian in 10' of time
is there 211.9: no observation gives less than 211, or
more than 214- From 1M. Humboldt’s observations
one might form a similar zone on the south side of
the magnetic equator, which would give the same re¬
sults.
I he second zone extends from 2° 13' of south la-
^ 1 1 S M.
titude to 3° 15'of north latitude. The mean term of
the oscillations is there 217.9; they are never below
220, nor above 226.
The fourth zone, broader than the other two, ex¬
tends from 9° ,5' to 230 8' of north latitude. Its
mean term ,s 237: it never presents any observation
below 229, nor above 240.
We are unacquainted, in regard to this part of the
earth with the intensity of the magnetic force beyond
the latitude of 23 north ; and on the other hand, in
L111 ope, where we have observations made in high lati¬
tudes, we have none in the neighbourhood of the equa¬
tor, but we will not venture to compare these two
classes of observations, which may belong to different
systems of forces, as will be mentioned hereafter.
However, the only comparison of results, collected
in America by M. Humboldt, appears to us to esta¬
blish with certainty the increase of the magnetic force
from the equator to the poles ; and, without wishing to
connect them too closely with the experiments made in
Lurope we must remark, that the latter accord so far
also with the preceding as to indicate the phenomenon.
it we have thus divided the observations into zones
parallel to the equator, it is in order that we may more
easily shew the truth of the fact which results from
them, and in particular to render the demonstration in¬
dependent of those small anomalies which are inevitably
mixed with these results. J
Though these anomalies are very trifling, they are
however, so sensible, and so frequently occur, that
they cannot be ascribed entirely to errors in the obser¬
vations. It appears more natural to ascribe them to the
influence of local circumstances, and the particular at¬
tractions^ exercised by collections of ferruginous mat-
ters, chains of mountains, or by the large masses of the
continents.
One of them, indeed, having carried to the Alps the
magnetic needle employed in an aerial excursion, he
found that its tendency to return to the magnetic meri¬
dian was constantly stronger in these mountains than it
was at Paris before his departure, and than it has been
found since his return. This needle, which made at
Paris 83.9° in 10' of time, has varied in the following
manner in the different places to which it was carried.
3 C 2 Places
(c) Let HOC (fig. 28.) be the plane of the magnetic meridian passing through the vertical OC: let OL be
,1 rfe in a”d OH » Tht “Sle LOH will be’the inelina-
37 nte.eille’ "'>“1’ r s',a11 by L W F represent the total magnetic force which acts in the tli.
’ w ‘T ol . “S. aat3 according to OC, will be F sine of I: but the magnetic forces
h determine the oscillations of the needle in any plane, are to each other as the squares of the oscillations
made m the same time. If we denote them by M, the number of oscillations made in io' of time in the mag-
aj6 ^ !?e11. ian’ an .y ? t ic number of oscillations made also in io', in the perpendicular plane, we shall have
the following proportion : r
F sin. I P*
from whence we deduce
F
M*
Sin. I =
E!
ivp
I lie inclination then may be calculated by this formula, when we have oscillations made in the same planes.
n ike manner, by making a needle oscillate successively in several vertical planes, we might determine the
direction of the magnetic meridian.
388
magnetism.
Theory.
Number of Oscillations in
i o' of Time.
‘83.9
87.2
88.2
87.4
87-3
86.5
84.5
83.9
99 • ,
Terrestrial
magnetism
modified by
local cir¬
cumstan¬
ces.
Tlaces of Observation.
Paris, before bis departure
Turin,
On Mount Genevre,
Grenoble,
Lyons,
Geneva,
Dijon,
Paris, on his return,
These experiments were made with the greatest
care, conjointly with excellent observers, and always
employing the same watch verified by small pendulums,
and taking the mean terms between several serieses ot
observations, which always differed very little from
each other. It appears thence to result, that the action
of the Alps has a sensible influence on the intensity ot
the magnetic force. M. Humboldt observed analo¬
gous eftects at the bottom of the Pyrenees ; for example,
at Perpignan. It is not improbable that they arose
from the mass of these mountains, or the ferruginous
matters contained in them } but whatever may be the
cause, it is seen by these examples that the general
action of terrestrial magnetism is sensibly modified by
local circumstances, the ditferences of which may be
perceived in places very little distant from each other.
This truth will be further confirmed by the following
observations.
It is to causes of this kind, no doubt, that we must
ascribe the diminution of the magnetic forces observed
in some mountains j a diminution which, on the first
view, might appear contrary to the results obtained du-
ring various aerial voyages. This conjecture is suppoitcd
by several observations of M. Humboldt. By making
his needle to oscillate on the mountain of Guadaloupe,
which rises 338 toises above Santa-Fe, he found it in
j q' of time give two oscillations less than m the plain.
At Silla, near Caracas, at the height of 1316 toises
above the coast, the diminution went so far as five os¬
cillations ; and on the other hand, on the volcano of
Antisana, at the height of 2467 toises, the number of
oscillations in 10 minutes was 230 j though at Quito
it was only 218, which indicates an increase of inten¬
sity. A similar eflect was observed on the summit of
Mount Genevre, at the height of 800 or 900 toises, as
may be seen from the numbers already given ; and on
this mountain M. Biot found the greatest intensity of
the magnetic force. He saw on the hill of La Super-
ga, in the neighbourhood of Turin, an example of
these variations equally striking. Observing, with Yas-
sali, on this hill, at the elevation of 300 toises, they
found 87 oscillations in 10 minutes of time. On the
side of the hill they had 88,8 oscillations, and at the
bottom, on the bank of the Po, they obtained 87.3.
rJfbough these results approach very near to each other,
their difference is, however, sensible, and fully shows
" that their small variations must be considered as slight
anomalies produced by local circumstances.
This examination Lads us to consider the intensity of
magnetism on the different points of the surface ot the
globe, as subject to two sorts of differences. One kind
are general j they depend merely on the situation of the
places in regard to the magnetic equator, and belong to
a general phenomenon, which is the increase ot the in-
Chap. III!
tensity of the magnetic forces in proportion as we re- Theory,
move from the equator ; the other kind of variations,
which are much smaller and altogether irregular, seem
to depend entirely on local circumstances, and modify
either more or less the general results.
If we consider terrestrial magnetism as the effect of
an attractive force inherent in all the material particles
of the globe, or only in some of these particles, which
we are far from determining, the general law will be,
the total result of the system of attraction of all the par¬
ticles, and the small anomalies will be produced by the
particular attractions of the partial systems of the mag¬
netic moleculse diflused irregularly around each point;
attractions rendered more sensible by the diminution of
the distance.
It now remains to consider the inclination of the
magnetic needle in regard to the horizontal plane. It
has been long known that this inclination is not every
where the same; in the northern hemisphere the needle
inclines towards the north 5 in the southern towards the
south} the places where it becomes horizontal form
the magnetic equator ; and those where the inclination
is equal, but not null, form on each side of that equa¬
tor curved lines, to which the name of magnetic paral¬
lels has been given, from their analogy to the terrestri¬
al parallels. One may see in several works, and parti¬
cularly in that of Lemounier, entitled Lois du Magne¬
tisms, the figure of these parallels, and their disposition
on the face of the earth. ieo
It evidently results from this disposition, that the Inclinatioi
inclination is in proportion as we recede from the magne- of hje
tic equator 5 but the law which it follows in its increase, creases as
has not yet, as far as appears to us, been given. To we proceei
ascertain this law, however, would be of great utility j from the
for the inclination seems to be the most constant of all magnetie
the magnetic phenomena, and it exhibits much fewer etluator'
anomalies than the intensity. Besides, if any rule w'ell
confirmed could be discovered on this subject, it might
be employed with advantage at sea to determine the la¬
titude, when the weather does not admit an observation
of the sun ; which is the case in various places during
the greater part of the year. We have some reason to
expect this application, when we see the delicacy of
that indication in the observations of M. Humboldt,
where we find 35' 6" of difference between two towns
so near each other as Nismes and Montpellier. These
motives have induced us to study with great interest the
series of observations made by M. Humboldt in regard
to the inclination} and it appears to us that they may
be represented very exactly by a mathematical hypothe¬
sis, to which we are far from attaching any reality in
itself, but which we ofter merely as a commodious and.
sure mode of connecting the results.
To discover this law, we must first exactly deter¬
mine the position of the magnetic equator, which is as,
an intermediate line between the northern and the.
southern inclinations. For this purpose wre have the
advantage of being able to compare two direct observa¬
tions, one of La Perouse, and the other of M. Hum¬
boldt. The former found the magnetic equator on the
coasts of Brasil at io° 57' of south latitude, and 250 2j'
of west longitude, counted from the meridian of Pans.
The latter found the same equator in Peru at 7°
south latitude, and 8o° 41' of west longitude, also rec¬
koning from the same meridian. These data are suffi¬
cient
Theory.
'Chap. III. M A G N
eient to calculate the position of the magnetic equator
^ supposing it to be a great circle of the terrestrial sphere •
an hypothesis u Inch appears to he conformable to ob¬
servations. I he inclination of this plane to the terres¬
trial equator is thus found to be equal to io° cS' c6/r
and its occidental node on that equator is at 1200 l' z"
west from Paris, which places it a little beyond the
continent of America, near the Gallipagos, in the South
sea ; the other node is at 590 57 5y/ to the east of pa_
ns, which places it 111 the Indian seas (d).
“ We (1° not glve this determination as rigorously
exact j some corrections might no doubt be made to it
had we a greater number of observations equally pre¬
cise ; but we are of opinion that these corrections would
be very small, and it will be seen afterwards that, in¬
dependently of the confidence which the two observa¬
tions we have employed deserve, we have other reasons
ior entertaining this opinion (e).
It is very remarkable that this determination of
the magnetic equator agrees almost perfectly with that
given long ago by Wilke and Lemounier. The latter
in particular, who for want of direct observations had
discussed a great number of corresponding observations,
indicates the magnetic equator in Peru towards 70 20'
of south latitude, and M. Humboldt found it in the
same place at7° 1'; besides, Lemounier’s chart, as well
as that of M. Wilke, indicates for the inclination of the
magnetic meridian about ii°, and they place the node
about 140 of west longitude, reckoned from the meri¬
dian of Pans.
“ Can it be by chance, then, that these elements,
tound more than 40 years ago, should accord so well
with ours founded on recent observations P or does the
inclination of the magnetic equator experience only
very small variations, while all the other symptoms of
terrestrial magnetism change so rapidly P We should
E T I S M.
389:
not be far from admitting the latter opinion, when we '
consider that the inclination of the magnetic needle has ‘ °17'
changed at I ans 3 in 60 years since it has been ob¬
served ; and that at London, according to the observa¬
tions of Mr Graham, it has not changed 20 in 200
years, while the declination has varied more than 20°
in the same interval, and has passed from east to west:
but on the other hand the observation of the inclination
is so difficult to be made with exactness, and it is so
short a time since the art of measuring it with pre¬
cision was known, that it is perhaps more prudent to
abstain from any premature opinion on phenomena, the
cause of which is totally unknown to us.”
. ^ 0 ernP,oy the other observations of M. Humboldt
m regard to the inclination, the terrestrial latitudes
and longitudes reckoned from the magnetic equator
were first reduced. The latter, being reckoned from
the node of that equator in the South sea, M. Biot first
perceived by these calculations that the position of that
plane determined by preceding researches was pretty
exact ; for some of the places, such as Santa-Fe and
J a vita, where M. Humboldt observed inclinations almost
equal, were lound nearly on the magnetic parallel, though
distant from each other more than 6o° of longitude.
When these reductions were made, M.°Biot en¬
deavoured to represent the signs of the inclinations ob¬
served, and to leave as little to cbance as possible. He
first tried a mathematical hypothesis conformable enough
to the idea which has hitherto been entertained in re¬
gard to terrestrial magnetism.
He supposed in the axis of the magnetic equator,
and at an equal distance from the centre of the earth,
two centres of attractive forces, the one austral and the
other boreal, in such a manner as to represent the two
opposite magnetic poles of the earth. He then calcu¬
lated the effect which ought to result from the action
of
™ppDoLd aisotob^a'iir^0?’Iet (ufig' 290 1,.ethe terrestrial equator; NHL tke magnetic equator,
iJiviTHRe. The I Lift,„1 fm.e’ ["if 111J A ‘t*0 point3 of that equator, observed by Messrs Humboldt and
:■ t * . ,e„ LL , and the arc EE', which is the difference of lono-itmle nf thpsp ttm nm'nf o
is known
have tw
m ; consequently, if we suppose HI -4, LE'=4', EE'=u, EN= v and the ingle ENH-o we' shall
1-0 sphencal tr,angles NEH, NE'L, which will give the tw^ following ' 8 ShaU
from which we deduce
Tbe o tji? t tt/ i , ciiucuui, uuacivcu uy iviessrs jriumDoidt and
Ihe latitudes HE, LE, and the arc EE', which is the difference of longitude of these two points
SGO llGnt 1V IT XK1f± T-TT? 7. T T?f-_ 7 / T7' T># TT>-%ir la! ^       * 5
and the an
equations:
c,‘„ tang- ^ cot-y ^ > tang, b' cot. y
sin. x— j-   sin. ^i
(a’-j-u) tang.
and developing
sin.-
sin. x
tang.
cot. x.
 tang, b sin. v cos.
T * tang, b
■Let us now take an auxiliary angle p, so that we may have
 tang, b sin. v
tang. <p:
tang, b'
and we shall have-
sm. v sin. <z>
sin. (v—<p)
By these equations we may find *, and then y, by any of the first two.
i.ji1';, a ero n^e, after having doubled Cape Horn, fell in a second time with the magnetic equator in I S'north
tn” U e’an ^ °t longitude west from Paris. He was therefore very near the node of the magnetic equa*
ser* Sl>1Ctl aS ^ av<I “ec‘UCvJd it from observations. This fact establishes in a positive manner two important con?
J— ’ ' Irst’.that the preceding determinations require only very slight corrections j and the second, that tb^
agneuc equator is really a great circle of the earth, if not exactly, at least very nearly.
4
Fig. 30.
of these centres in any point of the snrface of the earth,
making their attractive force reciprocally vary as the
square of the distance •, and in this manner he obtain¬
ed the direction of the result of their forces which
Ought to be that also of the magnetic needle in that la¬
titude. ^ ~ -V . . ,,
He supposes that the point B (fig. 30.) is the north
magnetic pole of the earth, and that the point - t it
south magnetic pole ; he supposes also that there is in
the point M, at the surface of the earth, a mol ecu la
of the austral fluid which is attracted by B and repel¬
led by A in the inverse ratio ol the square of the di¬
stance j and he requires what will be the direction o.
the power resulting from these two forces acting on
that molecula. It is evident that this direction will be
that also which would be assumed in the point M by
the needle of a compass freely suspended j for, in con¬
sequence of the smallness of the needle in compaiison
of the radius of the earth, the lines drawn from its points
to one centre, B or A, may be considered as parallel^
especially if the points A and B are near the centre oi
the earth, which is the case with nature, as may be
seen. . 1 • 1 c
He first supposes that the earth has a spherical h-
gure, and that the two poles A and B are equal in
force, and he then examines how far the latter supposi¬
tion agrees with the results observed.
Let AM then = D', BM = D, CP = *, PM = y,
the angle MCP = «, CA = CB = a. He then makes
a — K t j r being =r the radius of the earth, and K a
constant but indeterminate quantity. „
Let X, Y, also be the forces which attract M in
the direction of the axes of the co-ordinates, and (& the
angle which the resulting force makes with the axis
ABC.
MAGNETISM. Chap. Ill,
He then gives the following equations, in which F is Tilcon.
the magnetic force, at a distance equal to unity.
,r =: —cos. MBD-
D'
cos. MAH ;
D'*=y* -f-(x+o),=/ l+2axis -f a1,
Y sin. MBD— sin. MAD :
JD 1)
D*=ry2-f (.r—<7)*=rr2— 2 axis -fa*, or, by putting for
the cosines their values :
x=
_ F (a?—a) F(.r + a)
D3
D'3
v_Fy
- D3'
D'3’
and as we have
we shall have also
Y
tang. P= -^1
Y
D3
Y_
D3
,r—a x “f °  
y(D'3—D3)
tang. /3 =
nor —ibr=(D'3—D3)-a (jya+D3)-.
and by putting for *, y and a, their values, cos. u ; r
sin. v, K r ;
tang. =
sin. u
r_(D'3+BX
COS. U
D,*=r*(I-f 2 K cos. «-f K2) j
D* =r2(I—2 K COS. tl +K2)5
which gives the system of the two equations,
tang. =
sin.
—rYp,i+D3V
cos. u— lyij
riyi-fD3\ (I-f 2K cos
/D'3-f D3\
\D'*—D3J“”
4-K*)2’ -f(I—2K co3.«4-K*)2K
(I4-2K cos.
These equations determine the direction of the mag¬
netic needle in regard to each point M, the distance
of which from the magnetic equator is known j but it
is seen that this direction depends on the quantity K,
which represents the distance of the magnetic centres
from the centre of the earth j this distance being ex¬
pressed in parts of the terrestrial radius, we must there¬
fore first determine this quantity from observations.
To do it in the manner of approximation, and thus
acquire a first idea of the value of K, M. Biot chose
an observation made by M. Humboldt at Carichana in
6° 5" °f north latitude counted from the terrestrial
equator, and 70° 18' west longitude reckoned from the
meridian of Paris, which gives 140 52' 25" of longitude
counted from the magnetic equator, and 48° 51' 53" of
west longitude, proceeding from the node formed by that
equator with the equator of the earth. The inclina¬
tion of the magnetic needle was observed in that place
by M. Humboldt in the month of Messidor, year 8,
and found to be equal to 33.78° of the centigrade divi¬
sion. A comparison of this result with the other ob¬
servations of M. Humboldt, shews that it may indeed
be considered as agreeing to that latitude.
_j,K2)T (I 2K COS. «4-K) "
To make use of it, M. Biot successively gave to &
different values in the formula; he calculated the in¬
clinations resulting from that latitude-, and comparing
these results with that which M. Humboldt really ob¬
served, the progress of the errors naturally led him to
the most proper supposition. The following is a table
of these trials.
Values of K.
K=I
K=o.6
K=o.5
K—0.2
K=o.x
Krro.d
K=o.ool
The first value of K would place the centre of the
magnetic forces at the surface of the earth and the
poles of the magnetic equator. It is seen that tins sup¬
position cannot be admitted, because it would give an
increase of inclination much less rapid than that indi¬
cated by observations. The case is the same with the
J -f/Ail/twiner
Inclinations of the Needle.
7-73°
18.80
22.04
29.38
3°*64
31.04
31.07
Error?.
26.04
14.97
11-73
4-39
3-j3
2-73
2.7
following results, which place the centres of action on
the terrestrial radius at different distances from the
centre of the earth j but it is seen also in general, that
they approach more and more to the truth in proportion
as tins distance becomes less ; which evidently shews
that toe two centres of action oi the magnetic forces
are situated near the centre of the earth. All the other
observations of M. Humboldt would also lead to the
same consequence.
The most proper supposition would he to make K
null, or so small that it would be needless to pay atten¬
tion to it; which amounts to the same thing as to con¬
sider the two centres of action placed, as we may say,
m the same molecula. Ihe result, indeed, obtained in
this manner is the most exact of all; it is =31.0843°;
this value is still a little less than that which M. Hum¬
boldt observed, and the difFerence 13=2.69; but it
must he considered also that the formula from which
we derive these values supposes the position of the mag¬
netic equator is perfectly determined 5 but it may not
be so with the utmost exactness, according to the two
only observations of La Perouse and Humboldt, which
we have employed. It is therefore by studying the
progress of the formula, and comparing it with the ob¬
servations, that we are able to appreciate it justly; af¬
ter which we may think of remedying the small errors
with which it may be accompanied.
To obtain the result here mentioned, and which is,
as it were, the limit of all those which may. be obtained
by giving to K different values, it is to be remarked
that the quantity
* ^ f/D*+D*\
Md'3—DV’
magnetism.
9'
F(I-T2K COS. W-f-K1) "(I 2K COS.
(I-MK COS.  (I 2K COS.tt-f-K2)^
becomes — when K is null ; but by applying to it the
methods of known quantities, it will be found that its
value in this supposition is really determinate and
. By substituting this in the formula we
3 cos. u
shall have
tang. /3=-
3 cos. u
an equation which may be reduced to this form:
tang. ^cos 2u^r,
which will easily give the value of /£; and wdien this
value is known, we shall have the inclination I, by the
following formula:
I=ioo-{-«—/3,
which will serve throughout -the whole extent of the
two hemispheres.
From the progress thus traced out, it is seen that the
preceding formula is not merely an empyric construc¬
tion of observations ; on the contrary, it is totally in¬
dependent, and only supposes the inclination of the
magnetic needle to he produced by a magnet infinitely Theory
small, placed in the centre of the terrestrial surface ; 1 
1 “y eakidating from this formula the inclination for
the different latitudes, M. Biot found precisely the
same numbers as M. Humboldt observed either in Eu-
iope 01 America ; and it is not his observations only
tliat are represented in this manner ; but those which
have been made in Russia, and at Kola in Lapland,
1 unng the last transit of Venus, are also comprehended
under the same law.
It is seen that the results of the formula deviate very
little from the observations ; but these differences may
e rendered still smalier. By examining, indeed, the
progress of the errors, it is seen that the numbers given
by calculation are a little too small in America for the
iow latitudes, and a little too great for the high lati¬
tudes, which shews that the whole may be allowed,
with some slight modifications, either by changing’
however little, the node and inclination of the magne¬
tic equator, which two observations cannot determine
with the utmost exactness, or by displacing ever so
little our small magnet, leaving, however, its centre
m the plane of the magnetic equator, and placing it in
such a manner that it shall be a little nearer America
than Europe. It is by these observations themselves,
when we shall have a greater number, that we must Im
guided in these small corrections.
In a word, it must not be expected- that we can re¬
present in a rigorous manner, by a mathematical Jaw,
all the inclinations observed ; for the phenomenon of
the inclination, though more regular than the other
magnetic effects, is not free from some anomalies; this
may he easily seen on constructing the curve given by
the observations themselves. Thus, for example, the
inclination observed at Popayan is o° io' greater than
at St Carlos del Rio Negro, though the magnetic la¬
titude of the latter is 30 j' greater. The case is the
same with observations made at Javita and Santa Fe.
Other anomalies are discovered in the comparative pro¬
gress of the observations and formula. This is the case
in regard to Carichana, St Thomas de la Guyane, and
Carthagena. The increase of the inclination from the
first to the second of these points is by no means in har¬
mony with the increase from the second to the third ;
and if we compare together the intensities observed in
these different places, the anomalies they exhibit an¬
nounce in some measure those which the inclination
ought to experience.
The cause of these anomalies hecomea evident from
what has been already remarked ; they are merely the
effect of local circumstances, and arise from the small
systems of attraction by which the general phenomena
are modified. This must be sensible in particular for
that part of America which M. Humboldt travelled
over, and which is traversed throughout its whole
length by the grand chain of the cordillera of the An¬
des. It is also in these places that the most consider¬
able differences exist. Popayan, for example, is situat¬
ed near the volcanoes of Sotara and Pourace ; it is
joined to basaltic mountains abounding with magnetic
iron. Near Sulumito, to the east of Popayan, these
basaltic columns have very striking poles : in like man¬
ner Mexico is situated at the height of 1160 toises on
the ridge of the grand cordillera of Lenschtitlan ; the
ground there is covered with porous basaltes and amyg-
daloids.
M A G N
Theory, dalouls,' whieli arc almost all charged Tvith magnetic
—v 1 irom Must not all these causes have a sensible influ¬
ence on the inclination ot the magnetic needle and
must not the different dispositions ot the terruginous
masses, or their change of state, in consequence of the
action of nature, produce also variations? M. Hum¬
boldt made on this point a decisive observation : the
earthquake of the 4th November 1799 changed at
Cumana the inclination of the needle. On the 1st of
November it was 430 65'j on the 7th it was only 42°
^ and ten months after it returned to 420 85', but
it did not regain its former value *, the intensity ot the
magnetic force was not changed by the effect of this
- earthquake.
It is proved, then, by these observations, that local
circumstances may have on the inclination a sensible
influence j and this influence is remarked in the coun¬
tries traversed by M. Humboldt.
It appears, therefore, that the mathematical hypo¬
thesis which we have employed really expresses the
law of nature, at least to the north of the magnetic
equator •, for, though the first results observed towards
the south seem to bend to it also, the uncertainty under
which we are, in regard to the true cause of these phe¬
nomena, must stop our conjectures, and prevent us from
extending too far the consequences of the laws which
we observe (f).
From the preceding results, we may calculate the
points where the axis of the magnetic equator pierces
"the terrestrial surface } for their latitudes are equal to
the complements of the obliquity of that equator, and
their meridian is at ioo° of longitude from its nodes.
The north magnetic pole is found also at 790 1' 4" of
north latitude, and at 30° 2' 5" of longitude west from
Paris, which places it to the north of America. The
other magnetic pole, symmetric to the preceding, is
situated in the same latitude south, and at 1490 67' 55''
of longitude east frorh Paris, which places it amidst the
eternal ice} indications entirely analogous to those erf
Wilke and Lemounier.
If we could reach these poles, the compass would
be seen vertical } but if any confidence can be placed
in the law which we have discovered, this would be the
only difference which would be observed in regard to
the inclination, and we should be still as far distant
as in Europe from the real centres which produce
it. This result might appear to be of such a nature
as to diminish the interest one might have in visit¬
ing these horrid regions, had we not also the hope
of discovering there new phenomena in regard to the
intensity of the magnetic force, and the influence of me¬
teors.
These consequences do not entirely accord with the
1 opinion pretty generally received, and which ascribes
E T I S M. Chap. IE
the increase of the maghetic effects towards the north Theory,
to the great quantity of iron dispersed throughout these
regions ; but it appears to us that this opinion is not
agreeable to the truth. The cordillera of the Andes
contains an enormous quantity of magnetic iron } the
native iron of Chaco* that problematic mass analogous
to that of Pallas, and those of Xacatares in Mexico, is
found even under the tropics.
On seeing the inclinations of the compass so exactly
represented in the hypothesis, they endeavoured to dis¬
cover whether it could be applied to the intensities ob¬
served by M. Humboldt •, but they found that it did not
apply. It gives indeed, an increase of the magnetic
forces from the equator to the pole ; but this increase,
which at first is too slow, becomes afterwards too rapid.
M. Biot has not yet been able to try whether the small
displacement of the terrestrial magnet will contribute
towards representing them better j but it must be re¬
marked, that the series of the intensities is extremely
whimsical, and contains an infinite number of anoma¬
lies, so that local phenomena may have on this pheno¬
menon a much more sensible influence than on the in¬
clination.
On reviewing the results which have been given, it
is seen that we have first determined the position of the
magnetic equator by direct observations, which had
never been done before *, we have then proved that the
magnetic force increases in proceeding from that equa¬
tor to the poles j in the last place. We have given a ma¬
thematical hypothesis, which, when reduced to a for¬
mula, satisfies all the inclinations hitherto observed.
Supposing, as has been done in this formula, the
small corrections 6f which it is susceptible, its utility
becomes evident, either for making known, in the course
of time, the variations which may take place in the
action of the terrestrial magnetism, or to ascertain or
evert fox-esee the value of the inclination, which in a
great many cases is of the utmost importance.
For example, near the magnetic equator, the increase
6r diminution of the inclination Atill indicate to a vessel
on a voyage whether she has gained or lost in latitude
by currents. This knowledge of the latitude is some¬
times as important as that ot longitude. On the coasts
of Peru, for example, the currents tend from Chiloe to
the north and north-east with such force, that one may
go from Lima to Guayaquil iu three or four days, and
two, three, and sometimes five months are necessary to
return. It is consequently of the greatest importance
for vessels coming from Chili which stretch along the
coast of Peru, to know their latitude. If they go be¬
yond tile port to which they are bound, they must work
to the southward, and every day’s progress requires of¬
ten a month of return. Unfortunately, the logs which
prevail during four or five months on the coast of Peru,
prevent
(f) Observations made at the Cape of Good Hope, Cape Horn, and New Holland, by different navigators,
are very exactly represented by the above-mentioned foi*mula ; and it follows, that it extends also to the austral
hemispherei We hope soon to have numerous and very exact observations on the inclination of the needle m
that part of the earth. But we have thought it our duty to add to our table such results as relate to it, and which
we have been able to procure. We have inserted also two observations on the intensity, made with great care
by M. RoSsel, during the expedition of d’Entrecasteaux, which are very important, as they prove that the
terrestrial magnetic force increases also in the austral hemisphere in proportion as one removes from theequa"
tot.
prevent navigators from distinguishing the form of the
coast ; nothing is seen but the summits of the Andes,
and that of the peaks which rise above that stratum of
vapours ; but the figure of it is so uniform that pilots
fall into mistakes. They often remain 12 or 15 days
without seeing the sun or stars, and during that interval
they come to anchor, being afraid of overshooting their
port; but if we suppose that the inclination of the mag¬
netic needle in the ports to the south of Lima is known,
for example at Chancay, Huaura, and Santa, the dip¬
ping needle wall show whether it be, in regard to Lima,
to the south or to the north. It tvill show at the same
time opposite what point of the coast a vessel is; and
this indication will be attended with more exactness
that one could hope for, because in these seas the in¬
clination varies with extraordinary rapidity. M. Hum¬
boldt, to whom we are indebted for these remarks, ob¬
served in these seas the following values.
M A G N E T I S M.
39S
South Latitudes.
io° 4'
11 3
11 33
Inclinations.
6.8o°
9.00
IO,35
Places.
Huancey
Huaura
Chancay
These observations prove that the error of three or
four degrees in the inclination in these seas would pro¬
duce but a degree of error in latitude ; and, on account
of the tranquillity of the Pacific ocean, the inclination
may be observed to within a degree nearly. Frequent
instances of such results may be seen in books of voy¬
ages. In like manner, if one knew exactly the incli¬
nation at the mouth of the Rio de la Plata, it would
be very useful to navigators, who, when the Pamperos
blow, remain 15 or 18 days without seeing the heaven¬
ly bodies, and go on different tacks for fear of losing
the parallel of the mouth of that river.
In a word, the inclination may indicate also the lon¬
gitude in these seas ; and this method may be employ¬
ed when other’s fail. A vessel which sails there in the
direction of a parallel could not find its longitude either
by a chronometer or the declination of Halley, unless
a star could be seen, in order to take a horary angle or
the magnetic azimuth. The dipping needle then
throws light on the longitude amidst the thickest fogs.
We point out this method as one of those which have
only a local application ; but hitherto little attention
has been paid to it. These ideas may be extended and
rectified by able navigators.
In general, if the inclination of the needle, and the
law we have tried to establish, could be depended on,
to observe the inclination and the terrestrial latitude
would also be sufficient to determine the longitude ; but
we have not yet examined the extent of the errors of
which this method may be susceptible, and consequent¬
ly we confine ourselves to a mere indication of it.
The phenomenon of the inclination has in maritime
observations a peculiar and very remarkable advantage,
namely, that of not being subject to those great pro¬
gressive variations w’hich aftect the declination. With¬
out repeating what we have already said above on the
supposed constancy of this phenomenon, it may be re¬
marked that our formula even affords a new proof that
it may comprehend in the same law the observations
made many years ago in Lapland, those which Lacaille
brought back in 17 Cl from the Cape of Good Hope,
VOL. XII. Part I. t
and those which M. Humboldt has lately made in A- Theorv
menca. , xue0I>
. ®,10rt’ vv^,en've tr>e^ to represent the inclinations
in dulerent latitudes by the supposition of a magnet in¬
finitely small, very near the centre of the earth, and
perpendicular to the magnetic equator, we did not pre¬
tend to consider that hypothesis as any thing real, but
only as a mathematical abstraction useful to connect the
results, and proper to ascertain in future whether any
changes exist. In regard to the declination and inten'-
sity, we freely confess that we are entirely unacquaint¬
ed with their laws or their causes ; and if any philoso¬
pher is so fortunate as to bring them to one principle,
which explains at the same time the variations of the
inclination, it will no doubt be one of the greatest dis-
coveries ever made. But this research, exceedingly
difficult, requires, perhaps, before it be attempted,
more observations, and in particular more precise ob¬
servations, than have hitherto been collected. For this
reason we have presented the preceding researches, im¬
perfect as they are, hoiyng our readers will receive
them with indulgence*. *
. ^e would willingly have entered into a more full vol.
illustration of the theory of iEpinus, and compared itxx1*'
with the phenomena noticed in Chap. II. but the im- 10 T
portant paper just given has taken up so much room,
that this article is already extended to very nearly the
utmost limits assigned to it. We must, therefore, con¬
tent ourselves with giving some idea of the induction of
magnetism by juxtaposition according to iEpinus’s hy¬
pothesis, and must refer for the rest to his Tcntamen
Theorice Electricitatis et Magnetismi, or to the abridge¬
ment of it in Van Swinden’s work Sui P Analogic de
PLlectriciie et du Magnetisme, tom. ii. IC2
Let NAS (fig. 31). be a magnet, of which the part Induced
next the north pole AN is overcharged, and let a bar magnetism
of iron s B » be brought near the north pole of the lj7.JuxtaP0-
magnet, so that their axes are in the same straight line.
Now, in this theory, the overcharged pole N acts on t ig. 31.
the iron only by its redundant fluid, for that part of the
fluid which is merely sufficient to saturate die iron will
repel the fluid in B as much as the iron in AN attracts
it, and of course can produce no change in B. In the
same way SA acts on B merely by its redundant iron.
Now, were the fluid in s B n immoveable, no sensible
effect would be produced on it; but as it is supposed to
be easily moveable, the redundant fluid in AN will
have the effect of repelling it towards 71, till the resist¬
ance met with there, added to its own tendency to dif¬
fuse itself uniformly, just balances the repulsion of AN.
In the mean time, however, an attraction exists between
the redundant iron in AS, and the fluid in B, by which
the latter would be drawn from B n, and condensed in
B s, the attraction opposing the repulsion above men¬
tioned ; but since AS is more distant from every point
of B than AN from the same point, the redundant
fluid will prevail, and on the whole the fluid will be
condensed towards 71, and rarefied towards s. The more
diffused we suppose the fluid and iron in the magnet to
be, the more removed will be the centres of effort of
its poles from their extremities, the smaller will be the
action, and the difference of action of AN and AS,
and of course the smaller the condensation towards 71,
and the rarefaction towards s. From this we learn,
3 D that,
103
Coulomb's
theory.
that, according as the poles of a magnet are more coun¬
teracted, the greater will be its power of action-, and
as this is agreeable to observation, it gives additional
credit to the hypothesis. ,
Now, we see that the piece of iron n L s is attracted
in consequence of its fluid being repelled towards its
remote extremity, and distributed something like the
fluid in NAS. In this hypothesis magnetism is suppo¬
sed to depend entirely on the diflusion of magnetic fluid.
The iron B has become a magnet, anjl by having mag¬
netism induced on it, is attracted by the magnet A.
Li a similar way we might explain the action of the
magnet, if its south or deficient pole were presented
opposite to B.
When the notion of a magnetic fluid was once en¬
tertained, it is not surprising that philosophers, reason¬
ing from the analogy between electricity and magnetism,
and the different effects arising from the south and
north pole of a magnet, should be led to the idea of
the magnetic fluid being compounded of two fluids.
Accordingly the hypothesis of two magnetic fluids has
lomr been a favourite on the continent, where it has
been chiefly supported by Coulomb and Haiiy. As t le
experiments and observations of the former philosopher
entitle him to the highest respect, we shall here give a
sketch of his theory of magnetism.
1. Coulomb admits of two magnetic fluids, one of
which may be called the northern, and the other the
southern fluid. .
2. The particles of each of these two fluids are mu¬
tually repulsive of each other that is, the particles of
the fluid N mutually repel each other, and the particles
of the fluid S repel each other.
o. There is a mutual attraction between the particles
of one of these fluids and the particles of the other ; or
the particles of the fluid N attract and are attracted by
the particles of the fluid S.
4. In the ordinary state of iron not magnetized, these
two fluids are found mixed together, and hence a piece
of ordinary iron under the usual circumstances exhibits
no signs of magnetism.
y. In a magnetized body these two fluids are sepa¬
rated, and this separation takes place as soon as we
begin to magnetize the body ; one of the fluids N, re¬
tiring towards one extremity, and the other fluid S to
the other extremity of the magnetized body.
6. The attraction and repulsion of two magnetic bo¬
dies, when they approach each other, is the result of
the mutual action of the two fluids.
Suppose we have two needles A and B. If we make
them approach each other on the side of the two poles
of the same name, N or S, they will repel each other •,
but if they are made to approach on the side of difler-
ent poles, as when the needle A presents its north pole
to the south pole of the needle B, they will atti&ct
each other. Here there are four forces in action-, 1.
the fluid N of the needle A repels the fluid N of the
needle B. 2. The same fluid N of the needle A at¬
tracts the fluid S of the needle B. 3. The fluid S of
the needle A repels the fluid S of the needle I> , and,
4. The fluid S of the needle A attracts the fluid N of
the needle B. Now, if the extremity N of the needle
A he very near the extremity S of the needle B, the
mutual attraction between the two fluids N and S, will
be stronger than the mutual repulsion bettveen the two
magnetism. chaP- ni
fluids N, N, and the two fluids S, S, and consequently Theory,
the two needles will approach each other. _ ,
7. The attraction and repulsion of the two magnetic
fluids is in the direct ratio of the masses, and in the in¬
verse ratio of the distances.
This important part of the theory Coulomb deduces
from a series of very delicate experiments made with
his magnetic bars, similar to those by which he proved
the same law to take place with respect to the action of
the electric fluid. See Electricity, Part IV. chap. 11. ^
8. The magnetic fluid is entirely in the intenoi of
magnetic bodies, for as the magnetic fluid moves with
difficulty in the interior of a magnetic body, it cannot
diffuse itself over the surface, which is the reason why
filings of iron brought near a magnetic bar, remain at¬
tached to it.
9. Consequently magnetic bodies can have no mag¬
netic atmosphere.
10. In a magnetic needle, the centres of magnetic
action are near the extremities of the needle.
11. A magnetic needle being broken in any place,
each of its parts is found to have two poles.
12. The forces which attract a needle towards one
pole, are equal to those which draw it toward the other
1>0^3. Magnetic bodies do not act on other bodies sus¬
ceptible of magnetism, in any other way than by at¬
traction or repulsion -, for the magnetic fluid remains
entirely within the interior of these bodies.
14. Magnetic attraction ought to be regarded as a
particular power, analogous, however, to the power
which we call universal gravitation, the only dif¬
ference being, that gravitation acts very sensibly on
all bodies, whereas magnetism acts most powerlully on
iron.
15. This magnetic power or attraction is therefore a
particular power produced neither by impulsion, nor by
the action of any other fluid. 104
Though the instrument which is usually employed to Coulomb 3
measure the inclination of the magnetic needle is very™®
simple in its construction, it is nevertheless liable to .|)g ^
great errors, which in general arise from the almost ah-magnetic
solute impossibility of placing the needle in all the posi-dip.
tions it can take in equilibrium with regard to the ef¬
fect of gravitation, that is to say, so that its centre
of gravity may always exactly agree with the point on
which it turns’. When the dimensions are considerable,
a new inconvenience arises from a degree of flexure,
which, though scarcely sensible, is nevertheless pro¬
ductive of very great effects, from the slightest dis¬
placement of the centre of gravity producing a com¬
bination of the power of gravitation with that 01 mag¬
netism. . .
To obviate these difficulties, Citizen Coulomb, in¬
stead of endeavouring to ascertain immediately, as has
been hitherto done, the direction of the magnetic
needle in the vertical plane which passes through the
magnetical pole, conceives the force of this pole to be
decomposed or resolved into two others in the same
plane, the one acting in a horizontal, and the other m
a vertical direction. He determines separately the in¬
tensity of each of these last forces, and the result gives
the direction in which the magnetic force acts, and
which a needle governed singly by this force wou d
tak^- Citizen
Chap. III. M A G N
Theory. Citizen Coulomb has proved, in tbe Memoirs of the
v—v ' Academy of Sciences for the year 1789, that the mag¬
netic needle suspended by its centre of gravity is inces¬
santly brought back to its true direction by a constant
force at the same place and time. It thence follows,
that by observing the number of oscillations made in a
given time by a needle horizontally suspended, the ra¬
tio of the horizontal component part of the magnetic
power with gravity may be obtained. As to the verti¬
cal component part, it is measured by determining with
care the weight necessary to be added to the southern
part of the magnetic needle, to maintain it in a perfect¬
ly horizontal position. That being done, if A and B
represent the respective measures of the horizontal and
vertical component parts of the magnetic power, ~ will
E T I S M.
Daniel Bernoulli contrived an Ingenious dipping
neecUe that may answer the purpose of an universal im '
T^ument for making accurate observations on the dip. 105
It depends on the following principle. If a dipping ®.en!oulli’s
needle be made by an ordinary workman, and balanced PPaTg
with some care so that when impregnated with magne¬
tism it may show nearly the true dip, and if it be
touched, and the dip observed, then its magnetism de¬
ployed, and its balance so altered, that without any
, . A
be the tangent of the angle made by their result with
the horizontal force, and, consequently, it will be the
inclination of the magnetic needle.
In the experiments made by Citizen Coulomb, the
needle had the form of a right-angled parallelopipedon,
very thin in proportion to its breadth, and always sus¬
pended so that its breadth was kept in a vertical plane.
Let P represent the weight of the needle, / the half of
its length, A the length of a pendulum that performs
its oscillations in the same time as the needle when it
obeys the magnetic power in a horizontal plane. Cou-
lomb then gives the formula  to calculate the mo-
3 ^
mentum of the magnetic force referred to the arm of a
lever of one millimetre in length. The length of the
needle was 427 millimetres, its breadth 13, and its
weight 88,733 milligrammes. It was suspended hori¬
zontally by a thread of silk iti a box well closed, and it
made 30 oscillations in 286 seconds, and by applying
these data to the preceding formula, Coulomb found
that the logarithm of the momentum of the horizontal
magnetic force is 4.1740.
, Coulomb having placed his needle in a clip, having
knife edges, which rested on two cylinders of glass,
in the manner of the beam of a balance, endeavoured
first to bring it to an equilibrium in a horizontal situa¬
tion, coinciding with the magnetic meridian, by placing
t it* edges in a proper manner, and when they were suf-
lieiently near the point where the equilibrium took
place he completed it by the addition of small weights.
e then reversed the poles of the needle by the magne¬
tic touch, but without altering the position of the clip,
and again bringing it to an equilibrium in this new
state, the sum of the momenta of the additional weights
jnaced in these two operations gave him the double of
l ie momentum of the vertical component parts of the
magnetic force, valued at The result of this
2
torce, and of the horizontal force, is inclined 68° 9'.
In repeating these operations three times, Coulomb
found successively 68° 9', 68° 13', and 68° 11'. Though
the dinerences of these results are very trifling, he
thinks they are to be entirely attributed to errors in the
observation ; for he is assured they do not amount to so
much. It is possible that the needle is subject to varia¬
tions in the vertical similar to those which are known to
take place in the horizontal plane.
magnetism it will take nearly the inclination of the true
MkrilvV. -‘t 1 Vt'f ■ again’ k ,lie Sam0
polanty as it had before, it is evident that it will now
ofnerfelV’^rr 7 ^ ^ since> b7 its want
of perfect equilibrium, it was deranged only a few de¬
grees from its proper direction. If the second observa¬
tion of the dip should, from the inaccurate formation of
the needle, differ considerably from the first, the opera
tion must be repeated j and in this third observation
there will very seldom be an error of more than half
a degree.
Bernoulli’s instrument is as follows. A very licht
graduated brass circle EFG (fig. 32.) is fixed on one Fig.
side of the dipping needle, so as to be concentric with °
its axis, and the whole is balanced with as much nicety
as may be, before being impregnated. CD is a vcr'v
fight index fixed to the axis in such a manner as to turn
on ,t with some difficulty. By this the equilibrium of
he needle will be destroyed. If great care has been
taken in forming the instrument, arid if it has been ba¬
lanced with great accuracy, it will, by the addition of
the index, be made to Settle so as to have the index
perpendicular to the horizon, at whatever degree of the
Circle the needle may happen to point. As such accu-
lacy, however, is scarcely to be expected, let the in¬
dex be set to several different degrees of the circle, ami
note the inclination taken by the needle before beino
magnetized, corresponding to each position of the index’
and let all these be written down. For example, let
us suppose that when the index is at 50°, the needle, in¬
clines 46' from the horizon j if we observe at anyplace
that the needle, after being magnetized, inclines 46°,
when the index is at 50°, we may be sure that the for¬
mer is the true magnetic dip at that place, as the needle
is not deranged by the magnetism that has bebn given
it, from the situation it would assume by gravity alone-.
We usually know something of the dip that may be ex-
pected at any place. If we set the index accordingly,
and if the needle does not then point out the expected
dip; change the position of the index, and again observe
the dip; examine whether this second position of the
index and the second dip form a corresponding pair of
numbers, such as we have written down; if they do,
we have got the true dip, but if not, another position
nf the index must be tried. Thus, by noticing whe¬
ther the agreement of this last pair be greater "or less
than that of the former pair of numbers, we learn whe¬
ther we are to change the position of the index in the
same or in the opposite direction.
A close analogy has long been remarked between the AllajIo0r6
phenomena of magnetism and those of induced electrici- between
ty, especially those of attraction and repulsion. The me- electricity
chanical composition of these actions produces a directive an<l niagnc-
power and polarity, both in electrical and magnetical t*sm‘
bodies. It is easy to form an electrical needle that will
3 D 2 arrange
39$
Theory, arrange itself with respect to the overcharged and under-
charged ends of a body electrified by position, just as a
magnetic needle arranges itself with respect to the mag¬
net. A stick of sealing wax may be touched in a manner
similar to the double magnetic touch, so as to acquire
poles of considerable force, and very durable. Again
melted sealing wax, when cooled m the neighbourhood
of a positive and negative electric, acquires permanent
poles, just as a red-hot steel bar acquires them by be¬
ing quenched near a magnet. Lastly, lightning some¬
times gives polarity to needles, sometimes destroys it,
and sometimes reverses their polarity.
From these various circumstances of resemblance,
some have supposed that both phenomena originate from
the same cause, but there are several circumstances
which show their original causes to be different. Ihus,
we find that electricity is common to all bodies, and
can be excited or induced on all in a degree that is
pretty nearly equal. Magnetism, on the contiary,
though from Coulomb’s experiments, it appears in some
degree to affect all terrestrial bodies, acts, however,
very imperceptibly on all but iron and its compounds.
The action of lightning must not be considered as a
' proof of their identity, since that is accompanied with
a great degree of heat, and we have already seen that
this power, under favourable circumstances, is a very
active agent, both in producing and destroying mag¬
netism. Again, there is nothing in magnetism like a
body being entirely overcharged, or entirely under¬
charged, as in electricity j but a magnetic body having
two poles, must always be overcharged at one extiemi-
ty, and undercharged at the other. There is nothing
in magnetism resembling that inconceivably rapid mo¬
tion which we see in electricity. In fine, the only pei-
fect resemblance is between the induced magnetism of
common iron, and the induced electricity of a conduc¬
tor. On the arguments that have been employed tor
and against the identity of magnetism and electricity,
our readers may consult Van Swinden, Sur PAnalogic
de PElectricite et du Magnetisme, and a tract by TEpinus
De Similitudine YJectricitatis et Magnetisnn.
Some late experiments of Ritter tend to show a
greater analogy than has yet been supposed, between
magnetism and that modification of electricity w\nc i
107 we call galvanism.
Hitter’s ex- ]\£r Fitter’s first experiments with the magnet were
periments. on frogg< ne foun(i that a magnetic iron wire, with
another not magnetic, excited a galvanic palpitation in
these animals. Presently he observed, that the south
pole excited stronger palpitations, and the north pole
weaker, than the iron not magnetic. Having constant¬
ly noticed, that the metals most susceptible of oxidation
excited the strongest palpitations, he inferred, that the
south pole possesses a greater affinity for oxygen than
simple iron, and the north pole less.
This supposition he confirmed by means of several
chemical re-agents. He placed a magnetic iron wire
on pieces of glass in a plate of earthen ware, and pour¬
ed upon it a very weak nitric acid. The south pole
was attacked by the acid much more powerfully than
the north •, and was soon surrounded by a deposition of
oxygen, the quantity of which greatly exceeded that of
the other pole.
The different oxidability of the magnetic pole is very
MAGNETISM. Cliap. Ill
well exhibited likewise, by taking three small bottles Theory.
of equal syte, filled with water, either purely or slightly '   
acidulated, and putting into one the south polar end of
a magnetic wire, into a second the north polar end of
a similar wire, and into the third the end ot an equal
wire not magnetic 5 the south pole will first begin to
deposit oxide, the unmagnetic iron a little after, and
the north pole last. This experiment requires conside¬
rable care. The surface ot the water must be covered
with very fresh oil of almonds, to exclude all access ot
Care must be taken too, that one of the bottle?
air. —   ---»
is not more exposed to the sun than the others, because
light accelerates oxidation. Ritter convinced himself
of this by direct experiments j exposing two iron wires
in water to the sun, but covering one ot the phials with
black paper, when that In the phial left uncovered was
oxidated much more quickly.
If infusion of litmus he substituted instead ot the wa¬
ter in the three phials in the preceding experiment, the
relative oxidations will be the same, but they will be
attended with a change of colour, showing that an acid
is produced proportional to each oxidation } so that the
south pole not only undergoes the greatest oxidation,
but likewise reddens the infusion of litmus most. I he
action that takes place in this experiment is very feeble,
and frequently requires a week to produce a distinct ef¬
fect ; and indeed to accelerate it so much as this, it is
necessary to add, previously to the infusion, as much
acetic acid as will incline it to red, without completely
changing its Colour. The infusion reddened in this ex¬
periment resumes its blue colour on exposure to the an j
but we must not hence conclude, that the acid produced
by the action of the magnet is very volatile, for infusion
of litmus reddened by phosphoric acid, or any other, ex¬
hibits the same phenomenon.
The following experiment exhibits some things pecu¬
liar, and therefore we shall give it more at large. It
lias not been repeated, but the harmony of its results is
in favour of its accuracy. Sixteen magnetic wires, of
equal size and power, were placed in six vessels, all
equally full of a mixture of one part nitric acid, and
26 parts water, in the following manner : in the first
glass were placed two wires, one with the north pole
immersed in the fluid, the other with the south, and not
more than half a line asunder: in the second, the same,
but the wires an inch and three-fourths apart: in the
third and fourth were each three wires, with the south
poles of all immersed, but their distances in the two
glasses different, as in the first and second : in the faith
and sixth were wires similarly arranged, but with the
north poles immersed. Different quantities of oxide
were gradually deposed, and to express the whole in
few words, we will call the south pole S, the north
pole N, their greater distance g, and their lessp, and we
will express the order ot oxidations as follows. SN 8 ^
SN/^3 S^3 N/^3 °n t}e
nineteenth day it was observed, that the loss ot fluid by
evaporation had not been equal in all the vesse s, u
took place in the inverse order of the oxidations. A
the magnetic wires were weakened in power j £
least} NSp more : of the wires 3 Sp, two had lost less
power than the third •, and in like manner 3 S^, 3 Jb
3 Ng, had each two left more powerful than the third }
the strongest were equal to NSg. ^
/ %
J*ivccn fcrtljn?
MAGNETISM. PLATE CCXC1X
71 Sett//?.'
MAGNE TISM.
24.
PLATE CCC
A
AVV/. ,?,{>.
R
I),
F
J/'. /(/ ■l'ru//2-t
Chap. III. M A G N
Theory. In another experiment, where two little vessels filled
v——^ with infusion of litmus were employed, one of them
containing two magnetic wires, the south poles of which
were immersed in the fluid ; the other two similar wires,
of which the opposite poles were immersed ; the oxida¬
tion was greatest in the latter vessel.
The analogy between galvanism and magnetism is
still farther proved by other experiments of Hitter on
galvanizing metals, which he does by placing them in a
stream of galvanic fluid proceeding from a strong pile.
He found that a golden needle thus galvanized and ba¬
lanced on a pivot, exhibited, like a magnetized iron
needle, both directive power and horizontal inclination.
Some late experiments of Ritter, referring still more
directly to the analogy between magnetism and galva¬
nism, were communicated to the Royal Academy of
Sciences of Munich, and the following are their gene¬
ral results.
x. Every magnet is equivalent to a pair of heteroge¬
neous metals united together} its different poles repre¬
sent as it were different metals.
2. Like them, it gives electricity •, that is to say,
one of the two poles, the positive electricity, and the
other the negative.
3. By following the same process a certain number
of magnets, as well as a certain number of pairs of
metals, afforded electricity; and in this manner the
electricities aftorded by the poles of different magnets,
have been successfully indicated by the electrometer.
4. By means of these electricities, one of these bat¬
teries of magnets, accordingly as it is more or less
strong, produces upon dead and living bodies, all the
E T I S M.
phenomena which are produced by a pile of Volta, of
the common kind, and of the same force. ’
5. 1 be experiments which prove this, show, that in
magnetized iron, the south pole gives positive electrici¬
ty, and the north pole negative electricity ; but that
on the contrary in magnetized steel, the north pole af¬
fords the positive, and the south pole the negative.
6. Hie same inverse disposition is also observed with
regard to the polar oxidability of the magnetized body
in which this change is produced by magnetism. In
magnetized iron the south pole is most oxidable, and the
north pole least; whereas in magnetized steel the north
pole is most oxidable, and the south least.
7. Mr Ritter thinks, that by considering the earth
as an immense magnet, these results might serve to ex-
plain-various phenomena of nature, such as the physical
diflerence between the two hemispheres, the aurora
borealis and aurora australis. In fact, after what has
been just stated, the earth considered as a magnet, may
be taken as an equivalent to an immense pile of Volta,
ol which the poles are on one side sufficiently closed by
the waters of the ocean. And the action of this pile
must produce, and has produced the greatest chemical
changes, in the materials of the earth j changes which
must have differed according to the poles 5 and of which
pile the poles at the other extremity have always such
an abundance of electricity as to cause its splendour to
appear by radiations in the vast spaces of the heavens ViVAo/-
The foregoing experiments appear to prove that mag- se?* s Jour~
netism has some effect in producing chemical changes, ”” ’ X'
and thence we may infer that perhaps it W'ould not be
altogether inactive in the animal economy.
INDEX.
A.
ACTION, magnetic,law of, N° 80, 89
investigated by
Lambert, 83
by Robison, 84
Hpinus's method of touching bars, 55
theory of magnetism, 79
Ancients, opinions of, respecting the
cause of magnetic attraction, 70
Apparatus, magnetical, p. 362
Armature of magnets, N° 13
Attraction, magnetic, p. 368
between iron and the
magnet neutral, N° 27
Attraction, magnetic, not sensibly di¬
minished by interposition of non-
ferruginous bodies, 28
how usually mea¬
sured, 29
increased by iron, 31
by an increased
weight,
explained,
Axis of
a magnet,
32
8j
7
B.
Bernoulli's dipping needle
105
Biot's observations on terrestrial mag¬
netism, N° 95
C.
Canton's method of touching bars, 34
of making artificial
magnets, 61
Communicative piece of money, 39
Cotte's axioms respecting the magne¬
tic declination, p. 366
Coulomb's experiments on universal
magnetism, N° 36
method of making artificial
magnets,
theory of magnetism,
method of finding the mag¬
netic dip,
D.
declination, magnetic,
varies,
tables of
axioms respecting,
dial, magnetic,
dip, magnetic, tables of
diminishes as we as¬
cend above the
earth, 366
57
103
95
3
p. 364
366
N° 42
P- 367
dip, magnetic, Coulomb’s method of
ascertaining, N° 9 5
dipping of the magnet, 4
needle, 15
Bernoulli’s, 105
directive power, what, 2
explained, 87
divining circles, 43
duhamel's method of touching bars, 53
E.
Earth, magnetism of, first rationally
explained by Gilbert, 71
illustrated, 73
objection to, an¬
swered, 94
Electricity and magnetism, analogy
between, 106
Equator of a magnet, 7
magnetic, determined by
Humboldt, 98
Euler's theory of magnetism, 77
Experiments illustrating magnetic po-
larity, p. 363
on magnetic attraction, 368
repulsion, N° 34
entertaining, 37
Experiments,
398
Experiments, Ritter’?# ^ I^7
F.
Forces, magnetic, picture oi, 5
G-
Galvanism and magnetism, analogy
between, . I07
Gilbert's theory of magnetism, 71
proofs of, 75
H.
Hawksbee's attempts to investigate
the law of magnetic action, . ° 2
Hindshaw's experiment illustrating
terrestrial magnetism imitated, 75
Humboldt's observations on terrestrial
magnetism, , 95
determination or the mag¬
netic equator, 9^'
I.
Inclination of the needle increases as
we proceed from the magnetic
equator. See Dip-
Induced magnetism, what, 46
gradual, 9°
Iron naturally arranges itself in a de-
terminate manner,
polarity of, temporary, 17
attracted by the magnet,
tilings, action of a magnet on,
attracts iron, . 3°
becomes magnetical by proxi¬
mity to a magnet, 44
by position, _ 5®
by hammering or friction, 59
by heat, . 6°
attracted only because it becomes
magnetical by induction, 91
tilings, arrangement of, explain¬
ed, 9*
K.
Knight's artificial loadstones, 64
L.
Lambert's investigation of the law of
magnetic action, °3
M.
Magnet, what,
i# 12
M A G N E T I S M. ^
Magnet, declination of, ^ 4
dipping of, 3
artificial, *3
modes of making, 51—64
axis and equator ol, 7
armature ot x3
polarity of, permanent, J 8
poles of, how found, 23
attractive power of, varies, 24
Magnetism, general idea of, 1
° utility of, 9
works on, list of, 10
how applied to use, p. 3^6
how usually discovered, N° 3.5
universal, Coulomb’s ex¬
periments on, 36
communication of, 373
induced, what, N 46
artificial, produced by
touching with a mag¬
net, 5°
artificial, produced by
position, 58
artificial, produced by
friction, 59
artificial, produced by
heat, 6°
impaired by improper po¬
sition, 66
by heat, 67
by rough usage, 68
by opposition ot
similar poles, 69
theories of P- 3^°
terrestrial, of Gilbert, N° 71
observations on, by Biot
and Humboldt, 95
Marcel's method ot touching bars, 6 2
Mining, use of the compass in, p. 366
Muschenbroeck's attempt to investi¬
gate the law of magnetic action, N° 81
N.
Needle, magnetic, *4
dipping, I5
Perspective glass, magnetic, 38
Polarity, magnetic, what, 2
disturbed by the
approach of iron, 20
Iftiex.
Polarity, magtietic, affected by the
atmosphere, _ N° 20
contrary, induced on iron
by a magnet, 4
Poles of magnet, how found, 2
contrary, attract each other, 3-
corresponding, repel each other, 34
Power, magnetic, t
R.
Ritter's experiments on the analogy
of magnetism and galvanism, ie‘
Robison's investigation of the law of
magnetic action, 84
explanation of magnetic at¬
traction, 85
of directive
power, 87
s.
61
Steel, soft, how magnetized,
T.
Table, magnetic, 4°
Taylor's attempts to find the law of
magnetic action, _
Terrestrial magnetism, observations
on, by Humboldt and Biot, 95
magnetism, acts on the
whole surface of the
earth, 9^
magnetism increases from
the equator to the poles, 97 |
magnetism modified by lo¬
cal circumstances, 99
Theory of Gilbert, 71!
Euler,
jEpinus,
Coulomb, 103
Touch, double, what, 54
Touching magnetic bars, 5°
old methods ot, 51
of curved bars, 52
how improved by Duhamel, 53
by Mitchell
and Canton, 54 •
by iEpinus, 55
by Coulomb, 57
W.
Watch, mysterious,
M A G
, • , Animal Magnetism, a sympathy supposed by some
Magnet- persons to exist between the magnet and the human
ism. body : by means of which the former, it was thought,
v v possessed the property of curing many diseases.
The notion of animal magnetism appears to have
originated in 1774, with a German philosopher named
Father Held, who greatly recommended the use ot the
magnet in medicine. M. Mesmer, a physician ot the
MAG
same country, by adopting the principles of Held, be- Animal
came the direct founder of the system ; but afterwards J
deviating from the tenets of his instructor, he lost his
patronage, as well as that of Dr Ingenhousz, which he
had formerly enjoyed. Mesmer had already distinguish¬
ed himself by “ A dissertation on the influence of t ie
Stars upon ‘the human body,” which he publicly de¬
fended in a thesis before the university of Vienna ; but
MAG L 399 ] MAG
Animal 'ie 'va9 80 unable to stand before the opposition of Helil
IMagnet- and Ingenhousz, that his system fell almost instantly
ism. into disrepute. Mesmer appealed to the Academy of
"J,—* Sciences at Berlin j but they rejected his principles as
destitute of foundation, and unworthy of the smallest
. attention. He then made a tour through Germany,
publishing everywhere the great cures he performed by
means of his animal magnetism, while his enemies eve¬
rywhere pursued him with detections of the falsehood of
his assertions.
Mesmer, still undaunted by so many defeats, return¬
ed to Vienna ; but meeting there with no better success
than before, he retired to Paris in the beginning of the
year 1778. Here he met with a very different recep¬
tion. He was first patronized by the author of the
Dictionnair'e des Merveilles de la Nature ; in which
work a great number of his cures were published, Mes¬
mer himself receiving likewise an ample testimony of
his candour and solid reasoning. Our physician soon
collected some patients ; and in the month of April
1778 retired with them to Creteil, from whence he in
a short time returned with them perfectly cured. His
success was now as great as his former disappointment.
Patients increased so rapidly that the doctor was soon
obliged to take in pupils to assist him in his operations.
These pupils succeeded equally well as Mesmer him¬
self 5 and so well did they take care of their own emo¬
lument, that one of them named M. Deslon realized
upwards of ioo,oool. sterling. In 1779 Mesmer pub¬
lished a memoir on the subject of Animal Magnetism,
promising afterwards a complete work upon the same,
which should make as great a revolution in philosophy
as it had already done in medicine.
The new system now gained ground daily ; and soon
became so fashionable, that the jealousy of the faculty
was roused, and an application concerning it was made
to government. In consequence of this a committee
was appointed to inquire into the matter, consisting
partly of physicians and partly of members of the Royal
Academy of Sciences, with Dr Benjamin Franklin at
their head. This was a thunderstroke to the supporters
of the new doctrine. Mesmer himself refused to have
any communication with the committee ; but his most
celebrated pupil Deslon was less scrupulous, and ex¬
plained the principles of his art in the following man¬
ner :
1. Animal magnetism is an universal fluid, consti¬
tuting an absolute plenum in nature, and the medium
of all mutual influence between the celestial bodies,
and betwixt the earth and animal bodies.
2. It is the most subtle fluid in nature; capable of a
flux and reflux, and of receiving, propagating, and con¬
tinuing all kinds of motion.
3. The animal body is subjected to the influences of
this fluid by means of the nerves, which are immedi¬
ately affected by it.
4. The human body has poles and other properties
analogous to the magnet.
5. The action and virtue of animal magnetism may
be communicated from one body to another, whether
animate or inanimate.
6. It operates at a great distance without the inter¬
vention of any body.
7< It is increased and reflected by mirrors j commu¬
nicated, propagated, and increased by sound j and may Animat
be accumulated, concentrated, and transported. Magnet-
8. Notwithstanding the universality of this fluid, all
animal bodies are not equally affected by it $ on the ~¥ ''
other hand, there are some, though but few in num¬
ber, tbe presence of which destroys all the effects of
animal magnetism.
9. By means of this fluid nervous disorders are cured
immediately, and others mediately; and its virtues, in
short, extend to the universal cure and preservation of
mankind.
From this extraordinary theory, Mesmer or M. Des¬
lon, had fabricated a paper, in which he stated that
there was in nature but one disease and one cure, and
that this cure was animal magnetism: and, lastly,
M. Deslon engaged, 1. To prove to the commissioners,
that such a thing as animal magnetism existed;
2. To prove the utility of it in the cure of diseases j
after which he was to communicate to them all that
he knew upon the subject. The commissioners accord¬
ingly attended in the room where the patients under¬
went the magnetical operations. The apparatus con¬
sisted of a circular platform made of oak, and raised
about a foot and a half from the ground; which
platform was called the baquet. At the top of it were
a number of holes, in which were iron rods with move-
able joints for the purpose of applying them to any part
of the body. The patients were placed in a circle round,
each touching an iron rod, which he could apply to any
part of the body at pleasure ; they were joined to one
another by a cord passing round their bodies, the de¬
sign being to increase the effect by communication. In
the corner of the room was a piano forte, on which
some airs were played, occasionally accompanied with a
song. Each of the patients held in his hand an iron
rod ten or twelve feet long ; the intention of which, as
Deslon told the commissioners, was to concentrate the
magnetism in its point, and thus to render its effects
more sensible. Sound is another conductor of this
magnetism ; and in order to communicate the magnet¬
ism to the piano forte, nothing more is necessary than
to bring the iron rod near it. Some magnetism is al¬
so furnished by the person who plays it j and this mag¬
netism is transmitted to the patients bv the sounds.
Die internal part of the platform was said to be so
contrived as to concentrate the magnetism, and was
the reservoir whence the virtue diffused itself among
the patients. Its structure, however, is not mention¬
ed 5 but the committee satisfied themselves, by means
of a needle and electrometer, that neither common
magnetism nor electricity was concerned.
Besides the different Avays of receiving the magnetism
already mentioned, viz. by the iron, cord, and piano
forte, the patients also had it directly from the doctor’s
finger, and a rod which he held in his hand, and which
he carried about the face, head, or such parts of the
patient as were diseased j observing always the direc¬
tion of what he called the poles. The principal appli¬
cation of magnetism, however, was by pressure of the
hands or fingers on the hypochondria or lower regions
of the stomach.
The effects of these operations upon Deslon’s pa¬
tients were very different. Some felt nothing, neither
had the magnetism any effect whatever upon them.
Some
MAG
[
Animal Some spit, coughed, sweat, and felt, or pre ei
Magnet- feel, extraordinary heats in difterent paits o ie o .
isni> Many women, but very few men, had convulsions,
 ' which Deslon called their crisis, &c.—The commis¬
sioners at last found that they could come to no satis¬
factory conclusion while they attended in this public
way, and therefore determined to try the experiments
themselves privately. As the fluid itself, however,
was totally imperceptible by any of the senses they
400 ] M A H
sioners, petitioned parliament, was by them command- Animal
ed to discover the mysteries of his doctrine and that Magnetism
it is now exploded by every man of sense. J he con- Ma|lie
elusion of the academicians concerning it was, tnat it is —j
not entirely useless even to philosophy j as it is oxuijact
more to he consigned to the history of the errors and il¬
lusions of the human mind, and a signal instance of the
power of imagination.
MAGNIFYING, the making of objects appear
was totally imperceptible by any or rne^ senses, i.icj , j- they would otherwise do j whence convex
could only retain themsc ves » “e 1.^1- la.ger than U cy^ ^ ^ of ^ thiS; are calkd
Being7 tvell ^ howeve^ made up of pacts .0
that though many diseases were cured, it would not MAGJNIIUA^, wna* , , .
amount to any proof of the existence of animal mag¬
netism, they determined to observe its effects on the
animal economy. For this purpose they made the fol¬
lowing experiments : , r u
1. They tried it upon themselves, and felt no-
Seven of Deslon’s patients were magnetized at
Dr Franklin’s house, four of whom felt nothing j three
felt, or affected to feel, something.
3. Several persons in a higher sphere of lite were
magnetized, and felt nothing. 1
4. The commissioners, now determined to discover
what share imagination had in this business, blind¬
folded several of the common people, and made them
sometimes think that they were magnetized, at other
times they magnetized them without letting them
know that they did so : the consequence was, that
when they supposed themselves magnetized, the pa¬
tients likewise thought they felt something, and vice
c. A magnetized tree was said to produce convul¬
sions ; a voung man, blindfolded, fell into convulsions
when he Imagined himself near the tree, though he
was really at a considerable distance from it, Deslon
accounted for this on the principle of all trees being
magnetic : hut in this case, every one, susceptible oi
magnetism, would be seized with convulsions when he
approached a tree. The same influence of imagina¬
tion was observed in a woman accustomed to have con¬
vulsions when magnetized. They came on when no¬
thing was done to her, on being told, when blinded,
that she was magnetized.
Other instances are given, from which it was evident,
either that the patients were impostors, or in such a most
wretched state of debility both of mind and body, that
the most trifling effects of the former had the most
powerful effects on the latter. The commissioners there¬
fore entirely disapproved of the whole. The touch,
imitation, and imagination, they concluded, were the
oreat causes of the effects produced by M. Deslon’s
operations j and by means of these they supposed, that
convulsions, which in themselves are a very violent dis¬
order might be spread much farther than could be
wished, even through a whole city. It was observed
that the operator sometimes pressed strongly, and for a
length of time, upon different parts of the body, parti¬
cularly the hypochondria and pit of the stomach ; and
it is well known that a strong pressure on these parts
will produce disagreeable sensations in those who enjoy
perfect health.
It is needless to add more upon this subject, than
that Mesmer complained of the report ol the commis-
x
cally extended, or that has several dimensions j as a
line, surface, solid, &c.
MAGNOLIA, the Laurel-leaved Tulip Iree,
a genus of plants belonging to the polyandria class *,
and in the natural method ranking under the 52d or¬
der, Coadunatcc. See Botany Index.
MAGNUS campus, in Ancient Geography, & tract
lying towards Scythopolis, or Bethsan in Galilee, be¬
yond which it extends into Samaria j Josephus placing
the common boundary between these two districts in
the Campus Magnus. Called also Esdrelon, (Judith) j
30 miles long, and 18 broad j having Samaria with
Mount Ephraim to the south, the lake Genesareth to
the east, Mount Carmel to the west, and Lebanon to
the north. „
Magnus Portns, in Ancient Geography, a port of
the Belgse, in Britain, on the Channel. Now thought
to be Portsmouth in Hampshire.—Another Portus
Magnus of Bietica in Spain j a port to the east of Ab-
d MAGO, the name of several Carthaginian generals.
See Carthage.
Mago, in Ancient Geography, a citadel and town ot
the Balearis Minor, or Minorca. Now Maon, or Ma¬
hon. E. Long. 4. 6. N. Lat. 39. 5.
MAGONTIACUM, Mogontiacum, or Mogonlia-
cus, truncated afterwards by the poets to Mogontia,
Maguntia, and Moguntia : a town of Gallia Belgica.
Now Ment%, capital of the electorate of that name j
situated at the confluence ot the Ilhine and Manic.
E. Long. 8°. N. Lat. 50°. „
MAGOPHONIA (formed from puyoq, magus,
and “ slaughter”), the name of a feast among
the ancient Persians, held in memory of the expulsion
of the Magians. The Magian Smerdis having usurp¬
ed the throne of Persia, upon the death of Cambyses,
521 years before Jesus Christ, seven of the principal
lords of the court conspired to drive him out of it.
Their design was executed with good success. 8mer-
dis and his brother, another Magian, called T atizithes,
were killed. Upon which the people also arose, and put
all the Magi to the sword, insomuch that there would
not one have escaped, had not night come upon them.
Darius, son of Hystaspes, was then elected king ; and,
in memory of this massacre of the Magi, a least was
instituted, says Herodotus, called Magophoma. bee
Magi. t ,
MAGPIE. See Corvus, Ornithology Jn^r.
MAHIE, the name given by the inhabitants ot
Otaheite, or George’s island, to their bread-fruit w itn
made into a kind of sour paste, which, in consequence
of having undergone a fermentation, will keep^a
4oi ]
MAH
MAH [
n-hlS succ?dan™™Jor npe bread-fruit is thus ministry of the angel, with those other circumstances
ot this first appearance, which are related by the Ma-
Iiompfan  ! J a1 •.%
mahie
made. 1 hey gather the fruit before it be perfectly
ripe, and laying it in heaps, cover it closely with leaves.
In this state it ferments, and becomes disagreeably
sweet j the core is then taken out entire, and the rest
of the fruit thrown into a hole in their houses, dug on
purpose, and neatly lined in the bottom and sides with
grass. The whole is then covered with leaves, and
heavy stones art laid upon it. In this state it under¬
goes a second fermentation, and becomes sour 5 after
which it will suffer no change for many months. It is
taken out of this hole as it is wanted for use, and being
made into balls, it is wrapped up in leaves and baked,
and thus dressed it will keep for five or six weeks. It
is eaten, both cold and hot, and the natives of those
countries seldom make a meal without it; but to Cap¬
tain Cook and his company the taste was as disagree¬
able as that of a pickled olive generally is the first time
it is eaten.
MAHO. See Hibiscus, Botany Index.
J™ See Swietenia, Botany Index.
MAHOMET, or Mohammed, styled the Impostor,
was born in the reign of Anushirwan the Just, empe¬
ror of Persia, about the end of the 6th century of the
Christian era. He came into the world under some
disadvantages. His father Abd’allah was a younger
sen of Abd’almotalleb; and dying very young, and in
Ins father s lifetime, left his widow and infant son in
very mean circumstances, his whole substance consist-
five camels and one Ethiopian she-slave.
Abd almotalleb was, therefore, obliged to take care of
Ins grandchild Mahomet; which he not only did during
ms life, but at his death enjoined his eldest son Abu-
laleb, who was brother to Abd’allah by the same mo¬
ther to provide for him for the future; which he very
atiectionately did, and instructed him in the business of
a merchant, which he followed; and to that end he
took him into Syria when he was but 13. He after¬
wards recommended him to Khadijah, a noble and
rich widow, for her factor; in whose service he be¬
haved himself so well, that by making him her husband
Mecca0" ra,Se<1 him ^ an eflUality with the behest in
After he began by this advantageous match to live
at his ease, it was, that he formed the scheme of esta-
olishing a new religion, or, as he expressed it, of re-
plantmg the only true and ancient one professed by
Adam Noah, Abraham, Moses, Jesus, and all the pro¬
phets, by destroying the gross idolatry into which the
generality of his countrymen had fallen, and weeding
out the corruptions and superstitions which the latter
a-d ^istians had, as he thought, introduced
uto their religion, and reducing it to its original puri-
g, which consisted chiefly in the worship of one only
Before he made any attempt abroad, he rightly
judged that it was necessary for him to begin with the
^Ve^Sl°I1, own household. Having therefore
etiredwith his family, as he had done several times
^ f .Cave. u} Mount Hara, he there opened the
Vol XII PartTl ^ hiS Wife KliadIiah 3 ac-
hometan writers. Khadijah received the news with
great joy ; swearing by him in whose'hands her soul
was, that she trusted he would be the prophet of his
nation ; and immediately communicated what she had
heard to her cousin Warakah Ebn Nawfal, who, be¬
ing a Christian, could write in the Hebrew character
and was tolerably w'ell versed in the scriptures ; and he*
as readily came into her opinion, assuring her that the
same angel who had formerly appeared unto Moses was
now sent to Mahomet. The first overture the prophet
made was in the month of Ramadan, in the 40th year
of his age, which is therefore usually called the year of
his mission. J
Encouraged by so good a beginning, he resolved to
proceed, and try for some, time what he could do by
private persuasion, not daring to hazard the whole af¬
fair by exposing it too suddenly to the public. He soon
made proselytes of those under his owm roof, viz. his
wife Khadijah, his servant Zeid Ebn Haretha, to whom
he gave his freedom on that occasion, (which after¬
wards became a rule to his followers), and his cousin
and pupil Ali, the son of Abu Taleb, though then
\ery young : but this last, making no account of the
other two, used to style himself the frst of believers.
The next person Mahomet applied to was Abd’allah
Ebn Abi Kohafa, surnamed Abu Beer, a man of great
authority among the Koreish, and one whose interest
he well knew would be of great service to him ; as it
soon appeared : for Abu Beer, being gained over, pre¬
vailed also on Othman Ebn Affan, Abd’alraham Ebn
Awrf, Saad Ebn Abbi Wakkas, A1 Zobeir Ebn al
Aw am, and Telha Ebn Obeid’allah, all principal men
of Mecca., to follow his example. These men were
the six chief companions, who, with a few more, were
converted in the space of three years ; at the end of
which, Mahomet having, as he hoped, a sufficient in¬
terest to support him, made his mission no longer a se¬
cret, but gave out that God had commanded him to
admonish his near relations ; and in order to do it with
more convenience and prospect of success, he directed
Ali to prepare an entertainment, and invite the sons
and descendants of Abd’almotalleb, intending then to
open his mind to them. This was done, and about 40
of them came j but Abu Laheb, one of his uncles,
making the company break up before Mahomet had
an opportunity of speaking, obliged him to give them
a second invitation the next day; and when they were
come he made them the following speech : ‘ 1 know
no man in all Arabia who can ofier his kindred a more
excellent thing than I now do you ; I ofier you happi¬
ness both in this life, and in that which is to come ; God
Almighty hath commanded me to call you unto him :
M ho, therefore, among you will be assistant to me.
herein, and become my brother and my vicegerent ?”
All of them hesitating, and declining the matter, Ali
at length rose up, and declared that he would be his
assistant ; and vehemently threatened those who should
oppose him. Mahomet upon this embraced Ali with
great demonstrations of affection, and desired all who
3 E were
MAH
[ 4°2 3
M A H
were present to hearken to anil obey him as his depu¬
ty ; at which the company broke out into a great
laughter, telling Abu Taleb that he must now pay
obedience to his son. P ^ r
This repulse, however, was so far frona-discouiaging
Mahomet, that he began to preach in pubhc to the
people ; who heard him with some patience, till he came
to upbraid them with the idolatry, obstinacy, and per¬
verseness of themselves and their fathers : which so
hiohly provoked them, that they declared themselves
his enemies; and would soon have procured his ruin,
bad he not been protected by Abu laleb. The chief
of the Koreish warmly solicited this person to desert
his nephew, making frequent remonstrances against
the innovations he was attempting } which proving in¬
effectual, they at length threatened him with an open
rupture, if he did not prevail on Mahomet to desist.
At this Abu Taleb was so far moved, that he earnest¬
ly dissuaded his nephew from pursuing the affair any
farther, representing the great danger he and his Inentis
must otherwise run. But Mahomet was not to be in¬
timidated ; telling his uncle plainly, that if they set the
sun against him on his right hand, and the moon on
his left, he woidd not leave his enterprise : And Abu
Taleb, seeing him so firmly resolved to proceed, used
no further arguments, but promised to stand by him
against all his enemies.
The Koreish, finding they could prevail neither by
fair words or menaces, tried what they could do by
force and ill treatment •, using Mahomet’s followers so
very injuriously, that it was not safe for them to con¬
tinue at Mecca any longer : whereupon Mahomet gave
leave to such of them as had not friends to protect
them to seek for refuge elsewhere. And accordingly
in the fifth year of the prophet’s mission, 16 of them,
four of whom were women, fled into Ethiopia *, and
among them Othman Ebn Affan and his wife liakiah,
Mahomet’s daughter. This was the first flight; hut
afterwards several others followed them, retiring one
after another, to the number of 83 men and 18 wo¬
men, besides children. These refugees were kind¬
ly received by the Najashi, or king of Ethiopia j
who refused to deliver them up to those whom the
Koreish sent to demand them, and, as the Arab wri¬
ters unanimously attest, even professed the Mahometan
religion.
In the sixth year of his mission, Mahomet had the
pleasure of seeing his party strengthened by the con¬
version of his uncle Hamza,, a man of great valour and
merit 5 and of Omar Ebn al Kattab, a person highly
esteemed, and once a violent opposer of the prophet.
As persecution generally advances rather than obstructs
the spreading of a religion, Islamism made so great a
progress among the Arab tribes, that the Koreish, to
suppress it effectually if possible, in the seventh year of
Mahomet’s mission, made a solemn league or covenant
ao-ainst the Hashemites and the family of Abd’almo-
talleb, engaging themselves to contract no mairiagis
with any of them, and to have no communication with
them •, and, to give it the greater sanction, reduced it
into writing, and laid it up in the Caaba. Upon tins
the tribe became divided into two factions j and the
family of Hashem all repaired to Abu laleb, as their
head: except only Abd’al Uzza, surnamed Abu La¬
bel, who, out of inveterate hatred to his nephew and
his doctrine, went over to the opposite party, whose Mahomet,
chief was Abu Sosian Elm Harb, of the family of
Ommeya.
The families continued thus at variance for three
years 5 but in the tenth year of his mission, Mahomet
told his uncle Abu Taleb, that God had manifestly
showed his disapprobation of the league which the Ko¬
reish had made against them, by sending a worm to
eat out every word of the instrument except the name
of God. Of this accident Mahomet had probably some
private notice: for Abu laleb went immediately to
the Koreish, and acquainted them with it; offering, it
it proved false, to deliver his nephew up to them hut
in case it were true, he insisted that they ought to lay
aside their animosity, and annul the league they had
made against the Hashemites. To this they acquiesced 5
and going to inspect the writing, to their great asto¬
nishment found it to be as Abu laleb had said j and
the league was thereupon declared void.
In the same year Abu Taleb died, at the age of
above fourscore, and it is the general opinion that he
died an infidel : though others say, that when he was
at the point of death he embraced Mahometism j and
produce some passages out of lus poetical compositions
to confirm their assertion. About a month, or, as some
write, three days after the death of this great benefac¬
tor and patron,' Mahomet had the additional mortifica¬
tion to lose his wife Khadijah, who had so generously
made his fortune. For which reason this year is called-
the year of mourning.
On the death of these two persons, the Koreish be¬
gan to he more troublesome than ever to their prophet,
and especially some who had formerly been his inti¬
mate friends; insomuch that he found himself obliged
to seek for shelter elsewhere, and first pitched upon
Tayef, about 60 miles east from Mecca, for the jjJace
of his retreat. Thither therefore he went, accompa¬
nied by his servant Zeid, and applied himself to two
of the chief of the tribe of Thakif who were the inha¬
bitants of that place $ but they received him very cold¬
ly. However, he staid there a month j and some.of the
more considerate and better sort of men treated him
with a little respect: but the slaves and interior peo¬
ple at length rose against him ", and bringing him to
the wall of the city, obliged him to depart and return
to Mecca, where he put himself under the protection
of Al Motaam Ebn Adi.
This repulse greatly discouraged his followers. How¬
ever, Mahomet evas not wanting to himself 5 but boldly-
continued to preach to the public assemblies at the pil¬
grimage, and gained several proselytes \ and among
them six of the inhabitants of Yathreb of the Jewish
tribe of Khazr-aj 5 who, on their return home, failed
not to speak much in commendation of their new reli¬
gion, and exhorted their follow citizens to embrace the
same. ... , nr 1
In the 1 2th year of his mission it was that JManomefc
gave out that he had made his night-journey from
Mecca to Jerusalem, and thence to heaven, so much
spoken of by all that write of him. Dr Prideaux
thinks he invented it, either to answer the expectations
of those who demanded some miracle as a proof of Ins
mission j or else, by pretending to have conversed with
God, to establish the authority of whatever he should
think fit to leave behind by way of oral tradition, and
niakc
•Malibmet. make Ins sayings to serve the same purpose as the oral
^ V 'law of the Jews. But it does not appear that Maho¬
met himself ever expected so great a regard should be
paid to his sayings, as his followers have since done j
and seeing he all along disclaimed any power of per¬
forming miracles, it seems rather to have been a fetch
cf policy to raise his reputation, by pretending to have
actually conversed with God in heaven, as Moses had
heretofore done in the Mount, and to have received se¬
veral institutions immediately from him, whereas be¬
fore he contented himself with persuading them that he
had all by the ministry of Gabriel.
However, this story seemed so absurd and incredible,
that several of his followers left him upon it; and had
probably ruined the whole design, had not Abu Beer
vouched for his veracity, and declared, that if Maho-
wit-aifmed lfc t0 be true, he vei% Relieved the whole,
n Inch happy incident not only retrieved the prophet’s
credit, but increased it to such a degree, that he was
secure of being able to make his disciples swallow
whatever he pleased to impose on them for the future.
And this fiction, notwithstanding its extravagance, was
one of the most artful contrivances Mahomet ever put
in practice, and what chiefly contributed to the raising'
of Ins reputation to that great height to which it after-
Wards arrived.
In this year, called by the Mahometans the accepted
year 12 men of Yathreb or Medina, of whom to were
of the tribe of Khazraj, and the other two of that of
Aws, came to Mecca, and took an oath of fidelity to
Mahomet at A1 Akaba, a hill on the north of that city.
Hus oath was called the women's oath ; not that any
women were present at this time, but because a man
was not thereby obliged to take up arms in defence of
Mahomet or us religion j it being the same oath that
was afterwards exacted of the women, the form of
which we have in the Koran, and is to this effect: viz.
that they should renounce all idolatry; that they
should not steal nor commit fornication, nor kill their
children (as the Pagan Arabs used to do when they
apprehended they should not be able to maintain them)
nor forge calumnies ; and that they should obey the
prophet in all things that were reasonable. When they
had solemnly engaged to all this, Mahomet sent one of
Ins disciples, named Masah Ebn Omair, home with
them, to instruct them more fully in the grounds and
ceremonies of his new religion. '
Masab being arrived at Medina, by the assistance of
those who had been formerly converted, gained several
proselytes, particularly Osaid Ebn Hodeira, a chief
man of the city and Saad Ebn Moadh, prince of the
tribe of Aws ; Mahometanism spreading so fast, that
there was scarce a house wherein there were not some
who had embraced it.
.iJ'm"'*,! yCal' hTg 'S"1 of Mahomet’s mis¬
sion, Masab returned to Mecca, accompanied hv 75
men and two women of Medina who had professed Isla-
m.sm besides some others who were as yet unbelievers.
‘''mr arrival they immediately sent to Mahomet,
and offered him their assistance, of which he was now
; for.lllJ “‘''’orsaries were by this time
grown so powerful in Mecca, that he could not stay
lore much longer without imminent danger. Where-
Are he aeoeptea their ,, an(| ^ ^
fight, by appointment, at At Akaba above mentioned,
C 403 ]
M A II
attended by his uncle A1 Abbas ; who, though he was
not then a believer, wished his nephew well, and made
a speech to those of Medina, wherein he told them
that as Mahomet Avas obliged to quit bis native city,
and seek an asylum elseAvliere, and they bad offered
him their protection, they would do well not to de¬
ceive him; that if they Avere not firmly resolved to de¬
fend, and not betray him, they had better declare their
minds, and let him provide for his safety in some other
manner. Upon their protesting their sincerity, Ma¬
homet SAAore to he faithful to them, on condition that
they should protect him against all insults as heartily
as they Avould their own Avives and families. They
then asked him Avhat recompense they Avere to expect
if they should happen to be killed in bis quarrel ; he
answered, Paradise. Whereupon they pledged their
fajth to him, and so returned home ; after ftlahomet
bad chosen 12 out of their number, avIio Avere to have
the same authority among them as the 12 apostles of
Christ had among his disciples.
Hitherto Mahomet had propagated his religion Ly
fair means ; so that the Avliole Success of his enterprise,
before his flight to Medina, must be attributed to per¬
suasion only, and not to compulsion. For before this
second oath of fealty or inauguration at A1 Akaba, be
had no permission to use any force at all; and in seAe-
ral places of the Koran, Avhich he pretended Avere re¬
vealed during his stay at Mecca, be declares bis busi¬
ness Avas only to preach and admonish ; that be had
no authority to compel any person to embrace his re¬
ligion ; and that, Avhether people believe or not, Avas
none of his concern, but belonged solely unto God.
And he Avas so far from allowing bis followers to u-e
force, that lie exhorted them to bear patiently those
injuries Avhich Avere offered them on account of their
faith ; and, Avhen persecuted himself, chose rather to
quit the place of bis birth and retire to Medina, than
to make any resistance. But this great passiveness and
moderation seem entirely OAving to his Avant of power,
and the great superiority of bis opposers for the first
12 years of his mission ; for no sooner Avas he enabled,
b} the assistance of those of Medina, to make head
against his enemies, that he gave out, that God bad
allowed him and his folloAvers to defend themselves
against the infidels ; and at length, as bis forces in¬
creased, he pretended to have the dn’ine leave even to
attack them, and to destroy idolatry, and set up the
true faith by the SAvord : finding, by experience, that
his designs Avould otherwise proceed very slowly, if
they Avere not utterly overthroAvn ; and, knowing, on
the other hand, that innovators, when they depend
solely on their OAvn strength, and can compel, seldom
run any risk ; from whence, says Machiavel, it fol¬
lows, that all the armed prophets have succeeded, and
the unarmed ones have failed. Moses, Cyrus, Theseus,
and Romulus, Avould not have been able to establish the
observance of their institutions for any length of time,
bad they not been armed. The first passage of the
Koran, Avhich gave Mahomet the permission of defend¬
ing himself by arms, is said to have been that in the
22d chapter ; after Avhich a great number to the same
purpose were revealed. -
That Mahomet had a right to take up arms for his
OAvn defence against his unjust persecutors, may per¬
haps be alloAved ; but whether he ought • afterwards to'
3 E 2 have
M A H
404 ]
M A H
in affairs of
The method of
have made use of that means for the establishing of his
religion, it is not so easy to determine. How far the
secular power may or ought to interpose
this nature, mankind are not agreed. 1
converting by the sword gives no very favourable idea
of the faith which is so propagated, and is disallowed-
by every body in those of another religion, though the
same persons are willing to admit of it for the advance¬
ment of their own : supposing that, though a false re¬
ligion ought not to be established by authority, yet a
true one may: and accordingly force is almost as con¬
stantly employed in these cases by those who have tlm
power in their hands, as it is constantly complained ol
by those who suffer the violence. It is certainly one
of the most convincing proofs that Mahometanism was
no other than a human invention, that it owed its pro¬
gress and establishment almost entirely to the sword j
and it is one of the strongest demonstrations of the di¬
vine original of Christianity, that it prevailed against
all the force and powers ot the world by the mere dint
of its own truth, after having stood the assaults of all
manner of persecutions, as well as other oppositions,
for 300 years together, and at length made the Roman
emperors themselves submit thereto ^ alter which time,
indeed, this proof seems to fail, Christianity being then
established, and Paganism abolished, by public autho¬
rity, which has had great influence in the propagation
of the one and destruction of the other ever since. But
to return.
Mahomet having provided for the security of his
companions as well as his own, by the league offensive
and defensive which he had now concluded with those
of Medina, directed them to repair thither, which they
accordingly did j but himself with Abu Beer and Ali
staid behind, having not yet received the divine per¬
mission, as he pretended, to leave Mecca. The Koreish
fearing the consequence of this new alliance, began to
think it absolutely necessary to prevent Mahomet’s
escape to Medina 5 and having held a council thereon,
after several milder expedients had been rejected, they
came to a resolution that he should be killed j and
agreed that a man should be chosen out of every tribe
for the execution of this design ; and that each man
should have a blow at him with his sword, that the
guilt of his blond might tall equally on all the tribes,
to whose united power the Hashemites W'ere much in¬
ferior, and therefore durst not attempt to revenge their
kinsman’s death.
This conspiracy was scarce formed, when, by some
means or other, it came to Mahomet’s knowledge j and
he gave out that it was revealed to him by the angel
Gabriel, who had now ordered him to retire to Me¬
dina. Whereupon, to amuse his- enemies, he directed
Ali to lie down in his place, and wrap himself up in
his green cloak, which he did y and Mahomet escaped
miraculously, as they pretend, to Abu Beer’s house,
unperceived by the conspirators, who had already as¬
sembled at the prophet’s door. They, in the mean
time, looking through the crevice, and seeing Ali,
whom they took to be Mahomet himself, asleep, con¬
tinued watching there till morning, when Ali arose, and
they found themselves deceived.
From Abu Beer’s house Mahomet and he went to
a cave in Mount Thur, to the south-east of Mecca, ac¬
companied only by Amer Ebn Foheirah, Abu Beer’s
servant, and Abd’allah Ebn Oreitab, an idolater whom Mahomet
they had hired for a guide. In this cave they lay v—*
hid three days, to avoid the search of their enemies j
which they very narrowly escaped, and not without
the assistance of more miracles than one : lor some say
that the Koreish were struck with blindness, so that
they could not find the cave 5 others, that after Ma¬
homet and his companions were got in, two pigeons
laid their eggs at the entrance, and a spider covered
the mouth of the cave with her web, which made
them look no farther. Abu Beer, seeing the prophet
in such imminent danger, became very sorrowful;
whereupon Mahomet comforted him with these words
recorded in the Koran, Be not grieved, for God is with
us. Their enemies being retired, they left the cave,
and set out for Medina, by a by-road ; and having
fortunately, or, as the Mahometans tell us, miracu¬
lously, escaped some who were sent to pursue them,
arrived safely at that city; whither Ali followed them
in three days, after he had settled some afiairs at
Mecca.
The first thing Mahomet did after his arrival at
Medina, was to build a temple for his religious wor¬
ship, and a house for himself, which he did on a parcel
of ground which had before served to put camels in,
or, as others tell us, for a burying-ground, and be¬
longed to Sahal and Soheil the sons of Amru, who
were orphans. This action Dr Prideaux exclairns
against, representing it as a flagrant instance of in¬
justice j for that, says he, he violently dispossessed
these poor orphans, the sons of an inferior artificer,
(whom the author he quotes calls a carpenter), of this
ground, and so founded the first fabric of his worship
with the like wickedness as he did his religion. But,
to say nothing of the improbability that Mahomet
should act in so impolitic a manner at his first coming,
the Mahometan writers set this affair in a quite differ¬
ent light: one tells us that he treated with the lads
about the price of the ground, but they desired he
would accept it as a present: however, as historians
of good credit assure us, he actually bought it; and
the money was paid by Abu Beer. Besides, had
Mahomet accepted it as a present, the orphans were
in circumstances sufficient to have afforded it: for
they were of a very good family, of the tribe of Naj-
jer, one of the most illustrious among the Arabs; and
not the sons of a carpenter, as Dr Prideaux’s author
writes, who took the word Najjer, which signifies “ a
carpenter,” for an appellative, whereas it is a proper
name.
Mahomet, being securely settled at Medina, and
able not only to defend himself against the insults of
his enemies, but to attack them, began to send out
small parties to make reprisals on the Koreish ; the
first party consisting of no more than nine men, who
intercepted and plundered a caravan belonging to that
tribe, and in the action took two prisoners. But what
established his aflairs very much, and was the founda¬
tion on which he built all his succeeding greatness,
was the gaining of the battle of Bedr, which was
fought in the second year of the Hegira, and is so fa¬
mous in the Mahometan history. Some reckon no less
than 27 expeditions wherein Mahomet was personally
present, in nine of which he gave battle, besides seve¬
ral other expeditions in which he was not present.
* His
1VJ: ^ [ 405
Mahomet- His forces lie maintHined partly by the contributions
   'of his followers for this purpose, which he called by
the name of %ucot or alms^ and the paying of which he
very artfully made one main article of his religion ;
and partly by ordering a fifth part of the plunder to
be brought into the public treasury for that purpose,
in which matter he likewise pretended to act by the
divine direction.
In a few years, by the success of his arms (not¬
withstanding he sometimes came oil' by the worst) he
considerably raised his credit and power. In the sixth
year of the Hegira he set out with 1400 men to visit
the temple of Mecca, not with any intent of commit-
ting hostilities, but 111 a peaceable manner. However
when he came to A1 Hodeibiya, which is situated partly
within and partly without the sacred territory, the
Koreish sent to let him know that they would not
peimit him to enter IVIecca, unless he forced his way ^
whereupon he called his troops about him, and they
all took a solemn oath of fealty or homage to him,
and he resolved to attack the city ; but those of Mec¬
ca sending Anya Ebn Masun, prince of the tribe of
lhakif, as then ambassador to desire peace, a truce
was concluded between them for ten years, by which
any person was allowed to enter into league either
with Mahomet, or with the Koreish, as he thought
fit.
It may not be improper, in order to show the incon¬
ceivable veneration and respect the Mahometans by this
time had for their prophet, to mention the account
"which the above-mentioned ambassador gave theKoreish,
at his return, of their behaviour. He said he had been
at the courts both of the Roman emperor and of the
king of Persia, and never saw any prince so highly re¬
spected by his subjects as Mahomet was by his com¬
panions j for, whenever he made the ablution, in order
to say his prayers, they ran and catched the water that
he had used ; and, whenever he spit, they immediately
licked it up, and gathered every hair that fell from him
with great superstition.
In the seventh year of the Hegira, Mahomet began
to think of propagating his religion beyond the
bounds of Arabia ; and sent messengers to the neigh¬
bouring princes, with letters to invite them to Maho¬
metanism. I\or was this project without some success.
Khosru l arviz, then king of Persia, received his let-
tei with great disdain, and tore it in a passion, send¬
ing away the messenger very abruptly j which when
Mahomet heard, he said God shall tear his kingdom.
And soon after a messenger came to Mahomet^from
Bad ban king of Yaman, who was a dependent on the
Persians, to acquaint hun that he had received orders
to send him to Khosru. Mahomet put off his answer
till the next morning, and then told the messenger it
had been revealed to him that night that Khosru was
slain by his son Shiruyeh : adding that he was well
assured his new religion and empire should rise to as
great a height as that of Khosru 5 and therefore bid
him advise his master to embrace Mahometanism. The
messenger being returned, Badhan in a few days re¬
ceived a letter from Shiruyeh, informing him of his
father’s death, and ordering him to give the prophet
no further disturbance. Whereupon Badhan and the
Persians with him turned Mahometans.
Hie emperor Heraclius, as the Arabian historians
f mah
assure us, received Mahomet’s letter with great respect
laying it on his pillow, and dismissed the bearer ho¬
nourably. And some pretend that he would have pro¬
fessed this new faith, had he not been afraid of losimr
Ins crown. 6
Mahomet wrote to the same effect to the king of
Ethiopia, though he had been converted before \c-
cording to the Arab writers; and to Mokawkas, go¬
vernor of Egypt, who gave the messenger a very fa¬
vourable reception, and sent several valuable presents
0 Mahomet, and among the rest two girls, one of
which, named Mary, became a great favourite with
him He also sent letters of the like purport to seve-
ral Arab princes 5 particularly one to A1 Hareth Ebn
Abi bhamar king of Ghassan, who returning for an-
swer that he would go to Mahomet himself, the pro-
phet said, his kingdom j^rish ; another to Hawd-
ha Elm Ah, king of Yamama, who was a Christian,
and having some time before professed Islamism, had
ate y returned to his former faith 3 this prince sent
back a very rough answer, upon which Mahomet curs-
mg him, he died soon after : and a third to A1 Mon-
der Ebn Sawa, king of Bahrein, who embraced Ma¬
hometanism, and all the Arabs of that country followed
his example. J
The eighth year of the Hegira was a very fortu-
nate year to Mahomet In the beginning of it, Kha-
ledEbnal Walul and Amru Ebn al As, both excel¬
lent soldiers the first of whom afterwards conquered
oyna and other countries, and the latter Egypt be¬
came proselytes to Mahometanism. And soon after the
prophet sent 3000 men against the Grecian forces, to
revenge the death of one of his ambassadors, who be¬
ing sent to the governor of Bosra on the same errand
as those who went to the above-mentioned princes,
was slam by an Arab, of the tribe of Ghassan, at
Muta, a town in the territory of Balka in Syria
about three days journey eastward from Jerusalem’
near which town they encountered. The Grecians
being vastly superior in number (for, including the
auxiliary Arabs, they had an army of 100,000 men),
the Mahometans were repulsed in the first attack ^
and lost successively three of their generals, viz. Zeid
Ebn Haretha Mahomet’s freedman, Jaafar the son of
Abul aleb and AbdaHah Ebn Rawaha r but Khaled
Ebn a! \\ alid succeeding to the command, overthrew
the Greeks with a great slaughter, and brought away
abundance of rich spoil j on occasion of which action
Mahomet gave him the title of Seif min soyuf Allah,
one of the swords of God.” J '
In this year also Mahomet took the city of Mecca,
the inhabitants whereof had broken the truce con¬
cluded on two years before. For the tribe of Beer
who were confederates with the Koreish, attacking
those of Khozaah, who were allies of Mahomet, killed
several of them, being supported in the action by a
party of the Koreish themselves. The consequence
of this violation was soon apprehended 3 and Abu So-
sian himself made a journey to- Medina on purpose to
heal the breach and renew the truce : but in vain •
for Mahomet, glad of this opportunity, refused to see
him : whereupon he applied to Abu Beer and Ali •
but they giving him no answer, he was obliged to re¬
turn to Mecca as he came.
Mahomet immediately gave orders for preparations
to .«
MAH
t 406 1
M A H
Mahomet, to be made, that he might surprise the Meccans while
«*«—^"*,.,1 they were unprovided to I’eceive him : in a little time
he began his march thither; and by that time he came
near the city, his 1'orces were increased to 10,000 men.
Those of Mecca, being not in a condition to defend
themselves against so formidable an army, surrendered
-at discretion ; and Abu Sosian saved his life by turning
•Mahometan. About 28 of the idolaters were killed
by a party tinder the command of Khaled j but this
happened contrary to Mahomet’s orders, who, when
•he entered the town, pardoned all the Koreish on
their submission, except only six men and four women,
Jwho were more obnoxious than ordinary (some of them
having apostatized), and were solemnly proscribed by
'the prophet himself j but of these no more than three
men and one woman were put to death, the rest obtain¬
ing pardon on their embracing Mahometanism, and one
of the women making her escape.
The remainder of this year Mahomet employed in
•‘destroying the idols in and round Mecca, sending seve¬
ral of his generals on expeditions for that purpose, and
to invite the Arabs to Islamism: wherein it is no won¬
der if they now met with success.
The next year, being the ninth of the Hegira, the
Mahometans call the year of embassies : for the Arabs
had been hitherto expecting the issue of the war be¬
tween Mahomet and the Koreish : but, so soon as that
tribe, the principal of the whole nation, and the ge¬
nuine descendants of Ishmael, whose prerogatives none
offered to dispute, had submitted, they Were satisfied
that it was not in their power to oppose Mahomet 5
and therefore began to come in to him in great num¬
bers, and to send embassies to make their submissions
to him, both to Mecca, while he staid there, and also
to Medina, whither he returned this year. Among
the rest, five kings of the tribe of Hamyar profes¬
sed Mahometanism, and sent ambassadors to notify the
same.
In the 10th year, Ali was sent into Yaman to
propagate the Mahometan faith there j and, as it is
said, converted the whole tribe of Hamdan in one
day. Their example was quickly followed by all the
inhabitants of that province, except only those of
Najran, who, being Christians, chose rather to pay
tribute.
Thus was Mahometanism established, and idolatry
rooted out, even in Mahomet’s lifetime (for he died
the next year), throughout all Arabia, except only
Aamama, where Moseilama, who set up also for a pro¬
phet as Mahomet’s competitor, had a great party, and
wras not reduced till the caliphate of Abu Beer: and the
Arabs being then united in one faith, and under one
prince, found themselves in a condition of making those
conquests which extended the Mahometan faith over so
great a part of the world.
Mahomet, the name of several emperors of the
Turks ; of whom the most celebrated is,
Mahomet II. surnamed the Great, their seventh
sultan. See Turkey.
He was born at Adrianople the 24th of March
1430 •, and is to be remembered chiefly by us for tak¬
ing Constantinople in 1453, and thereby driving many
learned Greeks into the west, which was a great
cause of the restoration of learning in Europe, as the
Greek literature was then introduced hefe. He was Maliomt'
one. of the greatest men upon record, with regard to Mahome:
the qualities necessary to a conqueror j for be con- tanlsm-
quered two empix-es, twelve kingdoms, and two hun- ^
dred considerable cities. He was very ambitious of
the title of Great, and the Turks gave it him 5 even
the Christians have not disputed it with him j for he
was the first of the Ottoman emperors whom the West¬
ern nations dignified with the title of Grand Seig¬
nior or Great Turk, which posterity has preserved to
his descendants. Italy had suft’ered greater calamities,
but she had never felt a terror equal to that which this
sultan’s victories imprinted. The inhabitants seemed
already condemned to wear the turban : it is certain,
that Pope Sixtus IV. represented to himself Borne as
already involved in the dreadful fate of Constanti¬
nople j and thought of nothing but escaping into Pro¬
vence, and once more transferring the holy see to
Avignon. Accoixlingly, the news of Mahomet’s death,
which happened the 3d of May 1481, was received at
Rome with the greatest joy that ever was beheld there.
Sixtus caused all the churches to be thrown open,
made the trades people leave off their work, ordered a
feast of thi’ee days, with public pi’ayers and processions,
commanded a discharge of the whole artillery of the
castle of St Angelo all that time, and put a stop to his
journey to Avignon.
He appears to be the first sultan who was a lover of
ai'ts and sciences j and even cultivated polite letterss
He often read the History of Augustus, and the
other Caesars j and he perused those of Alexandex*,
Constantine, and Theodosius, wulh more than ordi¬
nary pleasure, because these had reigned in the same
country with himself. He was fond of painting, mu¬
sic and sculpture •, and he applied himself to the study
of agriculture. Pie was much addicted to astrology j
and used to encourage his troops by giving out, that
the motion and influence of the heavenly bodies pro¬
mised him the empire of the world. Contrary to the
genius of his country, he delighted so much in the
knowledge of foreign languages, that he not only
spoke the Arabian, to which the Turkish laws, and
the religion of their legislator Mahomet, are appi*opri-
ated, but also the Persian, the Greek, and the French,
that is, the corrupted Italian. Landin, a knight of
Rhodes, collected several letters which this sultan
wrote in the Syriac, Greek, and Turkish languages,
and translated them into Latin. W here the originals
axe, nobody knows •, but the translation has been pub¬
lished several times j as at Lyons 1520, in 4to ■, at
Basil 1554, i2mo$ in a collection published hy Opo-
rlnus, atMarpurg 1604, in 8vo j and at Leipsic 1690,
in 121110. Melchior Junius, professor of eloquence at
Strasburg, published at Montbeliard, 1595, a collec¬
tion of letters, in which there are three written by
Mahomet II. to Scanderberg. One cannot discover
the least air of Turkish ferocity in these letters: they
are Written in as civil terms, and as obliging a man¬
ner, as the most polite prince in Christendom could
have written^
MAHOMETANISM, or Mahometism, the sys¬
tem of religion broached by Mahomet, and still ad¬
hered to by his followers* See Mahomet, and Al¬
coran.
Mahometanism
MAH
Mahometanism is professed by the Turks, Persians,
and several nations among the Africans, and many
among the East Indians. J
I he Mahometans divide their religion into two ge¬
neral parts, faith and practice: of which the first is
divided into six distinct branches: Belief in God, in
his angels, in his scriptures, in his prophets, in ’the
resurrection and final judgment, and in God’s absolute
decrees. The points relating to practice are, prayer,
with washings, &c. alms, fasting, pilgrimage to Mecca,
and circumcision.
1. Of the Mahometan Faith.'] i. That both Maho¬
met, and those among his followers who are reckoned
orthodox, had and continue to have just and true no-
fions ot God and his attributes, appears so plain from
the Koran itself, and all the Mahometan divines, that
it would be loss of time to refute those who suppose
the God of Mahomet to be different from the true
God, and only a fictitious deity or idol of his own
creation.
2. I he existence of angels, and their purity, are
absolutely required to be believed in the Koran ; and
he is reckoned an infidel who denies there are such
beings, or hates any of them, or asserts any distinction
ot sexes among them. They believe them to have pure
and subtle bodies, created of fire j that they neither
cat nor drink, nor propagate their species j that they
have various forms and offices, some adoring God in
different postures, others singing praises to him, or
interceding for mankind. They hold, that some of
them are employed in writing down the actions of
men 5 others in carrying the throne of God, and other
services.
The four angels, whom they look on as more emi¬
nently in God’s favour, and often mention on account
of the offices assigned them, are, Gabriel, to whom
they give several titles, particularly those of the holy
spirit, and the angel of revelations, supposing him to
be honoured by God with a greater confidence than
any other, and to be employed in writing down the
tiivine decrees ; Michael, the friend and protector of
fhe Jews ; Azrael, the angel oj death, who separates
men’s souls from their bodies j'and Israsil, whose office
it will be to sound the trumpet at the resurrection,
i iie Mahometans also believe, that two guardian an-
gels attend on every man, to observe and write down
his actions, being changed every day, and therefore
carried al Moakkihat, or “ the angels who continually
succeed one another.”
The devil, whom Mahomet names Eblis, from his
despair, was once one of those angels who are nearest
to God’s presence, called Axa^il; and fell, according
to the doctrine of the Koran, for refusing to pay ho¬
mage to Adam at the command of God.
Besides angels and devils, the Mahometans are
taught by the Koran to believe an intermediate order
of creatures, which they calljV/i or genii, created also
of lire, but of a grosser fabric than angels, since they
eat and drink, and propagate their species, and are
subject to death. Some of these are supposed to be
good and others bad, and capable of future salvation
ot damnation, as men are; whence Mahomet pre¬
tended to be sent for the conversion of genii as well as
men.
t0 Scriptures, the Mahometans arc taught
[ 407 J
M A H
by the Koran, that God, m divers ages of the world, Maiiome
gave revelations of his will in writing to several pro- tanism.
phets, the whole and every one of which it is abso- ’ v 3
lately necessary for a good Moslem to believe. The
number of these sacred books was, according to them,
104. Of which 1 o were given to Adam, 50 to Seth’
30 to Edns or Enoch, 10 to Abraham ; and the other
lour, being the Pentateuch, the Psalms, the Gospel,
and the Koran, were successively delivered to Moses,
David, Jesus, and Mahomet; which last being the
seal ot the prophets, those revelations are now closed
and no more are to be expected. All these divine
books, except tbes four last, they agree to be now en¬
tirely lost, and their contents unknown j though the
oabians have several books which they attribute to
some of the antediluvian prophets. And of those four,
the Pentateuch, Psalms, and Gospel, they say, have
undergone so many alterations and corruptions, that,
though there may possibly be some part of the true’
word of God therein, yet no credit is to be given to
the present copies in the hands of the Jews and Chris¬
tians. The Mahometans have also a gospel in Arabic,
attributed to St Barnabas j wherein the history of
Jesus Christ is related in a manner very different from
what we find in the true gospels, and correspondent to
those traditions which Mahomet has followed in his
Koran. Of this gospel the Moriscoes in Africa have
a* T>a"SJat*0n in Spanish j and there is, in the library
of Prince Eugene of Savoy, a manuscript of some an¬
tiquity, containing an Italian translation of the same
gospel ; made, it is to be supposed, for tbe use of re¬
negades. This book appears to be no original forgery
of the Mahometans; though they have, no doubt, in¬
terpolated and altered it since, the better to serve their
purpose ; and in particular, instead of the Paraclete,
or Comforter, they have in this apocryphal gospel in¬
serted the word Periclyte, that is, the “ famous,” or
illustrious j” by which they pretend their prophet
was foretold by name, that being the signification of
Mohammed in Arabic : and this they say to justify
that passage of the Koran, where Jesus Christ is for¬
mally asserted to have foretold his coming, under his
other name of Ahmed, which is derived from the same
root as Mohammed, and of the same import. From
these, or some other forgeries of the same stamp, it
is that the Mahometans quote several passages, of
which there are not the least footsteps in the- New
Testament.
4. -The number of the prophets, which have been
from time to time sent by God into the world,
amounts to no less than 224,000, according to one
Mahometan tradition j or to 124,000, according to
another j among whom 313 were apostles, sent with?
special commissions to reclaim mankind from infidelity
and superstition ; and six of them brought new laws
or dispensations, which successively abrogated tbe pre¬
ceding 5 these were Adam, Noah, Abraham, Moses,
Jesus, and Mahomet. All the prophets in general
the Mahometans believe to have been free from great
sins and errors of consequence, and professors of one
and the same religion, that is, Islam, notwithstanding
the different laws and institutions which they ob¬
served. They allow of degrees among them, and hold
some of them to be more excellent and honourable
than others. The first place they give to the revealers
and,.
MA H
[ 408 ..J
MAH
Mahome- and establishes of new dispensations, and the next to
tanism. the apostles.
' ‘ v In this great number of prophets, they not only
reckon divers patriarchs and persons named in scrip¬
ture, but not recorded to have been prophets, (where¬
in the Jewish and Christian writers have sometimes led
the way), as Adam, Seth, Lot, Ishmael, Nun, Joshua,
&c. and introduce some of them under different names,
as Enoch, Heber, and Jethro, who are called, in the
Koran, Edris, Hud, and Shoaib: hut several others
whose very names do not appear in Scriptui’e (though
they endeavour to find some persons there to fix them
on), as Saleh, Khedr, Dhu’lkefl, &c.
5. The belief of a general resurrection and a future
judgment.
When a corpse is laid in the grave, they say he is
received by an angel, who gives him notice of the
coming of the two examiners; who are two black livid
angels, of a terrible appearance, named Monker and
Naktr. These order the dead person to sit upright j and
examine him concerning his faith as to the unity of
God, and the mission of Mahomet: if he answer right¬
ly, they suffer the body to rest in peace, and it is re¬
freshed by the air of paradise; but, if not, they beat
him on the temples with iron maces, till he roars out
for anguish so loud, that he is heard by all from east to
west, except men and genii. They then press the
earth on the corpse, which is gnawed and stung till
the resurrection by 99 dragons, with seven heads
each •, or, as others say, their sins will become venom¬
ous beasts, the grievous ones stinging like dragons,
the smaller like scorpions, and the others like serpents :
circumstances which some understand in a figurative
sense.
As to the soul, they hold, that, when it is separated
from the body by the angel of death, who performs his
office with ease and gentleness towards the good, and
with violence tow-ards the wicked, it enters into that
which they call al berzakh, or the interval between
death and the resurrection. If the departed person
was a believer, they say two angels meet it, who con¬
vey it to heaven, that its place there may be assigned,
according to its merit and degree. For they distin¬
guish the souls of the faithful into three classes : The
first of prophets, whose souls are admitted into para¬
dise immediately j the second of martyrs, whose spirits,
according to a tradition of Mahomet, rest in the crops
of green birds, which eat of the fruits and drink of the
rivers of paradise j and the third of other believers,
concerning the state of whose souls before the resurrec¬
tion there are various opinions.
Though some among the Mahometans have thought
that the resurrection will be merely spiritual, and no
more than the returning of the soul to the place
whence it first came (an opinion defended by Ebn Si-
na, and called by some the opinion of the philosophers) ;
and others, who allow man to consist of body only,
that it will be merely corporeal; the received opinion
is, that both body and soul will be raised : and their
doctors argue strenuously for the possibility of the re¬
surrection of the body, and dispute with great subtility
concerning the manner of it. But Mahomet has taken
care to preserve one part of the body, whatever be¬
comes of the rest, to serve for a basis of the future edi¬
fice, or rather a leven for the mass which is to be join-
3
ed to it. For be taught, that a man’s body was entire¬
ly consumed by the earth, except only the bone called
al ajb, which we name the 0.9 coccygis, or rumpbone )''
and that, as it was the first formed in the human body,
it will also remain uncorrupted till the last day, as a
seed from whence the whole is to be renew ed j and this,
he said, would be effected by a forty years rain, which
God should send, and which would cover the earth to
the height of 12 cubits, and cause the bodies to sprout
forth like plants. Herein, also, is Mahomet beholden
to the Jew s •, who say the same things of the bone Luz,
excepting that Avhat he attributes to a great rain, will
be effected according to them, by a dew impregnating
the dust of the earth.
The time of the resurrection the Mahometans allow
to be a perfect secret to all but to God alone 5 the angel
Gabriel himself acknowledging his ignorance in this
point, when Mahomet asked him about it. How-
they say, the approach of that day may be
Maliora*.,
tanisra.
known from certain signs which are to precede it.
These signs they distinguish into two sorts, the lesser
and the greater.
The lesser signs are, 1. The decay of faith among
men. 2. The advancing of the meanest persons to
eminent dignity. 3. That a maid servant shall become
the mother of her mistress (or master) j by which is
meant, either that towards the end of the world men
shall be much given to sensuality, or that the Maho¬
metans shall then take many captives. 4. Tumults
and seditions. 5. A war with the Turks. 6. Great
distress in the world, so that a man, when he passes by
another’s grave, shall say, Would to God I w;ere in
his place ! 7. That the provinces of Irac and Syria
shall refuse to pay their tribute. And, 8. That the
buildings of Medina shall reach to Ahab, or Yahab.
The greater signs are, 1. The sun’s rising in the
west 5 which some have imagined it originally did.
2. The appearance of the beast, wdnch shall rise out of
the earth, in the temple of Mecca, or on Mount Safa,
or in the territory of Tayef, or some other place. This
beast, they say, is to be 60 cubits high j though
others, not satisfied with so small a size, will have her
reach to the clouds and to heaven, when her head only
is out; and that she will appear for three days, but
show only a third part of her body. They describe
this monster, as to her form, to be a compound of
various species j having the head of a bull, the eyes of
a hog, the ears of an elephant, the horns of a stag,
the neck of an ostrich, the breast of a lion, the colour
of a tiger, the back of a cat, the tail of a ram, the
legs of a camel, and the voice of an ass. Some say
this beast is to appear three times in several places,
and that she will bring with her the rod of Moses and
the seal of Solomon j and being so swift that none
can overtake or escape her, will with the first strike all
the believers on the face, and mark them ■with the
word mumen, i. e. believer j and with the latter will
mark the unbelievers on the face likewise, with the
word Cafer, i. e. infidel, that every person may be
known for what he really is. They add, that the same
beast is to demonstrate the vanity of all religions ex¬
cept Islam, and to speak Arabic. All this stuff seems
to be the result of a confused idea of the beast in the
Revelation. 3. War with the Greeks, and the taking
Constantinople by 70,000 of the posterity of Isaac, who
shall
M A H [ ]
S|ia|| jVin tliat.,clty by f°rce of jirms, but (be walls phesied,
shall fall down /hile they' cry out, There is no God hut
God, God is most great! As they are dividing the spoil,
revs will come to them ol the appearance of Anti¬
christ; whereupon they shall leave all, and return
back. 4. The coming of Antichrist, whom the Ma¬
hometans call Masib al Dajjal, 1. e. the false or lying
Christ, and simply al Dajjal. He is to be one-eyed,
and marked on the forehead with the letters C. T. R,
signifying Cafer, or infidel. They say that the Jews
give him the name of Messiah Ben David; and pretend
he is to come in the last days, and to he lord both of
jand and sea, and that he will restore the kingdom to
them. 5. The descent of Jesus on earth. They pre¬
tend that he is to descend near the white tower to the
east of Damascus, when the people are returned from
the taking of Constantinople : that he is to embrace
the Mahometan religion, marry a wife, get children,
kill Antichrist j and at length die after 40 years, or,
according to others, 24 years continuance on earth.
Under him, they say, there will be great security
and plenty in the world, all hatred and malice being
laid aside j when lions and camels, bears and sheep^
shall live in peace, and a child shall play with serpents
unhurt. 6. War with the Jew^ 5 of whom the Ma¬
hometans are to make a prodigious slaughter, the
very trees and stones discovering such of them as hide
themselves, except only the tree called gharkad, which
is the tree of the Jews. 7. The irruption of Gog and
Magog, or, as they are called in the east, Yajuj and
Majuj; of whom many things are related in the Koran
and the traditions of Mahomet. These barbarians
they tell us, having passed the lake of Tiberias, which
the vanguard of their vast army will drink dry, will
come to Jerusalem, and there greatly distress Jesus and
his companions ; till, at his request, God will destroy
them, and fill the eartli with their carcases, which
after some time, God will send birds to carry away, at
the prayers of Jesus and his followers. Their bows,
arrows, and quivers, the Moslems will burn for seven
years together ; and at last God will send a rain to
cleanse the earth and to make it fertile. 8. A smoke
which shall fill the whole earth. 9. An eclipse of the
moon. Mahomet is reported to have said, that there
would be three eclipses before the last hour; one to be
seen in the east, another in the west, and the third in
Arabia. 10. The returning of the Arabs to the wor¬
ship of Allat and Al Uzza, and the rest of their an¬
cient idols, after the decease of every one in whose
heart there was faith equal to a grain of mustard seed,
none but the very worst of men being left alive. For
God, they say, will send a cold odoriferous wind, blow¬
ing from Syria Damascena, which shall sweep away the
souls of all the faithful, and the Koran itself, so that
men will remain in the grossest ignorance for too years.
11. Ihe discovery of a vast heap of gold and silver by
the retreating of the Euphrates, which will be the de¬
struction of many. 12. The demolition of the Caaba
or temple of Mecca, by the Ethiopians. 13. The’
speaking of beasts and inanimate things. 14 The
breaking out of fire in the province of Hejaz 5 or, ac-
corcmg to others, in banian. 15. The appearance of
a man of the descendants of Kahtan, who shall drive
men before him with his staff. 16. The coming of the
41ohd., or director; concerning whom Mahomet pro-
Vol. XII. Part II. 1 4
M A H
that the world should not have an end till one Mahomc-
ot bis own family should govern the Arabians, whose tanism.
name should be the same with his own name, and ' v '
whose father’s name should also be the same with his
lather s name 5 and who should fill the earth with
righteousness. This person the Shiites believe to be
now alive, and concealed in some secret place till the
ime of his manifestation ; for they suppose him no other
than the last of. the 12 imams, named Mahomet A-
, f ™ their prophet was ; and the son of Hassan
a Asken, the iithof that succession. He was born
at bermanrai, in the 255th year of the Hegira. From
this tradition, it is to be presumed, an opinion pretty
current among the Christians took its rise, that the
Mahometans are in expectation of their prophet’s re-
turn. 17. A wind which shall sweep away the souls of
all who have but a grain of faith in their hearts, as has
been mentioned under the tenth sign.
These are the greater signs, which, according to
their doctrine, are to precede the resurrection, buAtill
leave the hour of it uncertain : for the immediate sign
of its being come will be the first blast of the trumpet,
which they believe will be sounded three times. The
irst they call the blast of consternation; at the hearing
of which all creatures in heaven and earth shall be
struck with terror, except those whom God shall please
to exempt from it. The effects attributed to this first
sound of the trumpet are very wonderful : for they say
the earth will be shaken, and not only all buildings^
but the very mountains levelled; that the heavens shall
me.t the sun be darkened, the stars fall, on the death
of the angels, who, as some imagine, hold them su¬
spended between heaven and earth; and the sea shall be
troubled and dried up, or, according to others, turned
into flames, the sun, moon, and stars being thrown in-
to it: the Koran to express the greatness of the ter¬
ror of that day, adds, that women who give suck shall
abandon the care of their infants, and even the she ca¬
mels which have gone 10 months with young (a most
valuable part of the substance of that nation) shall be
utterly neglected. A farther effect of this blast will be
that concourse of beasts mentioned in the Koran, though
some doubt whether it be to precede the resurrection or
not. 1 hey who suppose it will precede, think that all
kinds of animals, forgetting their respective natural
fierceness and timidity, will run together into one place
being terrified by the sound of the trumpet and the sud¬
den shock of nature.
The Mahometans believe that this first blast will be
followed by a second, which they call the blast of exina-
mtion; hy which all creatures both in heaven and earth
shall die or be annihilated, except those which God
shall please to exempt from the common fate; and this,
they say, shall happen in the twinkling of an eye, nay,
in an instant; nothing surviving except God alone^
with paradise and hell, and the inhabitants of those tw?o
places, and the throne of glory. The last who shall
die will be the angel of death.
lorty years after this will be heard the blast of re¬
surrection, when the trumpet shall be sounded the third
time by Israsil, who, together with Gabriel and Mi¬
chael, will be previously restored to life, and, standincr
on the rock of the temple of Jerusalem, shall, at God’s
command, call together all the dry and rotten bones
and other dispersed parts of the bodies, and the very
3 ^ hairs
MAH [ 4i
Mabome- hairs to judgment. This angel having, hy the dir ine
tanism. order, set the trumpet to Ins mouth, and called toge-
   ' ther all the souls from all parts, will throw them into
his trumpet, from whence, on his giving the last sound,
at the command of God, they will fly forth like bees
and fill the whole space between heaven and earth, anil
then repair to their respective bodies, which the open¬
ing earth will suffer to arise 5 and the first who shall
solarise, according to a tradition of Mahomet, will be
himself* For this birth the earth will be prepared by
the rain above mentioned, which is to fall continually
for 40 years, and will resemble the seed oi a man, and
be supplied from the water under the throne ol God,
which is called living water; by the efficacy and vir¬
tue of which the dead bodies shall spring lorth from
their graves as they did in their mother’s womb, 01
as corn sprouts forth by common rain, till they become
perfect} after which breath will be breathed into them,
and they will sleep in their sepulchres till they are
raised to life at the last trumpet.
When those who have risen shall have waited the 1-
mited time, the Mahometans believe God will at length
appear to judge them ; Mahomet undertaking the of¬
fice of intercessor, after it shall have been declined by
Adam, Noah, Abraham, and Jesus, who shall beg de¬
liverance only for their own souls. They say, that on
this solemn occasion God will come in the clouds sui-
rounded by angels, and will produce the books where¬
in the actions of every person are recorded by their
guardian angels, and will command the prophets to
bear witness against those to whom they have been re¬
spectively sent. Then every one will be examined con¬
cerning all his words and actions uttered and done by
him in this life ; not as if God needed any information
in these respects, but to oblige the person to make pu¬
blic confession and acknowledgment of God’s justice.
The particulars of which they shall give an account,
as Mahomet himself enumerated them, are, of their
time, how they spent it; of their wealth, by what
means they acquired it, and how they employed it *, of
their bodies, wherein they exercised them ; of their
knowledge and learning, what use they made of them.
To the questions we have mentioned each person shall
answer, and make his defence in the best mannei he
can, endeavouring to excuse himself by casting the
blame of his evil deeds on others ; so that a dispute
shall arise even between the soul and the body, to which
of them their guilt ought to be imputed : rl he soul say¬
ing, 0 Lord, my body I received from thee ; for thou
createdst me without a hand to lay hold with, afoot to
walk with, an eye to see with, or an understanding to
apprehend with, till I came and entered into this body ;
therefore punish it eternally, but deliver me. The body,
on the other side, will make this apology : O Lord,
thou createdst me like a stock of wood, having neither
hand that I could lay hold with, nor foot that I could
walk with, till this soul, like a ray of light, entered into
■me, and my tongue began to speak, my eye to sec, and my
foot to walk; therefore punish it eternally, but deliver
me. But God will propound to them the following
parable of the blind man and the lame man, which, as
well as the preceding dispute, was borrowed by the
Mahometans from the Jews. A certain king having
a pleasant garden, in which were ripe fruits, set two
persons to keep it, one of whom was blind, and the
o ] MAH
other lame ; the former not being able to sec the fruit,
nor the latter to gather it: the lame man, however,
seeing the fruit, persuaded the blind man to take him
upon his shoulders, and by that means he easily gather¬
ed the fruit, which they divided between them. The
lord of the garden coming some time after, and inquir¬
ing after his fruit, each began to excuse himself: the
blind man said he had no eyes to see with ; and the
lame man, that he had no feet to approach the trees.
But the king, ordering the lame man to be set on the
blind, passed sentence on and punished them both.
And in the same manner will God deal with the body
and the soul. As these apologies will not avail on that
day, so it will be in vain for any one to deny his evil
actions ; since men and angels, and his own members,
nay, the very earth itself, will be ready to bear witness
against him.
At this examination, they also believe, that each per¬
son will have the book wherein all the actions of his
life are written delivered to him : which books the righ¬
teous will receive into the right hand, and read with
great pleasure and satisfaction; but the ungodly will
be obliged to take them, against their wills, in their
left, which will be bound behind their backs, their
right hand being tied up to their necks.
To show the exact justice which will be observed on
this great day of trial, the next thing they describe is
the balance, wherein all things shall be weighed. They
say it will be held by Gabriel; and that it is of so vast _
a size, that its two scales, one of which hangs over pa¬
radise, and the other over hell, are capacious enough
to contain both heaven and hell. J bough some are
willing to understand what is said in the Koran con¬
cerning this balance allegorically, and only as a figura¬
tive representation of God’s equity; yet the more an¬
cient and orthodox opinion is, that they are to be ta¬
ken literally; and since words and actions, being mere
accidents, are not capable of being themselves weigh¬
ed, they say that the books wherein they are written
will be thrown into the scales, and according as those
wherein the good or evil actions are recorded shall
preponderate, sentence will be given: those whose
balances laden with good wmrks shall be heavy, will
be saved ; but those whose balances are light, will be
condemned. Nor will any one have cause to complain
that God suffers any good action to pass unrewarded,
because the wicked for the good they do have their
reward in this life, and therefore can expect no favour
in the next.
This examination being past, and every one’s works
weighed in a just balance, that mutual retaliation will
follow, according to which every creature will take ven¬
geance one of another, or have satisfaction made them
for the injuries which they have suflered. And, since
there wall then be no other way of returning like lor
like, the manner of giving this satisfaction will be by
taking away a proportional part of the good works oi
him who offered the injury, and adding it to those of
him who suffered it. Which being done, if the angels
(by whose ministry this is to be performed) say, Lord,
we have given to everyone his due, and there remaineth
of this person"1 s good works so much as equalleth the
weight of an ant, God will, of his mercy, cause it he
doubled unto him, that he may be admitted into para¬
dise ; but if, on the contrary, bis good works be ex¬
hausted.
Mahome¬
tanism.
M A II [ ,
^taliome- iiausted, and there remain evil works only, and there
unism. he any who have not yet received satisfaction from him,
v 1 God will order that an equal weight of their sins he’
added unto his, that he may be punished for them in
their stead, and he will be sent to hell laden with both,
i his will be the method of God’s dealing with man¬
kind. As to brutes, alter they shall have likewise taken
vengeance ot one another, he shall command them to
be changed into dust} wicked men being reserved
to more grievous punishment, so that they shall cry out,
on hearing this sentence passed on the brutes, Would
to God that tve were dust also.' As to the genii, many
Mahometans are of opinion, that such of them as are
true believers, will undergo the same fate as the irra¬
tional animals, and have no other reward than the
favour of being converted into dust: and for this they
quote the authority of their projihet.
The trials being over, and the assembly dissolved, the
Mahometans hold, that those who are to be admitted
into paradise will take the right-hand way, and those
who are destined to hell-fire will take the left j but
both of them must first pass the bridge called in Arabic
af Strat, which they say is laid over the midst of hell,
and describe to be finer than a hair, and sharper than
the edge of a sword ; so that it seems very difficult
to conceive how any one shall be able to stand upon it;
for which reason, most ot the sect of the IVfotazalites
reject it as a fable ; though the orthodox think it a
sufficient proof of the truth of this article, that it was
seriously affirmed by him who never asserted a false¬
hood, meaning their prophet: who, to add to the
difficulty of the passage, has likewise declared, that
this bridge is beset on each side with briars and hook¬
ed thorns j which will however be no impediment to
the good ; for they shall pass with wonderful ease and
swiftness, like lightning, or the wind, Mahomet and
his Moslems leading the way; rvhereas the wucked,
what with the slipperiness and extreme narrowness of
the path, the entangling of the thorns, and the extinc¬
tion ot the light which directed the former to paradise,
will soon miss their footing, and fall down headlong in¬
to hell, which is gaping beneath them.
As to the punishment of the wicked, the Mahome-
tans aie taught, that hell is divided into seven stories
or apartments, one below another, designed for the re¬
ception of as many distinct classes of the damned.
I he first, which they call Jeheunam, they say, will be
the receptacle ot those who acknowledge one God,
that is, the wicked Mahometans ; who, after having
there been punished according to their demerits, will
at length be released. The second, named Ladha,
t.iey assign to the Jews; the third named al Hotuma,
to the Christians ; the fourth, named al Sair, to the
babians; the fifth, named Sakar, to the Magians ;
the sixth, named al Jahim, to the idolaters; and the
seventh, which is the lowest and worst of all, and is
called al Hawyat, to the hypocrites, or those who
outwardly professed some religion, but in their hearts
were of none. Over each of these apartments they
ebeve there will be set a guard of angels, 19 in num¬
ber; to whom the damned will confess the just judg¬
ment of God, and beg them to intercede with him for
some alleviation of their pain, or that they may be de¬
livered by being annihilated.
Mahomet has, in his Koran and traditions, been
11 ] MAH
very exact in describing the various torments of hell, Mahome
which, according to him, the wicked will suffer both tanism.
from intense heat and excessive cold. We shall, how- v v—-
ever, enter into no detail of them here; but only ob¬
serve, that the degrees of these pains will also vary
in proportion to the crimes of the sufierer, and the
apartment he is condemned to ; and that he who is
punished the most lightly of all will be shod with shoes
of fire, the fervour of which will cause his skull to boil
like a cauldron. The condition of these unhappy
wretches, as the same prophet teaches, cannot be pro¬
perly called either life or death; and their misery will
be greatly increased by their despair of being ever de¬
livered from that place, since, according to that fre¬
quent expression in the Koran, they must remain therein
for ever. It must be remarked, however, that the in¬
fidels alone tvill be liable to eternity of damnation;
for the Moslems, or those who have embraced the true
religion, and have been guilty of heinous sins, will be
delivered thence after they shall have expiated their
crimes by their sullerings. The time which these be¬
lievers shall be detained there, according to a tradition
handed down from their prophet, will not be less than
900 years, nor more than 7000. And, as to the man¬
ner of their delivery, they say that they shall be di¬
stinguished by the marks of prostration on those parts
of their bodies with which they used to touch the
ground in prayer, and over which the fire will there¬
fore have no power; and that, being known by this
characteristic, they will be released by the mercy of
God, at the intercession of Mahomet and the blessed
whereupon those who shall have been dead, will be re¬
stored to life, as has been said ; and those whose bodies
shall have contracted any sootiness or filth from the
flames and smoke of hell, will be immersed in one of
the rivers of paradise, called the river of Ifc, which will
wash them whiter than pearls.
The righteous, as the Mahometans are taught to
believe, having surmounted the difficulties, and passed
the sharp bridge above mentioned, before they enter
paradise, will be refreshed by drinking at the pond of
their prophet, who describes it to be an exact square
of a month’s journey in compass ; its water, which is
supplied by two pipes from Al Cawthar, one of the
rivers of paradise, being whiter than milk or silver,
and more odoriferous than musk, with as many cups
set around it as there are stars in the firmament; of
which water whoever drinks will thirst no mere for
ever. This is the first taste which the blessed will
have of their future and now near approaching felicity".
Though paradise be so very frequently mentioned irt
the Koran, yet it is a dispute among the Mahometans
whether it be already created, or to be created here¬
after ; the Motazalites and some other sectaries assert¬
ing, that there is not at present any such place in
nature, and that the paradise which the righteous will
Inhabit in the next life will be different from that from
which Adam was expelled. However, the orthodox
profess the contrary, maintaining that it was created
even before the world, and describe it, from their pro-
phet’s traditions, in the following manner:
They say it is situated above the seven heavens (or
in the seventh heaven), and next under the throne of
God ; and, to express the amenity of the place, tell
us, that the earth of it is of the finest wheat flour,-or
3 F 2 ' of
MAH t 412
Mahome- of the purest musk, or, as others will have it, of saf-
tanism fron : that its stones are pearls and jacinths, the walls
y of its buildings enriched with gold and silver } and
that the trunks of all its trees are of gold, among
which the most remarkable is the tree called Tuba, or
the tree of happiness. Concerning this tree, they fable,
that it stands in the palace of Mahomet, though a
branch of it will reach to the house of every true be¬
liever ; that it will be laden with pomegranates, grapes,
dates, and other fruits, of surprising bigness, and of
tastes unknown to mortals. So that if a man desire
to eat of any particular kind of fruit, it will imme¬
diately be presented him 5 or, if he choose flesh, birds
ready dressed will be set before him, according to his
wish. They add, that the boughs of this tree will
spontaneously bend down to the hand of the person
who would gather of its fruits, and that it will supply
the blessed not only with food, but also with silken gar¬
ments, and beasts to ride on ready saddled and bridled,
and adorned with rich trappings, which will burst forth
from its fruits ; and that this tree is so large, that a
person, mounted on the fleetest horse, would not be
able to gallop from one end of its shade to the other in
100 years.
As plenty of water is one of the greatest additions
to the pleasantness of any place, the Koran often speaks
of the rivers of paradise as a principal ornament there¬
of : some of these rivers, they say, flow with water,
some with milk, some with wine, and others with
honey } all taking their rise from the root of the tree
Tuba. 1
But all these glories will be eclipsed by the resplend¬
ent and ravishing girls of paradise, called from their
large black eyes Hur al oyun, the enjoyment of whose
company will be a principal felicity of the faithful.
These, they say, are created, not of clay, as mortal
women are, but of pure musk ; being, as their pro¬
phet often affirms in his Koran, free from all natural
impurities, defects, and inconveniences incident to the
sex, of the strictest modesty, and secluded from public
view in pavilions of hollow pearls, so large, that as
some traditions have it, one of them will be no less
than four parasangs (or, as others say, 60 miles) long,
and as many broad.
The name which the Mahometans usually give to
this happy mansion, is al Jannat, or “ the garden
and sometimes they call it, with an addition, Jannat
al Ftf'daivs, “ the garden of paradise Jannat Aden,
“ the garden of Eden,” (though they generally in¬
terpret the word Eden, not according to its accepta¬
tion in Hebrew, but according to its meaning in their
own tongue, wherein it signifies “ a settled or perpe¬
tual habitation) Jannat al Mawa, ‘‘ the garden of
abode Jannat al Naim, “ the garden of pleasure
and the like : by which several appellations some un¬
derstand so many different gardens, or at least places
of different degrees of felicity (for they reckon no
less than 100 such in all), the very meanest whereof
will afford its inhabitants so many pleasures and de¬
lights, that one would conclude they must even sink
under them, had not Mahomet declared, that, in
order to qualify the blessed for a full enjoyment of
them, God will give to every one the abilities of 100
men.
6. God’s absolute decree and predestination both of
] MAH
good and evil. The orthodox doctrine is, that what- Mabcmc-
ever hath or shall come to pass in this world, whether tanism.
it be good, or whether it be bad, proceedeth entirely :
from the divine* will, and is irrevocably fixed and re¬
corded from all eternity in the preserved table : God
having secretly predetermined not only the adverse and
prosperous fortune of every person in this world, in the
most minute particulars, but also his faith or infidelity,
his obedience or disobedience, and consequently his
everlasting happiness or misery after death ; which fate
or predestination it is not possible by any foresight or
wisdom to avoid.
Of this doctrine Mahomet makes great use in his
Koran for the advancement of his designs : encourag¬
ing his followers to fight without fear, and even des¬
perately, for the propagation of their faith, by re¬
presenting to them, that all their caution could not
avert their inevitable destiny, or prolong their lives for
a moment; and deterring them from disobeying or re¬
jecting him as an impostor, by setting before them the
danger they might thereby incur of being, by the just
judgment of God, abandoned to seduction, hardness of
heart, and a reprobate mind, as a punishment for their
obstinacy.
II. Religious practice. 1. The first point is prayer,
under which are also comprehended those legal wash¬
ings or purifications which are necessary preparations
thereto.
Of these purifications there are two degrees, one
called ghost, being a total immersion or bathing of the
body in water; and the other called wodu (by the
Persians, oldest), which is the washing of their faces,
hands, and feet, after a certain manner. The first is
required in some extraordinary cases only, as after hav¬
ing lain with a woman, or being polluted by emission
of seed, or by approaching a dead body ; women also
being obliged to it after their courses or childbirth.
The latter is the ordinary ablution in common cases,
and before prayer, and must necessarily be used by
every person before he can enter upon that duty. It
is performed with certain formal ceremonies, which
have been described by some writers, but much easier
apprehended by seeing them done, than by the best
description.
That his followers might be more punctual in this
duty, Mahomet is said to have declared, that the prac¬
tice of religion is founded on cleanliness, which is the one
half of the faith, and the key of prayer, without which
it will not be heard by God. That these expressions
may be the better understood, Al Ghazali reckons four
degrees of purification ; of which the first is the cleans¬
ing of the body from all pollution, filth, and excre¬
ments ; the second, the cleansing of the members of
the body from all wickedness and unjust actions ; the
third, the cleansing the heart from all blameable in¬
clinations and odious vices; and the fourth, the pur¬
ging a man’s secret thoughts from all aftections which
may divert their attendance on God ; adding, that the
body is but as the outward shell, in respect to the heart,
which is as the kernel.
Circumcision, though it be not so much as once
mentioned in the Koran, is yet held by the Mahome¬
tans to be an ancient divine institution, confirmed by
the religion of Islam, and though not so absolutely
necessary but that it may be dispensed with in some
cases,
Jfahomc
taaism.
MAH
cases, yet highly proper and expedient.-   
used this rite for many ages before Mahomet, having
— probably learned it from Jshmael, though not only his
descendants, but the Hamyarites and other tribes prac¬
tised the same. 'I he Isbmaelites, we are told, used to
circumcise their children, not on the eighth day, as is
the custom ot the Jews, but when about 12 or 13 years
old, at which age their father underwent that opera¬
tion ; and the Mahometans imitate them so far as not
to circumcise children before they may be able at least
distinctly to pronounce that profession of their faith,
Ihere is no God but God, Mahomet is the apostle of
God ; but pitch on what age they please for the pur¬
pose, between 6 and 16 or thereabouts.
Prayer was by Mahomet thought so necessary a du¬
ty, that he used to call jt the pillar oj religion and the
key of paradise; and when the Thakifites, who dwelt
at Tayef, sending, in the ninth year of the Hegira, to
make their submission to the prophet, after the keeping
of their favourite idol had been denied them, begged
at least that they might be dispensed with as to their
saying of their appointed prayers, he answered, 1'hat
there could be no good in that religion wherein was no
prayer.
That so important a duty, therefore, might not be
neglected, Mahomet obliged his followers to pray five
times every 24 hours, at certain stated times, viz.
1. In the morning before sunrise : 2. When noon is
past, and the sun begins to decline from the meridian :
3. In the afternoon, before sunset: 4. In the evening,
after sunset, and before the day be shut in j and,
5. After the day is shut in, and before the first watch
of the night. I or this institution he pretended to have
received the divine command from the throne of God
himself, when he took his night-journey to heaven j
and the observing of the stated times of prayer is fre¬
quently insisted on in the Koran, though they be not
particularly prescribed therein. Accordingly, at the
aforesaid times, of which public notice is given by the
Muedhdhins, or Criers, from the steeples of their
mosques (for they use no bells), every conscientious
Moslem prepares himself for prayer, which he per¬
forms either in the mosque or any other place, provid¬
ed it be clean, after a prescribed form, and with a cer¬
tain number of praises or ejaculations (which the more
scrupulous count by a string ot beads), and using cer¬
tain postures of worships all which have been particu¬
larly set down and described, though with some few
mistakes, by other writers, and ought not to be abridg¬
ed, unless in some special cases, as on a journey, on pre¬
paring for battle, &c.
For the regular performance of the duty of prayer
among the Mahometans, besides the particulars above
mentioned, it is also requisite that they turn their
faces, while they pray, towards the temple of Mecca \
the quarter where the same is situated, being, for that
reason, pointed out within their mosques by a niche,
which they call al Mehrab ; and without, by the situ¬
ation ot the doors opening into the galleries of the
steeples: there are also tables calculated for the
ready finding out their Keblah, or part towards which
t iey ought to pray, in places where they have no other
direction.
2. Alms are of two sorts, legal and voluntary. The
tgal alms are of indispensable obligation, being com-
1
L 413 1 MAH
The Arabs manded by the law, which directs and determines both Mnhome
the portion which is to be given, and of what things tanism.
it ought to be given j but the voluntary alms are left' v 
t° every one’s liberty, to give more or less as he shall
see fit. The former kind of alms some think to be pro¬
perly called ‘zacaty and the latter sadakat; though this
name be also frequently given to the legal alms. They
are called zacaty either because they increase a man’s
store by drawing down a blessing thereon, and produce
in his soul the virtue ol liberality j or because they pu¬
ffy tlle remaining part of one’s substance from pollu¬
tion, and the soul from the filth of avarice ; and sadakat,
because they are a proof of a man’s sincerity in the
worship of God. Some writers have called the legal
alms tithes; but improperly, since in some cases they
tall short, and in others exceed that proportion.
3. Fasting is a duty of so great moment, that Ma¬
homet used to say it was the gate of religion, and that
the odour of the mouth of him who fasteth is more grate¬
ful to God than that of musk; and Al Gbazali reckons
fasting one fourth part of the faith. According to the
Mahometan divines there are three degrees of fasting:
1. The restraining the belly and other parts of the bo¬
dy from satisfying their lusts : 2. The restraining the
ears, eyes, tongue, hands, feet, and other members,
from sin 5 and, 3. The fasting of the heart from world¬
ly cares, and restraining the thought from every thing
besides God.
The Mahometans are obliged, by the express com¬
mand of the Koran, to fast the whole month of Rama¬
dan from the time the new moon first appeal's, till the
appearance of the next new moon ; during which time
they must abstain from eating, drinking, and women,
from daybreak till night or sunset. And this injunction
they observe so strictly, that, while they fast, they suf¬
fer nothing to enter their mouths, or other parts of their
body, esteeming the fast broken and null, if they smell
perfumes, take a clyster or injection, bathe, or even
purposely swallow their spittle ; some being so cautious,
that they will not open their mouths to speak lest they
should breathe the air too freely: the fast is also deem¬
ed void, if a man kiss or touch a woman, or if he vo¬
mit designedly. But after sunset they are allowed to
refresh themselves, and to eat and drink, and enjoy the
company of their wives till daybreak 5 though the more
rigid begin the fast again at midnight. This fast is ex¬
tremely rigorous and mortifying when the month of Ra¬
madan happens to fall in summer (for the Arabian year
being lunar, each month runs through all the different
seasons in the course of 33 years), the length and heat
of the days making the observance of it much more dif¬
ficult and uneasy than in winter.
The reason given why the month of Ramadan was
pitched on for this purpose is, that on that month the
Koran was sent down from heaven. Some pretend,
that Abraham, Moses, and Jesus, received their respec¬
tive revelations in the same month.
4. The pilgrimage to Mecca is so necessary a point
of practice, that according to a tradition of Mahomet,
he who dies without performing it may as well die a
Jew or a Christian y and the same is expressly com¬
manded in the Koran.
The temple of Mecca stands in the midst of the city,
and is honoured with the title of Masjad al elharam,
i. e. the sacred or inviolable temple. What is principal-
MAH . t 41
ly reverenced in this place, and gives sanctity to the
whole, is a square stone building, called the Caaba 3
(see that article.)
To this temple every Mahometan, who has health
and means sufficient, ought, once at least in his hte,
to go on pilgrimage 3 nor are women excused Irom the
performance of this duty. The pilgrims meet at differ¬
ent places near Mecca, according to the different parts
from whence they come, during the months of Shawal
and Dhu’lkaada 3 being obliged to he there by the be¬
ginning of Dhu’lhajja 3 which month, as its name im¬
ports, is peculiarly set apart for the celebration ot this
solemnity. 4
At the place above mentioned the pilgrims properly
commence such 3 when the men put on the Hiram or
sacred habit, which consists only of two woollen wrap¬
pers, one wrapped about their middle to cover their
privities, and the other thrown over their shoulders,
having their heads bare, and a kind of slippers which
cover neither the heel nor the instep, and so enter the
sacred territory in their way to Mecca. While they
have this habit on, they must neither hunt nor fowl,
(though they are allowed to fish) 3 which precept is
so punctually observed, that they will not kill even a
louse or flea if they find them on their bodies: there
are some noxious animals, however, which they have
permission to kill during their pilgrimage, as kites, ra¬
vens, scorpions, mice, and dogs given to bite. Dur¬
ing the pilgrimage, it behoves a man to have a constant
guard over his words and actions 3 to avoid all quarrel¬
ling or ill language, all converse with women, and all
obscene discourse 3 and to apply his whole attention to
the good work he is engaged in.
The pilgrims, being arrived at Mecca, immediately
visit the temple 3 and then enter on the performance of
the prescribed ceremonies, which consist chiefly in go¬
ing in procession round the Caaba, in running between
the mounts Safa and Merwa, in making the station on
Mount Arafat, and slaying the victims, and shaving
their heads in the valley of Mina.
In compassing the Caaba, which they do seven
times, beginning at the corner where the black stone
is fixed, they use a short quick pace the three first
times they go round it, and a grave ordinary pace the
four last 3 which, it is said, was ordered by Mahomet,
that his followers might show themselves strong and
active, to cut off' the hopes cf the infidels, who gave
out that the immoderate heats of Medina had rendered
them weak. But the aforesaid quick pace they are not
obliged to use every time they perform this piece of de¬
votion, but only at some particular times. So often as
they pass by the black stone, they either kiss it, or
touch it with their hand, and kiss that.
The running between Safa and Merwa is also per¬
formed seven times, partly with a slow pace and partly
running : for they walk gravely till they come to a
place between two pillars 3 and there they run, and
afterwards walk again 5 sometimes looking back, and
sometimes stooping, like one who had lost something,
to represent Hagar seeking water for her son : for the
ceremony is said to be as ancient as her time.
On the ninth of Dhu’lhajja, after morning prayer,
the pilgrims leave the valley of Mina, whither they
come the day before 3 and proceed in a tumultuous and
rushing manner to Mount Arafat, where they stay to
-2
4 ] M A H
perform their devotions till sunset: then they go to Maliome
Mozalalifa, an oratory between Aralat and Mina; and tankm.
there spend the night in prayer and reading the Ko-1 v'***-
ran. The next morning by daybreak they visit al
Masher al Karam, or “ the sacred monument 3” and,
departing thence before sunrise, haste by Bain Mohas-
ser to the valley of Mina, where they throw seven stones
at three marks or pillars, in imitation of Abraham,
who, meeting the devil in that place, and being by him
disturbed in his devotions, or tempted to disobedience
when he was going to sacrifice his son, was commanded
by-God to drive him away by throwing stones at him ;
though others pretend this rite to be as old as Adam,
who also put the devil to flight in the same place, and
by the same means.
This ceremony being over, on the same day, the
tenth of Dhu’lhajja, the pilgrims slay their victims in
the said valley of Mina 3 of which they and their
friends eat part, and the rest is given to the poor.
These victims must be either sheep, goats, kine, or
camels : males, if of either of the two former kinds 3
and females if of either of the latter 3 and of a fit
age. The sacrifices being over, they shave their heads
and c<it their nails, burying them in the same place 3
after which the pilgrimage is looked on as completed :
though they again visit the Caaba, to take their leave
of that sacred building.
The rapid success which attended the propagation
of this new religion was owing to causes that are plain
and evident, and must remove, or rather prevent, our
surprise, when they are attentively considered. The
terror of Mahomet’s arms, and the repeated victories
which were gained by him and his successors, were,
no doubt, the irresistible arguments that persuaded
such multitudes to embrace his religion and submit to
his dominion. Besides, his law was artfully and mar¬
vellously adapted to the corrupt nature of man 3 and,
in a more particular manner, to the manners and opi¬
nions of the eastern nations, and the vices to which
they were naturally addicted: for the articles of faith
which it proposed were few in number, and extremely
simple 3 and the duties it required were neither many
nor difficult, nor -such as were incompatible with the
empire of appetites and passions. It is to be observed
farther, that the gross ignorance, under which the A-
rabians, Syrians, Persians, and the greatest part of
the eastern nations, laboured at this time, rendered
many an easy prey to the artifice and eloquence of this
bold adventurer. To these causes of the progress of
Mahometanism, we may add the bitter dissensions and
cruel animosities that reigned among the Christian
sects, particularly the Greeks, Nestorians, Eutychians,
and Monophvsites 3 dissensions that filled a great part
of the east with carnage, assassinations, and such detest¬
able enormities as rendered the very name ot Christia¬
nity odious to many. We might add here, that the
Monophysites and Nestorians, lull of resentment against
the Greeks, from whom they had suffered the bitterest
and most injurious treatment, assisted the Arabians in
the conquest of several provinces, into which, of conse¬
quence, the religion of Mahomet was afterwards intro¬
duced. Other causes of the sudden progress of thatre-
ligion will naturally occur to such as Consider attentive¬
ly its spirit and genius, and the state of the world at
this time.
MAHOMETANS,
ifahomc-
tans
I II
Malnvan.
Vol. I.
rt. xiv.
M A H f 4
MAHOME1ANS, those who believe in the reli¬
gion and divine mission of Mahomet. See Mahomet,
Mahometanism, and Alcoran.
MA HR ATT A. See Marhatta.
MAHWAH, or Mawee, in Botany; an East In¬
dian tree, so called by the natives of Rahar and the
neighbouring countries, but of which the Shanscrit
name is Madkuca, or Madhudruma. According to
Lieut. C. Hamilton, by whom a very particular ac¬
count of this tree is given in the Asiatic Researches *,
it is of the class of the polyandria-monogynia of Lin¬
naeus, but of a genus not described by him.
The tree, when full grown, is about the size of a
common mango tree, with a bushy head and oval leaves
a little pointed ; its roots spreading horizontally, are
sunk but little in the earth 5 the trunk, which is of¬
ten of a considerable thickness, rises seldom to any
great height, without giving off branches 5 it is, how¬
ever, not uncommon to see it shoot up clear to the
length of eight or ten feet : the wood itself is mode¬
rately hard, fine grained, and of a reddish colour. By
incision the tree affords a resinous gum from the
bark.
Hie flowrers are of a nature very extraordinary,
“ differing essentially (says Mr Hamilton) from those
of any other plant with which I am acquainted, as they
have not, in any respect, the usual appearance of such,
but rather resemble berries ; and I, like many others,
had long conceived them to be the fruit of the Mah-
wah.” The tree drops its leaves in the month of Fe¬
bruary, and early in March these flowers begin to
come out in clusters of thirty, forty, or fifty, from the
extremity of every small branch 5 and, from this pe¬
riod till the latter end of April, as the flowers come to
maturity (for they never open or expand), they conti¬
nue falling off, with their antheroe, in the mornings, a
little after sunrise; when they are gathered 5 and af¬
terwards dried by an exposure of a few days in the sun :
when thus prepared, they very much resemble a dried
grape, both in taste and flavour. Immediately after
the flowers drop off, fresh shoots are made for the new
leaves, which soon make their appearance, coming pre¬
sently to their full growth.
The fruit {properly so called) is of two sorts in shape ;
the one resembling a small walnut, the other some¬
what larger and pointed : it is ripe towards the middle
of May ; and continues dripping from the tree till the
whole fall, which is generally about the beginning or
towards the middle of June. The outer covering, or
pericarpium, which is of a soft texture, commonly bursts
in the fall, so that the seeds are very easilv squeezed
out of it: the seeds are somewhat of the shape, but
longer than an olive. These seeds are replete with a
thick oil, of the consistence of butter or ghee, which
is obtained by expression.
From this description it may easily be conceived
that the Mahwah tree and its productions are of singu¬
lar and general use, especially in those dry and barren
countries, which, from the nature of their situation,
aie not so well calculated for producing in plenty or
perfection the other necessaries of life.
Hie corolla or flowers, after being dried as before
described, are eaten by the natives raw or dressed with
their curries ; and, when even simply boiled with rice,
they afford a strengthening and wholesome nourish-
15 ] MAT
merit. They are indeed, our author tells us, often ap- Mahwab
plied to a less laudable purpose ; for being fermented, H
they yield by distillation a strong spirit, which the peo- Maiden.
pie here sell so very cheap, that for one pice (about a' v~<
halfpenny) maybe purchased no less than a cutcka-seer
(above a pint English) with which any man may get
completely drunk. These flowers make an article of
trade ; being exported from this country to Patna and
elsewhere in no inconsiderable quantities.
The oil yielded by the fruit, as before mentioned,
resembles ghee so much, that, being cheaper, the na¬
tives often mix it with that commodity. They use it
the same as ghee in their victuals, and in the composi¬
tion of some sorts of sweetmeats; and burn it in their
lamps. It is also regarded as a salutary remedy, ap¬
plied exteriorly to wounds and all cutaneous eruptions.
It is at first of the consistence of common oil, but soon
coagulates : after being kept for some time, it acquires
a bitterish taste and rancid smell, which renders it some¬
what less agreeable as an article of food : but this is
an inconvenience which, by the oil being properly cla-
1 ihed and prepared at first, might be perhaps avoided.
I his oil is also exported both in its adulterated and ori¬
ginal state to Patna and other parts of the Imv country.
1 he gum has not been applied to anv use : but might
be collected in large quantities in the’months of March
and April, about the time the flowers come out.
^lABA, in fabulous history, the daughter of Atlas
a. Pleione. She was the mother of Mercury by Ju¬
piter. She was one of the Pleiades, the most luminous
of the seven sisters 5 (see Pleiades). Also, a surname
01 Cybele.
MAIDEN, an instrument for beheading criminals.
. tlie use an<l form of this instrument Mr Pennant
gives the following account : “ It seems to have been
confined to the limits of the forest of Hardwick, or
the 18 towns and hamlets within its precincts. The
time when this custom took place is unknown j whe¬
ther Earl Warren, lord of this forest, might have esta¬
blished it among the sanguinary laws then in use against
the invaders of the hunting rights, or whether it might
not take place after the woollen manufactures at Hali¬
fax began to gain strength, is uncertain. The last is
very probable 5 for the wild country around the town
was inhabited by a lawless set, whose depredations on
the cloth-tenters might soon stifle the efforts of infant
industry. For the protection of trade, and for the
greater terror of offenders by speedy execution, this cus¬
tom seems to have been established, so as at last to re¬
ceive the force of law, which was, ‘ That if a felon be
taken within the liberty of the forest of Hardwick, with
goods stolen out, or within the said precincts, either
hand-habend, back-berand, or confession’d, to the va¬
lue of thirteen pence halfpenny, he shall, after three
market days or meeting-days within the town of Hali¬
fax, next after such his apprehension, and being con¬
demned, be taken to the gibbet, and there have his
head cut from his body.”
“ The offender had always a fair trial 5 for as soon
as he was- taken, he was brought to the lord’s bailiff at
Halifax : he was then exposed on the three markets
(which here were held thrice in a week), placed in a
stocks, with the goods stolen on his back, or, if the
theft wras of the cattle kind, they were placed by him;
and this was done both to strike terror into others,
and
Mai Jen
Maiden¬
head.
MAI . 41
and to produce new informations against him. The
bailiff' then summoned four freeholders of each town
within the forest to form a jury. The felon and pro¬
secutors were brought face to lace; and the goods, the
cow or horse, or whatsoever was stolen, produced. It
iie was found guilty, he was remanded to prison, had a
week’s time allowed for preparation, and then was con¬
veyed to this spot, where his head was struck oft by
this machine. I should have premised, that if the cri¬
minal, either after apprehension, or in the way to exe¬
cution, should escape out of the limits of the forest (part
being close to the town), the bailiff had no farther
power over him 5 but if he should be caught within
the precincts at any time after, he was immediately exe¬
cuted on his former sentence.
“ This privilege was very freely used during the
reign of Elizabeth : the records before that time were
lost. Twenty-five suffered in her reign, and at least 12
from 1623 to 1650; after which I believe the privilege
was no more exerted. T
“ This machine of death is now destroyed j but i
saw one of the same kind in a room under the parlia¬
ment house at Edinburgh, where it was introduced by
the regent Morton, who took a model of it as he passed
through Halifax, and at length suffered by it himself.
It is in form ol a painter’s easel, and about ten feet
high : at four feet from the bottom is a cross bar on
' which the felon lays his head, which is kept down by
another placed above. In the inner edges of the
frame are grooves j in these is placed a sharp axe, with
a vast weight of lead, supported at the very summit
with a peg : to that peg is fastened a cord, which the
executioner cutting, the axe falls, and does the affair
effectually, without suffering the unhappy criminal to
undergo a repetition of strokes, as has been the case in
the common method. I must add, that if the sufteier
is condemned for stealing a horse or a cow7, the stiing
is tied to the beast, which, on being whipped, pulls out
this peg, and becomes the executioner.” This appara¬
tus is now in possession of the Scottish Antiquarian So-
clety. _ .
Maiden is also the name of a machine first used in
Yorkshire, and since introduced into other places, for
washing linen ; consisting of a tub 19 inches high,
and 27 in diameter at the top, in ivliich the linen is
put, with hot water and soap, to which is adapted a
cover, fitting it very closely, and fastened to the tub
by two wedges 5 through a hole in the middle of the
cover passes an upright piece of wood, kept at a pro¬
per height by a peg above, and furnished with two
handles, by which it is turned backward and forward :
to the lower end of this upright piece is fastened a
round piece of wood, in which are fixed several pieces,
like cogs of a wheel. The operation of this machine
is to make the linen pass and repass quick through the
water.
MjiiDEN-Rents, in our old writers, a noble paid by
the tenants of some manors on their marriage. 1 his
was said to be given to the lord for his omitting the
custom of marcheta, whereby he was to have the first
night’s lodging with his tenant’s wife j but it seems
more probably to have been a fine for a license to many
a daughter.
MAIDENHEAD, a town of Berks, 26 miles from
London, with a stone bridge over the TLhames. It is
0 ]
M A I
governed by a high steward, a mayor, a steward, and Miidcn
10 aldermen, out of which last two bridgemasters are head
chosen every year. Here is a gaol both for debtors and .11
felons. The town stands partly in the parish of Bray
and partly in that of Cookham j and here is a chapel
peculiar to the corporation, the minister whereof is
chosen by the inhabitants, and not obliged to attend
the bishop’s visitation. Here are several alms-houses ^
and charities. This town, now so considerable, did not
begin to flourish till, by the building of its bridge, tra¬
vellers were brought this way, tvlio before used a ferry
at that called Babham's End, two miles north of it.
The ba*ge pier bridge is maintained by the corporation,
for which they are allowed the tolls both over and un¬
der it. The bridge pier divides Berks from Bucks.
There is a great trade htTe in malt, meal, and timbei,
which they carry in their barges to London. As this
is the great thoroughfare from thence to Bath, Bristol,
and other south-west parts of England, the adjacent
wood or thicket has been noted for many robberies.
The market is on W ednesdays. I he population m 1811
was 792.
MAIDSTONE, a town of Kent, in England, 36
miles from London, seated on the river Medway, a
branch of which runs through it. It is a corporation,
sends two members to parliament, and in 1811 contain¬
ed 9443 inhabitants. Its chief trade, besides linen-
thread, which is made in great perfection, is in hops $
of which there are many plantations about the town, as
well as orchards of cherries. The tide flows quite up
to the town, and brings up larges, &.c. of 50 or 60
tons. It has a fine stone bridge. One of the public
gaols for the county is kept in this town •, and the cus¬
tody of weights and measures, renewed by the standard
of King Henry YII. was committed to it by parliament,
as being in the centre of Kent j for which reason the
knights of the shire are always elected, and the courts
of justice always held here, and generally the assizes.
The archbishop of Canterbury is constant parson of this
parish, which is his peculiar, and served by his cu¬
rate. Here are four charity-schools, in which are
above 100 boys and girls, who are visited once a-week
and catechised by the minister. This is such a plenti¬
ful country, and the lands hereabouts are so rich, that
London is supplied with more commodities from hence
than from any market town in England j particularly
with the large bullocks that come from the Weald of
Kent, which begins but six miles off 5 with timber,
wheat, and great quantities of hops, apples, and. cher¬
ries •, with a sort of paving stone, eight or ten inches
square, that is exceeding durable ; and with the fine
white sand for glass-houses and stationers. 1 here are so
many gentlemen’s seats within 10 miles, that it is rare
to find a town of so much trade and business, so full of
gentry and good company.
MAIENNE, a considerable, handsome, and popu¬
lous town in France, formerly having the title ol a du¬
chy } seated on a river of the same name, in W. Long,
o. 3?. N. Lat. 48. 18.
MAIGNAN, Emanuel, a religious Minim, and
a philosopher of considerable eminence, was born of
an ancient and noble family at Thoulouse in 1601.
Like the famous Pascal, he became a complete mathe¬
matician without the assistance of a teacher ; and filled
the professor’s chair at Borne in 1636, where, at the
expence
M A I
Maignan txpence of Cardinal Spada, he published his hook Dc
|| Perspcctiva Horaria. He returned to Tkoulouse in
^a‘l- , 1650, and was created provincial : the king, who in
1660 entertained himself with the machines and curiosi¬
ties in his cell, made him oilers by Cardinal Mazarine,
to draw him to Paris ; but he humbly desired to spend
the remainder of his days in a cloister. He published
a course of philosophy, 4 vols. 8vo, at Thoulouse ; to
the second edition of which he added two treatises, one
against the vortices of Descartes, and the other on the
speaking trumpet invented by Sir Samuel Morland.
He is said to have studied even in his sleep, his very
dreams being employed in theorems, the demonstra¬
tions of which would awaken him with joy. He died
in 1676.
MAJESTY, a title given to kings, which frequent¬
ly serves as a term of distinction. The word seems
composed of the two Latin words, major, “ greater,”
and status, “ state.” The emperor is called Sacred d/a-
jesty, Imperial Majesty, and Ccesarean Majesty 1 The
king of Hungary is styled His Apostolic Majesty. The
king of Spain is termed His most Catholic Majesty: and
the king of Portugal, His most Faithful Majesty. The
king of France used to be called His most Christian Ma¬
jesty ; and when he treated with the emperor, the word
Sacred was added: He was afterwards called simply AV/;^
of the French. Bonaparte assumed the title of Emperor
and King of France.—With respect to other kings, the
name of the kingdom is added ; as, His Britannic Ma¬
jesty,His Prussian Majesty, &c. Formerly princes were
more sparing in giving titles, and more modest in claim¬
ing them : before the reign of Charles V. the king of
Spain had only the title of Highness ; and before that
of Henry VIII. the kings of England wrere only ad¬
dressed under the titles of Grace and Highness.
Under the Roman republic, the title Majesty, (majes-
tas) belonged to the whole body of the people, and to
the principal magistrates ; so that to diminish or wound
the majesty of the commonwealth, was to be wanting in
lespect to the state or to its ministers. But the power
afterwards passing into the hands of a single person,
the appellation of Majesty was transferred to the em-
peioi and the imperial family. Pliny compliments
Trajan on his being contented with the title of Great*
ness; and speaks very invidiously of those who affected
that of Majesty. And yet this last seems to be the most
modest and just title that can be attributed to sove¬
reigns, since it signifies no more than the royalty or so¬
vereign power.
MAH ivductio, an ancient custom for the priest
and people of country-villages to go in procession to
some adjoining wood on a May-day morning j and
return in a kind ot triumph, with a May-pole, boughs,
flowers, garlands, and other tokens of the spring. This
May-game, or rejoicing at the coming of the spring,
was for a long time observed, and still is in some parts
of England ; but there was thought to be so much
heathen vanity in it, that it was condemned and pro¬
hibited within the diocese of Lincoln by the good old
Bishop Grosthead.
MAIL {maille'), a term primarily applied to the
meshes or holes in net-work.
Coat oj Mail. See Coat. It is called also a ha-
ergeon. Anciently they also wore shirts of mail un-
^OL. XII. Part II. f
[ 417 1
M A 1
der the waistcoat, to serve as a defence against swords
and poniards. We also read of gloves of mail.
Mail, or Mall, also signifies a round ring of iron ;
whence the play of pall-mall, from pal la “ a ball,”
and maille, “ the round ring through which it is to
pass.”
Mail, or Maille, in our old writers, a small kind
of money. Silver halfpence were likewise termed
Mail/es, 9 Henry V. By indenture in the mint, a pound
weight of old sterling silver was to be coined into 360
sterlings or pennies, or 720 mails or half-pennies, or
1440 farthings. Hence the word mail was derived
which is now vulgarly used in Scotland to signify an
annual rent. J
Mail, or Maid, on ship-board, a square machine
composed of a number of rings interwoven net-wise,
and used for rubbing olf the loose hemp winch remains
on lines or white cordage after it is made.
Mail is likewise used for the leather bag wherein
letters are carried by the post.
MAiL-Coachcs. See Coach.
Action of Mails and Duties, in Scots Law. See
Law, p. 689, § 20.
Mail, Black. See Black-Mail.
MAILLA, Joseph Anne Marie de Moyriac
DE, a learned Jesuit, was born in the castle of Maillac
in the Bugey, and appointed a missionary to China,
whither he went in 1703. At the age of 28 he had
acquired so great a skill in the characters, arts, sciences,
mythology, and ancient books of the Chinese, as to
astonish even the learned. He was greatly beloved
and esteemed by the emperor Kham-Hi, who died in
1722. He, together with other missionaries, was
employed by that prince to draw a chart of China
and Chinese T. artary, which was engraven in France
in the year I732- -He drew likewise particular charts
of some of the provinces of this vast empire j with
which the emperor was so pleased, that he settled the
author at his court. Fhe great annals of China were
also translated into French by Father Mailla, and his
manuscript was transmitted to France in 1737. This
work was published in 12 volumes quarto, under the
inspection of M. Grosier, and is the first complete
history of that extensive empire. The style, which
was full of hyperbole and bombast, has been revised
by the editor, and the speeches which extended to
too great a length, and had too much sameness in
them, have been omitted. lather Madia, after having,
resided 45 years in China, died at Pekin on the 28th
of June 1748, in the 79th year of his age. Kien-Lung
the reigning emperor paid the expences of his funeral,
lie was a man of a lively and gentle character, capable
of the most persevering labour and the most unremit¬
ting activity.
MAILLET, Benoit de, descended from a noble,
family in Lorrain, was born in 1659, and appointed,
at the age of 33, consul-general for Egypt. He ful¬
filled this office for 16 years with great ability, sup¬
ported the king’s authority against the janizaries, and
greatly extended the trade of France into that part of
Africa. As a recompense for his services, the king
bestowed upon him the consulship of Leghorn, which
is the first and most considerable consulship in his
gift. Being at last appointed in 1715 to visit the
3 G sea-ports
MAI [413
Pfnillet sea-ports In tile Levant and' on the coast of Barbary,
S ’ he was so successful in the execution of Ins comnus-
-—  1 sion, that he obtained permission to retire with a consi¬
derable pension. He settled at Marseilles $ where he
died in 1738, in the 79th year of his age. He was a
man of a lively imagination, and gentle manners j in
society he was very amiable, and he possessed the
strictest probity. He was fond of praise and very
anxious about the reputation of genius. During the
whole of his life he paid particular attention to the
study of natural history, and his principal object was
to become acquainted with the origin of our globe.
On this important subject he left some curious ob¬
servations, which have been published in octavo under
the title of Telliamed, which is the name de MaiUet
written backwards. The editor Abbe Mascrier has
given to this work the form of dialogue. An Indian
philosopher is introduced as explaining to a French mis¬
sionary his opinion concerning the nature of the globe,
and the origin of mankind3 and, which is very in¬
credible, he supposes it to have come out of the wa¬
ters, and makes an abode uninhabitable by man the
birthplace of the human race. His great object is
to prove, that all the strata of which this globe is
composed, even to the tops of the highest mountains,
have come from the bosom of the waters ; that they
are the work of the sea, which continually retires to
allow them gradually to appear. Telhamed dedicated
his book to the illustrious Cyrano de Bergerac, author
of the imaginary “ Travels to the sun and moon.
In the humorous epistle which is addressed to him,
the Indian philosopher informs us that these dialogues
are nothing but a collection of dreams and fancies.
He cannot be accused of having broken his word •,
hut he may well he reproached with not having writ¬
ten them in the same style with his letter to Cy¬
rano, and with not having displayed equal liveliness
and humour. A subject the most extravagant is hand¬
led in the gravest manner, and his ridiculous opinion
is delivered with all the serious air of a philosopher. Of
the six dialogues which compose the work, the four
first contain many curious observations truly philoso¬
phical and important: in the other two we find no¬
thing but conjectures, fancies, and fables, sometimes
amusing, but always absurd. To IVIaillet we are in¬
debted also for “ A Description of Egypt,” collected
from his memoirs by the editor of Telliamed, 1743*
4to, or in 2 vols. 12mo.
MAIM, Maihem, or Mayhem, in Law, a wound by
which a person loses the use of a member that might
have been a defence to him 5 as when a bone is broken,
a foot, hand, or other member cut off, or an eye put
out; though the cptting off an ear or nose, or break¬
ing the hinder-teeth, was formerly held to be no maim.
A maim by castration was anciently punished with
death, and other maims with loss of member for mem¬
ber ; but afterwards they were only punished by fine
and imprisonment. It is now enacted by the statute
22 and 23 Car. II. that if any person, from malice
aforethought, shall disable any limb or member of any
of the king’s subjects with an intent to disfigure him,
the offender, with his aiders and abettors, shall be guil¬
ty of felony without benefit of clergy •, though no such
attainder shall corrupt the blood, or occasion forfeiture
«f lands, &c.
] MAI
MAIMONIDES, Moses, or Moses the son of Mainw-
Maimon, a celebrated rabbi, called by the Jews the
eagle of the doctors, was horn of an illustrious family at Mailj' •
Cordova in Spain, in 1131. The early part of his edu- L—v—
cation svas undertaken by Ins father, who afterwards
placed him under the tuition of Kabbi Joseph, the son
of Megas, a person on whose profound learning he has
bestowed the highest praise and according to Eeo
Africanus, he had also among his tutors the learned Ara¬
bians Ibn Thophail and Avcrroes. He is commonly
named Moses JEgyptius, because he settled in Egypt,
where he spent his whole life in quality of physician to
the sultan. Here he opened a school, which was soon
filled with pupils from all parts, from Alexandria and
Damascus especially, whose proficiency under him spread
his fame all over the world. He was no less eminent
in philosophy, mathematics, and divinity, than in me¬
dicine. Casaubon affirms it may be truly said of him,
as Pliny of old said of Diodorus Siculus, that “ he was
the first of his tribe who ceased to be a trifier.” It
would be tedious to enumerate all the works cf Maimo-
nides 5 some were written originally in Arabic, but
are now extant only in Hebrew translations. 44 Those
(says Collier) who desire to learn the doctrine and the
canon law contained in the Talmud, may read Maimo-
nides’s compendium of it in good Hebrew, in his book
entitled lad ; wherein they will find great part of the
fables and impertinencies in the Talmud entirely dis¬
carded. But the More Ncvochim is the most valued
of all his works j designed to explain the obscure words,
phrases, metaphors, &c. in scripture, which, when li¬
terally interpreted, have either no meaning or appear
absurd.
MAIN, an epithet usually applied by sailors to
whatever is principal, as opposed to whatever is infe¬
rior or secondary. Thus the main land is used in con¬
tradistinction to an island or peninsula 5 and the main
mast, the main wale, the main keel, and the main
hatchway, are in like manner distinguished from the
fore and mizen masts, the channel wales, the false keel,
and the fore and after hatchways, &c.
MAINOUR, Manour, or Meinour (from the
French, manier, i. e. manu tractare), in a legal sense
denotes the thing that a thief taketh away or stealeth :
As to be taken with the mainour (PL Cor. fol. i79-)>
is to be taken with the thing stolen about him : And
again (fol. 194O it was presented, that a thief was de¬
livered to the sheriff or viscount, together with the
mainour: And again (fol. 186.), if a man he indict¬
ed, that he feloniously stole the goods of another, where,
in truth, they are his own goods, and the goods be
brought into the court as the mainour j and if it be
demanded of him, what he saith to the goods, and he
disclaim them *, though he be acquitted of the felony,
lie shall lose the goods : And again (fol. 149.)) T t.*ie
defendant were taken with the mainour, and the main¬
our he carried to the court, they, in a.ncient times,
would arraign him upon the mainour, without any ap¬
peal or indictment. Cowel. See Blackst. Comment.
vol. iii. p. 71. vol. iv. p. 303.
MAINPRIZE. See False Imprisonment.
The writ of mainprize, manucaptio, is a writ direct¬
ed to the sheriff (either generally, when any man is
imprisoned for a bailable offence, and hail hath been
refused) or specially, when the offence or cause of
r\ 1Y11 f m P n ^
M A I
Mainprize romniitment is not properly bailable below), command-
,, . !I *ng to take sureties for the prisoner’s appearance,
m^cnon. USUally called mainpernors, and to set him at large.
Mainpernors differ ironi bail, in that a man’s bail may
imprison or surrender him up before the stipulated day
of appearance ; mainpernors can do neither, but are
barely sureties for his appearance at the day : bail are
only sureties that the parties be answerable for the
special matter for which they stipulate j mainpernors
are bound to produce him to answer all charges what¬
ever. See Habeas Corpus.
MAIN FENANGE, in Law, bears a near relation
to Barretry ) being an officious intermeddling in a
suit that no wray belongs to one, by maintaining or as¬
sisting either party with money or otherwise, to pro¬
secute or defend it: a practice that wras greatly encou¬
raged by the first introduction of uses. This is an of¬
fence against public justice, as it keeps alive strife
and contention, and perverts the remedial process of
the law into an engine of oppression. And therefore,
by the Roman law, it was a species of the crimen falsi,
to enter into any confederacy, or do any act to sup¬
port another’s law suit, by money, witnesses, or patron¬
age. A man may, however, maintain the suit of his
near kinsman, servant, or poor neighbour, out of cha¬
nty and compassion, with impunity. Otherwise the
punishment by common law is fine and imprisonment j
and by the statute 32 Henry VIII. c. 9. a forfeiture
of 1 ok
MAINTENON, Madame de, a French lady of
extraordinary fortune, descended from an ancient fa¬
mily, and whose proper name was Frances d' Aubigne,
was born in 1635. Her parents by misfortunes being
ill able to support her, she fell to the care of her mo¬
ther s relations j to escape which state of dependence,
she was induced to marry that famous old buffoon the
Abbe Scarron, who subsisted himself only on a pension *
allowed him by the court for his wit and parts. She
lived with him many years, which Voltaire makes no
scruple to call the happiest years of her life 5 but when
he died in 1660, she found herself as indigent as she
had been before her marriage. Her friends indeed en¬
deavoured to get her husband’s pension continued to her,
and presented so many petitions to the king about it,
all beginning with “ The widow Scarron most humbly
prays your majesty’s,” &c. that he was quite weary
ol them, and has been heard to exclaim, “ Must I al¬
ways be pestered with the widow Scarron ?” At last,
however, through the recommendation of Madame de*
Montespan, he settled a much larger pension on her,
with a genteel apology for making her wait so long ;
and afterward made choice of her to take care of the
education of the young duke of Maine, his son by Ma¬
dame de Montespan. The letters she wrote on this
occasion charmed the king, and were the origin of her
advancement j her personal merit effected all the rest.
He bought her the lands of Maintenon, the only estate
she ever had j and finding her pleased with the acqui¬
sition, called her publicly Madame de Maintenon; which
was of great service to her in her good fortune, by re¬
leasing her from the ridicule attending that of Scar¬
ron. Her elevation was to her only a retreat j the
king came to her apartment every day after dinner,
before and after supper, and continued there till mid¬
night : here he did business with his ministers, while
C 419 3
M A I
Madame de Maintenon, employed in reading or needle¬
work, never showed any desire to talk of state affairs,
and carefully avoided all appearance of cabal or in¬
trigue j she did not even make use of her power to
dignify her own relations. About the latter end of
the year 1685, Louis XIV. married her, he being
then in his 48th and she in her 50th year j and that
pit ty with which she inspired the king to make her a
wife instead of a mistress, became by degrees a settled
disposition of mind. She prevailed on Louis to found
a religious community at St Cyr, for the education of
300 young ladies of quality ) and here she frequently
retired from that melancholy of which she complains
so pathetically in one of her letters, and which few la¬
dies will suppose she should be liable to in such an
elevated situation. But, as M. Voltaire says, if any
thing could show the vanity of ambition, it would
certainly be this letter. Madame de Maintenon could
have no other uneasiness than the uniformity of her
manner of living with a great king; and this made her
once say to the count D’Aubigne her brother, “ I
can hold it no longer; I wish I was dead.” The an¬
swer he made to her was, “ You liave then a promise
to marry the Almighty!” Louis, however, died be¬
fore her in 1715 j when she retired wholly to St Cyr,
and spent the rest of her days in acts of devotion ; and
what is most surprising is, that her husband left no
certain provision for her, recommending her only to
the duke of Orleans. She would accept no more than
a pension of 80,000 livres, which was punctually jiaid
her till she died in 1719. A collection of her letters
has been published, and translated into English ; from
wuich familiar intercourses her character will be better
known than from description.
MAJOR, in the art of wrar, the name of several
officers of very different ranks and functions.
MiJOR-general. See General.
Major of a Regiment of Foot, the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel, generally promoted from the eldest
captain : he is to take care that the regiment be well
exercised, to see it march in good order, and to rally
it in case of being broken in action : he is the only of¬
ficer among the infantry that is allowed to be on horse¬
back in time of action, tlmt he may the more readily
execute the colonel’s orders.
Major of a Regiment of Horse, as well as foot, ought
to be a man of honour, integrity, understanding, cou¬
rage, activity, experience, and address: he should be
master of arithmetic, and keep a detail of the regi¬
ment in every particular: he should be skilled in horse¬
manship, and ever attentive to iiis business : one of his
principal functions is, to keep an exact roster of the
officers for duty : he should have a perfect knowledge
m all the military evolutions, as he is obliged by his
post to instruct others, &c.
Foivii-Major, the third officer in order in a garri¬
son, and next to the deputy-governor. He should un¬
derstand fortification, and has a particular charge of
the guards, rounds, patroles, and ccntinels.
Brigade-Major, is a particular officer appointed for
that jiurpose only in camp : he goes everyday to head¬
quarters to receive orders from the adjutant-general:
there he writes exactly whatever is dictated to him :
from thence he goes and gives the orders, at the place
appointed for that purpose, to the different majors' or
3 G 2 adjutants
VTaiiUcrtom
Major.
Major.
M A J f 4-2
adjutants of the regiments which compose that brigade,
and regulates with them the number of officers and
men which each arc to furnish for the duty ot the army •,
taking care to keep an exact roster, that one may not
give more than another •, and that each march in their
tour: in short, the major of brigade is charged with
the particular detail in his own brigade, in much the
same way as the adjutant-general is charged with the
general detail of the duty of the army. He sends every
morning to the adjutant-general an exact return, by
battalion and company, ot the men of his brigade mis¬
sing at the retreat, or a report expressing that none
are^absent: he also mentions the officers absent with
or without leave.
As all orders pass through the hands of the majors
of brigade, they have infinite occasions of making
known their talents and exactness.
Major of Artillery, is also the next officer to the
lieutenant-colonel. His post is very laborious, as the
whole detail of the corps particularly rests with him j
and for this reason all the non-commissioned officers
are subordinate to him, as his title of serjeant-major im¬
ports : in this quality they must render him an exact
account of every thing which comes to their know¬
ledge, either regarding the duty or wants ot the artil¬
lery and soldiers. He should possess a perfect know¬
ledge of the power of artillery, together with all its
evolutions. In the field he goes daily to receive orders
from the brigade-major, and communicates them with
the parole to his superiors, and then dictates them to
the adjutant. He should be a very good mathemati¬
cian, and be well acquainted with every thing belong¬
ing to the train of artillery, &c.
Major of Engineers, commonly with us called Sub-
director, should be very well skilled in military archi¬
tecture, fortification, gunnery, and mining. He should
know how to fortify in the field, to attack and defend
all sorts of posts, and to conduct the works in a siege,
&c. See Engineer.
AuI-Major, is on sundry occasions appointed to act
as major, who has a pre-eminence above others ot the
same denomination. Our horse and foot guards have
their guidons, or second or third majors.
x Serjeant-MAJOR, is a non-commissioned officer of
great merit and capacity, subordinate to the adjutant,
as he is to the major. See Serjeant.
Drum-MAJOR, is not only the fii’st drummer in the
regiment, but has the same authority over his drummers
as the corporal has over his squad. He instructs them
in their different beats j is daily at orders with the Ser¬
jeants, to know the number of drummers for duty. He
marches at their head when they beat in a body. In
the day of battle, or at exercise, he must be very atten¬
tive to the orders given him, that he may regulate his
beats according to the movements ordered.
Fife-MAJOR, is he that plays the best on that (instru¬
ment, and has the same authority over the lifers as the
drum-major has over the drummers. He teaches them
their duty, and appoints them for guards, &c.
Major, in Law, a person who is of age to manage
his own affairs. By the civil larv a man is not a major
till the age of 25 years j in England, he is- a major at
21, as in Normandy at 20.
Major, in Logic, is understood of the first propo¬
sition of a regular syllogism. It is called major, because
) ] M A J
it has a more extensive sense than the minor proposition, Major
as containing the principal term. See Logic.  v—
Major and Minor, in Music, are applied to concords
which differ from each other by a semi-tone. See
Concord.
Major tone is the difference between the fifth and
fourth ; and major semi-tone the difference between the
major fourth and the third. The major tone surpasses
the minor by a comma.
MiJOR-Domo, an Italian term frequently used to
signify a steward or master ot the household. The
title of major-domo was formerly given in the courts
of princes to three different kinds of officers. 1. To
him who took care of what related to the prince’s table,
or eating •, otherwise called eleater, prajectus mensce,
architriclinus, dapifer, andprinceps coquorum.—2. Ma¬
jor-domo was also applied to the steward of the house-
bold.—3. The title of major-domo was also given to
the chief minister, or him to whom the prince deputed
the administration of his affairs, foreign and domestic,
relating to war as well as peace. Instances of major-
domos in the first two senses are frequent in the En¬
glish, French, and Norman affairs.
Major, John, a scholastic divine and historian,,
was born at Haddington, in the province of East Lo¬
thian in Scotland. It appears from some passages in
his writings, that he resided a while both at Oxford
and Cambridge. He went to Paris in I493j ant^ sfu_'
died in the college of St Barbe, under the famous John
Boulac. Thence he removed to that of Montacute,
where he began to study divinity under the celebrated
Standouk. In the year 1498, he was entered of the
college of Navarre. In 1505, he was created doctor
in divinity j returned to Scotland in I5I9» an<^ taught
theology during several years in the university of St
Andrew’s. But, at length, being disgusted with the
quarrels of his countrymen, he went back to Paris, .and
resumed his lectures in the college of Montacute,
where he had several pupils who afterwards became
men of great eminence. About the year I53°> re"
turned once more to Scotland, and was chosen profes¬
sor of theology at St Andrew’s, of which he after¬
wards became provost, and there died in I547» agef^
78. His logical treatises form one immense folio j his
commentary on Aristotle’s physics makes another ; and
his theological works amount to several volumes ot the
same size. These masses of crude and useless disqui¬
sition were the admiration of his contemporaries. A
work, less prized in his own age, was to make him
known to posterity. His book De Gestis Scotoruni,
was first published at Pans by Badius Ascensius, in
the year 1521. He rejects in it some of the fictions
of former historians j and would have had greater me¬
rit if he had rejected more. He intermingles the hi¬
story of England with that of Scotland j and has in¬
curred the censure of some partial writers, for giving
an authority to the authors of the former nation, which
he refuses to those of his own. Bede, Caxton, and
Eroissard, were exceedingly useful to him. What does
the greatest honour to this author is, the freedom
with which he has censured the rapacity and indolence
of ecclesiastics, and the strain of ridicule with which he
treats the pope’s supremacy. The style in which he
wrote does not deserve commendation. Bishop Spot-
tiswood calls it Sorbonnic and barbarous.
MAJOBCA,
Majorca,
Mairan.
M A I [ 421 ] MAI
MAJORCA, an ,s!aml of tire Mediterranean, lying ,vas one of the most illustrious members of the Academy
between Ivica on the west and Minorca on the east, of Sciences and of the French a!!!, 1! tj •
Tliese three islands were anciently called Baleares, sup-' ° °CienC’e8 ot the^rench Academy. Bcin« early
posed to be from the skill of their inhabitants in sling¬
ing, for which they were very remarkable. Originally
they belonged to the Carthaginians ; but during th*-
wars of that people with the Homans they seem to
have regained their liberty. In 122 B. C. they were
subdued by Metellus the Roman consul, who treated
the inhabitants with such cruelty, that out of 30,000
he scarce left 1000 alive. He then built two cities on
Majorca 5 one called Palma, now Majorca, to the east;
the other to the west, named Pollentia, now no longer
in being. The island continued subject to the Ro¬
mans, and to the nations who overran the western
part of the empire, for many ages. At last it was sub¬
dued by the Moors about the year 800. By them the
island was put in a much better condition than it ever
was before or since. Ihe Moors being very industri¬
ous, and also populous, surrounded the whole coast
with fortifications, that is, with a kind of towers and
lines between them ; cultivated every spot in the island
that was not either rock or sand 5 and had no fewer
tuan 1 y great towns, whereas now there are not above
three. Neither was it at all difficult for the Moorish
monarch to bring into the field an army much superior
in number to the inhabitants that are now upon it,
taking in all ranks, sexes, and ages. In 1229, the island’
was subdued by the king of Arragon, who established
in it a new kingdom, feudatory to that of Arragon,
which was again destroyed in 1341 by the same mo-
navchs ; and ever since, the island hath been subject to
Spain, and hath entirely lost its importance. It is
about 60 miles long, and 45 broad. The air is clear
and temperate j and, by its situation, the heat in sum¬
mer is so qualified by the breezes, that it is by far the
most pleasant of all the islands in the Mediterranean.
There are some mountains ; but the country is gene¬
rally flat, and of such an excellent soil, that it produces
great quantities of corn as good in its kind as any in
Europe. Oil, wine, and salt, are very plentiful, as al¬
so black cattle and sheep 5 but deer, rabbits, and wild¬
fowl, abound so much, that they alone are sufficient
for the subsistence of the inhabitants. There are no
livers, but a great many springs and wells, as well as
several good harbours. The inhabitants are robust,
active, and good seamen.
. Majorca, a handsome, large, rich, and strong town
m the island of the same name, with a bishop’s see. It
contains about 6000 houses, and 22 churches, besides
the cathedral. The squares, the cathedral, and the
royal palace, are magnificent, structures. A captain-
general resides there, who commands the whole island 5
and there is a garrison against the incursion of the
Moors. It was taken by the English in 1706 ; but
was retaken in 1715, since which time it has been in
the hands of the Spaniards. It is seated on the south-
wrest part of the island, where there is a good harbour,
70 miles north-east of Yvica, 120 south east of Barce¬
lona, 140 east of Valencia, and 300 from Madrid. E.
Eong. 2. 55. N. Lat. 39. 36.
MAIRAN, Jean Jacq,ues d’Ortous de, descend¬
ed from a noble family at Besiers, was born in that city
m 1678, and died at Bans of a defluxion on the lungs
^ tIie 20th of February 1771, at the age of 93. He
 my. Being early
connected with the former society, he, in the year
1741, succeeded Fontenelle in the office of secre¬
tary. This station he filled with the most distin¬
guished success till the year 1744; and, like his pre¬
decessor, possessed the faculty of placing the most ab¬
stract subjects in the clearest light; a talent which is
Miry raie, but which appears conspicuous in all his
w or \s. I he chief of them are, 1. ^Dissertation sur la
ijlace, the last edition of which was printed in 1749
12mo. This excellent little tract has been translated
into German and Italian. 2. Dissertation sur la cause
dc la lunnere des P ho spheres, 1717, 12010. 3. Traite
historique et physique de P Aurore Bor calc, first publish-
ec 111 121110, 1733, and afterwards much enlarged and
printed in 4to in 1754. The system embraced by the au¬
thor is liable to be controverted ; but the book displays
great taste and erudition. 4. Lettre an Pere Parennm,
contenant diverses questions sur la Chine, 12mo. This is
a very curious work, and is full of that philosophical
spirit which characterizes the author’s other publica¬
tions 5. A great number of papers in the memoirs of
the Academy of Sciences (since 1719), of which he
published some volumes. 6. Several dissertations 011
particular subjects, which form only small pamphlets.
7. Ihe Eloges of the Academicians of the Academy of
Sciences who died in 1741, 1742, 1743, in i2mo,
1747. Without imitating Fontenelle, the author at¬
tained almost equal excellence by his talent of discri¬
minating characters, appreciating their worth, and giv¬
ing them their due share of praise, without at the same
time concealing their defects.
Mairan s reputation extended itself into foreign
countries. He was a member of the Imperial Academy
at Petersburgh, ol the Royal Academy of London, of
the Institution at Bologna, of the Royal Societies of
Edinburgh and Upsal, &.c. The gentleness and sweet¬
ness of his manners made him be considered as a per¬
fect model of the social virtues. He possessed that
amiable politeness, that agreeable gaiety, and that
steady firmness, which never fail to procure love and
esteem. But we must add, says M. Saverien, that
every thing had a reference to himself; self-love and
a regard to his own reputation were the motives of all
his actions. He was deeply affected with censure or
applause, and yet he had many friends. Uniting
much gentleness of disposition to an ingenious and
agreeable expression of countenance, lie possessed the
art of insinuating himself into the good graces of
others, so as to pave the way to elevation and success.
He was honoured with protection and particular marks
of regard by the duke of Orleans the regent, who be¬
queathed to him his watch in his will. The prince
of Conti loaded him with favours j and the chancel¬
lor Daguesseau, observing in him great originality and
ingenuity of thought, appointed him president of the
Journal des Spavans: a station which he filled very
much to the satisfaction of the public and of the learn¬
ed. The private and selfish views imputed to him by
M. Saverien never made him deficient in what was
due to the strictest probity. An expression of his is
remembered, which could have proceeded only from
sentiment 5 “ An honest man (said he) is one whose
blood is refreshed with the recital of a good action.”
He
MAI [ 422 ] M A 1 ,
One day he happened to lated the New Testament three times, because
Hr the gen,^ .0
Maistrc. him in opinion upon some point winch n
^ 'no more connexion with jurisprudence than with
leometry. “ Sir (said the magistrate, who supposed
that a learned man was a perfect idiot out of his own
sphere), we are not now talking ot Euclid or Archi¬
medes.’” “ No, nor of Cujas nor Barthole . replie
the academician. _
MAIRE, Strfights le, a passage to Cape llorn,
situated between Terra del Fuego and Staten island j
which, being discovered by Le Maire, obtained is
name. It is now, however, less made use of than tor-
tnerly, ships going xound Staten island at Well as lerra
del Fuego. ,
MAISTRE, Louis Isaac le, better known by
the name of Sanj, was born at Paris in 1613. Has ge¬
nius verv early discovered itself. After an excellent
course of study under the direction of the abbot of
Saint Cyran, he was raised to the priesthood in 1045,
and soon after was chosen, on account of his virtues,
to be director of the religious of 1 ort Royal des
Champs. As this monastery bore the reputation ot
Jansenism, their enemies were furnished with a pre¬
tence for persecuting them. In 1661 the director
the Maistr
first time the style of it appeared too much laboured Manta!
and too refined, and the second too simple. A coun-
terfeit of the edition in 32 vols. 8vo, was published af
Brussels in 40 vols. I 2mo. The best editions of this
version have been published at Brussels, lyoo, in 3 V°L.
4to *, at Amsterdam, under the name of Pons, 171 _r’
8 vols. l2mo ; at Paris 1713, in 2 vols. 4to •, and in
with notes and a concordance, 4 vols. folio. 2.
Vne Traduction des Pscaumes scion l'Hebrew et la Vul¬
gate, in 1 2mo. 3. Une version des Homelies de St Chry-
sostome sur St Matthicu, in 3 vols. 8vo. 4. La Traduc¬
tion de limitation de Jesus Christ (sous le nom dc hcuu,
prieur de Saint-Val), Paris 1663, 8vo. 5. Cede de
Phedre, i2mo, (sous le nom de Saint-Aubin). 6. De
trois Comedies de Thence, in l2mo. 7. DesLettres de
Bongars (sous le nom de Brianville). 8. Du Poeme de
St Prosper sur les ingrates, 12mo, en verse et en prose.
o. Lcs Enluminures de VAhnaTicich dcs Jesuitcs, 1654’
i2mo, reprinted in 1733. In 1653 there appeared
a print representing the overthrow of Jansenism ana¬
thematized by the two powers, and the confusion of
the disciples of the bishop of Ypres, who are going
to seek refuge with the Calvinists. The monks of
Port-Royal were greatly provoked at this print, and
fence for persecuting them. In 1 _ 1 , Baev thought that he would lower its reputation by
was obliged to conceal himself •, an in 666 I of 4 Enluminures, which Racine has ridiculed
S
committed to the Bastile. During his confinement
he composed the book Figures de la Bible; m which,
according to the Molinists, allusions are made to the
sufferings endured by the Jansenists. If we may be¬
lieve a Jesuit writer, the gentlemen of Port Royal and
those who opposed their errors, are represented in the
2d figure, the former by David, the latter by Saul.
Rehoboam in the Ii6th figure, Jezebel in the 130th,
Ahasuerus in the 148th and 150th, and Darius 111 the
li6oth, in the opinion of this author, represent Louis
XIV. The writer of these anecdotes, of which we do
not answer for the authenticity, adds, that when Sacy
wished to reproach his jiersecutors, he always did it by
means of the holy fathers. If this is the key to those
enigmatical portraits and allusions, which it is pretend¬
ed are to be found in that book, certain we are it was
not discovered by the spirit of charity. Besides, it is
not certain that Sacy was the author of that book; for
it is much more probable that it was composed by Nico¬
las Fontaine his fellow prisoner.
To Sacy’s confinement the public are indebted tor a
French translation of the Bible. This work was finished
in 1668, the evening before the feast of Ail Saints.;
on which day he recovered his liberty, after an impri¬
sonment of two years and a half. He was presented
to the king and "the minister; and all the favour he
asked from them was, that they would send several
means of his Enluminures, which Racine has ridiculed
in one of his letters. It is indeed very strange that
men of taste and piety should write satires to the in¬
jury of one another. 10. Heures de Port-Royal, 12mo.
11. Lettres de Piete, Paris 1690, 2 vols. 8vo. .
MAITTAIRE, Michael, a learned English wri¬
ter, was born in 1668. Dr South, canon of Chiist-
Church, made him a student of that house, where he
took the degree of M. A. March 23. 1696. From
1695 till 1699 he was second master of Westminster
school; which was afterwards indebted to him for
Grcecce Linguce Dialecti,in usum Scholce JVcstmonaste-
riensis, 1706, 8vo ; and for the “ English Grammar,
applied to, and exemplified in, the English longue,
1712,” 8vo. In 1711? published u Remarks on Mr
Whiston’s Account of the Convocation’s proceedings
with relation to himself, in a Letter to the right reve*
rend Father in God George Lord Bishop of Bath and
Wells,” 8vo; also “ An Essay against Ariamsm,
and some other Heresies; or a Reply to Mr W illiatn
Whiston’s Historical Preface and Appendix to his
Primitive Christianity revived,” 8vo. In i7°9 he gave
the first specimen of his great skill in typographical
antiquities, by publishing Stephanorum Historia, vitas
ipsorum ac libros complectens, 8vo ; which was followed
in 1717 by Historia Typographorum aliquot Parisien-
sium, vitas et libros complectens, 8vo. In 1719,
'times a year to examine the state" of the prisoners in nalel Typographici ab artis centre ™gi™ ad a,mum
amesa y of fill 16*7 r. am. Ato. Ihe second volume, divided into two parts,
the Bastile. Le Maistre continued at Paris till 1675,
when he retired to Port Royal, which he was obliged
to leave in 1679. He went to settle at Pompone,
where he died January 4. 1684, at the age of 71
From him we have, 1. La Traduction de la Bible, with
explanations of the spiritual and literal meaning taken
from the fathers, the greater part of which was done
by Du Fosse, Hure, and Tourneux. This is the best
French translation which has yet appeared, and the
most esteemed edition is that of Paris in 32 volumes
8vo, 1682 and following years. The author trans-
4
JV/D, 4to. The second volume, divided into two parts,
and continued to the year 1536, was published at the
Hague in 1702 ; introduced by a letter of John loland,
under the title of Conjectura verisimilis de pnma Typo¬
graphies Inventione. J he third volume, from the same
press, in two parts, continued to I5.57» an^ t!1
Appendix) to 1664, in 1725. In 1733 was publish¬
ed at Amsterdam what is usually considered as e.
fourth volume, under the title of Annales Typographici
ab artis inventce origine, ad annum mdclxiv, opera
Mich. Maittaire, A. M. editio nova, auction et emendatior;^
3 tqmi
M A I
ittaire. tomiprimipars posterior (a). In 1741 the work was
closed at London, by Annalium Typographicorum To¬
mas quintas et ultimas, indicemin tomos quatuor prceeun-
tes complectens; divided, like the two preceding volumes,
into two parts. In the intermediate years, Mr Mait-
tuire was diligently employed on various works of value.
In 1713 he published by subscription Opera et Fragmen¬
ts Veterum Poetarum, 1713, two volumes in folio: the
title of some copies is dated 1721. In 1714, he was
the editor of a Greek Testament, in 2 vols. The La¬
tin writers, which he published separately, most of them
with good indexes, came out in the following order:
In 1713, Christas Paliens; Justin; Lucretius; Phce-
dras; Sallust; Terence. In 1715, Catullus; Tibullus;
Propertius; Cornelius Ncpos; Floras; Horace; Ju¬
venal; Ovid, 3 vols } Virgil. In 1711, Ccesar's
Commentaries; Martial; Quintus Curtins. In 1718
and 1725, Velleius Paterculus. In 1719, Lucan. Jn
1720, BonefoniiCarmina In 1721, he published, Ba-
trachomyomachia, Greece, ad veterum exemplariumfulcm
rccusa; glossa Graca, varian tibus lectionibus, versioni-
bus Latinis, commentariis et indicibus, illustrata, 8vo.
In 1722, Miscellanea Grcecorum aliquot Scriptorum
Carmina, cum versiotie Latina et notis, 4to. In 1724
Le compiled, at the request of Dr John Freind (at whose
expence it was printed), an index to the works of
Areteeus, to accompany the splendid folio edition of
that author in 1723. In 1725 he published an excel¬
lent edition of Anacreon in 4to, of which no more than
100 copies were printed, and the few errata in each
copy corrected by his own hand. A second edition of
the like number was printed in 1741, with six copies
on fine writing paper. In 1726 he published PetriPe-
titi MediciParisiensis in tres priores AretceiCappadocis
Libras Commentarii, nunc primum editi, 410. This
learned commentary was found among the papers of Grre-
yius. Irom 1728 to 1733 *ie employed in publish¬
ing Marmorum Arundelianorum, Seldenianorum, alio-
rumque Academice Oxoniensi donatonim, una cum Com¬
mentariis et Indice, editio secunda, folio ; to which an
Appendix was printed in 1733. Epistola D. Mich.
Muittaire ad D. P. Des Maizeaux, in qua Indices in
Annales Typographicos methodus explicatur, &c. print¬
ed in “ The Present State of the Republic of Letters,”
August 1733, p. 142. The life of Robert Stephens in
Latin, revised and corrected by the author, with a new
and complete list of his works, is prefixed to the improv¬
ed edition of R. Stephens’s Thesaurus, 4 vols. in folio, in
1734* I'1 *736 appeared Antiquce Inscriptiones duee,
folio; being a commentary on two large copper tables
discovered near Heraclea, in the bay of Tarentum. In
1738 were printed at the Hague Greeca Linguee Dia-
lecti in Scholce Regies Westmonasteriensis usmn recog-
mti, opera Mich. Maittaire. In 1739 he addressed to
the empress of Russia a small Latin poem, under the
title of Carmen Fpiciitium Augustissinue Russorum Im-
peratrici sacrum. His name not having been printed
C 423 ]
M A L
in the title page, it is not so generally known that he was
editor of Plutarch’s Apophthegmata, 1641, 410. The
last publication of Mr Maittaire was a volume of poems
in 4to, 1742, under the title of Senilia, site Poetica ali¬
quot in argumentis variigeneris tentamina. Mr Mait¬
taire died in 1747? aged 79. His valuable library,
which had been 50 years collecting, was sold by auction
by Messrs Cock and Langford, at the close of the same
year, and the beginning of the following, taking up in
all 44 nights. Mr Maittaire, it may be added, was
patronized by the first earl of Oxford, both before and
after that gentleman’s elevation to the peerage, and
continued a favourite with his son the second earl. He
was also Latin tutor to Mr Stanhope, the earl of Ches¬
terfield’s favourite son.
MAIZE, or Indian Corn. See Zea, Botany
Index.
MAKI. See Lemur, Mammalia Index.
MALABAR, the name given to a great part of
the west coast of the peninsula of Hindostan on this side
of the Ganges, extending from the kingdom of Baglala
to Cape Comorin, or from the north extremity of the
kingdom of Canara as far as Cape Comorin, and lying
between 9° and 140 N. Lat. It is bounded by the
mountains of Balagate on the east; by Deccan oa
the north; and on the west and south is washed by the
Indian sea.
MALAGA, in Ancient Geogi'aphy, surnamed Fcc-
deratorum by Pliny •, a maritime town of Baetica ,
a Carthaginian colony according to Strabo 5 so cal¬
led from Malach, signifying “ salt j” a place noted
for pickled or salted meat. Now Malaga, a port.,
town of Granada in Spain. W. Long. 4. 45. N. Lat.
36. 40.
MALACCA, the most southerly part of the great,,
peninsula beyond the Ganges, is about 600 miles in
length, and contains a kingdom of the same name. It
is bounded by the kingdom of Siam on the north *, by
the bay of Siam and the Indian ocean on the east j
and by the straits of Malacca, which separate it from
the island of Sumatra, on the south-west. This coun¬
try is more to the south than any other in the East In¬
dies j and comprehends the towns and kingdoms of
Patan, Paban, Igohor, Pera, Queda, Borkelon, Ligorj..
and to the north the town and kingdom of Tanassery,
where the Portuguese formerly carried on a great trade.
This last either does or did belong to the king of Siam.
The people of Malacca are in general subject to the
Dutch, who possess all the strong places on the coast,
and compel them to trade on their own terms, excluding
all other nations of Europe from having any commercs
with the natives.
The Malays are governed by feudal laws. A chief,
who has the title of king ov.sultan, issues his commands
to his great vassals, who have other vassals in subjection
to them in a similar manner. A small part of the na¬
tion live independent, under the title of oranicai or no¬
ble*
(a) The awkwardness of this title has induced many collectors to dispose of their first volume, as thinking it
superseded by the second edition : but this is by no means the case •, the volume of 1719 being equally necessary
to complete the set as that of 1733, which is a revision of all the former volumes. The whole work, when pro¬
perly bound, consists, ad libitum, either of .five volumes or ef njjip.
Maittaire
II
Malacca.
 , 1
M A L- L
lie, ami sell tlieir services to those who pay them best;
while the body of the nation is composed ol slaves, and
live in perpetual servitude. r i r
The sreneralitv of these people are restless, fond ot
navigation, war, plunder, emigration, colonies, des¬
perate enterprises, adventures, and gallantry. Ihey
talk incessantly of their honour and their bravery j
whilst they are universally considered by those with
whom they have intercourse, as the most treacherous,
ferocious ‘people on earth. This ferocity, which the
Malays qualify under the name of courage, is so well
known to the European companies who have settle¬
ments in the Indies, that they have universally agreed
in prohibiting the captains of their ships who may put
into the Malay islands, from taking on board any sea¬
men from that nation, except in the greatest distress,
and then on no account to exceed two or three. It
is not in the least uncommon for a handful ot these
horrid savages suddenly to embark, attack a vessel y
surprise, massacre the people, and make themselves
masters of her. Malay batteaux, with 24 m 3° meib
have been known to board European ships of 30 or 40
guns, in order to take possession of them, and niurder
with their poniards great part of the crew. Those
who are not slaves go always armed : they would think
themselves disgraced if they went abroad without their
poniards, which they call crit. As their lives are a
perpetual round of agitation and tumult, they cannot
• endure the long Howing garments in use among the
other Asiatics. Their habits are exactly adapted to
their shapes, and loaded with a multitude of buttons,
which fasten them close to their bodies.
The country possessed by the Malays is in general
very fertile. It abounds with odoriferous woods, such
as the aloes, the sandal, and cassia. The ground
is covered with flowers of the greatest fragrance, ot
which there is a .perpetual succession throughout the
year. There are abundance of mines of the most precious
metals, said to be richer even than those of Brazil or
Peru, and in some places are mines of diamonds. I he
sea also abounds with excellent fish, together with
ambergrise, pearls, and those delicate bird-nests so
much in request in China, formed in the rocks with
the spawn of fishes and the foam of the sea, by a
species of small-sized swallow peculiar to those seas.
These are of such an exquisite flavour, that the Chi¬
nese for along time purchased them for their weight in
gold, and still buy them at an excessive price. See
BiRDS-Nest.
Notwithstanding all this plenty, however, the Ma¬
lays are miserable. The culture of the lands, abandon¬
ed to slaves, is fallen into contempt. These wretched
labourers, dragged incessantly from their rustic em¬
ployments by their restless masters, who delight in war
and maritime enterprises, have never time or resolution
to give the necessary attention to the labouring of their
grounds •, of consequence the lands for the most part
are uncultivated, and produce no kind of grain for
the subsistence of the inhabitants. The sago tree indeed
supplies in part the defect of grain. It is a species of
the palm tree, which grows naturally in the woods to
the height of about 20 or 30 feet j its circumference
Mai
aga.
being sometimes from five to six. Its ligneous, bark is
about an inch in thickness, and covers a multitude of
424 3 M A
long fibres, which being interwoven one with another Malacca
envelope a mass of a gummy kind of meal. As soon
as this tree is ripe, a whitish dust, which transpires  
through the pores of the leaves, and adheres to their
extremities, indicates that the trees are in a state of
maturity. The Malays then cut them down near the
root, and divide them into several sections, which they
split into quarters : they then scoop cut the mass ot
mealy substance, which is enveloped by and adheres to
the fibres ; they dilute it in pure water, and then pass
it through a straining bag of fine cloth, in order to
separate it from the fibres. M hen this paste has lost
part of its moisture by evaporation, the Malays throw
it into a kind of earthen vessel of difierent shapes,
where they allow it to dry and harden. This paste is
wholesome nourishing food, and preserves for many years.
Malacca, the capital of the country of the same
name, is situated in a flat country close to the sea.
The walls and fortifications are founded on a solid
rock, and are carried up to a great height; the lower-
part of them is washed by the sea at every tide, and
on the land side is a wide canal or ditch, cut from the
sea to the river, which makes it an inland. In 1641
it was taken from the Portuguese by the Dutch, from
which time it continued in their possession till I795>
when it was taken by the British. It was restored at
the peace of Amiens, retaken in 1807 by the British,
but appears to have been included in the cessions made
to the Dutch by the treaty of 13th August 1814. The
houses are tolerably well built, and some of them have
gardens behind or on one side. I he inhabitants con¬
sist of a few Dutch, many Malayans, Moors, Chinese,
and other Indians. The city is well situated for navi¬
gation •, but the trade of the place is trifling. E. Long.
102. 2. N. Lat. 2. 12.
MALACHI, or the prophecy of Malachi, a
canonical book of the Old Testament, and the last of
the 12 lesser prophets. Malachi prophesied about 3°^
years before Christ, reproving the Jews for their wick¬
edness after their return from Babylon, charging them
with rebellion, sacrilege, adultery, profaneness, and in¬
fidelity } and condemning the priests for being scanda¬
lously careless in their ministry j at the same time not
forgetting to encourage the pious few, who, in that
corrupt age, maintained their integrity. This prophet
distinctly points at the Messiah, who was suddenly to
come to his temple, and to be introduced by Elijah the
prophet, that is, John the Baptist, who came in the
spirit and power of Elias or Elijah. # .
MALACIA, in Medicine, is a languishing disorder
incident to pregnant women, in which they long some¬
times for one kind of food and sometimes for another,
and eat it with extraordinary greediness.
MALACOPTERYGEOUS, in Ichthyology, an ap¬
pellation given to fishes having the rays of their ns
bony at the extremities, but not pointed, like those 0
acanthopterygeous fishes. . t
MALACOSTOMOUS fishes, those destitute ot
teeth in the jaws, called in English leather-mouthed, as
the tench, carp, bream, &c. f
MALAGA, an ancient, rich, and strong town ot
Spain, in the kingdom of Granada, with two cast es,
a bishop’s see, and a good harbour, which renders
it a place of considerable commerce. I he advantage
of
Malaga,
Malagrida
M A L [
of this commerce, according to M. Bourgoanne, is
entirely m favour of Spain, but almost without any
to its navigation ; of 842 vessels which arrived at this
port in 1782, from almost every commercial nation
scarcely 100 were Spanish, even reckoning the ships
of war which anchored there. The English, who are
in possession of the greatest part of the trade, carry
thither woollens and great quantities of small ware 5
the Dutch carry spice, cutlery ware, laces, ribbons’
thread, &c. These nations, those of the north, and
Italy, export to the amount of two millions and a
hall of piastres in wines, fruits, sumach, pickled an¬
chovies, oil, &c. and all they carry thither amounts
only to about a million and a half. The balance would
be still more advantageous for Malaga if the silk and
wool of Granada were exported from this port; but
these are employed in the country where they are pro¬
duced. Sugar has been cultivated in the vicinity of
this town for 700 years. The streets of Malaga are
narrow, but there are some good squares; and the ca¬
thedral church is a superb building, said to be as large
as St Paul’s. I he bishop’s palace is a large edifice,
but looks insignificant from its being situated near the
other. Its prelate enjoys a revenue of i6,oool. ster-
hng. Malaga is seated on the Mediterranean sea, at
the loot of a craggy mountain. W. Long. 4.10. N Lat
36. 51.
MALAGBIDA, Gabriel, an Italian Jesuit, was
chosen by the general of the order to conduct missions
into Portugal. To great ease and fluency of speech,
tor which he was indebted to enthusiasm, he added
the most ardent zeal for the interest of the society to
which he belonged. He soon became the fashionable
director ; and every one, small or great, placed him-
selt under his conduct. He was respected as a saint,
and consulted as an oracle. When a conspiracy was
iormed by the duke d’Aveiro against the king of Por-
tugal, it is asserted by the enemies of the society, that
three Jesuits, among whom was Malagrida, were con¬
sulted concerning the measure. They add (what is
very improbable), that it was decided by these casuists
that it was only a venial crime to kill a king who per¬
secuted the saints. At that time the king of Portu¬
gal, spurred on by a minister who had no favour for
the Jesuits, openly declared himself against them, and
soon after banished them from his kingdom. Only
three of them were apprehended, Malagrida, Alexan¬
der, and Mathos, who were accused of having ap¬
proved this murder. But either the trial could not be
proceeded in without the consent of the pope, which
was not granted, or no proof could be got sufficient
to condemn Malagrida; and therefore the king was
obliged to deliver him to the Inquisition, as being su¬
spected of having formerly advanced some rash propo¬
sitions which bordered on heresy. Two publications
which he acknowledged, and which give the fullest
indications of complete insanity, were the foundation
ol these suspicions. The one was written in Latin,
and entitled Iractatus de vita et imperio Antichristi; the
other in Portuguese, under the title of the “ Life of
Anne, composed with the assistance of the blessed
Virgin Mary and her most holy Son.” They are
iU‘i/fra?ganCe and ^surdity—This enthusiast
pretended to have the gift of miracles. He confessed
VolPS °fIIie lTlquisition’ that God bimself
425 ] M A L
had declared him his ambassador, apostle, and pronhet • at i • 1
that he was united to God by a pefpetnal uni^td T
that the V irgm Mary, with the consent of Jesus Christ Makmia.
and of the whole Trinity, had declared him to be her' 'r~~J
son. In short, he confessed, as is pretended, that he felt
m the prison, at the age of 72, some emotions very un¬
common at that period of life, which at first gave him
great uneasiness, but that it had been revealed to him
by Ood that these, emotions were only the natural effect
ot an involuntary agitation, wherein there was the
same merit as in prayer. It was for such extravagan¬
cies, that this unfortunate wretch was condemned by
the inquisition ; but his death was hastened by a vi¬
sion which he eagerly revealed. Upon occasion of the
death of the marquis de Tancourt, commander in
chiet ot the province of Estremadura, mournful and
continued discharges were made in honour of him by
the castle of Lisbon, and by all the forts on the banks
ot the Tagus These being heard by Malagrida in
his dungeon, he instantly supposed, from them extra¬
ordinary nature, and from their happening during the
night, that the king was dead. The next day he de¬
manded an audience from the members of the Inquisi¬
tion: which being granted, he told them that he had
been ordered by God to show the minister of the holy
otnce that he was not a hypocrite, as was pretended :
tor the king’s death had been revealed to him, and he
had seen in a vision the torments to which his majesty
was condemned for having persecuted the religious of
his order. This was sufficient to accelerate his punish¬
ment: he was burnt on the 2ist of September 1761 •
not as the accomplice of a parricide, but as a false pro!
phet, tor which he deserved to be confined in bedlam
rather than tied to the stake. The acts of impiety
whereof he was accused were nothing more than extra¬
vagancies proceeding from a mistaken devotion and an
overheated brain.
MALDEN, a town of Essex, 37 miles from Lon¬
don, situated on an eminence at the conflux of the
Chalmer and Pant or Blackwater, where they enter the
sea. It was the first Roman colony in Britain, and the
seat of some of the old British kings. It was besieged,
plundered, and burnt by Queen Boadicea : but the Ro¬
mans repaired it. It was again ruined by the Danes
but rebuilt by the Saxons, It has a convenient haven on
an arm of the sea for vessels of 400 tons; and a consi¬
derable trade in coals, iron, corn, and deals. A little be-r
yond it begins Blackwater bay, famous for the Walfleet
oysters. 1 he channel called Malden water is navigable
to the town. King Edward the elder (of the Saxon race)
resided here whilst he built Witham and Hertford castles.
n the west side of the town are the remains of a camp.
Ihe population in 1811 was 2679.
MALALEUCA, the Cayputi Tree, a genus of
plants belonging to the polyadelphia class. See Bo¬
tany Index. This plant, which is a native of the Mo¬
luccas, yields the oil called Cayputi.
MALDIVIA ISLANDS, a cluster of small islands
in the Indian ocean, 500 miles south-west of the con¬
tinent of the island of Ceylon. Jhey are about 1000
in number, and are very small ; extending from the se¬
cond degree of south latitude to the seventh degree of
north latitude. They are generally black low lands
surrounded by rocks and sands. The natives are of
the same complexion with the Arabians, profess the
3 H Mahometan
Male-
branche
M A L [
Maldivia Mahometan religion, and are subject to one sovereign.
The channels between the islands are very narrow, and
some of them are fordable. They produce neither rice,
corn nor herbage ; but the natives live upon cocoa-
nuts,’ and other fru’its, roots, and fish. They carry on a
little trade with the British Indian settlements, ex¬
changing their salt-fish, turtle-shells, and cocoa, tor rice,
sugar, hardware, cloth, &c. They have also a consi¬
derable trade among themselves. Their manners are
mild and inoftensive. . ...
MALE, among zoologists, that sex of animals which
has the parts of generation situated externally. See bEX
and Generation. . . ,
The term male has also from some similitude to tnat
sex in animals, been applied to several inanimate things ;
thus we say, a male flower, a male screw, &x. bee
Mas Planta, Masculus Flos, and Screw j also r e-
male and Flos. .
. MALEBRANCHE, Nicholas, an eminent r rench
metaphysician, the son of Nicholas Malebranche, se¬
cretary to the French king, was born in 1638, and ad¬
mitted into the congregation of the oratory in 1600.
He at first applied himself to the study of languages
and history : but afterwards meeting with Des Cartes s
Treatise of Mav, he gave himself up entirely to the
study of philosophy. In 1699, ^ie was an
honorary member of the Royal Academy of Sciences
at Paris. Notwithstanding he was of a delicate con¬
stitution, he enjoyed a pretty good State of health till
his death, which happened in I7I5» a* a£e 77*
Father Malebranche read little, but thought a great
deal. He despised that kind of philosophy which
consists only in knowing the opinions of other men,
since a person may know the history of other men s
thoughts without thinking himself. He could never
read ten verses together without disgust. He medi¬
tated with his windows shut, in order to keep out the
light, which he found to be a disturbance to him. His
conversation turned upon the same subjects as his books j
but was mixed with so much modesty and deference to
the judgment of others, that it was extremely and
universally desired. His books are famous; particu¬
larly his Recherche de la Verite, i. e. “ Search after
truth his design in which is, to point to us the er¬
rors into which we are daily led by our senses, imagina¬
tion, and passions; and to prescribe a method for dis¬
covering the truth, which he does, by starting the no¬
tion of seeing all things in God. And hence he is led
to think and speak meanly of human knowledge, either
as it lies in written books, or in the book of nature,
compared with that light which displays itself from
the ideal world*, and, by attending to which, with
pure and defecate minds, he supposes knowledge to be
most easily had. The fineness of this author s senti¬
ments, together with his fine manner of expressing
them, made every body admire his genius and abilities ;
but he has generally passed for a visionary philosophei.
Mr Locke, in his examination of Malebranche’s opi¬
nion of seeing all things in God, styles him, “ an acute
and ingenious author and tells us, that there are a
great many very fine thoughts, judicious reasonings,
and uncommon reflections in his Recherches."1 But JV 1
Locke, in that piece, endeavours to refute the chief
principles of his system. He wrote many other pieces
besides that we have mentioned, all tending to connim
426 ] M A L
his main system, established in the Recherche, and to Male-
clear it from the objections which were brought against branch®,
it, or from the consequences which were deduced from
it * and if he has not attained what he aimed at m ,
these several productions, he has certainly shown great
abilities and a vast force of genius. See Supplement,
first Dissertation, p. 113.
MALESHERBES, Christian-William de La-
MOIGNON DE, was born at Paris in 1721. He was
son of the chancellor of France, William de Lamoig-
non, who was descended of an illustrious family. His
early education he received at the Jesuits college,
applying himself afterwards to the study of the law
with great assiduity, as well as history and political
economy*. He was chosen a counsellor ol the parlia¬
ment of Paris at the age of 24, and succeeded his fa¬
ther as president of the court of aids in the year 17 50.
With the presidentship of the court of aids he received
the superintendance of the press, in whose hands it be¬
came the means of promoting liberty to a degree be¬
yond all former example in that country. As he firm¬
ly believed that despotism alone had any reason to dread
the liberty of the press, he was anxious to give it every
extension consistent with sound policy and the state oi
public opinion. Through his favour the French Ency-
cloptedia, the works of Rousseau, and many “ee
speculations, issued from the press, in defiance of the ter¬
rific anathemas of the Sorbonne. This had itsown weight
in paving the way to the horrors of the revolution.
in paving ttcvj vw    * v
which Malesherbes did not probably foresee j yet it had
also the happy effect of freeing the minds ol men Irom
the fetters of ignorance and superstition, and of enlight¬
ening them respecting their rights and duties in society.
The superintendance of the press having been taken
from him, to confer it on that tool of despotism Mau-
peou, he was only the more intent on fulfilling the du¬
ties of his presidentship, and opposing arbitrary powei
with all his vigour, being thus freed from a number
of other cares. When the proceedings of the court
of aids were to be prohibited, on account of the spi¬
rited conduct of Malesherbes in the ease of one Mon-
nerat, who had been most unjustly treated by the far¬
mers of the revenue, he presented a remonstrance to
the king, containing a free protest against the enormous
abuses of lettres de cachet, by which every man’s liber¬
ty was rendered precarious, concluding with these me¬
morable words *, “ no one is great enough to be secure
from the hatred of a minister, nor little enough not to
merit that of a clerk.” Soon after this he was banish¬
ed to his country-seat by a lettre de cachet, and the
duke de Richelieu at the head of an armed force abo¬
lished the tribunal. In this state of retirement he com¬
mitted to paper a number of observations on the poli¬
tical and judicial state of France, on agriculture and
natural history, which all perished in the wreck oi the
revolution. , ,
On the accession of Louis XVI. to the throne m
1774, he received an order to appear at the pace
where the court of aids had sat, and resume t e pre
sidentship of the tribunal thus restored^ He laid be¬
fore the new sovereign an ample memoir on the cala¬
mitous state of the kingdom, with a free exposure oi the
faults by which it had been produced, from a firm con¬
viction that truth at all times should have access to t e
throne. His sentiments so fully accorded with tboset
M A L [' 427 ] M A L
Ma5e_ the young king, whose mind was not yet corrupted,
^ shcrtiesi that he was chosen minister of state in the year 1775,
in which elevated rank he was only ambitious to ex¬
tend the sphere of his usefulness. His first care was to
visit the prisons, and restore to liberty the innocent vic¬
tims of the former reign. His administration was also
distinguished by the powerful encouragement of com¬
merce and agriculture, being supported in his laudable
endeavours by the able and virtuous Turgot, at that
time comptroller-general of the revenue, who having
•lost his place through the intrigues of financiers, Male-
sherbes did not long retain his office after him. As
he failed in his benevolent endeavours to ameliorate the
condition of Protestants respecting the solemnization of
marriage and the legitimating of their children, he re¬
signed his office in the month of May 1776.
Being fond of travelling, and resolved to mix freely
'with people of every description, in order to acquire an
accux-ate knowledge of human nature, he assumed the
'humble title of M. Guillaume, and commenced his
journey in a simple, frugal manner. He travelled
through France, Switzerland and Holland, frequently
on foot, and lodged in villages, to have a nearer survey
of the state of the country. He made memorandums,
with the greatest care, of whatever ho conceived to be
worthy of observation respecting the productions of na¬
ture and the operations of industry; and after an ab¬
sence of some years he returned to his favourite man¬
sion, fully fraught with such a stock of valuable know¬
ledge as his age and experience qualified him to ap¬
preciate.
Finding on his return that his native country was far
advanced in philosophical principles, he drew up two
elaborate memoirs to the king, one of them on the
condition of the Protestants, and the other on civil li^
berty and toleration in general j and the difficulties
with which ministers now found themselves surrounded,
induced the king to call him to his councils, being a
man who stood high in the esteem of the whole nation,
but he received no appointment to any particular of¬
fice. In the critical state in which he clearly saw the
king stood, he made one effort for opening his eyes, by
means of two spirited and energetic memoirs, “ On the
calamities of I ranee, and the means of repairing them j’’
but, as the queen’s party carried every thing before it,
he was not even permitted to read them, and also de¬
nied a private interview with the ill-fated monarch,
in consequence of which he took his final leave of the
court.
When by a decree of the national convention the
unfortunate Louis was to be tried for his life, Male-
sherbes generously offered to plead his cause, nobly for¬
getting the manner in which he had been banished from
his councils. He was the person who announced to
him his cruel doom, and one of the last who took leave
of him, when taken out to suffer. After this eventful
period, he withdrew to his retreat with a deeply wound¬
ed heart, and refused to hear any thing more of what
was acting on the bloody theatre of Paris. Walking
one morning in his garden, he perceived four men
coming towards his house, sent by the convention to
arrest his daughter Mad. Lepelletier Rossambo and her
husband, once president of the parliament of Paris j and
the accusation of Malesherbes was followed, as a mat¬
ter of course, by the sentence of death. The truth
is, the convention never forgave his defence of the .Mar¬
king $ an action, however, in which he himself always sherbes
gloried. ||
On the fatal day, this great man left the prison with , MaIlcc'
a serene countenance; and, happening to stumble
against a stone, he said, (with the pleasantry of Sir
Thomas More), “ a Roman would have thought this
an unlucky omen, and walked back again.” He con¬
versed with his children in the cart, took an affection¬
ate farewell, and received the stroke in April 1794,
in the 73d year of his age. Thus fell, by the insati¬
able cruelty of a monster, Whose hatred to men of vir¬
tue and abilities was implacable, one of the most spot¬
less and exemplary characters of the period at which
he lived. The government afterwards made some re¬
paration for the injustice done him, by ordering his
bust to be placed among those of the great men who
have reflected honour upon their country.
MALHERBE, Francis de, the best French poet
of his time, v/as born at Caen about the year 1556, of
a noble and ancient family. He quitted Normandy at
17 years of age $ and went into Provence, where he
attached himself to the family of Henry Angouleme,
the natural son of King Henry II. and Was in the ser¬
vice of that prince till he was killed by Altoviti in
1586. At length Cardinal de Perron, being informed
of his merit and abilities, introduced him to Henry IV.
who took him into his service. After that monarch’s
death, Queen Maryde Medicis settled a pension of 500
crowns upon our poet, who died at Paris in 1628.
The best and most complete edition of his poetical
Works is that of 1666, with Menage’s remarks. Mal¬
herbe so far excelled all the Frettch poets who preced¬
ed him, that Boileau considers him as the father of
French poetry : but he composed with great difficulty,
and put his mind on the rack in correcting what he
wrote. He was a man of singular humour, and blunt
in his behaviour. When the poor used to promise
him, that they would pray to God for him, he answer¬
ed them, that “ he did not believe they could have any
greet interest in heaven, since they were left in such a
bad condition upon earth j and that he should be bet¬
ter pleased if the duke de Luyne, or some other
favourite, had made him the same promise.” He
would often say that “ the religion of gentlemen was
that of their prince.” During his last sickness he had
much ado to resolve to confess to a priest: for which
he gave this facetious reason, that “ he never used to
confess but at Easter.” And some few moments be¬
fore his death, when he had been in a lethargy two
■ hours, he awaked on a sudden to reprove his landladv,
who waited on him, for using a word that was not good
French ; saying to bis confessor, who reprimanded him
for it, that “ he could not help it, and he would defend
the purity of the French language to the last moment
of his life.”
MALICE, in Ethics and Law, is a formed design
of doing mischief to another 5 it differs from hatred.
In murder, it is malice makes the crime; and if a
man, having a malicious intent to-kill another, in the
execution of his malice kills a person not intended,
the malice shall be connected to his person, and he
shall be adjudged a murderer. The words ex malitia
preecogitata ale necessary to an indictmept of murder,
&c. And this malitia prwcogitata, or malice prepense,
3 H 2 may
UAL [ 428 ] M A L ’
may be either express or implied in law. t.xpress "ma¬
lice is, when one, with a sedate, deliberate mind, and
formed design, kills another; which formed design is
evidenced by external circumstances discovering that
intention *, as lying in wait, antecedent menaces, form¬
ed grudges, and concerted schemes to do him some bo¬
dily harm. Besides, where no malice is expressed, the
law will imply it j as where a man wilfully poisons
another, in such a deliberate act the law presumes ma¬
lice, though no particular enmity can be proved. And
if a man kills another suddenly, without any, or with¬
out a considerable provocation, the law implies malice •,
for no person, unless of an abandoned heart, would
be guilty of such an act upon a slight or no apparent
cause.
MALIGNANT, among physicians, a term applied
to diseases of a very dangerous nature, and generally
infectious ; such are the dysentery, hospital fever, &c.
in their worst stages.
Malignity among physicians signifies much the same
with contagion. See Contagion.
MALL, Sea-mall, or Sea-mew. See Larus, Or¬
nithology Index.
MALLARD. See Anas, Ornithology Index.
MALLEABLE, a property of metals, whereby they
are capable of being extended under the hammer.
MALLENDERS. See Farriery Index.
MALLEOLI, in the ancient art of war, were
bundles of combustible materials, set on fire to give
light in the night, or to annoy the enemy : when they
were employed for the latter purpose they were shot
out of a bow, or fixed to a javelin, and thus thrown
into the enemies engines, ships, &c. in order to burn
them. Pitch was always a principal ingredient in the
composition. The malleoli had also the name of pyro-
boli.
MALLET, or Malloch, David, an English poet,
but a Scotsman by birth, was born in that country
about 1700. By the penury of his parents, he was
compelled to be janitor of the high school at Edin¬
burgh j but he surmounted the disadvantages of his
birth' and fortune •, for when the duke of Montrose ap¬
plied to the college of Edinburgh for a tutor to edu¬
cate his sons, Malloch was recommended. When his
pupils went abroad, they were intrusted to his care j
and having conducted them through their travels, he
returned with them to London. Here, residing in their
family, he naturally gained admission to persons of high
rank and character. His first production was the po¬
pular and pathetic ballad of “ William and Margaret,”
which was printed in the Plain Dealer, N° 36. 1724.
In the last edition of his works it appears considerably
altered. In I733» he published a poem on verbal
Criticism, on purpose to make his court to Pope. In
1740, he wrote a Life of Lord Bacon, which was then
prefixed to an edition of his works j but with so much
more knowledge of histoiy than of science, that, when
he afterwards undertook the Life of Marlborough,
some were apprehensive lest he should forget that
Marlborough was a general, as he had forgotten that
Bacon was a philosopher. The old duchess of Marl¬
borough assigned in her will this task to Glover and
Mallet, with a reward of 1000I. and a prohibition to
insert any verses. Glover is supposed to have reject¬
ed the legacy with disdain, so that the work devolved
upon Mallet j who had also a pension from the duke of Mallet
Marlborough to promote his industry, and who was'——•v—
continually talking of the discoveries he made, but left
not when he died any historical labours behind. When
the prince of Wales was driven from the palace, and
kept a separate court by way of opposition, to increase
his popularity by patronizing literature, he made Mal¬
let his under secretary, with a salary of 2Col. a-year.—
Thomson likewise had a pension j and they were asso¬
ciated in the composition of the Masque of Allred,
which, in its original state, was played at Cliefdtn in
1740. It was afterwards almost wholly changed by
Mallet, and brought upon the stage of Drury Lane in
1751, but with uo great success. He had before pub¬
lished two tragedies j Eurydice, acted at Drury Lane
in 1731 } and Mustapha, acted at the same theatre in
1739. It wras dedicated to the prince his master, and
was well received, but never was revived. His next
work was Amyntor and Theodora (1747), a long story
in blank verse } in which there is a copiousness and ele¬
gance of language, vigour of sentiment, and imagery
well adapted to take possession of the fancy. In 1753,
his masque of Britannia W'as acted at Drury Lane, and
his tragedy of Elvira in 1763 •, in which year he was
appointed keeper of the book of entries for ships in the
port of London. In the beginning of the war, which
ended in 1763, when the nation was exasperated by
ill success, he was employed to turn the public ven¬
geance upon Byng, and wrote a letter of accusation
under the character of a Plain Man. The paper
was with great industry circulated and dispersed j and
for his seasonable intervention he had a considerable
pension bestowed upon him, wThich he retained to his
death. Towards the end of his life he went with his
wife to France •, but after a while, finding his health
declining, he returned alone to England, and died in
April 1765. He was twice married, and by his first
wife had several children. One daughter, who mar¬
ried an Italian of rank named Cilesia, wrote a tra¬
gedy called Almida, which was acted at Drury Lane.
His stature was diminutive, but, he was regularly form¬
ed •, his appearance, till he grew corpulent, was agree¬
able, and he suffered it to want no recommendation that
dress could give it. His conversation was elegant and
easy.
Mallet,-E</»ze, was born at Melun in 1713, and
enjoyed a curacy in the neighbourhood of his native
place till 1751, when he went to Paris to be professor
of theology in the college of Navarre, of which be
was admitted a doctor. Boyer, bishop of Mirepoix,
was at first much prejudiced against him 5 but be¬
ing afterwards undeceived, he conferred upon him
the see of Verdun as a reward for his doctrine and
morals. Jansenism had been imputed to him by his
enemies with his prelate; and the gazette which went
by the name of Ecclesiastical, accused him of impiety.
Either of these imputations was equally undeserved by
the abbe Mallet: as a Christian, he was grieved at
the disputes of the French church ; and as a philoso¬
pher, he was astonished that the government had not,
from the very beginning of those dissensions imposed
silence on both parties. He died at Paris in I75J>
the age of 42. The principal of his works are,
1. Principes pour la lecture des Poetes, 1745, i2mo,
2 vols. 2. Essai sur I Etude des Belles Lettres, 1747*
12ino.
M A L
Mallet,
Mallieollo
12mo. $.E$sai sur les bienseance or'utoires, 1753, 12mo.
_ 4. Principes pour la lectures des Oral curs, 1753, 12mo.
3 vols. 5. Histoire des Guerres cwiles de France sous
les regnes de Franpois II. Charles IX. Henri III. et
Henri IV. translated from the Italian of d’Avila.—.
In Mallet’s work on the Poets, Orators, and the
Belles Lettres, his object is no more than to explain
with accuracy and precision the rules of the great
masters, and to support them by examples from au¬
thors ancient and modern. The style of his different
writings, to which his mind bore a great resemblance,
was neat, easy, and unaffected. But what must ren¬
der his memory estimable, was his attachment to his
friends, his candour, moderation, gentleness, and mo¬
desty. He was employed to write the theological and
belles lettres articles in the Encyclopedic ; and whatever
he wrote in that dictionary was in general well com¬
posed. Abbe Mallet was preparing two important
works when the world was deprived of him by death.
The first was Une Histoire generale de nos Guerres de~
puis le commencement de la Monarchic ; the second, Une
Histoire de Concile de Trente, which he intended to set
in opposition to that of Father Paul translated by Fa¬
ther le Courayer.
Mallet, a large kind of hammer made of wood j
much used by artificers who work with a chissel, as
sculptors, masons, and stone-cutters, whose mallet is
ordinarily round ; and by carpenters, joiners, &c. who
use it square. There are several sorts of mallets used
for different purposes on ship-board. The calking
mallet is chiefly employed to drive the oakum into the
seams of a ship, where the edges of the planks are
joined to each other in the sides, deck, or bottom.
The head of this mallet is long and cylindrical, being
hooped with iron to prevent it from splitting in the
exercise of calking. There is also the serving mallet,
used in serving the rigging, by binding the spun yarn
more firmly about it than it could possibly be done by
hand, which is performed in the following manner 5
the spun-yarn being previously rolled up in a large
ball or clue, two or three turns of it are passed about
the rope, and about the body of the mallet, which for
this purpose is furnished with a round channel in its sur¬
face, that conforms to the convexity of the rope intend¬
ed to be served. The turns of the spun-yarn being
strained round the mallet, so as to confine it firmly to
the rope, which is extended above the deck, one man
passes the ball continually about the rope, whilst the
other, at the same time, winds on the spun-yarn by
means of the mallet, whose handle acting as a lever
strains every turn about the rope as firm as possible.
MALLICOLLO, one of the largest of the New
Hebrides, in the Pacific ocean. It extends twenty
leagues from north to south. Its inland mountains are
very high, and clad with forests. Its vegetable produc¬
tions are luxuriant, and in great variety 5 cocoa-nuts,
breadfruit, bananas, sugar-canes, yams, eddoes, turme¬
ric, and oranges. Hogs and common poultry are the
domestic animals. The inhabitants appear to be of a
race totally distinct from those of the Friendly and So¬
ciety islands. Their form, language, and manners, are
widely different. They seem to correspond in many
particulars with the natives of New Guinea, particular¬
ly in their black colour and woolly hair. They go al¬
most naked, are of a slender make, have lively but
429 ]
M A L
very irregular ugly features, and tie a rope fast round Mallicoll*
their belly. They use bows and arrows as their prin- ||
cipal weapons, and the arrows are said to be sometimes Malms-
poisoned. They keep their bodies entirely free from bury-
punctures, which is one particular that remarkably v J
distinguishes them from the other tribes of the Pacific
ocean.
Fhe population, according to Mr Forster, may a-
mount to ^ 50,000, who occupy 600 square miles of
ground. I he same author informs us that very few
women were seen, but that those few were no less ugly
than the men, were of small stature, and their heads,
faces, and shoulders were painted red. They had
bundles on their backs containing their children, and
the men seemed to have no kind of regard for them.
They appeared in fact to be oppressed, despised, and
in a state of servility.
Hie men use bows and arrows, and a club about 30
inches long, which they hang on their right shoulder,
from a thick rope made of a kind of grass. They live
chiefly 011^ vegetables, and apply themselves to hus¬
bandry. Their music had nothing remarkable in it,
either for harmony or variety, but seemed to Mr For¬
ster to be of a more lively turn than that at the Friend¬
ly islands. In some of their countenances he thought
he could trace a mischievous, ill-natured disposition,
but he confesses that he might mistake jealousy for
hatred. It is in 160 28' S. Lat. and 167° <;6' E.
Long.
MALLOW, a manor, and also a borough town in
the county of Cork, and province of Munster, in Ire¬
land, above 118 miles from Dublin, pleasantly situated
on the north bank of the Blackwater, over which there
is an excellent stone bridge- Not far distant is a fine
spring of a moderately tepid water, which bursts out
of the bottom of a fine limestone rock, and approaches
the nearest in all its qualities to the hot-well waters of
Bristol of any that has been yet discovered in this king¬
dom, which brings a resort of good company there fre¬
quently in the summer months, and has caused it to be
called the Irish Path.
Mallow. See Malva, Botany Index.
Marsh-Mallow. See Althaea, Botany Index.
Indian-Mallow. See Sida, Botany Index.
MALMSBURY, a town of Wiltshire in England,
95 miles from London. It stands on a hill, with six
bridges over the river Avon at the bottom ; with which
and a brook that runs into it, it is in a manner en¬
compassed. It formerly had walls and a castle, which
was pulled down to enlarge the abbey, which was the
largest in Wiltshire, and its abbots sat in parliament.
The Saxon king Athelstan granted the town large
immunities, and was buried under the high altar of
the church, and his monument still remains in the nave
of it. The memory of Aldhelm, its first abbot, who
was the king’s great favourite, and whom he got to
be canonized after his death, is still kept up by a
meadow near this town, called Aldhelm’s Mead. By
charter of King William III. the corporation consists
of an alderman, who is chosen yearly, 12 capital bur¬
gesses, and 4 assistants. Here is an alms-house for 4
men and 4 women, and near the bridge an hospital for
lepers, where it is supposed there was formerly a nun¬
nery. This town contained, in 1811, 1152 inhabitants,
and has a considerable trade in the woollen manufactory j
has
M A L [ 430 ] M A L
Malni^bury, lias a market on Saturday, and three fairs. It has
Male, sent members to parliament ever since the 26th ot L,d-
v ward I.
William of Malmsbury. See William.
MALO, St, a sea-port town -of France, in the
province of Britanny, situated in the latitude of 48
degrees 38 minutes north, and 1 degree 57 minutes
to the west. The town stands upon a rock called the
island of St Aaron, surrounded by the sea at high
water, which is now joined to the continent, by means
of a sort of causeway or dike, near a mile long, called
* the Sillori, which has often been damaged by storms^
and was almost quite ruined in the year 1730. At the
end of this causeway next the town is a castle, flank¬
ed with large towers, a good ditch, and a large bastion.
The city nearly covers the whole surface of the island,
and is of an oblong form, surrounded with a strong
rampart, on which there is a number of cannon—
There is always in it a good garrison. T-he cathedral
• church is dedicated to St A mcent, and stands in the
square of the same name, as do also the town-house
and the episcopal palace. There are some other squares
in the place, but less remarkable j and as to the streets,
except two or three, they are all very narrow. There
being no springs of fresh water in St Malo, the in¬
habitants are at great pains to convey the rain which
falls on the roofs of their houses into cisterns ; and of
this they have enough for all family uses. There is
only one parish church in the town, though it contain
between 9000 and 10,000 inhabitants j but there are
several convents of monks and nuns, and a general
hospital. The two entrances into the harbour are de¬
fended by several forts, such as that-of the Conchalj
of the great and the little bay •, the forts of Isle Ile-
bours, Sezembre, Roteneuf j the castle of Latte, and
Fort-Royal. These are several little isles near the
harbour, the most considerable whereof is that of St
Sezembre, which is near a quarter of a league in cir¬
cumference, and serve as so many outworks to the for¬
tifications of the city, and are useful as bulwarks, by
breaking the violence of the waves, which otherwise
would beat with great force against the walls of the
city. At the end of the causeway next the continent
stands the suburb of St Servant, large and well -built.
Here the merchants have their houses and storehouses.
Here is the dockyard 5 and a secure harbour is form¬
ed by the river Ranee, where ships of great burden
can ride at anchor very near the houses. The harbour
is one of the best in the kingdom, and most frequent¬
ed by merchant ships j but it is of very difficult and
dangerous, access on account of the rocks which lie
round it. The town of St Malo is exceedingly well
situated for trade; and accordingly, in this respect, it
has succeeded beyond most towns in France. It main¬
tains a trade with England, Holland, and Spain.—
The commerce of Spain is of all the most consider¬
able, and most profitable to the* inhabitants of St
, Malo, the ships of the Malouins being frequently em¬
ployed as register ships by the Spaniards, to carry
out the rich cargoes to Peru and Mexico, and bring
home treasure and plate from America. The inhabi¬
tants of St Malo carry on also a considerable trade in
, dry and salted cod to Newfoundland. They send to
this fishery a good many vessels from 100 to 300 tons
burden, with salt for the fish, and provisions for sub-
2
sisting the crews. They carry their fish to Italy, Spain, iy[aj0
and some to Bourdeaux and Bayonne, and bring home Malom
the returns in fruits, soap, oil, Sic. which are disposed
of to great advantage at Nantz. St Malo is the ca¬
pital of the bishopric of that name, which is of con¬
siderable extent; and the soil about it produces most
kinds of grain and fruits in great abundance. The
most remarkable towns in the district and diocese of
St Malo, are St Servand, Cancalle, Chateauneuf, Di-
nan, Tintiniac, Combourg, Mdntfort, Breal, Guer,
Ploermel, Josselin, &c.
Malo, Maclou, or Mahout, Saint, the son of
an Englishman, and cousin to St Magloire, was edu¬
cated in a monastery in Ireland, and afterwards chosen
bishop of Gui-Castel, a dignity which his humility pre¬
vented him from accepting. The people wishing to
compel him, he went to Britanny, and put himself un¬
der the direction of a holy anchoret called Aaron, in
the neighbourhood of Aleth. Some time after, about
the year 541, he was chosen bishop of that city, and
there cultivated piety and religion with great success.
He afterwards retired to a solitude near Xaintes, where
he died November 15. 565. From him the city of St
Malo derives its name ; his body having been carried
thither, after the reduction of Aleth to a small village
railed Guidalet or Guichalet^ and the transference of
the episcopal see to St Malo.
MALOUIN, Paul-Jaciues, born at Caen in 1701,
Was professor of medicine in the royal college of Paris,
physician in ordinary to the queen, and a member of
the Royal Society of London, and of the Academy
of Sciences of Paris. These stations were a proper
reward for his very extensive information in medicine
and chemistry ; and his amiable and steady character
px-ocured him many fr’iends and protcctoi's. He was
very unlike some modern physicians, who put little
trust in medicine ; and was greatly displeased to hear
any ill spoken of his pi’ofession. He observed one day
to a young man who took this liberty, that all great
men had respected medicine : Ah! said the young fel¬
low, you must at least except from the list one Moliere.
Hut then, instantly replied the doctor, you see he is
dead. He is said to have believed the certainty of his
art as firmly as a mathematician does that of geometry.
Having prescribed a great many medicines for a cele¬
brated man of letters, who followed his dfrections ex¬
actly, and was cured, Malouin eagei-ly embraced him,
saying, You deserve to be sick. As he valued the rules
of medicine still more on his own account than on that
of others, he observed, especially in the latter part of
his life, a very austere regimen. He strictly practised
the preservative part oi medicine, which is much more
eextain in its effects than the restorative. To this regi¬
men Malouin was indebted, for what many philoso¬
phers have desired in vain, a healthy old age axid an
easy death. He was a stranger to the infirmities of
age ; and died at Paris of an apoplexy, the 3d of Ja¬
nuary 1778, in the 77th year of his age. By his will
he left a legacy to the faculty of medicine, upon con¬
dition of their holding a public meeting every year
for the purpose of giving the public an account ol his
laboui’s and discoveries. Malouin was economical, but
at the same time very disinterested. After two year£
of very lucrative practice, he left Pax-is and went to
Versailles, where he saw very few patients, observing
M A L
Malouiu that he had retired to the court.
|1 are, I. Traite de Chimie, 1734, i2mo. " 2. Chimie Me-
Malpla- dicinale, 2 vols. i2mo, 1755J a book full of curious
_quc ' . observations, and written in a chaste and well adapted
style. He had the character of a laborious chemist $
and he was a well-informed and even a distinguished
one for the age in which he lived : but his knowledge
of chemistry, it must be confessed, was very imperfect,
compared with the state of the science in the present
age, in which it has assumed a new lace, that proba¬
bly will not be the last. 3. Some of the articles
in the Collection published by thq Academy of Sci¬
ences on the arts and professions. A circumstance
which happened at a meeting of the academy does
as much honour to his heart, as any of his works do
to his understanding. A new treatise on the art
of baking, wherein some of Malouin’s ideas were
combated, was read by M. Parmentier before his fel¬
lows, among whom was the old doctor. The young
academician, who knew how easily self-love is hurt,
was afraid to meet his looks : but no sooner was the
reading finished, than IVlalouin went up to him, and
embracing him, “ Receive my respects (said he), you
have seen farther into the subject than I did.” 4. He
was likewise the author of the chemical articles in the
Encyclopedic.
Of the same family was Charles Maiouix, who
graduated as a doctor of medicine in the university of
Caen, and died in 1718 in the flower of his age. He
published a Treatise on Solids and Fluids, Paris 1718
12mo. 1 *
MALPAS, a town of Cheshire, j66 miles from
London. It stands on a high hill, nor far from the
river Dee, on the borders of Shropshire 5 has a gram¬
mar school, and an hospital, and had formerly a castle.
It is called in Latin Mala Platea, i. e. “ 111 Street ”
and was, for the same reason, by the Normans, called
Mai Pas; but its three streets, of which it chiefly con¬
sists, are now' well paved 5 and here is a benefice rich
enough to support two rectors, who officiate alternately
in its stately church. The population of this place
in 1811 was 938.
, MALPIGHI, Marcellus, an eminent Italian phy¬
sician and anatomist in the 17th century. He studied
under Massari and Mariano. The duke of Tuscany
invited him to Pisa, to be professor of physic there. In
this city he contracted an intimate acquaintance with
Borelli, to whom he ascribed all the discoveries he had
made. He went back to Bologna, the air of Pisa not
agreeing w'ith him. Cardinal Antonio Pignatelli, who
had known him while he was legate at Bologna, be¬
ing chosen pope in 1691, under the name of Inno-
ce?it XII. immediately sent for him to Rome, and ap¬
pointed him his physician. But this did not hinder him
from pursuing his studies, and perfecting his works,
which have immortalized his memory. He died in
1694 ; and his works, with his life written by himself,
prefixed, were first collected and printed at London,, in
loho, in 1667.
MALPIGHIA, Barbadoes Cherry j a genus of
plants belonging to the decandria class y and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 23d order, Trikilatce.
c>ee Botany Index.
MALPLAQUET, a village of the Netherlands, in
■Hainault, famous for a most bloody battle fought here
[ 43i ] M A L
His principal works on the nth of September 1709, between the French
under old Marshal Villars, and the allies commanded by
Prince Eugene and the duke of Marlborough. The
French army amounted to 120,000 men j and were
posted behind the woods of La Marte and Teniers, in
the neighbourhood of Malplaquet. They had fortified
their situation in such a manner with lines, hedges,
and tiees laid across, that they seemed to be quite inac¬
cessible. In this situation they expected certain vic-
tory j and even the common soldiers were so eager to
engage, that they flung away the bread which had
been just given them, though they had taken no suste¬
nance for a whole day before. The allied army began
the attack early in the morning, being favoured by a
thick fog. Die chiel fury of their impression was
made upon the left of the enemy j and with such suc¬
cess, that, notwithstanding their lines and barricadoes,
the French were in less than an hour driven from their
entrenchments. But on the enemy’s right the combat
w'as sustained with much greater obstinacy. The
Dutch, who carried on the attack, drove them from
their first line; but were repulsed from the second with
great slaughter. The prince of Orange, who headed
that attack, persisted in his efforts with incredible per¬
severance and intrepidity, though two horses had been
killed under him, and the greater part of his officers
slain and disabled. At last, however, the French were
obliged to yield up the field of battle y but not till af¬
ter having sold a dear-bought victory. Villara being
dangerously wounded, they made an excellent retreat
under the conduct of Bouflers, and took post near Gues-
noy and Valenciennes. The conquerors took possession
of the field of battle^ on which above 30,000 of their
best troops lay dead. The loss of the French, it is said,
did not exceed 8000 y and Marshal Villars confidently
asserted, that, if he had not been disabled, he would
have gained an undoubted victory.
MALT, denotes barley cured, or prepared to fit it
for making a potable liquor, under the denomination
beer or ale. See Brewing in this work, and the same
article in the Supplement.
MALT-Uquors have diflerent names as well as dif¬
ferent virtues, properties, and uses, both from the dif¬
ferent manners of preparing the malt, whence they are
distinguished into pale and brown; and from the dif¬
ferent manners of preparing or brewing the liquors
themselves j whence they are divided into beer and c/e,
strong and small, new and old.
Malt drinks are either pale or brown, as the malt
is more or less dried on the kiln : that which is the
slenderest dried tinging the liquor least in brewing,
and therefore being called pale; whereas that higher
dried, and as it were roasted, makes it of a higher
colour. A mixture of both makes an amber colour j
whence several of these liquors take their name.
Now, it is certain, the pale malt has most of the na¬
tural grain in it, and is therefore the most nourishing $
but, for the same reason, it requires a stronger consti¬
tution to digest it. Those who drink much of it, are
usually fat and sleek in the bloom, but are often cut
off by sudden fevers 5 or, if they avoid this, they fail
early into a distempered old age.
The brown malt makes a drink much less viscid,
and fitter to pass the several strainers of the body j but,
if very strong, it may lead on to the same inconvenien-
Malpla-
quet,
Malt.
Milt.
M A L [' 432 ] M A L
ces with the pale: though a single dehauch wears off
much more easily in the brown.
Dr Quincy observes, that the best pale malt-liquors
are those brewed with hard waters, as those of springs
and wells, because the mineral particles, wherewith
these waters are impregnated, help to prevent the co¬
hesions of those drawn from the grain, and enable them
to pass the proper secretions the better j as the viscid
particles of the grain do likewise defend these from
doing the mischief they might otherwise occasion.
But softer waters seem best suited to draw out the sub¬
stance of high dried malts, which retain many fiery par¬
ticles in their contexture, and are therefore best lost in
a smooth vehicle.
For the differences in the preparation of malt li¬
quors, they chiefly consist in the use of hops, as in
beer ", or in the more sparing use of them, as in ale.
The difference made by hops is best discovered from
the nature and quality of the hops themselves : these
•are known to be a subtle grateful bitter •, in their com¬
position, therefore, with this liquor, they add some¬
what of an alkaline nature, i. e. particles that are su¬
blime, active, and rigid. By which means, the ropy
viscid parts of the malt are more divided and subtilized :
and are therefore not only rendered more easy of diges¬
tion and secretion in the body, but also, while in the
liquor, they prevent it from running into such cohesions
as would make it ropy, vapid, and sour.
For want of this, in unhopped drinks, that clammy
sweetness, which they retain after working, soon turns
them acid and unfit for use; which happens sooner or
later in proportion to the strength they receive from the
malt, and the comminution that it has undergone by
fermentation.
The different strengths of malt liquors also make
their effects different. The stronger they are, the more
viscid parts they carry into the blood ■, and though the
spirituous parts make these imperceptible at first, yet
when those are evaporated, which will be in a few
hours, the other will be sensibly felt by pains in the
head, nauseousness at the stomach, and lassitude or list¬
lessness to motion. This those are the most sensible of
who have experienced the extremes of drinking these
liquors and wines ; for a debauch of wine they find
much sooner worn off, and they are much more lively
and brisk afterwards, than after fuddling malt liquor’s,
whose viscid remains will be long before they be shaken
off.
Malt liquors, therefore, are, in general, the more
wholesome for being small y i. e. of such a strength as
is liable to carry a small degree of warmth into the
stomach, but not so great as to prevent their being
proper diluters of the necessary food. Indeed, in ro¬
bust people, or those who labour hard, the viscidities of
the drink may be broken into convenient nourishment 5
but in persons of another habit and way of living,
they serve rather to promote obstructions and ill hu¬
mours.
The age of malt liquors is the last thing by which
they are rendered more or less wholesome. Age seems
to do nearly the same thing as hops $ for those liquors
which are longest kept are certainly the least viscid }
age breaking the viscid parts, and by degrees render¬
ing them smaller, and fitter for secretion.
But this is always determined according to their
strength; xn proportion to which, they will sooner or
later come to their full perfection as well as decay j
for, when ale or beer is kept till its particles are bro¬
ken and comminuted as far as they are capable, then
it is that they are best; and, beyond this, they will
be continually on the decay, till the finer spirits are
entirely escaped, and the remainder becomes vapid and
sour.
Malt-Distillery. This is an extensive article of
trade } and by which very large fortunes are made.
The art is to convert fermented malt liquors into a
clear inflammable spirit, which may be either sold for
use in the common state of a proof strength, that is, the
same strength with French brandy j or is rectified into
that purer spirit usually sold under the name ot spirit of
wine I, or made into compound cordial waters, by being
distilled again from herbs and other ingredients. See
Brewing and Wash.
To brew with malt in the most advantageous man¬
ner, it is necessary, 1. That the subject be well prepa¬
red •, 2. That the water be suitable and duly applied •,
and, 3. That some certain additions be used, or altera¬
tions made, according to the season of the year, and the
intention of the operator : and by a proper regulation
in these respects, all the fermentable parts of the sub¬
ject will thus be brought into the tincture, and become
fit for fermentation. ... *
The due preparation of the subject consists in . its be¬
ing justly malted and well ground. When the grain
is not sufficiently malted, it is apt to prove hard, so
that the water can have but very little power to dis¬
solve its substance \ and if it be too much malted, a
part of the fermentable matter is lost in that opera¬
tion. The harder and more flinty the malt is, the
finer it ought to be ground } and in all cases, when
intended for distillation, it is advisable to reduce it to
a kind of finer or coarser meal. When the malt is
thus ground, it is found by experience that great part
of the time, trouble, and expence of the brewing is
saved by it, and yet as large a quantity of spirit will
be produced } for thus the whole substance of the malt
may remain mixed among the tincture, and be fer¬
mented and distilled among it. This is a particular
that very well deserves the attention of the malt di¬
stiller as that trade is at present carried on ; for the
despatch of the business, and the quantity of spirit pro¬
cured, is more attended to than the purity or perfec¬
tion of it.
The secret of this matter depends upon the thorough¬
ly mixing or briskly agitating and throwing the meal
about, first in cold and then in hot water \ and re¬
peating this agitation after the fermentation is over,
when the thick turbid wash being immediately com¬
mitted to the still already hot and dewy with work¬
ing, there is no danger of burning, unless by accident,
even without the farther trouble of stirring, which
in this case is found needless, though the quantity be
ever so large, provided that requisite care and clean¬
liness be used 5 and thus the business ol brewing and
fermenting may very commodiously be performed to¬
gether, and reduced to one single operation. W hat-
ever water is made choice of, it must stand in a hot
state upon the prepared malt, especially if a clear
tincture be desired } but a known and very great incon-
■yenience attends its being applied too hot, or too near
l
M A L
Malt, to a state of boiling, or even scalding with regard to
—y—' the hand. To save time in this case, and to prevent
the malt running into lumps and clods, the best way
is to put a certain measured quantity of cold water to
the malt first y the malt is then to be stirred very
well with this, so as to form a sort of thin uniform
paste or pudding ; after which the remaining quantity
of water required may be added in a state of boiling,
without the least danger of making what, in the distil¬
ler’s language, is called a pudden.
In this manner the due and necessary degree of heat
in the water, for the extracting all the virtues of the
malt, may be hit upon very expeditiously, and with a
great deal of exactness, as the heat of boiling water is
a fixed standard which may be let down to any degree
by a proportionate mixture of cold water, due allow¬
ances being made for the season of the year, and for
the temperature of the air.
Ihis little obvious improvement, added to the me¬
thod just above hinted for the reducing brewing and
fermentation to one operation, will render it practica¬
ble to very considerable advantage, and the spirit im¬
proved in quality as w'ell as quantity.
A much more profitable method than that usually
practised for the fermenting malt for distillation, in or¬
der to get its spirit, is the following{ lake ten pounds
of malt reduced to a fine meal, and three pounds of
common wheat meal : add to these two gallons of cold
water, and stir them well together ; then add five gal¬
lons of water, boiling hot, and stir altogether again.
Tet the whole stand twTo hours, and then stir it again y
and when grown cold, add to it tu'o ounces of solid
yeast, and set it by loosely covered in a warmish place
to ferment.
This is the Dutch method of preparing tvhat they
call the wash for' malt spinty whereby they save much
trouble and procure a large quantity of spirit: thus
commodiously reducing the two businesses of brewing
and fermenting to one single operation. In England
the method is to draw and mash for spirit as they or¬
dinarily do for beer, only instead of boiling the wort,
they pump it into large coolers, and afterwards run it
into their fermenting backs, to be there fermented
with yeast. Thus they bestow twice as much labour
as is necessary, and lose a large quantity of their spirit
I)y leaving the gross bottoms out of the still for fear of
burning.
All simple spirits may be considered in the three
diflerent states of low wines, proof spirit, and alcohol,
the intermediate degrees of strength being of less ge¬
neral use j and they are to be judged of only accord¬
ing as they approach to or recede from these. Low
wines at a medium contain a sixth part of pure in¬
flammable spirit, five times as much water as spirit
necessarily arising in the operation with a boiling
heat. Proof goods contain about one half of the same
totally inflammable spirit 5 and alcohol entirely consists
of it. J
Malt low wines, prepared in the common way, are
exceeding nauseous $ they have, however, a natural
vinosity or pungent agreeable acidity, which Would
render the spirit agreeable to the palate, were it not
for the large quantity of the gross oil of the malt
that abounds in it. When this oil is detained in some
measure from mixing itself among the low wines, by
Vol. XII. Part If. t
1 433 j
M A L
the stretching a coarse flannel over the neck of the still
or at the orifice of the worm, the spirit becomes much
purer in all respects j it is less fulsome to the taste,
less offensive to the smell, and less milky to the
eye. When these low wines, in the rectification
into proof spirits, are distilled gently, they leave a
considerable quantity of this gross fetid oil behind
them in the still along with the phlegm; but if
the fire be made fierce, this oil is again raised
and (nought over with the spirit y and being now bro¬
ken somewhat more fine, it impregnates it in a more
nauseous manner than at first. This is the common
fault both ol the malt distiller and of the rectifier : the
latter, instead of separating the spirit from this nasty
oil, which is the principal intent of his process, at¬
tends only to the leaving the phlegm in such quantity
behind, that the spirit may be of a due strength as
proof or marketable goods, and brings over the oil in
a worse state than before. To this inattention to the
proper business of the process, it is owing, that the spi-
nt, aftei its several rectifications, as they are miscall¬
ed, is often found more stinking than when delivered
out of the hands of the malt distiller. All this may be
prevented by the taking more tune in the subsequent
distillations, and keeping the fire low and regular; the
sudden stirring of the fire, and the hasty way of throw¬
ing on the fresh fuel, being the general occasion of
throwing up the oil by spurts, where the fire in general,
during the process, has not been so large as to do that
mischief.
The use of a balneum mariae, instead of the common
still, would effectually prevent all this mischief, and
give a purer spirit in one rectification than can other¬
wise be procured in ten, or indeed according to the -
common methods at all.
Malt low wine, when brought to the standard of
proof spirit, loses its milky colour, and is perfectly
clear and bright, no more oil being contained in it
than is perfectly dissolved by the alcohol, and render¬
ed miscible with that proportion of phlegm, which is
about one half the liquor: its taste also is cleaner,
though not more pleasant 5 there being less of the thick
oil to hang on the tongue in its own form 5 which is
not the case in the low wines, where the oil being un¬
dissolved, adheres to the mouth in its own form, and
does not pass lightly over it.
When proof spirit of malt is distilled over again, in
order to be rectified into alcohol, or, as we usually
call it, spirits of wine, if the lire be raised at the time
when the faints begin to fall off, a very considerable
quantity of oil wall be raised by it, and will run in
the visible form of oil from the nose of the worm. This
is not peculiar to malt spirit j but the French brandy
shows the same phenomenon, and that in so great a de¬
gree, that half an ounce of this oil may be obtained
from a single piece of brandy.
Malt spirit, more than any other kind, requires to
be brought into the form of alcohol, before it can be
used internally, especially as it is now commonly made
up in the proof state, with as much of this nauseous
and viscous oil as will give it a good crOwn of bubbles.
For this reason it ought to be reduced to an alcohol,
or totally inflammable spirit, before it is admitted into
any of the medicinal compositions. If it be used with¬
out this previous caution, the taste of the malt oil wdil
3 I be
M A L
[ 434 1
M A L
te aistingukhea among all the other flavours of the in.
S'A'purc spirit being this procured, should be kept
carefully in vessels of glass or stone, wel stopped, to
prevent the evaporation of any of its volatile parts, it
preserved in casks, it is apt to impregnate itself very
strongly with the wood. The quantity of pure alcohol
obtainable from a certain quantity of malt, differs ac¬
cording to the goodness of the subject, the manner of
the operation, the season of the year, and the skilful-
ness of the workmen ; according to winch variations, a
quarter of malt will afford from eight or nine to 13 or
14 gallons of alcohol. This should encourage the malt
distiller to be careful and diligent in his business, as so
very large a part of his profit depends wholly on the
well conducting his processes.
After every operation in this business, there remains
a quantity of faints, which in their own coarse state
ought never to he admitted into the pure spirit y these
are to be saved together, and large quantities ol them
at once wrought into alcohol. It is easy to reduce
these to such a state that they will serve for lamp-spirits.
Their disagreeable flavour being corrected by the add¬
ing of aromatics during the distillations, the reducing
them into a perfect and pure alcohol is practicable, but
not without such difficulties as render it scarcely worth
the trader’s while. One way of doing it is by distilling
them from water into water, and that with a very slow
fire. By this means a pure alcohol may be made out
of the foulest faints. # . .
The malt distiller always gives his spirit a single rec¬
tification per se, in order to purify it a little, and make
it up proof-, but in this state it is not to be reckoned
fit for internal uses, but serves to be distilled into ge-
rteva and other ordinary compound strong waters for the
vulgar. . 1
The Dutch, who carry on a great trade vvith malt spi¬
rit, never give it any farther rectification than tins j
and it is on this account that the malt spn it^ of Bug-
land is in general so much more in esteem. 'I he Dutch
method is°only to distil the wash into low whies, and
then to full proof spirit; they then directly make it
into geneva, or else send it as it is to Germany, Gui¬
nea, and the East Indies, for the Dutch have little
notion of our rectification. Their spirit. is by this
means rendered very foul and coarse, and is rendered
yet more nauseous by the immoderate use they make
of rye meal. Malt spirit, in its unrectified state, is
usually found to have the common bubble proof, as the
malt distiller knows that it w’ill not be marketable
without it. . .
The whole matter requisite to this is, that it have
a considerable portion of the gross oil of the malt
well broke and mixed along with it; this gives the
an extraneous acid in order to give it a new one. I he
acid they generally use is the spiritus nitri dulcis; and
the common way of using it is the mixing it to the
taste with the rectified spirit : this gives our malt
spirit, when well rectified, a flavour somewhat like that
of French brandy, but this soon flies off; and the bet¬
ter method is to add a proper quantity of Glauber’s
strong spirit of nitre to the spirit in the still. The 1 li¬
quor in this case comes over impregnated with it, and the
acid being more intimately mixed, the flavour is retained.
See Brewing and Distilling, Supplement.
Malt-bruiser, or Brutsiug-null. It has been found
by repeated experiments, that bruising malt is a more
advantageous method than the old one of grinding and
flouring. By bruising, there is not only less waste,
but the malt is also better fitted for giving out all its
virtues. It has therefore become a practice to squeeze
malt between rollers, by means of a proper apparatus-,
of which various constructions have been invented.
One of the best contrivances of this sort is said to be
the bruising-mill of Mr inlaw, ■which consists of a
frame, a large cylinder or roller, a small roller, a hop¬
per, a shoe, a frame to support the hopper, a fly wheel-,
and a windlass. rJ 0 use this engine, it is diiected to
screw the large roller up to the small one, and not to
feed too fast from the shoe, which is regulated by pins
that have strings fixed to them. Jt is evident, that
when two smooth surfaces are opposed to each other at
a distance which can he regulated at pleasure, neither
grain nor any other similar substance can pass between
them without being bruised. ’I his being the principle
on which the bruising-mill acts, the meally substance,
which is the essential part of malt, is entirely removed
from the skin or husk which contains it, and all the
virtues of the malt are with ease extracted by the wa¬
ter 111 a manner superior to what is eftected when tl.s
grain is only cut by grinding. The operation is at
the same time so expeditiously performed, that two
men can with ease bruise a bushel of malt 111 a minute.
By the same engine may also he bruised oats and
beans for horses. A great part of the com given these
animals, it is well known, is swallowed whole, and of¬
ten passes through them in the same state ; in which
case, they cannot receive any nourishment from the
grains that are unbroken ; but when bruised in this
engine, it eases mastication ; and every grain being
prepared for nutrition, a much less quantity will of
course be found to be sufficient. For bruising beans,
the two regulating screws must be unscrewed a little ;
and the fly-wheel requires to he then set in motion
with the hand, on account that the rollers are then a
little space apart, and will not turn each other before
the beans come between them.
Malt-Tux, is the sum of 750,000k raised every year
Malt,
Malta.
rectifier’a6great SoftleThe illll hkfX spl Vf parii-ent’rinee .697, b- duty of Ad-.W bushel
. i..A ironprnl mn of the business, the of malt, and a proportionable sun _ fl. »
rit fine ; hut in the general run of the business, the
rectifier does not take out this oil, but breaks it finer,
and mixes it faster in by alkaline salts, and disguises its
taste by the addition of certain flavouring ingredients.
The spirit loses in these processes the vinosity it had
when it came out of the hands of the malt distiller,
and is in all respects worse, except in the disguise of a
mixed flavour.
The alkaline salts used'by the rectifier destroying
the natural vinosity of the spirit, it is necessary to add
of malt, ami a proportionable sum on certain liquois
such as cyder and perry, which might otherwise pre
vent the consumption of malt. '1 his is under the ma>-
nagement of the commissioners of the excise and ,s^n"
deed itself no other than the annual excise. In 1760,
an additional perpetual excise of 3d. per bushel was aid
upon malt; and in 1763, a proportional excise was lai
upon cyder and perry, but new-modelled in 1766. oee
Excise. ,
MALTA, a celebrated island of the Mediterranean,
M A L
Malta, situated between the 15th and
longitude, and between
Ancient
history of
the island
i
tlta gi-
1 to the
Slits of
odes.
the 35th and 36th degrees of
north latitude. It is about 19 or 20 miles in length,
nine or ten in breadth, and 60 in circumference. An¬
ciently it was called Mehta; and is supposed by Clu-
verius, from its situation and other particulars, to he
the Hyperia mentioned by Homer, whence the Phoeaces
were afterwards driven by the Phenitians, and retired
into Scheria and the island of Corfu 5 which is the more
probable, as the ancient poet places the mountain Me¬
hta in that island. He has likewise brought some
probable arguments to prove, that Melita or Malta
is the ancient Ogijgia; in which the famed nymph
Calypso, daughter of the Ocean and Thetis, receiv¬
ed the shipwrecked Ulysses, and detained him seven
years.
The most ancient possessors of Malta, of whom we
have any certain account, were the Carthaginians j from
\vhom it was taken by the Romans: and yet during
the whole time that it continued under the power of
these polite nations it was almost entirely barren. The
soil was partly sandy and partly rocky, having scarcely
any depth of earth ; and withal so stony, that it was
hardly capable of producing corn or any other grain
except cummin, and some seeds of a similar nature. Its
chief products were figs, melons, honey, cotton, and
some few other fruits and commodities, which the in¬
habitants exchanged for com ; and in this barren state
it seems to have continued till it came into the posses¬
sion of the Maltese knights. It laboured also under
great scarcity of water and fuel : upon all which ac¬
counts it was till that time but thinly inhabited, there
being only about 30 or 40 boroughs or other villages
scattered about, and no city except the capital, called
also Malta, and the town and fort of St Angelo, which
defended the harbour: so that the whole number of its
inhabitants did not exceed 12,000, including women
and children; the greatest part of whom were very in¬
digent.
According to an ancient tradition, Malta was first
possessed by an African prince named Battus, an enemy
to Queen Dido j from whom it was taken by the Car¬
thaginians ; from the Carthaginians it passed to the Ro¬
mans, who made themselves masters of it when they
subdued the island of Sicily. These were driven out
by the Arabs in the year 828 ; who were driven out in
their turn by Roger the Norman, earl of Sicily, who
took possession of it in 1190 : from which time it conti¬
nued under the dominion of the Sicilian princes till the
time of Charles V. when it fell under his power, along
with Naples and Sicily. To cover the island of Sicily
from the Turks, Charles gave the island to the knights
rif Rhodes, since that time Called knights of Malta,
whose origin and history is given under the article
Knights of Malta and Rhodes.
At the first landing of the Maltese knights, they
found themselves obliged to lodge in a very poor town
at the foot ot the hill on which stands the castle of St
Angelo, and where their only habitations were fisher-
111 erf’s huts. The grand master, with the principal
knights, took possession of the castle, where the accom¬
modations were somewhat better j though these too
were very mean, and out of repair. Three days after,
he took possession of the city, which was formerly call¬
ed Malta, but since that time hath taken the name of
Malta.
I 435 1 M A L
16th degrees of east the Notable City ; and after that, of the whole island of
Malta, and the neighbouring one of Gosa. v——y—
I he first care of the knights, after having settled
their authority through the two islands, was to provide
some better accommodation for the present, and to
choose a proper place where to fix their habitation.
But as the island had no other defence than the old
castle of St Angelo, and was so much exposed on all
sides, that it would have required greater sums than
their exhausted treasury could spare to put it in a
proper state of defence j the grand master was obli ¬
ged to content himself with surrounding the borough
above mentioned, wherein he had ordered new build¬
ings to be reared for the present habitation of his
knights, with a stout wall, to prevent its being sur¬
prised by the Turkish and Barbary corsairs. His de¬
sign, indeed, at this time, was not to have fixed the
abode of the knights in the bare and defenceless island
of Malta, but to stay in it only till he had got a suffi¬
cient force to attempt the conquest of Modon, a town They3 at-
of the Morea, and which was not only a populous and tempt the
opulent place, but lay very convenient for making anconquest of
attempt on the island of Rhodes, their ancient habita- w.0t*011
tion, and to which they were naturally attached. This,
however, did not hinder his taking all proper measures
for securing Malta as well as Gosa, and laying out a
proper plan for securing them from attacks, in case the
design on Modon should fail.
In the mean time, as superstition Was then universal¬
ly prevalent, the grand master, among other precious
relics which they had brought from Rhodes, caused the
arm of St Catharine to be carried in procession to the
cathedral. Whilst they were on their march, one of
the centinels gave them notice, that a large Turkish
merchantman was rvrecked on their coast. The grand
master immediately despatched some of his knights and
soldiers thither; who finding Isaac the patron of the
ship, a native of Modon, and one Maurithisala Nocher,
tin excellent engineer, they Were retained in the service
of the order, and the latter was immediately employed
in fortifying the island.
The knights were hardly settled in Malta, when the
emperor, and other European potentates, endeavoured
to engage them in a war with the inhabitants of Bar¬
bary, as the city of Tripoli, then held by Charles, was
in great danger of falling into the hands of the infidels.
The attempt on Modon, however, was first made ; but
it proved unsuccessful, through the base avarice of the
Maltese forces : for they having been admitted into
the city, during the night began to murder and plun¬
der the inhabitants, without waiting for the arrival of
the galleys which were coming to their assistance. The
Consequence was, that the inhabitants armed, and a
desperate battle began ; in which the Maltese, notwith¬
standing the utmost efforts, were obliged to retire, but
hot till they had loaded themselves with plunder, and
carried awdy 800 women captive. ^
The grand master, looking upon this disappointment Join the
as a sign that Providence had ordained Malta to beemPeror
the residence of the knights, did not renew his attempts ^.Ij”St
upon Modon; but, in 1532, joined with the emperor
against the Turks, and sent a great number of his gal¬
leys to join the confederate fleet under the celebrated
Andrew Doria. In consequence of this aid, the un¬
dertaking proved successful; and in all probability the
3 I 2 conquest
M A L
[ 436 ]
M A L
MaHa.
Africa in¬
vaded by
Charles.
conquest of Motion would have been accomplished, had
not the soldiery, discouraged by the bad success ot the
last attempt, openly refused to proceed, and obliged
the emperor to proceed to Coron, another town be¬
longing to the Turks. Through the valour of the
Maltese knights, this place was soon obliged to capi¬
tulateand in a second expedition in 1533, the knights
again distinguished themselves in a most eminent man¬
ner. They were quickly recalled, however, by the
grand master to the defence of the island, which was
now threatened with an invasion by Barbarossa the ce¬
lebrated Turkish corsair, who scoured those seas at the
head of above fourscore galleys. This invasion, how¬
ever, did not take place j and in 1534 the grand mas¬
ter Villiers de I’Tsle Adam died, and was succeeded
by Perino de Ponte, a native of the town of Ast in
Italy. ....
The new grand master, who received intelligence 01
his election at St Euphemia in Calabria, very soon af¬
ter received another express, giving an account ol the
wars which at that time reigned in Tunis, and the dan¬
ger that Tripoli as well as Malta was in from Barba¬
rossa, who was by this time become master both of Al¬
giers and Tunis j upon which he made all the haste he
could to his new government. His first care was to
send a strong reinforcement to Italy; after which, he
despatched an embassy to the emperor, intreating him
to equip a powerful fleet against Barbarossa, without
which it would be impossible for Tripoli to hold out
much longer.
By this embassy from De Ponte, and another to the
same purpose from Muley Hassen, the deposed king
of Tunis, Charles was easily prevailed on to carry his
arms into Africa j in which he was assisted by a great
number of the bravest knights, together with 18 bri¬
gantines of different sizes, four of the best Maltese gal¬
leys, and their vessel called the great carrack, of itself
almost equivalent to a squadron. In this expedition the
knights distinguished themselves in a most eminent
vaiour 01 manner. At the siege of Goletta, one of the knights,
the Maltese named Conversa, an excellent engineer, by means of a
inights. barca longa, got almost close to the great tower, which
he furiously battered with large cannon, while the
great earrack, which was behind all the rest of the ves¬
sels, and by reason of its height could fire over them,
did prodigious execution. A breach was soon made j
and hardly was it wide enough to be scaled, when the
Maltese knights jumped out of the galleys into their
long-boats, and thence into the sea, with their swords
in their hands, and waded through the water above
their girdles, it being too shallow for boats to approach
the shore. The standard-bearer of the order was the
first that jumped into the water, and led the rest to
the attack •, they claiming everywhere the post of ho¬
nour. They marched with the greatest resolution
through the most terrible firing and showers of all
kinds of missile weapons *, and, having gained the shore,
quickly ascended the breach, on the top of which they
planted their great standard. A great number lost
their lives, and scarcely one came off unwounded ; but
the emperor did them the justice to own, that the ta¬
king the place was chiefly owing to the valour of the
Maltese knights.
The city of Tunis was soon taken after the fortress
of Goletta; on the surrender of which, the emperor,
3
Desperate
valour of
designing to return into Europe, took his last dinner Malta,
on board the great carrack j where he was magnificent-
]y entertained, and bestowed on the surviving knights
the greatest encomiums, and marks ol his esteem and ^
gratitude to the owner. rIhese he accompanied with Privileges
considerable presents and with two new grants. By conferred
the first, they were allowed to import corn and other
provisions from Sicily, without paying duty j and by p*rorc cm
the second, the emperor engaged, that none of the or¬
der should enjoy any of the estates or revenues, due to
Maltese knights, throughout all his dominions, unless
they were lawfully authorised by the grand master and
his council; or till the originals had been examined
and registered by himself, or such ministers as he should
appoint for that purpose. The fleet then set sail foi*
Malta j where, on their arrival, they received the news
of the grand master’s death, who was succeeded by
Didier de Tolon de St Jalle, a native of Provence, and
then grand prior of Thoulouse, where he resided at the
time of his election.
The present grand master was a man of great con¬
duct and bravery, which he had formerly shown at the
siege of Rhodes j and the situation oi aflairs at
time required a person of experience. I he Turkish an
corsairs, quite tired out with the dreadful havock made unsuccess-
among them by Botigella, grand prior of Pisa, whoM attempt
seldom quitted the sea, and never sailed out withouton TnPoli'
sinking some of them, or making considerable prizes,
had agreed to enter into a strong confederacy, either
to surprise the city of Tripoli where his retreat was,
or, if that failed, to lay siege to it by sea and land in
either of which attempts, they were sure of all the as¬
sistance of Barbarossa and Hayradin, then lord of Tan-
giers. This last had undertaken the command and
conduct of the whole enterprise *, but the governor be¬
ing informed of the design, prepared to give him
a warm reception. Hayradin came thither with his
whole force in the dead of the night, and began to
scale the walls in those places where he reckoned them
to be most defenceless. They no sooner appeared at
the foot of them, than the garrison, which had been
kept up in arms, poured down such streams of wild¬
fire, boiling oil, melted lead, &c. and threw such vol¬
leys of stones, while the great and small guns so annoy¬
ed those that stood farthest off, that great numbers of
them were destroyed. They persisted in the attack,
however, with great fury and vigour, till Hayradin,
who was foremost in one of the scalades, was knocked
down by a musket-shot from the top of his ladder. He
fell into the ditch, and was taken up almost dead ; up¬
on which his troops instantly dispersed themselves, and
abandoned the enterprise. The governor of Tripoli,
however, judging that this would not be the last visit
of the kind which in all probability he would receive,
immediately despatched an express to Malta, with pro¬
posals for fortifying the city, and demolishing a strong
tower on that coast named Alcaic/, which was held by
a Turkish corsair. His advice being approved of, the
commander Botigella, now general of the galleys, was
immediately despatched with a sufficient force} who,
having lauded his men at Tripoli, immediately march¬
ed with them and a body of Arab mercenaries towards
Alcaid *, and without staying to open the trenches,
or any other covering than his gabions, levelled his
artillery against it. Hayradin being informed of this,
M A L
Malta.
came with his Turks to its defence j but was intercept^
ed by a strong detachment of Maltese knights at the
head of the hired Arabs, and repulsed with loss; so
that all he could do was to convey about 50 or 60
Turks into the place, and to annoy the Christians with
some slight skirmishes. Botigella, perceiving that his
cannon did not make such quick despatch as he wished,
sent some of his galleys ; under the shelter of which he
quickly sprung a mine, which brought down part of
the wall, and buried most of the corsairs under it j up¬
on which the rest, seeing the Maltese knights mount
the breach sword-in-hand, immediately thx-ew down
their arms. The tower was then razed to the ground j
after which Botigella marched to a town called Ada-
l/us, whence he drove Hayradin, who had intrenched
himself in it, and gave the plunder to the Arabs. In
his return he attacked and took a large Turkish galley,
the cargo of which was valued at 160,000 crowns, and
had on board 200 persons j so that he landed in tri¬
umph, and was received with the loud acclamations of
the whole order, who came to meet him on his arrival.
Soon after the grand master fell sick and died, and was
succeeded by John de Homedes.
Fresh complaints having in 1564 been made to Soli-
man, he proposed, in a grand council where most of
his officers attended, to extirpate the knights altoge¬
ther. This design vitas strenuously opposed by Hali,
one of Dragut’s most experienced captains, who of¬
fered the most solid reasons against it j but being over¬
ruled by the rest, an expedition against Malta was re¬
solved upon. One of the sultan’s first cares was to
send some spies, in the disguise of fishermen, to take a
full view of the island, who found means to bring him
an exact plan of it, with all its fortifications, havens,
strength, the number of its inhabitants, &c. whilst
he was hastening his armaments against it. By this
time, as the Maltese had very little reason to doubt
that the Turkish armaments were designed against their
island, the viceroy of Sicily, Don Garcia, was ordered
by his master to take it in his way to the castle of Go-
letta, in order to consult with the grand master about
the necessary means for opposing such a formidable
power. The grand master acquainted him, that, in
case of an attack upon Malta, he should want both
men and corn: upon which the viceroy engaged to
supply him with both on his return to Sicily} in pledge
of which he left one of his sons with him, who was
afterwards admitted into the order. He was no sooner
departed, than the grand master summoned all the
knights of the order, dispersed through several parts
of Europe, to repair to him. Those that were in Italy
raised a body of 2000 foot, to which the viceroy of
Sicily added two companies of Spanish forces. All the
galleys of the order were employed in transporting
these troops, together with all manner of provisions
and ammunition, into the island j and the knights that
were in it, in distributing, disciplining, and exercising
their new levies, as well as the Maltese militia, against
the siege. Thus the grand master saw himself strength¬
ened by the arrival of 600 knights, all of whom
orought with them retinues of stout good servants, fit
to assist in the defence of the island j whilst those, who
by reason of age, sickness, or other impediments, could
not repair to him, sold their most valuable effects in
order to assist him with tJbeir purses. The pope, on his
[ 437 1
M A L
Malta.
part, contented himself with sending a supply of 10 000
crowns j and the king of Spain ordered his viceroy -y—-1
Don Garcia to raise an army of 20,000 men, to be
ready to sail thither as soon as called for. The grand
master employed the remainder of his time in visiting
all the forts, magazines, arsenals, &c. and assigning to
each tongue their several posts, and making all neces-
saiy preparations, till the Ottoman fleet appeared in
s.gl.t on the 18th of May , yfiy. It consisted of , i9T,,c ’ic„
large galleys and ga leons, carrying on board 30,000 comS
101 ces, janizaries and spahis, besides the slaves at thece^-
accompanied by a considerable number of other
vessels, laden with artillery, ammunition, and other ne¬
cessaries for a siege. The whole armament was com¬
manded by Mustaplia Basha, an old experienced offi¬
cer aged about 85 years, and an old favourite and
confidant of the sultan ; of a haughty cruel temper,
who made it a merit to violate his word, and to use all
manner of violence against the Christians, especially
against the Maltese. This formidable army landed at
some distance from II Borgo, and soon afterwards
spread themselves over the country ; setting fire to the
villages, putting the peasants to the sword, and carry¬
ing off such of the cattle as, notwithstanding the orders
of the grand master, had not been secured W’ithin the
forts and towns.
While the Turks were thus employed, La Valette
(the grand master) sent out De Copier, marshal of
the order, with 200 horse and 600 foot, to watch their
motions. De Copier, an officer of great experience,
executed his commission with so much prudence and
vigour, that, by falling unexpectedly on detached par¬
ties, he cut off 1500 Turks, with the loss only of 80
men.
The Turkish general held a council of war as soon
as all his troops were landed, to assist him in resolving
where he should begin his attack. Piali, the Turkish
admiral, agreeably to what he understood to have been
the sultan’s instruction, was of opinion that they
ought not to enter upon action till Dragut should ar-
rive. But Mustapha having received information of
the king of Spain’s preparations, thought something
ought to be done instantly for the safety of the fleet *
which lay at present in a creek, where it was exposed
to the violence of the east wind, and might be attack¬
ed with great advantage by the Spaniards. On this
account he was of opinion, that they should immedi¬
ately lay siege to a fort called St Elmo, which stood on
a neck of land near II Borgo, having the principal har¬
bour on one side of it, and on the other another har¬
bour large enough to contain the whole fleet in safety. .
Hus proposal was approved by a majority of the
council, and Mustapha proceeded without delay to
carry it into execution.
La Valette did not expect that a place which was Desperate
neither strong nor large enough to admit a numerous defence of
garrison, could be defended long against so great afortStEi*
force as was employed to reduce it} but he thought"10'
it necessary that the siege of this fort should be pro¬
longed as much as possible, in order to give the vice¬
roy of Sicily time to come to his relief. With this
view, he resolved to throw himself into St Elmo, with
a select body of troops} and he was preparing to set
out, when the whole body of knights remonstrated
with such earnest importunity against his leaving the
town.
Malta.
M A L r
town, that he at last consented to softer the reinfbrce-
' ment, which he had prepared, to be conducted to the
fort by a knight called Dc Medran, upon whose con¬
duct and intrepidity he could rely with the most assured
^confidence. . .
Not long after De Medran’s arrival in the tort, the
garrison made a vigorous saliy, in which they drove
’the enemy from their entrenchments, and put a num¬
ber of them to the sword. But the rest soon recover¬
ed from their surprise ; and haying returned to the
‘charge, they compelled the Christians to retire. In
this rencounter, the vigorous efforts of the janizaries
were favoured by the wind, which blew the smoke
'of the guns upon the fort, and covered the besieged
with a thick cloud, through which it was impossible
to discern the operations of the enemy'. T-his incident
the Turks had the presence -of mind to improve to
very great advantage. rl hey seized, unperceived, up¬
on the counterscarp j made a lodgement there with
beams, woolsacks, and gabions ; and raised a battery
“upon it With incredible expedition. After the smoke
was dispersed, the besieged beheld what had been done
with much astonishment: and they were the more dis¬
quieted, as the fortification which the Turks had raised
-upon their counterscarp overtopped a ravelin Which
lay near it, in which the besieged could no longer ap¬
pear with safety. They resolved, however, to defend
this ravelin as long as possible, whatever it should cost
them.
In the mean time Dragut, and another noted cor¬
sair named Uluchiali, arrived with 20 galleys ; having,
besides slaves and seamen, 25OO troops on board. This
Reinforcement, and the presence of Dragut, added
fresh vigour to the operations of the siege. This gal¬
lant corsair exposed himself, on all occasions, with the
utmost intrepidity } spent whole days in the trenches j
and as, besides bis other extraordinary talents, he was
particularly skilful in the management of artillery, be
caused some new batteries to be raised in more advan¬
tageous situations than had hitherto been made choice
of; and kept up a continual lire both on the ravelin
above mentioned, and a cavalier that covered the fort
and was one of its principal defences.
This cavalier soon became the only defence which
could prevent the besiegers from coming up to the
very foot of the wall. Some Turkish engineers having
approached the ravelin at daybreak, to observe the
effects of their artillery, they perceived a gun-port so
low, that one of them, when mounted on the shoulders
of another, looked into it, and saw the Christian sol¬
diers lying on the ground asleep. Of this they gave
immediate information to the troops •, who, advancing
as quickly and silently as possible, and clapping ladders
to the gun-hole, got up into the ravelin, and cut most
of the Christians to pieces.
Between this ravelin and the tavalier lay the ditch,
over which the besieged had thrown a temporary bridge
of planks leading up to the cavalier. The Turks, per¬
ceiving this, leaped instantly upon the bridge, and at¬
tempted to make themselves masters df the cavalier, as
they already were of the ravelin. But the garrison
Was now alarmed 5 the bravest of the knights hastened
from different quarters to the post of danger ; and
after an obstinate engagement, they compelled the
Turks to retire into the ravelin. There, observing
4
43S ] M A L
another way of reaching the cavalier by a path from
the bottom of the ditch, they threw themselves downv
without dread or hesitation} and having ascended by
this path to the other side, they renewed their attack
with greater fury than ever. The combat lasted from
sunrise till noon, when the knights at last proved vic¬
torious. About 20 knights and 100 soldiers were kill¬
ed ; and near 3000 of the enemy.
As the ravelin was open on the side towards the
fort, the besieged pointed some cannon against it, and
made great havock among the infidels. ButMustapha*
sensible of the value of the acquisition he had madej
ponred in fresh soldiers without number, and the pio¬
neers coming forward with woolsacks, planks, and ga¬
bions, put the troops at length in safety, and made a
lodgment in the ravelin, of which the garrison were ne¬
ver afterwards able to dispossess them.
The grand master’s concern on account of this dis¬
aster was greatly augmented, by considering that it
could not have happened so soon without some negli¬
gence on the part of the gartison. He sent thenij
however, an immediate reinforcement j and both the
siege and the defence were carried on with the same
vigour as before.
"But the situation of the besieged was now become
much more dangerous than formerly. The Turks ap¬
plied with unremitting diligence to heighten the ra-
Mhita.
velin till it overtopped the wall of the forty and after
this the garrison could no longer appear upon the pa¬
rapet with safety. Many were killed by the enemy s
artillery, several breaches were made in the wall, and
the hearts of the bravest knights began to fail within
them. 11
They agreed therefore, though with much reluctance* Theknigta
to apply to the grand master for *0 ‘h'J2S
fort} and they made choice of the Chevalier de Me tlie
dran for their messenger. He represented that the fort f(>rt)but
Was in reality no longer tenable j and that, to continue are relus-
in it, though only for a few days, would infallibly occa- ed.
sion the destruction of the garrison.
Most of the knights in council thought that this
request of the garrison ought to be immediately grant¬
ed. But La v alette Was of a contrary opinion.—
This he represented to the Chevalier de Median and
sent him back with instructions to remind the knights
of the vows which they took at their entrance into
the order, of sacrificing their lives for its defence. He
likewise bade him assure them, in his name, that he
Would not fail to send them such reinforcements as
they should stand in need of 5 and was determined, as
soon as it should be necessary, to come himself to their
assistance, With a fixed unalterable purpose to lay down
his life sooner than deliver the fort into the hands of
the infidels.
This answer had the desired effect on several of tlie
knights, and particularly on those whose principles
of honour and attachment to the order were confirmed
by years. But the greater part of them were much
dissatisfied. They thought the grand master’s treat¬
ment of them harsh and cruel; and wrote him a letter,
subscribed by 53 ", in which they informed him, that, if
he did not, on the next night, send boats to carry them
to the town, they were determined to sally out into the
Turkish camp, where they might fall honourably by
the sword, instead of suffering such an ignominious
death
M A L [ 439
Malta, death as they had reason to expect if the fort was taken
by storm.
lo this letter I^a ^ alette replied, (( Tliat they were
much mistaken if they expected to satisfy their honour
by throwing away their lives 5 since it was no less
their duty to submit to his authority than to sacrifice
their lives in defence of the order: that the preserva¬
tion of the whole depended on their present obedience
to his commands : that no aid was to be expected
from Spain if the fort were given up. And that if he
should yield to their request, and bring them to the
town, the town itself would then be immediately in¬
vested } and they, as well as the rest, soon afterwards
reduced to a situation more desperate than that from
which they were so solicitous to escape, by deserting
an important post which they had undertaken to de¬
fend.” Besides this letter, he sent three commissioners
to examine the state of the fortifications j intending by
this measure either to gain time or to prevent the gar¬
rison from sinking into despair.
Ihese commissioners differed very widely in the
accounts which they delivered at their return. Two
of them thought it impossible to defend the fort much
longer. But the third, named Constantine Castriot,
a Greek prince, descended from the famous Albanian
hero Scanderbeg, whether from ignorance or a con¬
sciousness of greater resources in his native courage
than the other two possessed, maintained that the gar¬
rison wras far from being reduced to the last extremity j
and to give a proof how firmly he was persuaded of the
truth of what he said, he offered to enter the fort him¬
self, and to undertake the defence of it with such troops
as should be willing to accompany him.
1 he grand master, strongly impressed with a sense
of the necessity of protracting the siege, immediately
accepted this offer, and bestowed the highest enco¬
miums on Castriot’s zeal and resolution. Nor did
Castriot find any difficulty in persuading a sufficient
number to attend him, who were no less zealous and
resolute than himself. The soldiers crowded to his
standard, and were emulous to have their names en¬
rolled for that dangerous service in which he had en-
gaged.
When La Valette saw the spirit by which these men
were animated, and had no longer any doubt of being
able by their means to prolong the siege of the fort;
he sent a letter to the knights, acquainting them,
that he was now willing to give them their discharge j
and would immediately send another garrison, into
whose hands he desired they should be ready to de¬
liver up the fort, and come themselves to the town in
the boats in which their successors were to be trans¬
ported.
The contents and style of this letter affected the
knights in the most sensible manner, and roused with¬
in them that delicate sense of honour by which the
order had been so long and so eminently distinguished.
■■—They resolved without hesitation to remain in the
fort till every man should perish, rather than either
deliver it to the new garrison or abandon it to. the
enemy. And they went in a body, to the governor,
and intreated him to inform the grand master of their
repentance, and to join with them in praying that
they might be suffered to wipe out the. remembrance
fherr fault by their future conduct.
] v M A L
The grand master suffered himself at last to be over- Malta,
come 5 and henceforth the garrison were intent on no- *---v —
thing but how to prolong the defence.
Hie grand master sent them every night fresh troops
to supply the place of the killed and wounded j and
kept them well furnished with provisions, ammunition,
and fireworks. Of these last he had invented a par- 12
ticular kind, which consisted of hoops of wood, covered Inventi?n
with wool, and steeped in boiling oil and other inflam- ,°f bur
made liquors, mixed with nitre and gunpowder. To °0^
these machines they set fire, and threw them flaming
111 the midst of the enemy when they were crowded to¬
gether at an assault. It happened often that two or
three of the Turks were hooked together and scorched
to death ; and the utmost confusion was produced
wherever they were thrown.
The besieged stood much in need of this, and every
other instrument of mischief that could be devised, for
their defence. In spite of the most vigorous opposi¬
tion, the lurks had cast a bridge over the ditch, and
begun to sap and undermine the wall. From the 17th
of June to the 14th of July, not a single day passed
without some rencounter j and Mustapha had frequent¬
ly attempted to scale the wall of the fort, but had been
as often repulsed with the loss of some of the bravest of
his troops.
Ashamed at having been detained, so long before a
place of such inconsiderable strength, he resolved to
make one great decisive effort j and to bring to the
assault as many of bis forces as the situation of the
place would permit him to employ. He had already
made several breaches ; but in order to secure the suc¬
cess of the assault which he now intended, lie kept his
batteries playing all the 15th without intermission, till
the wall on that side where he designed his attack was
almost level with the rock. On the i6tb, the fleet
was drawn up before sunrise, as near the fort as the
depth of the water would allow. Four thousand mus¬
keteers and archers were stationed in the trenches ;
and the rest of the troops, upon a signal given, ad¬
vanced to the breach. The garrison was prepared to
receive them ; the breach was lined with several ranks
of soldiers, having the knights interspersed among
them at certain distances. The Turks attempted often
to break through this determined band, and to over^
power them with their numbers 5 but their numbers
served only to augment the loss which they sustained.
Every shot from the fort did execution. The artillery
made dreadful havock among, them : and the burning
hoops were employed with astonishing success. The
novelty of these machines, and the shrieks of those
who were caught in them, added greatly to the terror
which they inspired j and made it impossible for the
lurkish officers to keep their men firm, and steady
in pursuing the advantages, which, had they preserved
their ranks, their numbers must have infallibly ao
quired.
At length Mustapha, after a fruitless assault of more
than six hours, gave orders for sounding a retreat. In
this attack the garrison lost about 20 knights and 300
soldiers j but this loss was immediately supplied by a
reinforcement from the town ; and Mustapha was at
last convinced, that, unless the communication between
the fort and the town were cut off, it would be impos¬
sible to bring the siege of the former to a period, while
any
M A L
T 44° 3
M A L
Malta.
any troops remained in the other parts of the island.
> By the advice of Dragut, he resolved to extend his
trenches and batteries on the side next the town, till
they should reach to that part ol the sea, or great ^iai"
hour, where those supplies were landed which the grand
master daily sent to the garrison. This undertaking he
knew must be attended with the utmost difficulty, be¬
cause all the space between his intrenchments, and the
point to which it was necessary to extend them, lay ex¬
posed to the artillery both of Fort St Elmo and St An¬
gelo. In viewing the ground, a Sangiac, in whom he
put confidence, was killed by his side 5 and, which was
still a more irreparable loss, Dragut received a mortal
wound, of which he died in a few days. T-his did not,
however, discourage Mustapha from -pursuing his de¬
sign. By employing his troops and pioneers at the
-Work day and night, without intermission, he at length
carried it into execution. Then having planted batte¬
ries along the shore, and filled his trenches with muske¬
teers, it was impossible for any boat to pass from the
4own to the fort without the most imminent danger of
either being sunk or intercepted.
After this precaution, he resumed with fresh vigour
his attempts to take the fort by storm. On the 2ist
he made four different assaults : all of which the garri¬
son withstood; and, in repulsing so many thousand
brave and well disciplined troops, displayed a degree
of prowess and fortitude which almost exceeds belief,
and is beyond the power of description. But this
heroic garrison was now exceedingly reduced in num¬
ber; and there was the strongest reason to apprehend,
that, in one assault more, they must inevitably be over¬
powered, unless a reinforcement were sent them from
the town. Of their desperate situation they gave in¬
telligence to the grand master by one who swam across
the harbour in the night. The boats were instantly
filled with knights and other soldiers, who generously
resolved to devote themselves to certain destruction for
the general safety, and the preservation of the fort.
They set off from the town with as much alacrity as if
they had entertained the most sanguine hopes of victory;
but they found the Turks everywhere so much upon
their guard, and the lines so strongly defended, that,
after several fruitless attempts to land, they were at last
obliged to return, depressed with sorrow for the fate of
their brave companions.
The garrison now gave themselves up for lost; but
instead of either capitulating or attempting to escape,
they prepared for death, and passed the night in prayer
and in receiving the sacrament; after which they em¬
braced one another tenderly, and then repaired to their
respective posts; while such of the wounded as had
been disabled from walking, were, at their own earnest
desire, carried to the side of the breach, where they
waited, without dismay, for the approach of the Turk¬
ish army.
Early in the morning of the 23d of July, the Turks
advanced to the assault with loud shouts, as to certain
victory, which they believed so a small a handful of men
as now remained in the fort would not dare to dispute
with them. In this expectation they were disappoint¬
ed. The garrison being resolved on death, and de¬
spising danger were more than men, and exerted a
degree of prowess and valour that filled their enemies
with amazement. The combat lasted upwards of four
Malta.
13
hours, till not only every knight but every soldier had
fallen, except two or three who had saved themselves
by swimming. The Turkish colours were then plant- ^
ed on the ramparts; and the fleet‘entered the har-^*^.
hour, which the fort commanded, in a kind of triumph. the garri
When Mustapha took a view of the fort, and examined son cutoff
its size and fortifications, he could not refrain from
saying, “ What will not the father cost us (meaning
the town), when the son, who is so small, has cost so
many thousands of our bravest troops ?” But this re¬
flection, far from exciting his admiration ol that he¬
roic fortitude which he had found so difficult to over¬
come, served only to inspire him with a brutal fury.
He ordered all such of the garrison as were found Cnidty of
lying on the breach alive to be ripped open, and their Mustaplia,
hearts torn out; and, as an insult on the knights and
their religion, he caused their dead bodies to be search¬
ed for, and large gashes to be made in them, in the
form of a cross ; after which he tied them on planks,
and threw them into the sea, to be carried by the wind
and tide to the town or Fort St Angelo.
The grand master was at first melted into tears at
this shocking spectacle ; but his grief was soon con¬
verted into indignation and revenge : and these pas¬
sions betrayed him into an action unworthy of the ex-^^'J.^
alted character which he bore. In order to teach the grand
basha, as he pretended, to make war with less barba-ster.
rity, he caused all the Turks whom he had taken pri¬
soners to be massacred; and then putting their heads
into his largest cannon, he shot them into the Turkish
camp.
In the siege which has been related, the order lost
about 1500 men, including 130 of the bravest knights.
Mnstapha vainly imagined, that, being intimidated
by the fate of their companions, they would be now
inclined to listen to terms of capitulation: and in this
hope, he sent an officer with a white flag to one of
the gates, attended by a Christian slave designed to
serve for his interpreter. The Turk was not allowed
to enter within the town ; but the Christian was ad¬
mitted, and was led through several ranks of soldier^
under arms, by an officer, who, after showing him all
the fortifications of the place, desired him to take par¬
ticular notice of the depth and breadth of the ditch,
and said to him, “ See there, the only spot 4ve can af¬
ford your general; and there we hope soon to bury him
and all his janizaries.”
This insulting speech being reported by the slave,
excited in the fiery mind of the basha the highest de¬
gree of wrath and indignation, and made him resolve
to exert himself to the utmost in the prosecution of
the siege. His troops, though greatly diminished,
were still sufficient to invest at once both the town
and the fort of St Michael. He kept a constant fire
on both; but he intended first to apply to the reduc¬
tion of the latter, which he proposed to attack both
by land and water, at the extremity of the peninsula
on which it stands. In order to accotnjdish this de¬
sign, it was necessary he should have some shipping
introduced into the harbour for transporting his forces.
But the mouth of the harbour having been rendered
inaccessible by a great iron chain and the cannon of
St Angelo, his design must have been relinquished, if
Piali had not suggested an expedient against which
the grand master had not provided. This was, to
make
Wit!
A,
'^1,
M A L
[ 44i ]
M A I
Malta.
make the Christian slaves and the crews of the ships
—v—' draw a number of boats, by the strength of their
arms, over the neck of land on which stood Fort St
FI mo. Of this proposal, which Mustapba immedi¬
ately adopted, information was carried to the grand
master by a Turkish officer j who, being by birth a
Greek, was touched suddenly with remorse, and de¬
serted to the Christians. In consequence of this intel¬
ligence, La \ alette set a great number of hands to
work in framing a stacado along that part of the pro¬
montory where the Turks intended their attack j and
at another part, where the depth of the water or the
hardness of the bottom wrould not admit the stacado,
he caused strong intrenchments to be made upon the
beach. Mustapha, in the mean time, fired incessantly
upon the fort, while the slaves and crews were em¬
ployed in transporting the boats over land into the
harbour. At length the basha, judging that the
number of boats which he had transported would be
sufficient, and that the breaches which his artillery
had made were practicable, resolved, without further
delay, to make an attack both by sea and land. He
was the more confident of success, as since the taking
of St Elmo, he had received a considerable reinforce¬
ment, by the arrival of Hascem, son of Barbarossa,
with 25CO select soldiers, commonly called the lira roes
•of Algiers* Hascem, who possessed a considerable
share of his father’s fire, and wTas ambitious to distin¬
guish himself in the sultan’s service, begged of Musta¬
pha to instrust him with the assault of Fort St Mi¬
chael ; and vaunted, with his natural arrogance, that
he would soon make himself master of it sword-in¬
hand. The basha, whether from an opinion of his va¬
lour, or an intention to make him learn at his own ex¬
pence the folly of his presumption, readily complied
with his request ; and, having added 6000 men to his
Algerines, he promised to support him with the rest of
his army.
Hascem divided his forces with Candeiissa, an old
corsair, his lieutenant 5 to whom he committed the at¬
tack by sea, whilst he reserved that on the land-side to
himself.
Candeiissa having put his troops on board the boats,
set out with drums beating, and hautboys and other
musical instruments playing, preceded by a boat filled
with Mahometan priests, some of whom were employ¬
ed in ofl'ering prayers to heaven for his success, or in
singing hymns $ while others had books in their hands,
out of which they read imprecations against the Chris¬
tians. Candeiissa attempted first to break down the
stacado which had been formed to obstruct his land¬
ing ; but finding it much stronger than he expected,
and that, while he was employed in demolishing it, his
troops must suffer greatly from the enemy’s fire, he
thought it would be easier to make a descent on that
part of the shore which the grand master had strength-
5 ened with intrenchments. At this important post, the
Turks Christian troops were commanded by an ancient knight
riame °f Guimeran. This experienced officer
bi itcr* reservecl ffi8 fige till the Turks had advanced within
a little distance of the shore, when, by a single dis¬
charge, he killed about 400 men. This did not pre¬
vent the rest from approaching. Candeiissa pushed
forwards while the Christians were loading their can¬
non, and landed at the head of his Algerines. But
Vol. XII. Part H. f
Malta.
Th
Guimeran having reserved some cannon charged with
grape-shot, did dreadful execution among them after
they had landed, and many of them began to fly to
their boats : which Candeiissa observing, he command¬
ed the boats to be put off to a little distance from
the shore. His troops, perceiving then that they must
either die or conquer, took courage from despair, and
advanced boldly to the intrenchment, with ladders for
scaling it in one hand and their sabres in the other.
The combatants on both sides displayed the most in¬
trepid valour. Great numbers fell, and the ditch was
choked with blood, and w ith the bodies of the dead
and wounded. The Turks at last, after an engage¬
ment, of five hours, reached the top of the intrench¬
ment and there planted their ensigns. The knights,
stung with shame on account of their retreat, return¬
ed with redoubled ardour. But they would probably
have been overpowered by the superior number of the
enemy, had not the grand master sent them a season¬
able reinforcement, under the admiral de Giou and the
Chavalier de Quincy j wdm fell upon the Algerines
and Turks with a degree of fury that struck terror in¬
to Candeiissa himself, who was noted for his intrepidi¬
ty. Having ordered the boats to be brought nearer
the shore, he was among the first who fled. His bra-
voes fought desperately for some time after he had left
them 5 but they were at length thrown down from the
intrenchments, and compelled to fly to their boats with
the utmost precipitation. The Christians pursued them,
and the batteries continued firing on them without in¬
termission. Many of the boats were sunk ; the w'ater
was covered w'ith dead bodies, mangled limbs, shields,
and helmets. Of the 4000 who had been sent on this
enterprise, scarcely 500 remained, and many of these
were dangerously wounded.
Hascem was not more fortunate in his assault byr
land than Candeiissa u’as by sea. After having been
repulsed at one breach with great slaughter, he rallied
his troops, and led them on to another, where he fought
long and desperately, till, most of the bravoes having
fallen by his side, he wTas obliged, with much reluctance
and sorrow', to sound a retreat.
Mustapha, not unmindful of his promise to support
him, no sooner perceived him beginning to retire, than
he ordered the janizaries, whom he kept under arms, T
to advance. The garrison had maintained an engage-Incredible
ment with Hascem for five hours, in the middle of the ra’our of
day, and in the hottest season of the year 5 yet, as ift,ie Mal-
they had not been subject to the wants and weaknessestcSP'
of humanity, they advanced beyond the breach to .
meet the janizaries, and fought apparently with as
much vigour and fortitude as before. By the power
of superior numbers, they wTere compelled to fall back
within the breach. But there they made the most des¬
perate resistance j and, being reinforced by J)e Giou
and He Quiney, with the troops which had triumph¬
ed over Candeiissa, they at last repulsed the janizaries
with dreadful slaughter; after having lost more than
40 knights, and 200 of the bravest of the common
men.
Mustapha, enraged by this invincible obstinacy which
the Christians displayed in their defence, and dreading
that the Spanish succours, which had been already de¬
layed much longer than he expected, might soon ar¬
rive, resolved now to employ his whole force at once ;
3 K and
M A L
[ 442 ]
M A L
Malta.
18
A great
number of
Turks de¬
stroyed by
a contri-
-vance of
their own.
and while he himself prosecuted the siege of Fort St
Michael with one half of his troops, to employ the
other, under Piali, against the town. More batteries
were raised j the trenches were advanced still nearer
than before j bridges of sail-yards and masts were
thrown over the ditches j mines}, notwithstanding the
hard and rocky soil, were sprung j assaults were repeat¬
ed without number ; and the two bashas, emulous of
one another, and each of them agitated with continual
anxiety lest victory should declare first for his com¬
petitor, exhibited the most shining proofs of personal
courage, and exhausted all the art of war then known
in the world. Yet, through the determined bravery
of the knights, conducted by the grand master with
consummate prudence and indefatigable vigilance, the
Turks were baffled in every attempt, and repulsed with
slaughter. Mustapha flattered himself once with the
most sanguine hopes of success on his part, from a ma¬
chine invented by his principal engineer, in the form
of a huge cask bound strongly with iron hoops, and
filled with gunpowder, nails, chains, bullets, and such
other instruments of death. After setting fire to a
train which was fastened to this machine, it was thrown,
by the force of an engine, upon a ravelin that was the
principal defence of the fort. But the garrison, undis¬
mayed, found means, before it caught fire, to cast it
out again into the midst of the assailants. In a mo¬
ment afterwards it burst with dreadful fury, and filled
the Turks with consternation. The knights then salli¬
ed out upon them sword in hand 5 and, taking advan¬
tage of their confusion, killed many of them, and put
the rest to flight.
Piali had, on some occasions, still more reason than
Mustapha to entertain the hopes of victory, although
the town was much stronger than the fort, and La Aa-
lette commanded there in person. By his batteries he
had demolished all the outworks of the place, and had
made an immense breach in the wall. While his troops
were engaged in a furious assault, that engrossed the
W'hole attention of the besieged from morning till night,
he employed a great number of pioneers in raising a
cavalier or platform of earth and stones, close by the
breach, and so high as to overlook the parapet. Night,
in the mean time, came on, and prevented him from
carrying any further this great advantage ; but he
doubted not that next day he should be able to make
himself master of the place.
The grand As soon as be had drawn off his forces, a council of
master pre-the order was convened, and most of the knights were
vents the 0f opinion that the town was no longer tenable *, that
fronfaban the fortifications which still remained should be blown
rionino- the UP ? anc* ^at the garrison and inhabitants should retire
town.& into the castle of St Angelo. But the grand master
received this proposal with horror and indignation.
“ This would be in effect (said he), to deliver the
whole island into the hands of the infidels. Fort St
Michael, which has been so gallantly defended, and
which is preserved by its communication with the town,
would thus be soon reduced to the necessity of surren¬
dering. There is no room in the castle of St Angelo
for the inhabitants and troops j nor, if there were
room, is there water in that fort for so great a num¬
ber.” It was then proposed, that at least the relics of
the saints and the ornaments of the churches should be
carried into the castle 3 and the knights earnestly en¬
treated the grand master to retire into it himself, as- Malta,
suring him that they would conduct the defence with l——v~—
the utmost vigour and vigilance. “ No, my brethren
(he replied), what you propose as to the sacred things
would serve only to intimidate the soldiers. We must
conceal our apprehensions. It is here we must either
die or conquer. And is it possible that I, at the age
of 71, can end my life so honourably as in fighting,
together with my friends and brethren, against the
implacable enemies of our holy faith ?” He then told
them what he thought proper to be done, and proceed¬
ed instantly to put it into execution. Having called
all the soldiers from Fort St Angelo, except a few who
w'ere necessary for managing the artillery, he employed
them and the inhabitants all night in throwing up in-
trenchments within the breach 3 after which he sent
out some of the bravest knights, with a select body of >
troops, to make an attempt on the cavalier. These
men stole softly along the foot of the wall till they
arrived at the place appointed 3 when they set up a
loud shout, and attacked the guards whom Piali had
left there with so much fury, that the Turks, believing
the whole garrison had fallen upon them, abandoned
their post, and fled precipitately to their camp.
The cavalier wras immediately fortified, a battery
of cannon planted on it, and a parapet raised on
the side towards the enemy. And thus the breach
was rendered impracticable 3 the towui put in greater
security than before 3 and a work, which had been
devised for its destruction, converted into a bulwark
for its defence.
The grand master had now greater confidence than
ever of being able to hold out till the Spaniards should
come to his relief. In consequence of the assurances
given by Philip and the Sicilian viceroy, he had, long
before this time, entertained the hopes of their ar¬
rival 3 and had often earnestly solicited the viceroy to
hasten his departure from Messina. The conduct ot this
nobleman was long exceedingly mysterious. The pa¬
tience of the knights was worn out by his delays 5 and
they, and many others, suspected that the real motives
of his conduct was the dread of encountering with an
admiral of so considerable reputation as Piali. But it
afterwards appeared that the viceroy had acted agree¬
ably to his instructions from the court of Spain. For
although Philip was, for the reasons above mentioned,
sincerely interested in the preservation of the knights,
and had amused them with the most flattering promises
of assistance 3 yet he seems from the first to have re¬
solved not to expose himself to danger on that account,
and to avoid, if possible, a general engagement.
Philip was affected by their danger only so far as
it threatened the tranquillity of his own dominions.
He had resolved to interpose in their behalf, rather
than suffer them to be overpowered 3 but he appears
to have been very little touched with their calamities,
and to have intended to leave them to themselves, as
long as there was any prospect of their being able to
make resistance 3 by doing which he considered, that
he would not only preserve his own strength entire, hut
might afterwards engage w ith the Turks, when they
w'ere exhausted by the operations of the siege.
Philip adhered inflexibly to this plan, notwithstanding
the grand master’s repeated importunities, much longer
than was consistent with his own selfish views. For,
without
M A L
Malta.
[
rq rce
tni
without a degree of fortitude and prowess on the part
- ot the garrison, and a degree of wisdom, vigilance,
and magnanimity on that of the grand master, infi¬
nitely higher than there could be reason to expect, it
must have been impossible for such a handful of men to
have withstood, for so long a time, so great a force,
and such mighty efforts, as were employed to reduce
them. Even the death of the grand master alone,
whose person was exposed to perpetual danger, would
have proved fatal to the knights, long before Philip
sent orders to his viceroy to give them any effectual
support 5 and in this case, as his own dominions or his
fleet would have been immediately attacked, he would
probably have had little reason to be satisfied with the
timid ungenerous counsels which he pursued.
Whatever judgment may be formed on this head
the viceroy did not think himself at liberty to yield to
the repeated applications of the grand master, till the
operations of the siege began to relax, and the Turkish
forces were reduced from 45,000 to 15,000 or 16,000 :
of whom many were worn out with the fatigues which
they had undergone, and others rendered unfit for ac¬
tion by a bloody flux, which for several wreeks had
raged amongst them.
In this situation of affairs, when it was probable that
the knights would, without assistance, have compelled
the lurks to raise the siege, the viceroy let the grand
master know, that he had now received such instruc¬
tions from the king, as put it in his power to show his
attachment to the order: that he was not indeed per¬
mitted to attack the Turkish fleet ; but that he would
■mmediately bring him a strong body of troops, whose
443
j
M A L
Maitrf.
ster improved to the best advantage the leisure that was
afforded him. He employed all the inhabitants, men  
women, and children, as well as the soldiers, in fillinti’
up the enemy’s trenches, and demolishing their works •
and put a garrison without delay into Fort St Elmo ; in
which the Turks now beheld from their ships the stand¬
ard of St John erected, where that of Mahomet had
lately stood.
This demonstrated to Mustapha how much new la¬
bour awaited him in case he should return to the sieee ;
but being enraged against himself oh account of the
precipitancy of his retreat, and disquieted at the
thoughts of the reception which he had reason to ex¬
pect from bolyman, he wished to atone for his impru¬
dence, and to wipe off the reproach in which it had
involved him, by victory or death. Piali, Avho, from
Ins jealousy of the basha’s credit with the sultan was
not sorry for the failure of his enterprise, represented
in a council of war convened on this occasion, That as
the troops were much dispirited and worn out, it would
be exposing them to certain destruction, either to lead
them against the enemy, or to resume the operations of
the siege. But the majority of the council were of a
diiterent opinion ; and it was resolved to land the forces
again Without delay.
The Turkish soldiers complained bitterly of this un-Thev re¬
expected resolution, and obeyed the orders to disem- turn,' hut
bark with the greatest reluctance. Their officers were are defeat-
j   1, uuujr troops, wnose
commanders (as he himself must return to Sicily) were
to be entirely subject to the grand master’s authority
till the enemy should be expelled. ]
Ti nights The viceroy, although still suspected of interposimr
reke a unnecessary delays, at length fulfilled his promise 5 and
on the 7th of September landed 6000 men, under Don
Alvaro de Sande and Ascanio della Cornaj in that part
of the island which lay at the greatest distance from
tbe 1 urks ; after which, he immediately carried back
the fleet to Sicily.
In the mean time, intelligence being brought to
iVlustapha that the Spaniards were landed, and march¬
ing towards him, he was thrown into the most dread¬
ful consternation. Sensible that his soldiers were much
disheartened by their ill success, he imagined that he
was about to be attacked by a superior army, consist¬
ing of the bravest and best disciplined troops in Spain.
Without waiting for information of their number, he
forthwith raised the siege, drew his garrison out of St
Elmo, and, leaving all his heavy cannon behind him,
embarked his troops with as much precipitation as if
the Spaniards with superior forces had been in sight.
He had scarcely got on board when a deserter ar¬
rived from the Spanish camp, and informed him, that
with 15,000 or 16,000 men, he had fled before an ar¬
my that did not exceed 6000, having no general at
their head, and commanded by officers who were in-
ependent of one another. Ihe bash a was overwhelm¬
ed with shame and vexation by this intelligence, and
would have immediately disembarked j but this, he
Knew, he durst not attempt without consulting Piali
iia^em, and his other principal officers.
While he was deliberating upon it, the grand ma-
Tli«
rais
“eg
paa.
'urks
•the
n a
greatest   AUC1I umoers were
obliged to employ threats with some, and force withe<L
others. At length the number intended was put oil
shore, and Mustapha set out at their head in search of
the enemy.
The grand master bad not neglected to give early
notice of their march to the Spanish commanders,
who had intrenched their little army on a steep hill,
which the lurks would have found almost ittaccessible ;
and it was the opinion of some of the principal offi¬
cers, that they should avail themselves of the advan¬
tage of their situation, and stand on their defence.
But this proposal was rejected with disdain by the bold
adventurous De Sande, and the greatest part of the
opanish officers ; and the troops were led out of their
encampment, to meet the enemy in the open field.
Hus conduct, more fortunate perhaps than prudent
contributed to increase the dejection of the Turkish
soldiers, and to facilitate their defeat. Having been
dragged against their inclination to the field of battle
and being attacked by the Spaniards with great fury*
both in front and flank, they scarcely fought, but be¬
ing struck with a sudden panic, fled with the utmost
precipitation.
Mustapha, Confounded and enraged by this pusilla¬
nimous behaviour of his troops, was hurried along by
the violent tide of the fugitives. He fell twice from
his horse, and would have been taken prisoner if his
officers had not rescued him. The Spaniards pursued
briskly till they came to the sea shore. There Piali
had his boats ready to receive the Turks, and a number
of shallops filled with musketeers drawn up to favour
their escape. Without this precaution, they must all
have perished 5 and, even notwithstanding the protec¬
tion which it afforded them, the number of their killed
amounted to 2000 men, while the victors lost only 15
or 14 at most.
SuCh, after four months continuance, was the con-
3 k. 2 elusion
2 3
Descrip¬
tion of the
island, See.
M A L [44
elusion of the siege of Malta, which will be for ever
memorable on account of that extraordinary display of
the most generous and heroic va^0’jr» Y ^ n ,
knights, so few in number, were enabled to baffle the
most vigorous efforts which could be made to subdue
them by the most powerful monarch in the world. 1 he
news of their deliverance gave universal joy to the
Christian powers j and the name of the grand master
excited everywhere the highest admiration and applause.
Congratulations were sent him from every quarter 3 and
in many states public rejoicings were celebrated on ac¬
count of his success.
With this siege is concluded every thing 01 impoit-
ance in the history of Malta. The power of the lurks
began about this time to be so much circumscribed, tliat
they ceased to be formidable to the Christian nations,
and the knights of Malta had no longer an opportunity
of exerting their valour as formerly. 1 he best descrip¬
tion of Malta we have met with is that given by Mr
“ The approach of the island (says he), is very fine,
although the shore is rather low and rocky, it is
everywhere made inaccessible to an enemy by an infi¬
nite7 number of fortifications. The rock, in many
places, has been sloped into the form of a glacis, with
strong parapets and intrenchments running behind
 On getting ashore we found ourselves in a new
world indeed—-the streets (of Valetta) crowded with
well-dressed people, who have all the appearance of
health and affluence 3 and we were conducted by the
English consul to an inn, which had more the appear¬
ance of a palace. . . , . . , m.
“ After dinner we went to visit the principal vi a.
of the island 3 particularly those of the grand master
and the general of the galleys, which he contiguous
to one another. These are nothing great or magni¬
ficent 3 but they are admirably contrived for a hot
climate, where, of all things, shade is the most de¬
sirable. The orange groves are indeed very line, and
the fruit they bear superior to any thing of the kind
Spain or Portugal. - , . ,
“ The aspect of the country is far from being pleas¬
ing : the whole island is a great rock of very white
freestone 3 and the soil that covers this rock is, in
most places, not more than five or six inches deep3 yet,
what is singular, we found their crop in genera was
exceedingly abundant. They account for it from the
copious dews that fall during the spring and summer
months : and pretend likewise that there is a moisture
in the rock below the soil, that is of great advantage
to the com and cotton, keeping its roots perpetually
moist and cool 3 without which singular quality, they
say, they could have no crop at all, the heat of the
sun being so exceedingly -violent.—Phe whole island
produces corn only sufficient to supply its inhabitants
for five months or little more 3 but the crop they most
depend upon is the cotton. They begin to sow it about
the middle of May, and continue till the middle of
June 3 and the time of reaping is in the month of
October and beginning of November.
“ They pretend that the cotton produced from this
plant, which is sown and reaped in four months, is of
l much superior quality to that of the cotton-tree.
I compared them 3 but I cannot say I found it so.
this is indeed the finest 3 but that of the cotton-tree is
4 ] M A L
by much the strongest texture. The plant rises to the
height of a foot and a half 3 and is covered with a
number of nuts or pods full of cotton ; These, when
ripe, they are at great pains to cut off every morning
before sunrise 3 for the heat of the sun immediately
turns the cotton yellow : which indeed we saw horn
those pods they save for seed.
“ They manufacture their cotton into a great va¬
riety of stuffs. Their stockings are exceedingly fine.
Some of them, they assured us, had been sold for ten
sequins a pair. Their coverlets and blankets are
esteemed all over Europe. Of these the principal ma¬
nufactures are established in the little island of Gozzo,
where the people are said to be more industrious than
those of Malta, as they are more excluded from the
world, and have fewer inducements to idleness. Here
the sugar cane is still cultivated with success, though
not in°any considerable quantity. ^
“ The' Maltese oranges certainly deserve the cha¬
racter they have of being the finest m the world. Iht;
season continues for upwards of seven months, from
November till the middle of June 3 during which time
those beautiful trees are always covered with abun¬
dance of delicious fruit. Many of them are of the red
kind, much superior, in my opinion, to the others
which are rather too luscious. I hey are produced, 1
am toffl, from the common orange bud, mgralted on
the pomegranate stock. The juice of this fruit is as
red as blood, and of a fine flavour. The greatest
part of their crop is sent in presents to the dilferent
courts of Europe, and to the relations of the che*
valiers.
MnllH.
^“The industry of the Maltese in cultivating their
little island is inconceivable. There is not an inch
little isianu is ~ 7
of ground lost in any part of it 3 and where there was
not soil enough, they have brought over ships and
boats loaded with it from Sicily, where there is plen¬
ty and to spare. The whole island is full of enclosures
of freestone, which give the country a very uncouth
and barren aspect 3 and in summer reflect such a light
and heat, that it is exceedingly disagreeable and oflen-
sive to the eyes. The enclosures are very small and ir¬
regular, according to the inclination of the groun .
This, they say, they are obliged to observe, notwith¬
standing 'the deformity it occasions 3 otherwise the
floods, to which they are subject, would soon carry oft
their soil. . ,
“ The island is covered over with country houses
and villages, besides seven cities, for so they term
them 3 but there are only two, the Valetta, and Citta
Vecchia, that by any means deserve that appellation.
Every little village has a noble church, elegantly finish¬
ed, and adorned with statues of marble, rich tapestry,
and a large quantity of silver plate.
“ The city of Valetta has certainly the happiest
situation that can be imagined. It stands upon a pe¬
ninsula between two of the finest ports in the world,
which are defended by almost impregnable fortihca-
tions. That on the south side of the city is the
largest. It runs about two miles into the heart of the
island 3 and is so very deep, and surrounded by such
high grounds and fortifications, that they assured us
the largest ships of war might ride here in the most
stormy weather, almost without a cable. #
“ This beautiful bason is divided into five distinct
harbours,
M A L [ 445 ] M A L
harbours, ali equally safe, ami each capable of con-
taining au immense number of shipping. The mouth
of the harbour is scarcely a quarter of a mile broad,
and is commanded on each side by batteries that
would tear the strongest ship to pieces before she could
enter. Besides this, it is fronted by a quadruple bat¬
tery, one above the -other, the largest of which is a
Jleur <Peau, or on a level with the water. These are
mounted with about 80 of their heaviest artillery : so
that this harbour, I think, may really be considei’ed as
impregnable •, and indeed the Turks have ever found
it so, and X believe ever will.
“ The harbour on the north side of the city, al¬
though they only use it for fishing, and as a place of
quarantine, would, in any other part of the world,
be considered as inestimable. It is likewise defended
by very strong works ; and in the centre of the bason
is an island on which they have built a castle and a
lazaret.
“ The fortifications of Malta are indeed a most
stupendous work. All the boasted catacombs of Rome
and Naples are a trifle to the immense excavations
that have been made in this little island. The ditches,
of a vast size, are all cut out of the solid rock. These
extend for a great many miles, and raise our astonish¬
ment to think that so small a state has ever been able
to make them.
“ One side of the island is so completely fortified
by nature, that there w'as nothing left for art. The
rock is of a great height, and absolutely perpendicu¬
lar from the sea for several miles. It is very singular,
that on this side there are still the vestiges of se¬
veral ancient roads, with the tracks of carriages rvorn
deep in the rocks. These roads are now terminated
by the precipice, with the sea beneath $ and show, to
a demonstration, that this island has formerly been of
a much larger size than it is at present j but the con¬
vulsion that occasioned its diminution is probably much
beyond the reach of any history or tradition. It has
been often observed, notwithstanding the very great
distance of Mount ALtna, that this island has generally
been more or less affected by its eruptions j and they
think it probable, that on some of these occasions a
great part of it may have been shaken into the sea.
“ One half of Mount iEtna is clearly discovered
from Malta. They reckon the distance near 200 Ita¬
lian miles. And the people of Malta affirm, that, in
great eruptions of the mountain, their whole island is
illuminated, and from the reflection in the water there
appears a great track of fire all the way from Malta
to Sicily. The thundering of the mountain is likewise
distinctly heard.
“ We made an expedition through the island in
coaches drawn by one mule each ; the ’only kind of ve¬
hicle the island affords. The catacombs, not far from
the ancient city of Melita, are a great work ; they are
said to extend for 15 miles under ground. Many peo¬
ple, they assure us, have been lost in them by advan¬
cing too far; the prodigious number of branches mak¬
ing it next to impossible to find the way out again.
The great source of water that supplies the city of Va-
letta takes its rise near to this place j and there is an
aqueduct, composed of some thousand arches, that con¬
veys it from thence to the city. The whole of this
immense work was finished at the private ex pence of Malta,
one of the grand masters. u—y—
“ Not far from the old city there is a small church
dedicated to St Paul; and just by the church a mira¬
culous statue of the saint, with a viper on his hand ;
supposed to be placed on the very spot where the house
stood in which he was received after his shipwreck on
the island, and where he shook the viper off his hand
into the fire without being hurt by it: at which time
the Maltese assure us, the saint cursed all the venomous
animals of the island, and banished them for ever.
Whether this be the cause of it or not, the fact is cer¬
tain that there are no venomous animals in Malta.
They assured us that vipers had been brought from Si¬
cily, and died almost immediately on their arrival.
“ Adjoining to the church is the celebrated grotto
in which the saint was imprisoned. It is looked upon
with the utmost reverence and veneration ; and if the
stories they tell of it be true, it is well entitled to it all.
It is exceedingly damp, and produces (I believe by a
kind of petrifaction from the water (a whitish kind
of stone, which, they assure us, when reduced to powder,
is a sovereign remedy in many diseases, and saves the
lives of thousands every year. There is not a house in
the island that is not provided with it: and they tell
us there are many boxes of it sent annually, not only
to Sicily and Italy, but likewise to the Levant, and to
the East Indies j and (what is considered as a daily
standing miracle) notwithstanding this perpetual con¬
sumption, it has never been exhausted, nor even sensi¬
bly diminished j the saint always taking care to supply
them with a fresh quantity the day following. I tasted
some of it, and believe it is a very harmless thing. It
tastes like exceeding bad magnesia, and, I believe, has
pretty much the same effects. They give about a tea¬
spoonful of it to children in the smallpox and in fe¬
vers. It produces a copious sweat about an hour after;
and, they say, never fails to be of service. It is like¬
wise esteemed a certain remedy against the bite of all
venomous animals. There is a very fine statue of St
Paul, in the middle of this grotto, to which they ascribe
great powers.
“ The grand master of the knights of Malta is more
absolute, and possesses more power, than most sovereign
princes. His titles are, serene highness and eminence;
and his household attendance and court are all very
princely. As he has the disposal of all lucrative of¬
fices, he makes of his councils what he pleases $ be¬
sides, in all the councils that compose the jurisdiction
of this little nation, he himself presides, and has two
votes. He has the disposal of 21 commanderies, and
one priory, every five years j and as there is always a
number of expectants, he is very much courted. He
is chosen by a committee of 21 j which committee is
nominated by the seven nations, three out of each na¬
tion. The election must be over within three days of
the death of the former grand master j and, during
these three days, there is scarce a soul that sleeps at
Malta: all is cabal and intrigue; and most ol the
knights are masked, to prevent their particular at¬
tachments and connections from being known: the
moment the election is over, every thing returns to its
former channel.
“ The land force of Malta is equal to the number
of
M A L [ 446 1 M A L
of men in the island fit to hear arms They have about
500 regulars belonging to the ships of war-, and
compose the guard of the prince. The two islands of
Malta and Gozzo contain about 150,000 inhabitants.
The men are exceedingly robust and hardy. I have seen
them row for 10 or 12 hours without intermission, and
without even appearing to be fatigued. Their sea force
consists of 4 galleys, 3 galliots, 4 ships of 60 guns, and
a frigate of 36, besides a number of the quick-sailing
little vessels called scampavius (literally runaways')i
Their ships, galleys, and fortifications, are not only
well supplied with excellent artillery, but they have
likewise invented a kind of ordnance of their own, un¬
known to all the world besides. For we found, to our
no small amazement, that the rocks were not only cut
into fortifications, but likewise into artillery, to defend
these fortifications, being hollowed out, in many places,
into the form of immense mortars. The charge is said
to be about a barrel of gunpowder, over which they
place a large piece of wood, made exactly to fit the
mouth of the chamber. On this they heap a great
quantity of cannon-balls, shells, or other deadly ma¬
terials ; and when an enemy’s ship approaches the
harbour, they fire the whole into the air: and they
pretend it produces a very great effect j making a
shower for 200 or 300 yards round, that would sink
any vessel.
“ Notwithstanding the supposed bigotry of the
Maltese, the spirit of toleration is so strong, that a
mosque has been lately built for their sworn enemies
the Turks. Here the poor slaves are allowed to enjoy
their religion in peace. It happened lately that some
idle hoys disturbed them during their service ; they
were immediatlv sent to prison, and severely punished.
The police indeed is much better regulated than in the
neighbouring countries, and assassinations and rob¬
beries are very uncommon 5 the last of which crimes
the grand master punishes with the utmost severity.
He is said to be much more relaxed with regard to the
first.
“ Perhaps Malta is the only country in the world
where duelling is permitted by law. As their whole
establishment is originally founded on the wild and ro¬
mantic principles of chivalry, they have ever found it
too inconsistent with those principles to abolish duel¬
ling -, but they have laid it under such restrictions as
greatly to lessen its danger. These are curious enough.
The duellists are obliged to decide their quarrel in one
particular street of the city) and if they presume to
fight anywhere else, they are liable to the rigour of
the law. But, what is not less singular, but much
more in their favour, they are obliged, under the most
severe penalties, to put up their swords, when ordered
to do so by a woman, a priest, or a knight. Under these
limitations, in the midst of a great city, one would
imagine it almost impossible that a duel could ever end
in blood ; however, this is not the case : a cross is al¬
ways painted opposite to the spot where a knight has
been killed, in commemoration of his fall. We count¬
ed about 20 of these crosses.
“ About three months ago (Mr Brydone’s letter is
dated June 7. 1770), two knights had a dispute at a
billiard table. One of them, after giving a great deal
of abusive language, added a blow 5 but to the asto-
nishment of all Malta (in "whose annals there is not a
2
similar instance), after so great a provocation he ah- Malta.
solutely refused to fight his antagonist. The challenge ,v v-~*
was repeated, and he had time to reflect on the conse¬
quences but still he refused to enter the lists He was
condemned to make the amende honorable in the great
church of St John for 45 days successively •, then to be
confined in a dungeon, without light, for five years \
after which, he is to remain a prisoner in the castle for
life. The unfortunate young man who received this
blow is likewise in disgrace, as he has not had an op¬
portunity of wiping it out in the blood of his adver¬
sary.
“ The horse-races of Malta are of a very uncommon
kind. They are performed without either saddle,
bridle, whip, or spur 5 and yet the horses are said to
run full speed, and to afford a great deal ol diversion.
They are accustomed to the ground for some weeks
before; and although it is entirely over rock and pave¬
ment, there are very seldom any accidents. They have
races of asses and mules performed in the same manner
four times every year. rlhe rider is only furnished with
a machine like a shoemaker’s awl, to prick on his
courser if he is lazy.
“ As Malta is an epitome of all Europe, and an
assemblage of the younger brothers, who are common¬
ly the best, of its first families, it is probably one of
the best academies for politeness in this part of the
globe ; besides, where every one is entitled by law as
well as custom to demand satisfaction for the least
breach of it, people are under a necessity of being very
exact and circumspect, both with regard to their words
and actions.”
Malta was taken by the French army under General
Bonaparte, destined ’ to invade Egypt, in the year
1799, but soon after retaken by the British, and agreed
to be given up to the knights of St John of Jerusalem,
by the treaty of Amiens, in 1802. The British how¬
ever insisted on retaining it for 10 years; and this
formed one cause of the recommencement of hostilities
in June 1803. The possession and full sovereignty of
this island, w-as confirmed to Britain by the treaty of
Paris in May 1814.
Knights of Malta, otherwise called Hospitalers of
St John of Jerusalem, a religious military order, whose
residence is in the island of Malta, situated in the
Mediterranean sea, upon the coast of Africa. Jhe
•Knights of Malta, so famous for defending Christen¬
dom, had their rise as follows :
Some time before the journey of Godfrey of Bouil¬
lon into the Holy Land, some Neapolitan merchants,
who traded in the Levant, obtained leave of the caliph
of Egypt to build a house for those of their nation
who came thither on pilgrimage, upon paying an an¬
nual tribute. Afterwards they built two churches, and
received the pilgrims with great zeal and chanty. This
example being followed by others, they founded a
church in honour of St John, and an hospital for the
sick ; whence they took the name ot Hospitalers. A
little after Godfrey of Bouillon had taken Jerusalem,
in 1099, they began to be distinguished by black ha¬
bits and a cross with eight points; and, besides the or¬
dinary vows, they made another, which was to defend
the pilgrims against the insults of the infidels. This
foundation was completed in 1104, in the reign of
Baldwin; and so their order became military, into
which
M A L [ 447 ]
which many persons of quality entered, and changed nority
M A L
-J the name of hospitalers into that of knights.
When Jerusalem was taken, and the Christians lost
their power in the East, the knights retired to Acre
or Ptolemais, which they defended valiantly in 1290.
Then they followed the king of Cyprus, who gave
them Limisson in his dominions, where they staid till
1310. That same year they took Rhodes, under the
grand master Foulques de Villaret, a Frenchman ; and
next year defended it against an army of Saracens :
since which the grand masters have used these four let¬
ters, F. E. R. T. i. e. Fortttudo ejus Rhochtm tenuit ;
and the order was from thence called knights of
Rhodes.
In 1522, Solyman having taken Rhodes, the knights
retired into Candia, and thence into Sicily. In 1530,
Charles V. gave them the island of Malta, to cover his
kingdom of Sicily from the Turks. In 1566, Soly¬
man besieged Malta; but it was gallantly defended by
the grand master John de Valette Parisot, and the
Turks obliged to quit the island with great loss.
'I he knights consisted of eight different languages
or nations, of which the English were formerly the
sixth ; but at present they are but seven, the English
having withdrawn themselves. The first is that of Pro¬
vence, whose chief is grand commendator of religion ;
the second of Auvergne, whose chief is mareschal of
the order j the third of France, whose chief is grand
hospitaler •, the fourth of Italy, and their chief, admi-
lal} the fifth ot Arragon, and their chief, grand con-
scnator 5 the sixth of Oermany, and their chief, grand
baililF of the order ; the seventh of Castile, and their
chief, grand chancellor. The chief of the English
was grand commander of the cavalry.
None are admitted into this order but such as are of
noble birth both by father and mother’s side for four
generations, excepting the natural sons of kings and
princes. The knights are of two sorts; those who have
a right to be candidates for the dignity of grand mas¬
ter, called crops'; and those who’are only knights
assistants, who are taken from good families. They ne¬
ver marry; yet have continued from 1090 to the pre¬
sent time.
The order consists of three estates ; the knights,
chaplains, and servants at arms. There are also priests
who officiate in the churches ; friar-servants, who assist
at the offices; and donnes or demi-crosses; hut these
are not reckoned as constituent parts of the body. This
division was made in 1130, by the grand master Rai-
mond du Puy.
^ The government of the order is mixed, being part¬
ly monarchical, and partly aristocratical. The^grand
master is sovereign, coins money, pardons criminals,
arid gives the places of grand priors, bailiffs, knights,
&.e. The ordinary council is composed of the grand
master and the grand crosses. Every language has se¬
veral grand priories, and every priory a certain num¬
ber of commanderies.
The knights are received into this order, either by
undergoing the trials prescribed by the statutes, or by
ispensations. Ihe dispensations are obtained either by
the pope’s brief, or by a general chapter of the order,
and are granted in case of some defect as to the nobi-
jity of their pedigree, especially on the mother’s side.
Ihe knights are received, either as of age, under mi-
. or pages to the grand master. They must be Malta
16 years old complete before they are received; they (1
enter into the noviciate at 17, and are professed at 18., Malvern.
I hey sometimes admit infants of one year old ; but
the expence is about 4003 livres. The grand master
has 16 pages who serve him, from 12 to 16 years of
age. . I he knights w'ear on the left side of their cloak
or waistcoat a cross of white waxed cloth, with eight
points, which is their true badge; that of gold being
only for ornament. When they go to war against the
links, they wear a red cassock, with a great white cross
before and behind, without points, which are the arms
of the religion. I he ordinary habit of the grand master
is a sort of cassock of tabby-cloth, tied about with a
girdle, at which hangs a great purse, to denote the
charitable institution of the order. Over this he wears
a velvet gown; and on the left side a white cross with
eight points. His yearly revenue is 10,000 ducats.
He acknowledges the kings of Spain and both the Si¬
cilies, as his protectors; and is obliged by his agree¬
ment with the emperor Charles V. to suppress pirates.
Hie knights of Malta were deprived of their privi¬
leges and had their estates sequestered by order of
Maximilian Joseph, elector of Bavaria ; but after Paul
emperor of Russia took them under his protection, they
weie all restored. A treaty to this effect was signed in
July 1799; but their political existence may now be
considered at an end.
MALTON, a town of the north riding of Yorkshire
in England, seated on the river Derwent, over which
there is a good stone bridge. It is composed of two
towns, the New and the Old, and contained 3713 in¬
habitants in 1811. It is Avell accommodated with good
inns, and sends two members to parliament. W. Long,
o. 40. N. Lat. 54. 8.
MAL\ A, the Mallow, a genus of plants belong¬
ing to the monadelphia class; and in the natural me¬
thod ranking under the 37th order, Columniferce. See
Botany Index.
MALVERN, Great and Little, (with the
Chase and the Hills'); two towns of Worcestershire,
in which were formerly two abbeys, about three miles
asunder. Since the dissolution nothing remains of the
abbey of Great Malvern but the gateway of the abbey
and church, now parochial. Part of it was a reli¬
gious cell for hermits before the Conquest; and the
greatest part, with the tower, built in the reign of
William the Conqueror. Its outward appearance is
very striking. It is 171 feet in length, 63 in breadth,
and 63 in height. In it are ten stalls ; and it is sup¬
posed to have been rebuilt in the year 1171. The nave
only remains in part, the side aisles being in ruins.
The windows have been beautifully enriched with
painted glass, and in it are remains of some very an¬
cient monuments. Little Malvern stands in a cavity
of the hills, which are gi-cat lofty mountains, rising
like stairs, one higher than another, for about seven
miles, and divide this county from Herefordshire.
There is a ditch here very much admired. On the
hills are two medicinal springs, called holy wells, one
good for the eyes, and the other for cancers. Hen¬
ry VII. his queen, and his two sons, Prince Arthur
and Prince Henry, were so delighted with this place,
that they beautified the church and windows, part of
which remain, though mutilated. In the lofty south
windows
M ’ A M
l 44-S ]
M A M
Malvern windows of the church are the historical passages of
‘ “ H the Old Testament j and in the north windows the
Mambrun. pictures of the holy family, the nativity and circum-
c   ■ ^sion of our Saviour, the adoration of the shepherds
and the kings, his presentation in the temple, Ins bap¬
tism, fasting, and temptation, Ins miracles, his last
supper with his disciples, his prayer in the garden,
his passion, death, and burial, his descent into hell,
his resurrection and ascension, and the coming or the
Holy Ghost. The history of our Saviour’s passion is
painted diflerently in the east window of the choir, at
the expence of Henry VII. whose figure is theretore
often represented, as is that ot his queen. In the
west window is a noble piece of the day ot judgment,
not inferior to the paintings of Michael Angelo. Mal¬
vern Chase contains 7115 acres in Worcestershire (be¬
sides 241 acres called the Prior’s Land), 619 in Here¬
fordshire, and 103 in Gloucestershire. Malvern Hills
run from north to south, the highest point 1313 teet
above the surface of the Severn at Hanley, and ap¬
pear to be of limestone and quartz. On the summit
of these hills is a camp with a triple ditch, imagined
to be Koman, and situated on the Herefordshire side
of the hills.
MALUS. See Pyrus, Botaky Index.
MAMALUKES, the name of a dynasty that reign¬
ed in Egypt. See Egypt.
MAMBRUN, PETER, an ingenious and learned
French Jesuit, horn in the diocese of Clermont, in
the year 1581. He was one of the most perfect ion- Rlambrcc!
tators of Virgil in Latin poetry, and his poems are of 11
the same species : Thus he wrote Eclogues, Georgies, or .ManilI)iH
four books on the culture of the soul and the under- 'r“
standing j together with a heroic poem, entitled Con¬
stantine, or Idolatry ovcrthivivn. He showed also great
critical abilities in a Latin Peripatetical Dissertation on
Epic Poetry. He died in 1661.
MAMERTINI, a mercenary band of soldiers
which passed from Campania into Sicily at the icqucst
of Agathocles. When they were in the service of
Agathocles, they claimed the privilege of voting at
the election of magistrates at Syracuse, and had re¬
course to arms to support their unlawful demands.
The sedition was appeased by the authority of some
leading men, and the Campanians were oidered to
leave Sicily. In their way to the coast they were
received with great kindness by the people of Messana,
and soon returned perfidy for hospitality. They con¬
spired against the inhabitants, murdered all the males
in the city, married their wives and daughters, and
rendered themselves masters of the place. After this
violence they assumed the name of Mamertini, and
called their city Mamertum, or Mamertium, from a
provincial word which in their language signified mar*
tial or warlike. The Mamertines were afterwards de¬
feated by Hiero, and totally disabled to repair their
ruined ailairs.
MAMMiE, in Anatomy. See there, N 227.
M A M M
Definition.r pHE first class of the animal kingdom in the system
of Linnaeus, containing those animals which hav e
breasts or paps (mammee), at which they suckle then-
young. In this class are included, not only what are
called the viviparous quadrupeds, but the Bat tribe,
and several marine animals, as Seals and W hales.
In the present article, we are to give an account of all
but the whales, or Cetacea, which have been already
fully treated of under the article Cetology.
INTRODUCTION.
Utility of The relations that subsist between man and many of
this parti the animals arranged in this class, either from their uti-
of natural as t]oniestie servants, or from the warfare that they
history. carry on against him, his property or his dependants,
render the study of this part of natural history peculiar¬
ly important while the extraordinary actions and fa¬
culties of some of these animals must make the history
of them highly interesting to every one who examines
nature with a curious or discerning eye.
our know- Quadrupeds have, accordingly, engaged the particu-
kdgeofit lar attention of naturalists in every country and in
imperfect, every age, and as our acquaintance with them is less
difficult than with most other classes of animated nature,
it is not surprising that their form, habits, and manners,
are most familiar to us. Still, indeed, much remains
in doubt respecting some of the foreign and rarer quadiu-
peds, and of some we know little more than the name.
JEven with regard to those which have been longest
I
ALIA,
known and described, as the lion, the elephant, the
porcupine, &c. the observations ot modern naturalists
and travellers have corrected several erroneous notions
that had been generally received as certain. Long as
this part of natural history has occupied the attention
of mankind, there yet probably remain many glean-
ings to repay the industry of future mejuuers* t is
probable that the unexplored regions ot Africa, Ame¬
rica, and New Holland, may contain many quadrupeds
either entirely unknown to us at present, or known on¬
ly by the fossil remains that have been discovered in
the’bowels of the earth. There can, we think, be
little doubt that the unicorn exists in Africa, not far
north of the Cape of Good Hope, and perhaps, at some
distant period it may be as well known as the elephant
or the hippopotamus is at present *. * See 1
To attempt any thing like a critical examination o\row's'1
even the most celebrated writers on the natural histoiy
of the mammalia would far exceed the limits which we
are obliged to prescribe to this article. MTe shall, how¬
ever, briefly notice some of the more important and
more interesting works, to w hich our readers may refer
for information which the nature of this work precludes
us from aflording them. „ 4
Among the ancients, the most celebrated writers on writei "
natural history in general, and on quadrupeds in parti-mamm
cular, are Aristotle and Pliny, and of these the former
has been much more circumstantial, and probably much
less credulous than the latter. Aristotle wrote more
from observation, and the opportunities of obtaining a
knowledge
, Classifica¬
tion.
S
Aristotle
md Pliny,
6
Gesner,
ildrovan-
liis, and
Johnston.
IPart I. M A M M
knowledge of animals that were afforded him by the
liberality of his pupil give him a greater claim to our
attention and assent, than is pernaps due to l^liny, who
drew his accounts almost entirely from preceding wri-
ters. iJHny, however, is a more graceful, more ani¬
mated, and consequently a more pleasing writer, and
everywhere displays great marks of taste and erudi¬
tion. /
Eetween the subversion of literature and the begin¬
ning of the 17th century, there is scarcely a writer on
quadrupeds that deserves particular mention. Even
during the 17th century, the labourers in this depart¬
ment were few j and the names of Gesner, Aldrovan-
dus, and Johnston, alone have been deemed worthy of
commemoration in Linnaeus’s introduction to the mam¬
malia, and of these it is by no means certain that the
writings on quadrupeds attributed to Aldrovandus are
genuine.
The 18th century produced a great many valuable
works, both systematic and descriptive, on this part of
natural history. As systematic writers, Kay and Pen-
nant,^ and on the continent, Klein, Stort, Brisson,
Linne, Laubenton, and Cuvier, are the most cele¬
brated, and we shall presently notice some of these
more at large. As a descriptive writer, Pennant is al¬
so conspicuous j and the histories of quadrupeds contain¬
ed in his “ British Zoology” and “ Arctic Zoology,”
are at once accurate and interesting, amusing and in¬
structive. But of all those naturalists who have pro¬
fessed to give a detailed account of the history of qua¬
drupeds, none have acquired such celebrity as the Count
de Buffon, whose work is in every one’s hands, and has
been translated into most of the modern languages,
for animated and lively descriptions, and acute and
brilliant remarks, Buffon is perhaps unrivalled : me¬
thod he seems to have despised y and it is to he regret¬
ted that his judgment is not always equal to his taste,
and that his accuracy is sometimes less conspicuous
than his genius and fancy. There are also a certain
freedom of expression, and luxuriousness of description,
in treating of certain subjects, which render Buffon’s
work less proper for young people than for those who
are more advanced both in years and in the study of
nature. Dr Goldsmith’s “ History of the Earth and
Animated I\ature” is chiefly an abridgement of Buf-
fyn.
'enaant.
uSon.
12
‘ssifica.
iof
to&US.
k 449
Mr Bewick’s “ General History of Quadrupeds,” ciassifica-
with wooden cuts, deserves much praise. In his de- tion.
scriptions, he has selected with much skill and taste, '"“'“v-—
and has added many original and judicious observa-T, A
tions, especially respecting the domestic and indigenous C"K
animals of this country. His figures are in general ex¬
cellent, and his vignettes both useful and entertain¬
ing.
Among the latest systematic works written on this Shaw,
subject is the elegant and splendid “ General Zoology”
°r i1 ^!?aw* ■^s 51 museui» for acquiring a knowledge
ot the form and external structure of animals, this
work has been surpassed by none, and equalled by very
few. Description of the habits or manners of the ani¬
mals seems to have been a secondary object with Dr
Shaw, as of this his work contains very little. It is
chiefly valuable as & systematic arrangement and general
museum.
Me have seen few works more entertaining than Bingley.
Mr Bmgley’s “ Animal Biography:' It is professedly
a compilation, hut the extracts are well chosen, and in
general highly interesting. We cannot say, however,
that they are always happily arranged. As Mr Bing-
ley uniformly quotes his authorities, and has given a list
of many valuable works from which he has drawn
his information, his work is very useful, and forms an.
admirable companion to Dr Shaw’s Zoology.
In the following account of the mammalia, we shall
endeavour to combine amusement with utility ; but, as
our limits are exceedingly confined, we can give a de¬
tailed account of very few species. We shall there¬
fore select the most interesting individuals, referring
here generally to Buffon, Pennant, Bewick, Shaw, and
Bingley for the rest.
Y\ith respect to the general divisions of quadrupeds
and the terms employed in describing them, we need
say nothing here ; the former will be seen from the se¬
veral classifications to be immediately mentioned, and
the latter explained under their proper heads in the
general alphabet of this dictionary. Respecting the
general anatomical structure of the mammalia, we
could add little to what has been already given under
Comparative Anatomy. When there occurs any strik¬
ing peculiarity of conformation in particular indivi¬
duals, it will be noticed in its proper place.
PART I. CLASSIFICATION OF THE MAMMALIA.
„ QUADRUPEDS have been very differently classi-
ned by different naturalists. Our limits will permit us
only to give a brief sketch of some of the more import-
amt arrangements, and we shall select those of Linnaeus,
Pennant, and Cuvier.
Linnaeus divides the mammalia into seven orders,
the distinctive characters of which are chiefly derived
from the number, situation, and structure of the teeth.
Order I. PRIMATES.
1 his order is intended to contain man and those ani-
!flals which are most nearly allied to him in their struc-
^ OL. XII. Part II. {•
ture. They have usually four cutting teeth in the
fore part of each jaw, and in the upper jaw these are
parallel $ and they have one canine tooth on each side
of these in each jaw. They have also two breasts or
teats, from which this class derives its name. The two
fore feet in many of the individuals resemble the hands
of the human species, and are employed for the same
purposes, having fingers, furnished for the most part
with oval flattened nails. They chiefly live on vege¬
table food. Under this order Linnaeus ranks four ge¬
nera, viz. man, the ape tribe, the lemur tribe, and the
hats.
au
Order
45®
M A M M
Classifica¬
tion.
Order II. BKUTA.
These have no front teetli in either jaw J their feet
are armed with strong blunt nails like hoofs ; they are
generally of a clumsy form, and slow in their movements j
they feed chiefly upon vegetables. This order contains
nine genera, of which the principal are the rhinoceros,
the elephant, the sloths, and ant-eaters.
Order III. FERiE.
These have commonly six front teeth in the upper
and under jaw, which are somewhat of a conical shape,
and next to these strong and sharp canine teeth, with
grinders that terminate in conical pointed eminences •,
their feet are divided into toes which are armed with
sharp crooked claws. Almost all the animals of this or¬
der are beasts of prev, living chiefly on the flesh ol other
animals. The order comprehends ten genera, the most
remarkable of which are, the seal, dog, cat, weazel, and
bear tribes.
Order IV. GLIRES.
These have two front teeth in each jaw’, and these
are remarkably long and large, but they have no ca¬
nine teeth ■, their feet are furnished with claws, and ap¬
pear formed both for running and leaping. I heir food
consists of vegetables. This order also contains ten ge¬
nera, the principal of which are the porcupines, beavers,
rats, squirrels, and hares.
Order V. PECORA.
These have several front teeth that are blunt, and
have a wedge-like form, in the lower jaw, but no front
teeth in the upper* their feet are armed with cloven
hoofs * they have four stomachs, feed entirely on vege¬
tables, and ruminate or chew the cud. There are in
this order eight genera, comprehending the camel, the
musk animal, the giraffe, and the deer, antelope, goat,
sheep, and ox tribes.
Order VI. BELLUiE.
These have front teeth in both jaws that are ob¬
tuse * their feet are armed with hoofs that are in some
species entire, and in others subdivided. Most of them
live entirely on vegetable food. There are lour gene¬
ra, comprising those of the horse, hippopotamus, tapir,
and hog.
Order VII. The last order is that of the Getj£, or
JFAa/cs ; for which, see Cetology.
^ .I3- Several obiections have been made to the above ar-
Objecuoas ement 0f Linnaeus, and some of them appear to be
iueus’s ar- sufficiently valid. It has been objecte wit i Src'‘1^
TaDgement. son ^}iat man, the lord of the creation, is degraded oy be¬
ing’placed under the same division with apes, monkeys,
macaucos and bats, the companions which Linnseus has
thought proper to allot to him. However nearly the
apes may resemble man in their general appearance,
and the macaucos in the use of their fore extremities,
they should surely have been considered apart from
4
ALIA. Parti,
man * and nothing, it is said, can be more absurd than ciassifiea-
to arrange the insignificant fly-bat with any of the for- tion.
mer animals, because it agrees with them in the num- ' v "
her and situation of its teeth. To the second order it
is objected, that the most intelligent of quadrupeds, the
half-reasoning elephant, is made to associate with the
most discordant and stupid of the creation, with sloths,
ant eaters, and armadillos, or with creatures of a quite
different element, walrusses and morses. In the third
order, again, which from its name should comprehend
only the wild beasts or beasts of prey, it will be im¬
possible (says Mr Pennant) to allow the mole, the
shrew, and the harmless hedgehog, to be the compa¬
nions of lions, wolves, and bears. We may err in our
arrangement.
Sed non ut plasidis locant immitia, non ut
Serpentcs avibus geminentur, tigribus agm*. * Ten.
1 _ nant s Sy*
To the sixth order it has been objected that the nopsis,
hoofed animals arranged under it are so dissimilar in Pr</.
their nature, that they ought not to be placed together
without some intermediate gradations. _ 14
To many of the above objections it may be replied, Answered,
that all artificial arrangements have their disadvantages,
and that if we follow nature in placing together only
those animals that resemble each other in their external
appearance, or in their habits ot life, we shall often
be obliged to arrange the individuals of what most na¬
turalists consider as the same genus under very differ¬
ent parts of our system. The great object of a syste¬
matic arrangement is t@ facilitate the discovery of ob¬
jects that are unknown * and for this purpose, in respect
to quadrupeds, there is perhaps no method preferable
to that which is founded on the diversity of their teeth
and feet. We shall in the following article, as we have
done in most of the preceding departments of natural
history, adopt the arrangements of Linnaeus, modifying
according to the latest improvements of Gmclin and
Shaw l<'
’ Our celebrated British naturalist, Mr Pennant, pub-“ren
lished the first edition of his Synopsis of Quadrupeds in nt
8vo, in 1771 j and ten years after he published a third
edition under the new title of History of Quadrupeds,
in 2 vols. 4to. This work has gone through sonm
other editions, and is justly admired for the quantity of
information which the author has contrived to give in a
very condensed form.
Mr Pennant distributes quadrupeds into four general
divisions, containing such as are hoofed, digitated, pin¬
nated, and winged. ... .1
The first division is subdivided into two sections : the
first containing those animals whose hoofs are entire or
of one piece, of which there is only one genus, viz.
Horse. The second section those which are cloven-
hoofed •, of which there are 13 genera, comprising the.
Ox, Sheep, Goat, Giraffe, Antelope, Musk,
Camel, Hog, Rhinoceros, Hipfopotame, Tapir,
and Elephant
The second division consists of digitated animals, or
those whose feet are divided into toes. It is subdivided
into five sections j the first of which consists of those
animals that are anthropomorphous, or which, in some
measure, resemble man in their external form. Ci
these there are two genera, viz. Ape and Macauco.
The second section consists of rapacious carnivorous ani¬
mals,
Part I. MAM M
iClassifica-rnals, having six of more cutting teeth in each jaw,
tion. and large canine teeth separated from the cutting teeth.
v Of these there are eight genera, comprehending those
of the Dog, Hyaina, Cat, Bear, Badger, Opos¬
sum, We a ZEE, and Otter. The third section con¬
tains animals that have no canine teeth, and only two
cutting teeth in each jaw, being generally herbivorous
or frugivorous. Of these there are 11 * genera, viz.
Cavy, Hare, Beaver, Porcupine, Marmot,
Squirrel, Jerboa,Eat,Shrew,Mole, and Hedge¬
hog. The fourth section comprehends those animals
which are without cutting teeth, and which, like those
of the last section, live on herbs and fruits. This sec¬
tion contains only two genera, viz. those of the Sloth
and Armadillo. The fifth section contains animals
that are destitute of teeth, and live on insects. Of these
there are two genera, viz. Manis and Ant-Eater.
The third division consists of those animals that are
pinnated or furnished with fins, and chiefly live in the
water, feeding partly on fish and partly on herbage.
01 these there are three genera, viz. the Walrus,
Seal, and Makati.
The fourth division, or that of the winged quadru¬
peds, contains the single genus of the Bat, which be¬
ing placed last in the order of quadrupeds, is thus made
t) form the connecting link between them and the class
of birds.
According to Cuvier’s arrangement, the mammalia
are divided into three general orders : I. Those having
claws or nails j 2. Those having hoofs 5 and, 3. Those
having feet like fins: a division very similar to that of
Mr Pennant. The first of these orders is subdivided
into those mammalia that have three sorts of teeth, and
those that want at least one kind of teeth.
The first subdivision of the first order contains three-
families, viz.
I. Bimanum, having thumbs separate on the atlan-
see Bar- tal * extremities, comprehending Man alone.
'atomUal QUAI)RUMANA> having the thumbs or great toes
mencla- sel)ara^e 011 each of the fore feet. This family contains
■j twn xfit Siititr a A  1 1! xl. _
ALIA.
45i
16
f Cuvier,
two genera, viz. Simia or Apes, comprehending the
subgenera pithecus or oran-otans, callitrix or sapajous.,
cercopithecus or guenons, cynocephalus or macaques,
papio or baboons, cubes or ulouates; and Lemur or
Makis, comprehending the subgenera of lemur, indri,
lori, galago, and tardipus.
III. Sarcophaga ; having no separate thumbs or
great toes on the atlantal extremity. This family is
subdivided into four sections, viz. Cheiroptera, or
those that have elongated hands and membranes, ex,-
tending between the feet from the neck to the anus j
1 lantigrada, or those that have no separate thumbs
or great toes, and who, in walking, apply the whole
sole of the foot to the ground j Carnivora, or such
.as have no separate thumbs or great toes, and whose
feet, in walking, rest only on the toes ; and Pedima-
Ka, or such as have separate great toes on the sacral
extremities or hind feet. J he Cheiroptera comprise
two genera, viz. Vespertilio or Bats, comprehend¬
ing the subgenera of pteropus or roussets, vespertilio or
common bats, rinolaphus, phyllostoma, and noctilio;
and Galeopithecus, or Flying Lemurs. The Plan-
tigrada contain four genera, viz. Erinaceus or
-ledgehogs, comprehending the subgenera of erinaceus
er hedgehogs, and setiger or ienrecs ; SoREX or Shrews,
comprehending the subgenera of sorex or shrew mice, classifies
mygali or musk shrew ; Chryso-Chloris, Scalops ; tion.
talpa or moles; and Ursus or Bears, comprehending
the subgenera of ursus or bears, taxus or badgers, na-
sua or coat is, procyon or racoons ; potos or kineajous,
ichneumon or mangoustes. The Carnivora comprise
four genera, viz. Mustela, or Weaxels, comprehend-
mg the subgenera of mustela, or wcwzels and martins,
lutia or otters, mephites or moujjetes, viverra or ci¬
vets ; Ielis, or Cat tribe; and Canis, or the Fog
ti the, comprehending the subgenera of canis and hyaena.
The 1 edimana contains only one genus, viz. Didel-
phis or Opossum, comprehending the subgenera of di-
delphis or sariques, dasyurus, phalangista or phalan-
gers.
1\ . Kodentia, or such quadrupeds as want only
the canine teeth. This family comprises eight genera,
viz. Kanguhus, Kangaroos; Hystrix or Porcupines;
Lepus, or Hares and Rabbits, comprehending the sub¬
genera of lepus and lagomys; Cavia, comprehending
the subgenera of cavia and hydrochaerus •, Castor or
Beavers; Sciurus or Squirrels, comprehending the
subgenera of sciurus, and pteromys or flying squirrels ;
Cheiromys, or Aye-aye ; and Mus, or Rats and Mice,
comprehending the subgenera ot arctomys or marmots,
lemmus or field mice, fiber or ondatra, mus or rats,
cricetus or hamsters, sphalax or mole rat, dipus or jer¬
boas, myoxus or dormice.
V. Edentata, or those mammalia which have nei¬
ther cutting nor canine teeth. This family comprises
three genera, viz. Myrmecofhaga, or Ant-Eaters,
comprehending the subgenera of myrmecophaga, echid¬
na or porcupine ant-eaters, and manis or scaly lizards ;
Orycteropus, or Cape Ant-Eaters; and Dasypus, or
Armadillos.
^ !• Tardigrada, or such as are deficient only in
cutting teeth. Of this family there is only one genus,
viz. Bradypus, or Sloths ; under which Cuvier arranges
as a subgenus, the unknown animal which he calls me¬
gatherium.
The second order, or those quadrupeds that are fur¬
nished with hoofs, comprises three families, with the
following distinctions and subdivisions.
VH. Pachydermata, or those animals that have
more than two toes and more than two hoofs. In this
family there are six genera, viz. Elephas or Elephants;
Tapir or Tapirs ; Sus or Swine ; Hippopotamus or
River horse ; IIYrax or Daman ; and Bhinoceros,
\ III. Ruminantia, having two toes and two hoofs.
01 this there are eight genera, viz, Camelus or Cat
mcls, divided into the subgenera of camelus and lama j
Moschus or Musks ;s Cervus or Deer ; Camelopar¬
dalis or Giraffe; Antelope or Antelopes; Capra or
Goats; Ovis or Sheep; and Bos or Oxen.
IX. Solipeda, having one toe and one hcofy and
comprising only one genus, viz. Equus or Horse.
The third order, or the mammalia with fin-like feet,
contains two families, viz. Amphibia and Cetacea.
X. Amphibia, having four feet, and comprising
two genera, viz. Phoca or Seals ; and Trichecus or
Morses.
XI. Cetacea, containing five genera, viz. Mana-
Tus or Lamantins; Delphinus or Dolphins ; Physe- * Lecons
ter or Cachalots ; Balacna or Common- Whales ; and Auato-
Monodon or Narwhal *. miet Co™Pa-
3L2 GENERIC
452
Classifica¬
tion.
r7
Generic
characters.
iS
.Primates.
Homo.
rum.
Situs erectus.
MAMMALIA.
GENERIC CHARACTERS,
Ordo I. PRIMATES.
Hymen et menstrua femina- Man. Posture erect.
men, and menstruating.
Part I,
Classifica-
tion.
Female furnished with a hy-
1. SlMtA. Dentes laniarii, hinc remoti.
2. Lemur. Dentes primores superiores 4 *, infen-
ores 6.
3. Galeopithecus. Dentes primores superiores
nullij inferiores 6.
* 4. Vespertilio. Manus palmato-volatihs (a).
S. Tusks distant from each other.
L. Fore teeth upper 4 j lower 6 in number.
G. Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting-, in the
lower 6.
V. Fore feet palmate, formed for flying.
Ordo II.
5. Bradypus. Dentes molares primo longiore, abs¬
que laniariis primbribusve. Corpus pilosum.
6. Myrmecophaga. Dentes nulli. Corpus pilo-
sum. _
7. Manis. Dentis nulli. Corpus squamatum.
8. Dasypus. Molares absque laniariis primoribus-
ve. Corpus cataphractum.
9. Rhinoceros. Cornu in fronte positum.
10. Elephas. Dentes laniarii et molares. Nasus
proboscide elongatus.
11. Sukotyro. Cornu ad utrumque latus prope
oculos. . _ , , .
12. Platypus. Os anatinum. Pedes palmati.
13! Trichecus. Dentes laniarii superiores, molares
ex osse rugoso. Pedes compedes.
BRUT A.
B. Grinders longer in front, without tusks. Body
hairy.
M. No teeth. Body hairy.
N. No teeth. Body scaly.
D. Grinders, without tusks or cutting teeth. Body
crustaceous.
R. Horn seated in front.
E. Tusks and grinders. Nose elongated into a pro¬
boscis.
S. A horn on each side near the eyes.
P. Mouth like a duck’s bill. Feet webbed.
T. Upper tusks. Grinders rough and bony. Hin¬
der feet uniting into a fin.
Ordo III. FERiE.
* 14. Phoca. Dentes primores superiores 6 inferi-
* 15. Canis. Dentes primores 6, 6; superiores inter-
medii lobati. .
* 16. Felis. Dentes primores 6, 6 } inferiores aequa-
]es. Lingua aculeata. ...
* Viverra. Dentes primores 6, 6 j inferiores m-
termedii breviores.
* xg. Lutra. Dentes ut in Viverra. Pedes pal¬
mati.
* 19. Ursus. Dentes primores 6, 6; supenores exca-
vati. Penis osse flexuoso.
20 Didelphis. Dentes primores supenores 10 •,
inferiores 8. . • o •
21. Dasyurus. Dentes primores superiores a j hi-
fenores 6#
22. Macropus. Dentes primores superiores 6 j in¬
feriores 2. Molares utrinque 5, remoti. ....
* 23. Talpa. Dentes primores superiores 6 j mten-
ores 8.
* P. Six upper cutting teeth $ 4 lower.
* C. Front teeth, six in each jaw j the intermediate
upper ones lobated.
* F. Cutting teeth six in each jaw ; the lower equal.
Tongue aculeate.
* V. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw; the intermediate
lower ones shorter.
* L. Teeth as in the last genus. Feet webbed.
* U. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw } the upper hollow¬
ed. Penis furnished with a flexible bone.
D. Cutting teeth 10 in the upper jaw, 8 in the
lower. 4
D. Cutting teeth 8 in the upper jawj 6 in the
lower. .
M. Cutting teeth 6 in the upper jaw } 2 m the low¬
er. Grinders 5 on each side, remote.
* T. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw 6 j in the lower
(a) The genera marked * have one or more of the species indigenous to Britain,
Part I. MAMMALIA.
Classifies- * 24. Sores. Dentes primores snperiores 2; inferi- * S. Cutting teeth in the upper jaw two; in the low-
tion. ores 4. er 4.
v * 25. Erinaceus. Dentes primores superiores 2 i * E. Cutting teeth two in each jaw.
inferiores 2.
21
Olires.
Ordo IV. GLIRES.
26. Hystrix. Corpus spinis tectum.
27. Cavia. Dentes primores cuneati. Molares 4
ad utrumque latus. Claviculse nulli.
28. Castor. Dentes primores superiores cuneati.
Molares ad utrumque latus. Claviculse perfectae.
* 2p. Mus. Dentes primores superiores cuneati.
Molares 3 ad utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae.
30. Hydromys. Pedes posteriores palmatae. Cau¬
da cyclindrica.
31. Arctomys. Dentes primoi'es cuneati. Mola¬
res superiores 5, inferiores 4, ad utrumque latus. Cla-
viculae perfectae.
*32. Sciurus. Dentes primores superiores cuneati j
inferiores acuti. Molares superiores 5, inferiores 4, ad
utrumque latus. Claviculae perfectae. Cauda disticha.
Mystaces longas.
* 33. Myoxus. Mystaces longae. Cauda rotunda,
apice crassior.
34. Dipus. Pedes anteriores perbrevesj posterio¬
res praelongi.
* 35. Lepus. Dentes primores superiores duplicati.
36. Hyrax. Dentes primores snperiores lati. Cau¬
da nulla.
H. Body covered with spines.
C. Cutting teeth wedge-shaped. Grhiders 4 on each
side. Clavicles wanting.
C. Upper cutting teeth wedge-shaped. Grinders 4
on each side. Clavicles complete.
* M. Upper cutting teeth wedge-shaped. Grinders 3
on each side. Clavicles complete.
H. Hind feet webbed. Tail round.
A. Cutting teeth wedge-shaped. Grinders 5 in the
upper jaw, 4 in the lower, on each side. Clavicles
complete.
* S. Upper cutting teeth wedge-shaped •, lower acute.
Grinders 5 in the upper jaw, 5 in the lower, on each
side. Clavicles complete. Tail spreading toivards each
side. Whiskers long.
* M. Whiskers long. Tail round, thicker at the
tip.
D. Fore feet short $ hind feet very long.
* L. Upper cutting teeth double.
H. Upper cutting teeth broad. Tail wanting.
22
ccora.
|
Ordo V.
37. Camelus. Ecomis. Dentes laniarii plures.
38. Moschus. Ecornis. Dentes laniarii solitarii;
superioribus exsertis.
* 39. Cervus. Cornua solida, ramosa, decidua. Den¬
tes laniarii nulli.
40. Camelopardalis. Cornua brevissima. Pedes
anteriores posterioribus multo longiores.
41. AntiloRe. Cornua solida, simplicia, persisten-
tia. Dentes laniarii nulli.
* 42. Capra. Cornua tubulosa, erecta. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
* 43. Ovis. Cornua tubulosa reclinata. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
* 44. Bos. Cornua tubulosa porrecta. Dentes lani¬
arii nulli.
PECORA.
C. Without horns. Tusks many.
M. Without horns. Tusks single j upper project-
ing-
* C. Horns solid, branching, deciduous. Tusks want¬
ing.
C. Horns very short. Fore feet much longer than
the hind.
A. Horns solid, unbranched, persistent. Tusks want-
ing*
* C. Horns hollow, erect. Tusks wanting.
* O. Horns hollow, reclined. Tusks wanting.
* B. Horns hollow, turned outwards. Tusks want*
ing.
Ordo VJ. BELLUiE.
* 45. Equus. Dentes primores superiores 6 5 inferio¬
res 6.
46. Hippopotamus. Dentes primores superiores
4J inferiores 4.
t 47* Tapir. Dentes primores superiores 10 } infe¬
riores 10.
* 48. Sus. Dentes primores superiores 4 j inferio¬
res 6.
* E. Cutting teeth 6 in each jaw.
H. Cutting teeth 4 in each jaw.
T. Cutting teeth 10 in each jaw.
* S. Cutting teeth in the upper iaw 4 5 in the lower
6.
Or©o VII. CETE—See Cetology.
3
TART
MAMMALIA.
454
History of
the Species.
Part II,
Primates.
Simla.
PART II. ARRANGEMENT AND HISTORY OF THE SPECIES.
Chap. I. PRIMATES.
OF this order we shall here give an account only of
the four genera, Simia, Lemur, CxALEOPiTHECUS, and
Vespertilio, reserving Man for a separate article.
Genus I. Simia. Apes.
Front teeth four in each jaw, near together 5 canine so¬
litary, longer than the others, and at a distance from
the grinders. Grinders obtuse.
The animals of this genus, which are best known
by the familiar name of apes or monkeys, form a very
interesting part of the animal creation j not so much lor
their importance and utility in relation to man, as on
account of the near resemblance that they bear to the
human species. They are a very lively tribe of animals,
full of frolic, chatter, and grimace. From the struc¬
ture of their limbs, they are capable of performing ma¬
ny actions in common with man } and we shall present¬
ly relate some diverting instances of their imitative
powers. Most of them are fierce and untameable,
though some are of a more gentle nature, and even
seem capable of an attachment to man. In general,
however, they are prone to mischief, and are filthy,
obscene, lascivious, and thievish. When offended, they
use threatening gestures $ and when pleased, they ap¬
pear to laugh. Many of them have cheek pouches, in
which they keep for a while such food as they have not
immediate use for. They are commonly gregarious,
going together in vast companies, the different species
never mixing with each other, but keeping apart, and
in different quarters. They inhabit woods, and live on
trees, leaping with vast activity from one tree to an¬
other, even though loaded with their young, which
cling to them. They are not carnivorous, but chiefly
feed on fruits and leaves, sometimes on insects, though,
for mischief’s sake, they will often rob the nests of birds
of their eggs and young. They are themselves the prey
of serpents, which pursue them to the trees and swallow
them entire. They are also devoured by leopards and
similar beasts of prey. Some species are eaten by the
natives of the countries where they are found.
These animals are almost confined to the torrid zone j
and, in particular, the woods of Africa, from Senegal
to the Cape, and from thence to Ethiopia, are crowded
with them. They are found in all parts of India, and
its islands, in the south of China, in Cochin-China and
Japan 5 and they swarm in the forests of South Ame¬
rica, from the isthmus of E-arien to Paraguay.
In some parts of India monkeys are objects of worship
to the natives, and magnificent temples are erected in
honour of them (b). In these countries they frequent¬
ly come in vast numbers into the cities, and enter the
houses without molestation. In Amadabad, the capi¬
tal of Guzarud, there are three hospitals lor animals,
where lame and sick monkeys, and such as, though
well, choose to dwell there, are fed and cherished.
Twice a-week the monkeys of the neighbourhood as¬
semble spontaneously in the streets ol this city, mount
on the houses which are flat-roofed, and lie here during
the great heats. On these days the inhabitants take
care to leave for them rice, millet, or fruit 5 and il by
any accident they omit to do this, the disappointed am-
mals become furious, break the tiles, and do other mis-
chief.
From the great number of species, it has been found
convenient to distribute them into three subdivisions,
viz. those ol apes, baboons, and monkeys. YY e shall
enumerate the species under each of these subdivisions,
with their specific characters, and shall then give a
brief account of some of the most remarkable indivi¬
duals. _ ...
A. Apes, destitute of tails. In this subdivision are ^pes.
reckoned 4 species, viz.
I. S. Satyr us, Oran Otan, or Wild Man of the
Wood. Tailless, either chesnut colour or black, with¬
out callosities behind, and with the hair on the lower
parts of the arms reversed.—2. S. Lar, Great Gibbon
or long-armed A. Tailless, usually black, without cal¬
losities behind, and with arms as long as the body.—
3. S. Inuus, Magot or Barbary A. Jaillessj pale
brown, with callosities behind and an oblong bead.——
4. S. Sylvanus, Pigmy. Tailless; pale brown, with
callosities behind, and a roundish head.
B. Baboons. Tails commonly short j bodies mus-]3atoons.
cular. In this there are 16 species, viz.
5. S. Sphinx, Common B. Short tailed 5 brown,
with callosities behind, with dull flesh-coloured face and
pointed nails.—6. S. Mormon, Mantegar, or Great B.
Short-tailed 5 tawney brown, with callosities behind j
naked, tumid, violet blue cheeks, obliquely furrowed,
and the middle of the nose blood-red.—7. S. Maimon,
Mandril or Ribbed-nose B. Short-tailed } olive brown,
with callosities behind } naked, violet-blue furrowed
cheeks, and the middle of the nose flesh-coloured.—
8. S. Porcaria, or Hog-faced B. Short-tailed ; brown,
covered behind, with black naked hog-like face and
pointed nails.—9. S. Sylvicola, Wood B. Short-tailed ,
fleshy brown, with callosities behind, and with black
naked face, hands, and feet.—-10. S. Sublutca, Yel¬
low
fBJ When the Portuguese pot possession of the island of Ceylon, they found in one of the temples dedicated
to these animals, a golden casket containing the tooth of an ape; a relick which the natives held in such vene¬
ration, that they offered to redeem it at no less a price than 700,000 ducats. The viceroy, however, ordered it
to be burned ; but, some years afterwards, a fellow, who was in the Portuguese ambassador s train, having pro¬
cured a similar tooth, pretended that it was the old one, and offered it to the priests, who were so much rejoiced
at the recovery of their lost treasure, that they purchased it of the fellow for above io,OOOl. of our money.
'Chap. I.
low B.
Primates
27
onkeys.
MAMMALIA.
Short-tailed; yellow, freckled with black,
with naked black face and hands, hairy on the upper
surface.—11. S. Cmera?, Cinereous B.' Short-tailed;
cinereous, with the crown spotted with yellow; brown
face and pale beard.—12. & Dmtafo,'Broad-toothed
B. Short-tailed, ash brown, with bluish face, and
very large fore teeth.—13. S. Fusca. Brown B. Short¬
ish tailed ; brown, with callosities behind, a whitish
face, and a very broad nose.—14. S. JSfemestrina. Pig¬
tailed B. Olive brown, with a short naked tail.— 15. S.
Cristata. Crested B. Short-tailed ; black, with, very
long hair on the crown and cheeks ; whitish breast, and
bare face and hands.—16. S. Apsdia, Little B. Short¬
tailed ; yellowish, without callosities behind, with
thumbs standing close to the fingers, and furnished with
rounded nails ; the fingers with narrow ones.—ly. S.
Hamadryas, Dog-faced B. Tail gray, with callosities
behind ; sharpish claws, and the hairs on each side of
the head very long.—18. S. Ferox, Lion-tailed B.
T.ailed; black, with very large whitish spreading
beard.—19. S. Cynosuros. Pale brown, beardless, with
callosities behind, and with longish flesh-coloured face ;
a whitish band across the forehead, and a longish sharp-
pointed tail.—20. S. Rugata, Wrinkled B. Short-
tailed, yellowish brown ; whitish beneath, with flesh-
coloured face, and large blood-red wrinkled callosities
behind.
# 9* Monkeys. Tails generally long. This subdi¬
vision contains 42 species, viz.
21. S. Lcomna, Leonine Monkey. Black, with cal¬
losities behind, very large whitish beard, and very long
tufted tail.—22. S. Cynomulgus, Hare-lipped M. Long-
tailed, beardless, with callosities behind, rising bifid
nostrils, and arched tail.—23. S. Veter, Purple-faced
M. Long-tailed; white, with black beard. 24. S.
Rolowaij, Boloway or Baloure M. Short-tailed, black¬
ish ; white beneath, with triangular face, surrounded
by a white divided beard.—25. S. Diana, Diana or
Spotted M. Long-tailed, blackish, freckled with
white ; the hair of the forehead and beard growing in
a pointed form, with a lunated band across the fore¬
head.——-2(5. S, Nasuta, Long-nosed ]\L Long-tailed,
blackish-rusty; pale ash-coloured beneath, with long
naked flesh-coloured face.—27. S. Flavescens, Yellow-
ish M. Long-tailed, bearded, cinereous; yellow, with
olack face and ears.——28. S. Sabcea, Green M. Long-
tailed, yellowish gray, with black face and callosities
behind.—29. S. JEthiops, Mangabey or White-eyelid
Long-tailed, beardless, with black face; white
455
M.
eyelids, white frontal band, and the hair on the fore
head upright.—30. & Cephas, Mustache M. Long¬
tailed, blackish rusty, whitish beneath, with bearded
cheeks and yellowish crown ; red eye-lids and whitish
muzzle.—31. S. Nictitans, White-nosed M. Long¬
tailed, beardless, black, freckled with white ; the
thumb of the hands very short, and no callosities be¬
hind.—32.#. Talapoin. Long-tailed, olive-coloured;
bearded cheeks, and black ears, nose, and soles.—-33.
<S. Maura, Negro M. Long-tailed, blackish, with
swarthy flesh-coloured face and breast, and blackish
beard.—34. S. Aygula, Egret M. Long-tailed, beard¬
less ; gray, with a rising longitudinal tuft on the crown.
35* ‘S* Rubra, Red M. Long-tailed, red pale ash-
coloured beneath, with bearded cheeks, and a black or
•vyhite band across the forehead.—36. S. Sinica, Chi¬
nese M. Beardless, pale brown, with the hair of the Historv of
crown spreading round horizontally.—37. & thcSpecie.v
tci, \ aulting M. Olive black ; white beneath, with a'    
triangular white spot on the 11030.-38. S. Fileata, Bon-
neted M. Rusty brown, whitish; yellow beneath, with
black limbs, and the hair at the head rising circularly
upwards. 39. 5. Mona, Varied M. Olive rusty;
white beneath, with the cheeks bearded, and a lunated
whitish band across the forehead.—40. S. Nasalis, Pro-
boscis M. Long-tailed, bearded, chesnut colour, with
pale limbs and tail, and a very long nose.—41. S. Ne-
mceus, Cochin China M. Long-tailed, with bearded
cheeks and white tail.—42. S. Fulva, Tawney M. Sub-
ferruginous, with the lower part of the back orange,
white beneath, with flesh-coloured face and cars 43
f Hlrcfa> Goat M. Long-tailed, brown, with blue
furrowed nose, and long-pointed beard.—44. ,9. Como-
sa, lull-bottom M. Long-tailed, black, with very
long spreading whitish hair on the head, and white tail.
rr4/: r , Bay M‘ Long-tailed, rusty, with
ilaciv limbs and tail.—46. S'. Annulate, Annulated M.
Rusty brown, whitish beneath, with annulated talk
shorter than the.body—47. S. Pithecia, Fox-tailed M.
Blackish brown, with the tips of the hair whitish, and
very bushy tail—48. .9. lacc/ms, Striated M. Long-
taiji Wlt 1 sPreailing 1]airy ears ; crooked hairy tail
and slump claws, those on the thumb being rounded 
49- & Oedipus, Red-tailed M. Long, red-tailed, beard-
ea^, with the hair of the head spreading downwards,
and sharp nails—50. S. Rosalia, Silky M. Long-tail¬
ed, silky hair, with long hair on the head; yellow bo-
d>, reddish round the face, and pointed claws.— rj.
o. hud us, Great-eared M. Long-tailed, black, with
laige naked square ears, orange-coloured feet, and point¬
ed nails.—52. S. Argentata, Fair M. Long-tailed,
beardless, white, with red face and brown tail. ro
N Reclzebul, Preacher M. Bearded, black, the feet
and tip of the tail brown ; tail prehensile.—54. S. Sc-
niculus, Royal M. Long-tailed, bearded, red ; tail
prehensile—55. S. Paniscus, Four-fingered M. Long-
tailed, bearded, black, writh four-fingered feet; tail
prehensile—56. S. Fatuellus, Horned M. Long-tail¬
ed, beardless, with two horns like tufts on the head ;
tail prehensile—57. S. Trepida, Fearful M. Long¬
tailed, beardless, with upright hair on the head, and
bluish feet; tail prehensile.—58. .S’. Apella, Weeper
M. Long-tailed, beardless; brown body, black feet,
and without callosities ; tail prehensile.—59. .S'. Capu-
ana, Capuchin M. Long-tailed, beardless, without
callosities, with black crown and limbs, and hirsute pre¬
hensile tail.—60. S. Sciurea, Squirrel M. Long-tail¬
ed, yellowish gray, beardless, with orange-coloured
hands and feet; four of the claws, and the hind feet
pointed.—61. S. Antiguensis, Antigua M. Blackish
brown, white beneath, with black limbs and face,
bearded cheeks, and brown prehensile tail.—62. .9.
Morta, Naked-tailed M. Long-tailed, beardless,
brown, with dusky muzzle, and naked scaly tail.
Species 1. S. Satyi'us. Oran Otan, Wild Man otSatynm,
the Woods. Chimpanzee, Jocko. Tailless Ape.—It Oran Otan.
is generally believed by naturalists, that the animals
which have been described under the names given above,
are only varieties of the same species, differing from
each other in size, colour, sex, and some other trifling-
shades of discrimination. Four remarkable specimens
have
6 M A M M A L I A.
Hisiorv of have ken dcstriW by authors of repute ; one by our
the Spscies countryman Tyson; another by Professor Allamam!, a
—' third by Vosmaer j and a fourth by Edwards.
The oran otan is said sometimes to have attained
the height of six feet : the specimens brought into
Europe have seldom exceeded the hall oi that stature.
His strength, however, is very great j and, m his na¬
tive forests, it is said that the most muscular man is by
no means a match for him. His colour is usually a
dusky brown •, almost the whole body, except the leet
and palms of the hands, is covered with hair : but in
some varieties the face is said to be nearly as bare as
the human. Indeed there is no animal which bears so
strong a resemblance to man as this species. His hands,
feet, and ears are almost exactly human 5 and, to a super¬
ficial observer, many others ot its features so nearly re¬
semble those of a man, that he has been considered, by
some writers, as man in his rudest and most uncultivat¬
ed state. On a closer examination, however, it has
been found, that there are marks of distinction sulh-
eiently strong to overturn an opinion so humiliating to
the lords of the creation, and to demonstrate, that even
in anatomical structure this animal differs as much
from the most savage ot the human species, as the lat¬
ter does in point of sagacity and reasoning powers Irom
the most cultivated European. The nose ot the oran-
otan is flatter, and his mouth wider, than that ol the
Negro 5 his forehead is more oblique j his chm has no
elevation at the base, his eyes are much nearer each
other, and the distance betwixt the nose and the mouth
is much greater than in man. He has also no calves
to his legs, and, though he sometimes walks on two,
it is pfetty certain that this attitude is not natural to
him. Buffon has asserted that these animals always
walk upright, and has made this circumstance one ol
the distinguishing characters of his division oi apes. It
is now, however, generally understood, that this asser¬
tion is too hasty : and it is the opinion of those most
capable of judging, that the oran otan, like all other
animals except roan, was intended by nature to walk
on all fours. See Man.
On the whole it appears that there are two princi¬
pal varieties of this species; one of which has been di¬
stinguished by the name of pongo, or great oran otan,
and the other has been called jocko. 1 he following
account is given of the pongo by Battel. “ Ibis pon¬
go is all proportioned like a man, but that he is moi e
like a giant in stature than a man } lor he is very tall,
and hath a man’s face, hollow-eyed, with long hair
upon his brows. His lace and ears are without hair,
and his hands also. He dilfereth not from man but m
his legs, for they have no calf. He goes always upon
his legs, and carrieth his hands clasped on the nape of
his neck when he goeth upon the ground. They sleep
in the trees and build shelters from the rain. I hey
feed upon fruit that they find in the woods and upon
nuts, for they eat no kind of flesh. They cannot speak,
and have no understanding more than a beast. The
ueople of the country when they travel in the woods,
make fires where they sleep in the night y and in the
morning when they are gone, the pongo will come and
sit about the fire till it goeth out 5, for they have no
understanding to lay the wood together. 1 hey go
many together, and kill many negroes that travel in
the woods. Many times they tall upon the elephants,
Part II
-
which come to feed where they he, and so heat them Primates. i|
with their clubbed fists, and pieces of wood, that they 1 v
will run roaring away from them. Those pongoes are
never taken alive, because they are so strong that ten
men cannot hold one of them, but yet they take many
of their young ones with poisoned arrows. The young
pongo hangeth on his mother’s belly, with his hands
clasped about her, so that when any of the country
people kill any of the females, they take the young one,
which hangeth fast upon his mother*.” J
This is almost the only account which we have
the oran otan in its native state. I he other relations
of its habits and manners are descriptive ot it in a state
of captivity, and of these we shall present our readers
with some ot the most remarkable.
Mr Buflon gives us the following account of a
jocko, which he saw in France. “ Ihe oran otan
which I saw walked always on two feet, e.ven when
carrying things of considerable weight. His air was
melancholy, his gait grave, his movements measuied,
his disposition gentle, and very diflerent from those ot
other apes. He had neither the impatience of the Bar¬
bary ape, the maliciousness of the baboon, nor the extra¬
vagance of the monkeys. It may be alleged (says oup
author) that he had the benefit of instruction *, hut the
other apes, which I shall compare with him, were edu¬
cated in the same manner. Signs and words were
alone sufficient to make our oran otan act but the
baboon required a cudgel, and the other apes a whip \
for none of them would obey without blows. 1 have
seen this animal present his hand to conduct the people
who came to visit him, and walk as gravely along with
them as if he had formed a part of the company. I
have seen him sit down at table, unfold his towel, wipe
his lips, use a spoon or a fork to carry the victuals to his
mouth, pour his liquor into a glass, and make it touch
that of the person who drank along with him. M hen
invited to tea, he brought out a cup and saucer, placed
them on the table, poured out the tea, and allowed it
to cool before he drank it. All these actions he per¬
formed without any other instigation than the signs or
verbal orders of bis master, and often ol his own accord.
He did no injury to any person j he even approached
company with circumspection, and presented himself as
if he wanted to be caressed. He was very fond of dain¬
ties, which every body gave him : and as Ins breast was
diseased, and he was affected with a teazing cough, this
quantity of sweet-meats undoubtedly contributed to
shorten his life. He lived one summer in Paris, and
died in London the following winter. He ate almost
every thing, but preferred ripe and dried iruits to all
other kinds of food. He drank a little wine, but spoil-
taneously left it for milk, tea, or other mild liquors f.
Doctor Tyson describes the oran otan which was
exhibited in London about the end of the seventeenth
century as the moat gentle and loving creature that
could be. Those that he knew on board the ship m
which he was brought to England, he would come
and embrace with the greatest tenderness, and though
there were other monkeys on board, it was observed
that he would never associate with any ol them, but
always avoided their company as of nothing akin to
them. He was sometimes drest in clothes, ol which he
at length became very fond, would put on part of them
without help, and carry the rest in his hands to some o
Iiap. I. M A M M
Primates, tlic company for their assistance. He would lie in bed,
y—^ lay his head on the pillow, and pull up the bed clothes
Anatomy to keep himself warm
fa Pigmy, Pere Carbasson brought up an oran otan, which
became so fond of him, that wherever he went it was
always desirous of accompanying him : whenever, there¬
fore, he had to perform the service of his church, he
was obliged to shut it up in a room. Once, however,
the animal escaped and followed the father to the
church, where, mounting on the sounding board above
the pulpit, he lay perfectly still till the sermon com¬
menced. He then crept to the edge of the board, and
overlooking the preacher, imitated all his gestures in so
grotesque a manner, that the congregation was unavoid¬
ably caused to laugh. The father, surprised and con-
founded at this ill-timed levity, reproved his audience
for their inattention. Uhe reproof failed in its effect }
the congregation still laughed, and the preacher in the
warmth of his zeal redoubled his vociferations and his
actions ; these the ape so exactly imitated, that the con¬
gregation could no longer restrain themselves, but burst
into a loud and continued laughter. A friend of the
preacher at length stepped up to him, and pointed out
the cause of this improper conduct; and such was the
arch demeanour of the animal, that it was with the ut¬
most difficulty he could command his countenance and
keep himself apparently serious, while he ordered the
servant of the church to take the ape away.
Perhaps one of the most interesting accounts of the
oran otan is that, given by Vosmaer, and with this
we shall close our history of this species.
ateCCCI. “ Ibis animal (says M. Vosmaer) was a female; its
S-l- height was about two Rhenish feet and a half. It shew¬
ed no symptoms of fierceness or malignity, and was
even of a somewhat melancholy appearance. It was
fond of being in company, and showed a preference of
those who took daily care of it, of which it seemed to
be sensible. Often when they retired, it would throw
itself on the ground, uttering lamentable cries, and
tearing in pieces the linen within its reach. Its keeper
having sometimes been accustomed to sit near it on
the ground, it took the hay of its bed, and laid it by
its side, and seemed by every demonstration to invite
him to be seated near. Its usual manner of walking
was on all fours, like other apes, but it could also
walk on its two hind feet only. One morning it got
unchained, and we beheld it with wonderful agility as¬
cend the beams and rafters of the building j it was not
without some pains that it was retaken, and we then
remarked an extraordinary muscular power in the ani¬
mal, the assistance of four men being necessary to hold
it in such a manner as to be properly secured. During
its state of liberty it had among other things taken a cork
:rom a bottle of Malaga wine, which it drank to the
;ast drop, and had set the bottle in its place again. It
ate almost every thing which was given to it j but its
chief food was bread, roots, and especially carrots, all
sorts of fruits, especially strawberries ; and it appeared
extremely fond of aromatic plants, and of the leaves
and roots of parsley. It also ate meat, both boiled and
roasted, as well as fish. It was not observed to hunt
for insects like other monkeys 5 was fond of eggs, which
it broke with its teeth, and sucked completely; but fish
and roasted meat seemed its favourite food. It had
been taught to eat with a spoon and a fork. When
Vol. XII. Part II. +
ALIA,
45 ^
presented with strawberries on a plate, it was extreme- History of
y pleasant to see the animal take them up one by one the Specie*,
v/ith a fork, and put them into its mouth, holding atv'—’"'V'—
the same time the plate in the other hand. Its com¬
mon drink was water, but it also very willingly drank
all sorts of wine, and particularly Malaga. After
diinking, it wiped its lips ; and after eating, if present¬
ed with a toothpick, would use it in a proper manner.
I was assured (continues our writer), that on shipboard
it ran freely about the vessel, played with the sailors,
and would go like them into the kitchen for its mess.
At the approach of night, it lay down to sleep, and
prepaied its bed by shaking well the hay on which it
slept, and putting it in proper order, and "lastly cover¬
ing itself with the coverlet. One day seeing the pad¬
lock of its chain opened with a key, and shut again, it
seized a little bit of stick, and put it into the key-hole,
turning it about in all directions, endeavouring to see
whether the padlock would open or not. This animal
lived seven months in Holland. On its first arrival it
had but very little hair except on its back and arms ;
but on the approach of winter it became extremely well
covered $ the hair on the back being three inches in
length. Ihe whole animal then appeared of a chesnut
colour 5 the skin or the face, &c. was of a mouse colour,
but about the eyes and round the mouth, of a dull flesh
colour.” It came from the island of Borneo, and was
after its death deposited in the museum of the prince of-
Orange.
3. S. In.’ms. Magot, Barbary Ape—This species isInui*9
considered by some naturalists as forming the connect- Barbary
ing line between the ape, properly so called, and theAPe-
baboon. Bike the latter it has posterior callosities, and * ^
though it properly has no tail, it is furnished with an
appendage of skin in the place where the tail is situated
in other species. The hair on the greatest part of its
body is of a greenish brown, the belly being paler than
the rest j the face is of a swarthy flesh-colour, and the
fingers and toes are furnished with nails resembling
those of the human species.
It is found most commonly in Barbary and some
othei parts of Africa as far as the (bape of Ciood Hope,
and it is also occasionally met with in Tartary, in Ara¬
bia, and in some parts of the Indian peninsula.
It is probable that lavernier alludes to this species, in
the account he gives of a custom amongst some of the
inhabitants of India of amusing themselves at the ex pence
of the ape. These people place five or six baskets of
rice, forty or fifty yards asunder, in an open ground near
their retreat, and by every basket put a number of stout
cudgels, eacli about two feet long; they then retire to
some hiding place not far distant, to wait the event.
When the apes observe no person near the baskets,
they soon descend in great numbers from the trees, and
run towards them : they grin at each other for some
time before they dare approach ; sometimes they ad¬
vance, then retreat, seeming much disinclined to en¬
counter. At length the females, which are more
courageous than the males, especially those that have
young ones (which they carry in their arms as women
do their children), venture to approach the baskets,
and as they are about to thrust their heads in to eat,
the males on the one side advance to hinder them.
Immediately the other party comes.forward; and the feud
being kindled on both sides, the combatants seize the
3 ^ cudgels
458
History of
the Speyies
3°
Sylvanus,
Pigmy.
Fig- 3.
M A M M
cudgels, and commence a most severe fight, which al¬
ways ends with the weakest being driven into the
woods, with broken heads and limbs. I he victors, he
tells us, then fall to in peace, and devour the reward ot
their labour. .... .
Of all the apes this agrees best with the temperature
of an European climate, and may easily be kept m a
state of domestication. Buffon had one which he kept
for several years. In summer he delighted to be m the
open air, ami in winter he appeared sufficiently com¬
fortable in a room without a fire, which shewed he was
by no means delicate. He was always of a grave de¬
portment, and sometimes dirty in his manner, liis
movements were brisk, and his countenance rather ugly
than ridiculous. When agitated with passion, he exhi¬
bited and grinded his teeth. He filled the pouches ot
his cheeks with the food which was given him, and ge¬
nerally ate every thing except raw flesh, cheese, and
whatever had undergone a kind of fermentation. Y\ hen
about to sleep, he loved to perch upon an iron or wood¬
en bar. He was always chained, because though he
had been long in a domestic state he was not civilized,
and had no attachment to his masters. He seems to
have been ill educated, for Buffon had seen others ot
the same species more intelligent, more obedient, more
gay, and so docile as to learn to dance and make gesti¬
culations in cadence, and to allow themselves peaceably
to be clothed. . ...
The flesh of this species is used as food by the wild
A-rabs.
4. S. Sylvanus. Pitheque. Pigmy.—Ibis species
greatly resembles the last, except that its head isroun
er, and that it is much inferior in size, being seldom
larger than a cat. It is thought by Mr Pennant to be
the pigmy of the ancients; or one of that nation which
was by them supposed to carry on periodical wars with
the cranes. It is a native of Africa, and is also found
in the East Indies and in Ceylon. They associate in
troops, and live chiefly on vegetable food. They are
often found walking erect. They are said to be very
malicious and spiteful.
We are told by Marmol that they go in troops into
the gardens or fields j but before they leave the thickets,
one of them ascends an eminence from which he views
the country ; and when he sees no person, he gives the
signal by a cry for the rest to proceed, and removes not
from his station as long as they continue abroad : but
whenever he perceives any person approaching, he
screams with a loud voice, and by leaping from tree to
tree they all fly to the mountains. Their flight is
worthy of admiration ; for the females, though they
carry four or five young ones on their backs, make
great springs from branch to branch. Though extreme¬
ly cunning, vast numbers of them are taken by dif¬
ferent arts. When wild they bite desperately, but by
caresses they are easily tamed. Ihey do much mis¬
chief to the fruits and corn *, for they gather it together
in heaps, cut it, and throw it on the ground whether it
be ripe or not, and destroy more than they eat or carry
off. Those who are tamed perform things incredible,
and imitate every human action. ....
They chiefly reside in caverns, which gives the na¬
tives an easy opportunity of taking them alive.. or
this purpose the natives place vessels containing intoxi¬
cating liquors in the caverns frequented by the apes,
ALIA
Part II
and these animals assemble together to drink these irill^at^|
liquors. After having become intoxicated, they fall ^ '
asleep, and are easily taken by the hunters. Sphinx f
5. S. Sphinx. Great baboon. Papion. . Alottlcd Q^at baj
baboon.—This is a very large species, measuring when boon,
sitting on its posteriors, three or four feet high. It is Fig. 4.
very strong and muscular, especially towards the fore
parts of the body *, but its waist, as is common to all
the baboons, is slender. All the nails are not pointed,
those on the thumbs and great toes being rounded.
The tail is short and thick, and rounded 5 the posteriors
are perfectly bare and callous, and of a red coloiu.
The baboon is a native of Borneo, and of the hottest
parts of the African continent. It lives chiefly on ve¬
getables, hut is said to be very fond of eggs. The fe¬
male brings forth one young at a time, and carncs it
in her arms. .
From the great size and strength of these animals
they are not a little formidable ; and as their natural
disposition is very ferocious, it is dangerous to encoun¬
ter any number of them in their native wilds..
The baboons are passionately fond of raisins, apples,
and in general of all fruits winch grow in gaidens.
Their teeth and paws render them formidable to dogs,
who overcome them with difficulty, unless when eating
has made them heavy and inactive. Buflon has remark¬
ed that they neither eat fish nor flesh, except when boiled
or roasted, and then they devour both with avidity. In
their expeditions to rob orchards, gardens, or vineyards,
they generally go 111 troops. Some of them enter, the
inclosure, while others remain on the walls as sentinels
to give notice of any approaching danger. I he rest 01
the troop are stationed without the garden, at conveni¬
ent distances from each other, and thus form a line,
which extends from the place of pillage to that of their
rendezvous. Matters being disposed in this manner,
the baboons begin the operation, and throw to those on
the wall melons, gourds, apples, pears, &c. Those on
the walls throw these fruits to their neighbours below;
and thus the spoils are handed along the whole line,
which generally terminates on some mountain. They
are so dexterous and quick-sighted, that they seldom al¬
low the fruit to fall in throwing it from one to another.
All this is performed with profound silence and great
despatch. When the sentinels perceive any person, they
cry, and at this signal the whole troop fly oft with asto¬
nishing rapidity.
In confinement the great baboon loses nothing ot ms
native ferocity. He is indeed one of the most un¬
manageable of his tribe, grinding his teeth, putting on
a threatening aspect, and shaking the bars of his cage
so as often to make the spectators tremble. Mr Smc be
speaks of one that he saw at Edinburgh in 1779, that
was remarkable for its size, strength, and beautiful co¬
lours. He was nearly five feet high, and was excessive¬
ly fierce, presenting uniformly to the spectators a most
threatening aspect, and attempting to seize every person
that came within the length of his chain. On such oc¬
casions he made a deep grunting noise, and was perpe¬
tually tossing up his head. This seems to have been
the same animal that is described by Mr Pennant as
having been seen by him at Chester about two months
after the time mentioned by Mr Smellie. He was par¬
ticularly fond of cheese •> his voice was a kind of roar
not unlike that of a lion, but low and somewhat inwarc..
JJ'iap.
Primates.
1.
M A M M A L I A.
t Smellie's
Bnffon,
ol. viii.
32
Vemcstri-
ta, Pig-
niled Ba¬
con.
33
kelzebul,
:eacher
onkey.
It went on all-fours, ami never stood on its hind legs
unless forced to do so by its keeper. He would fre¬
quently sit on his rump in a crouching posture, and drop
his hands before his belly *.
It is not a little extraordinary that an animal of this
disposition should be kept in private houses as a pet,
especially when we consider the mischiefs that they
often commit. Hr Goldsmith says that he has seen one
of them demolish a whole service of china, without ap¬
pearing in the least conscious of having done amiss,
though the mischief was evidently intentional.
14. S. Nemestrina. Pig-tailed baboon.—Olive brown,
with short naked tail.
This is but a small species, seldom exceeding the size
of a cat. The tail exactly resembles that of a pig. It
is a native of Sumatra, and is very lively and active.
He is sometimes seen in an exhibition in this country,
but seldom lives long in a climate so much colder than
his own.
Mr Edwards had a male of this species : it lived w ith
him for a year, and was about the size of a common
house cat. Another of the same species being at that
time exhibited at Bartholomew fair in London, Mr
Edwards carried his to compare with it 5 and he remarks
that they seemed highly pleased with each others com¬
pany, though this was the first time of their meeting.
53* Beel-zcbul. Preacher monkey.—This species
is found in great numbers in the woods of South Ame¬
rica, especially in Guiana and Brasil. It is the largest
of the American monkeys, being about the size of a
fox, and of a glossy black colour. There is in the
throat of this animal a hollow bony substance, which is
supposed to produce that peculiar dreadful howl for
which this animal and the next species are so remark¬
able. They are exceedingly mischievous and spiteful,
and if attacked they bite cruelly. They usually keep
together in pai'ties of from 20 to 30, rambling over the
tops of the trees, and leaping with great agility from
one tree to another. II they see any one approach
alone, they always teaze and threaten him.
Marcgrave informs ns that they assemble every
morning and evening in the woods of Brasil, and make
a most dreadful howling. Sometimes one of them
mcunts on a higher branch, and the rest seat themselves
beneath : the first begins, as it were to harangue, and
sets up a howl so loud and sharp as to be heard to a
great distance : after a while, he gives a signal with his
band, when the whole assembly joins in chorus j but on
another signal they are again silent, and the orator
finishes his address. Their clamour is the most dis*-
agreeable and tremendous that can be conceived.
They are^ extremely sagacious j and when hunted,
not only distinguish particularly those who are active
against them, but defend themselves vigorously when
attacked. When the hunters approach, the monkeys
assemble together, uttering loud and fearful cries, and
throwing at their assailants dried branches which they
wrench from the trees. It is said that they never
abandon each other, and that in passing from tree to
tree they fling themselves headlong from one branch to
another without ever falling to the ground, always
catching hold either with their hands or tail. If they
are not at once shot dead it is scarcely possible to take
them, as, though mortally wounded, they cling so
459
firmly to the trees as to maintain their hold even after History of
death. the Species.'
Gen. 3. Lemur. Macau cos.
lour front teeth in the upper jaw, the intermediate be-Tenmr.
ing remote m, six in the lower jaw, longer, stretched
forwards, compressed, parallel, and approximated.
Canine teeth solitary and approximated. Grinders
sublobated, the foremost of them being rather longer
and sharper than the rest.
I he animals of this genus resemble the monkey tribe
in the use of their hands, but they are much less mis¬
chievous and ferocious than that tribe. None of them,
except the indri, bears any resemblance to man 5 but in
this species the arms, hands, body, and feet, are very
similar to the IiunAO. A few of them are tailless, but
most of them have long tails.
They are harmless inoffensive creatures, live chiefly
in woods, and feed on fruits, vegetables, or insects.
At least one species, viz. the 1 2th, serves for food to
the natives of the countries where it is found.
I hefe are 13 species which are distinguished by the
following names and characters :
1. Lemur Tardigradus. Slow Lemur. Tailless ; of
a rusty ash colour, with a brown dorsal line ; very small
ears.—2. L. Loris. Loris. Tailless *, of a rusty ash
colour, with extremely slender limbs, and large ears*
—3- L. Indrt. Indri. Tailless ; black, grayish beneath,
with the face and space round the anus whitish.—
4. Z. Potto. Potto. Tailed 5 subferruginous.—5. Z.
Mongoz. Mongoz or Woolly L. Long-tailed 5 gray
brown.—6. Z. Macaco. Buffed L. Tailed", black,
with the neck bearded like a ruff.—7. Z. Laniger^
1 locky L. Tailed; pale tawney, white beneath, with
rusty tail.—8. Z. Cotta. Ring-tailed L. Tail long,
and annulated with black and white.—9. Z. Bicolori
Heart-marked L. Long-tailed ; blackish white be¬
neath, with a white heart-shaped spot on the forehead*
—10. Z. Tarsier. Tarsier. Long-tailed; ash-colour¬
ed ; with slender almost naked tufted tail; and very
long hinder feet.—11. L. Murinus. Tail long, and
rusty; body ash coloured.— \2. L. Calago. WhitishL.
Tail long and rusty ; body whitish, gray beneath.—
13- Z. Psilodactylus. Long-fingered K. Ash-ferrugi¬
nous, with extremely villose tail, and the middle finger
of the hands very long and naked.
1. Z. Tardigradus. Slow Lemur.—This animal is Tardigra-
about the size of a small cat, with the body of an ele-^*. Slow
gant pale brown or mouse-colour ; a flattish face, ex- ^.emur"
tremely prominent eyes, that are surrounded with a ' ’
circle of dark brown, and a sharpish nose. Of its man¬
ners in its native state we know almost nothing, but
in a state of domestication it has been accurately ob¬
served.
The late Sir William Jones had one of these animals
in his possession for some time, and has given a very
interesting account of its form and manners. This was
published in the Asiatic Researches, from which we
shall extract the most interesting particulars.
“ In his manner he was for the most part gentle, ex->
cept in the cold season, when his temper seemed wholly
changed ; and his Creator who made him so sensible to
cold, to which he must often have been exposed even
in his native forests, gave him probably for that reason,
3 M 2 his
his thick far, which we rarely see in animals in these
tropical climates: to me, who not only constantly fed
him, but bathed him twice a-week in water accommo¬
dated to the seasons, and whom he clearly distinguished
from others, he was at all times grateful j but when I
disturbed him in winter, he was usually indignant, and
seemed to reproach me with the uneasiness which he
felt, though no possible precaution had been omitted
to keep him in a proper degree of warmth. At all times
he was pleased with being streaked on the head and
t hroat, and frequently suffered me to touch his extreme¬
ly sharp teeth ; but his temper wras always quick, and
when he was unseasonably disturbed, he expressed a lit¬
tle resentment, by an obscure murmur, like that of a
squirrel, or a greater degree of displeasure by a peevish
cry, especially in tvinter, when he w-as often as fierce,
on being much importuned, as any beast of the woods.
“ From half an hour after sunrise to half an hour be¬
fore sunset, he slept without intermission, rolled up like
a hedgehog j and, as soon as he awoke, he began to
prepare himself for the labours of his approaching day,
licking and dressing himself like a cat} an operation
which the flexibility of his neck and limbs enabled him
to perform very completely : he was then ready for a
slight breakfast, after which he commonly took a short
nap j but when the sun was quite set he recovered all
his vivacity.
“ His ordinary food was the sweet fruit of this coun¬
try \ plantains always, and mangoes during the season j
hut he refused peaches, and was not fond ol mulberries,
or even of guiavas : milk he lapped eagerly, but w'as
content with plain water. In general he was not vora¬
cious, but never appeared satisfied with grasshoppers ;
and passed the whole night, while the hot season lasted,
in prowling for them : when a grasshopper, or any in¬
sect, alighted with his reach, his eyes, which he fixed
on his prey, glowed with uncommon fire ; and having
drawn himself back to spring on it with greater force,
he seized the prey with both his fore paws, but held it
in one of them while he devoured it. For other pur¬
poses, and sometimes even for that of holding his food,
he used all his paws indifferently as hands, and fre¬
quently grasped with one of them the higher parts of
his ample cage, while his three others were severally
engaged at the bottom of it ; but the posture of which
he seemed fondest was to cling with all four of them
to the upper wires, his body being inverted j and in the
evening he usually stood erect for many minutes, play¬
ing on the wires with his fingers, and rapidly moving
his bodv from side to side, as if he had found the uti¬
lity of exercise in his unnatural state of confinement.
“ A little before daybreak, when my early hours
gave me frequent opportunities of observing him, he
seemed to solicit my attention j and if I presented my
finger to him, be licked or nibbled it with great gentle¬
ness, but eagerly took fruit when I offered it, though
he seldom ate much at his morning repast •, when the
day brought back his night, his eyes lost their lustre
and strength, and he composed himself for a slumber of
ten or eleven hours.
“ My little friend was, on the whole, very en¬
gaging : and when he was found lifeless in the same
posture in which he would naturally have slept, I con¬
soled myself with believing that he died without much
MAM M A L I A. *art n
pain, and lived with as much pleasure as he could have Climate*
enjoyed in a state of captivity.” . y—-
Its pace is exceedingly slow, scarcely moving above
six or eight yards in a minute j whence its name.
It is of considerable importance in a physiological
point of view, to investigate the structure of these slow,
moving animals, such as the species just described, and
the sloth to be afterwards mentioned. An anatomical,
examination of the blood-vessels in the limbs of this
species by Mr Carlisle has thrown considerable light on
the connection of slow motion with a particular distri¬
bution of the arteries in the slow-moving limbs; this dis¬
tribution is thus described by Mr Carlisle. “ imme¬
diately after the subclavian has penetrated the axilla it
is divided into 23 equal-sized cylinders, which surround,
the principal trunk of the artery, now diminished in size
to an inconsiderable vessel. These cylindrical arteries
accompany each other, and divide with the ulnar and
radial branches, being distributed in their route upon
the muscles, each of which has one of these cylinders.
The other branches, for example the radial and ulnar,
proceed like the arteries in general, dispersing them¬
selves upon the skin, the membranes, joints, bones, &c.
in an arborescent form. The iliac artery divides upon
the margin of the pelvis into upwards of twenty equai-
sized cylinders, surrounding the main trunk as describ¬
ed in the axillary artery. These vessels are also final¬
ly distributed, as' in the upper extremity ; the cylinders
wholly upon the muscles, and the arborescent branches
on all the oth?r parts. The carotid arteries do not di¬
vide the equal-sized cylinders, but are distributed as in
the generality of animals
* Shaw’s :
Zoology,
vol. i.
Gen. 3. Galeopithecus. Calugo. 36
. . T . Galeopitl
Front teeth in the upper jaw wanting; in the lower six,CUSi
short, broad and pectinated. Canine teeth very short,
triangular, broad, sharp and serrated. Grinders four,
truncated, and muricated with conical protuberances.
Flying skin surrounding the body, limbs, and tail.
There is only one species, viz. 37
G. Volans. Flying Calugo, or Flying Lemur.—This
is one of those extraordinary quadrupeds whom nature^
has raised above their usual element, and enabled them j^g. s.
to transport themselves through theairinamannerwhich,
though it cannot strictly be denominated fiying, is at
least very similar to it. The body of the flying lemur
is about three feet long; but, except when the mem¬
brane is expanded, it is very slender. It has a slender
tail, about a span long. The membrane, which ex¬
tends from the neck to the fore legs, hind legs, and
tail, is covered with fur, but appears membranaceous
on the inner side. The upper side of the animal is of
a deep ash colour, inclining to black when young, and
ihe back is crossed transversely with blackish lines. Its
head is long, its mouth small, and its teeth differ from
those of every other quadruped hitherto examined. The
cutting teeth in the lower jaw are deeply cut like a
comb ; the canine teeth, as Fallas calls them, (though
Geoffroy thinks they are more properly cutting teeth),
are triangular, very broad at the base, and very short.
The caecum or large intestine is very voluminous.
It is a native of the Molucca and Philippine islands,
frequents woody places, and feeds on fruits, and pro-
u bably
,hap. I. M A M M
'rinatcs. bably on insects. It almost constantly resides on trees ;
—v 1 in descending from which it spreads its membranes, anti
balances itself in a gentle manner towards the place at
which it aims, but in ascending it uses a leaping pace.
It brings forth two young, which are said to adhere to
the breasts ot the parent by their teeth and claws.
GeoOfoy and Cuvier make two varieties or species
of this genus, viz. G. Rufus, Red Calugo; and G. Va-
riegatus. Varied Calugo but these are probably no
more than sexual differences.
3® # t
espertilio.
Genus 4. Vespertilio. Bats.
Teeth erect, sharp-pointed, and approximated; hands
palmated j with a membrane surrounding the body,
and enabling the animal to fly.
The animals of this genus have their atlantal extre¬
mities exceedingly long, especially what may be termed
the fingers: and the delicate membrane that is stretch¬
ed over them is so contrived, as to form a wing when
the animals wish to fly, and to fold up into a small
space when they are at rest. All the species have two
breasts, more or less conspicuous, to which the young
adhere. They have no caecum.
The Bats are natives of very different regions ; three
of them are found in Britain, and several in the warmer
regions of Asia and Africa *, one in the West Indies,
and a few in America. Those of warm climates are
usually very large. Those which inhabit the colder re¬
gions lie all winter in a torpid state, without tasting
nourishment. I he smaller species live chiefly on in¬
sects which they seize in their flight; but the larger
attack birds, or even the lesser quadrupeds.
From some experiments made by the abbe Spallan¬
zani, on three species of this genus, it appears that these
animals possess some additional sense, by which they
are enabled, when deprived of sight, to avoid obstacles
as readily as when they retained the power of vision.
When the eyes of these bats were covered, or even en¬
tirely destroyed, they would fly about in a darkened
room, without striking against the walls, and would
constantly suspend their flight, when they came near a
place where they could conveniently perch. In the
middle ot a dark sewer that turned at right angles,
they would, though at a considerable distance from the
walls, regularly alter the direction of their flight with
the greatest nicety, when they came to the angles.
When branches of trees were suspended in the room in
which they were flying, they always avoided them, and
even flew betivixt threads hung perpendicularly from
the ceiling, though these were so near each other that
they were obliged to contract their wings in order to
pass through them.
These experiments were repeated by Vassali at Turin,
by Rossi at Pisa, Spadon at Bologna, and Jurin at
Geneva. M. Jurin conceives that no other of the five
senses could, in these instances, supply the place of sight :
and as, from some anatomical observations that he made
on these animals, he found a prodigious number of
nerves expanded on the upper jaws, the muzzle, and
the organ of hearing, he conceived that those nervous
productions would account for the extraordinary faculty
above described. From some observations made by
Mr Carlisle on this subject, it appears probable that the
sense of hearing, which in the bat is uncommonly de-
.A. Xj I 4V. -4.61
hcate, enables those ainuials when blinded, to avoid History of
those objects which wpuld impede their flight. This the Species,
gentleman collected several specimens of the vespertilio ' v
auritus or large-eared bat, and observed, that when the
external ears ol the blinded ones were closed, they hit
against the sides of the room, without being at ail
aware of their situation. They refused every species of
food four days, as did a larger 'number which were af-
tei wards caught and preserved in a dark box for above
a week. During the day time they were extremely
desirous of retirement and darkness • and, while con¬
fined to the box, never moved or endeavoured to get out
during the whole day 5 and, when spread on the carpet,
they commonly rested some minutes, and then begin¬
ning to look about, crawled slowly to a dark corner or
crevice. At sunset the scene was quite changed : every
one then endeavoured to scratch its way out of the box}
a continued chirping was kept up j and no sooner was
the lid of their prison opened, than each was active to
escape, either flying away immediately, er running
nimbly to a convenient place for taking wing. When
the bats were first collected, several of the females had
young ones clinging to their breasts, in the act of suck-
ing. One of them flew with perfect case, though two
little ones were thus attached to her, which weighed
neaxly as much as their parent. All the young were
devoid of down, and of a black colour *. ‘ * Shaw's
Many of the larger species of bats attack men andZoo{°S2/>
other animals when asleep, make a slight wound with voL 1-
their sharp teeth so dexterously as not to awaken their
victim, and then suck the blood. This property is at¬
tributed chiefly to one species, which we shall par¬
ticularly notice presently ; but it is probably possessed
by most of the larger bats that inhabit the warm cli¬
mates.
Some of the species may be employed as food.
There are described about 24 species of Bats 5 and
as they are so numerous, they may he distributed into
two sections, as the tailed, and the tailless.
A. Tailed Bats, of which there are 18 j viz.
1. * Vespertilio murinus. Common B. Nose inappen-
diculated; ears shorter than the head.—2. * V. Aut'itus,
Long-eared B. Nose inappendiculatcd; ears larger
than the head, and double.—3. V. Noctula, Noctule°B.
Nose and mouth simple 3 oval ears and very small valves.
—4. V. Ferriim equinum Horse-shoe B. Nose horse¬
shoe shape 3 cars, valve lesser 3 tail half as long as the
body.—5. V. Serotinus, Serotine B. Yellowish, with
short emarginate cars—6. Pipistrellus, Pipistrelle.
Blackish brown, with convex front, and ovate eniargi-
nated cars, scarcely longer than the head.—7. V. Rar-
bastellus, Barbastelle. Cheeks elevated, hairy 5 ears
large, angulated below.~8. Lasiopterus, Lasiopter B.
Membrane connecting the feet extremely broad, covered
above with hair.—9. V. Lasiurus, Rough-tailed B. Lips
tumid 3 tail broad and hairy.—10. V. Cephalotes, Mo¬
lucca B. Yellowish gray, with large head 5 spiral nos¬
trils, small valveless ears.—II. V. Rictus, Striped B.
Nose simple 3 ears funnel-shaped, appendiculated. 
12. New-York B. Tail long, rusty 5
nose short and sharp ; ears short and round, with a white
spot at the base of each wing.—13. Hispidus, Bearded
B. Hairy, with channelled nostrils, and long nari’ow
ears.—.14. V. Auripcndulus, Slouch-eared B. Nose
blunt:
46.
M
History of
the Species,
39
Aunt us,
Hong-ear-
cd Bat.
Jfig. 9.
M A M
bluntcars large and pendent, with pointed tips,
i V. Leptuius, Slender-tailed B. Nostrils tubular ^
tail slender, with a purse-shaped cavity on the inside of
each wing.—16. V. Nigrita, Senegal B. Yellowish
brown, with the forepart ot the head, feet and tail
black.—17. V- Molossus, Bull-dog B. Upper lip pendu¬
lous ; tail stretching beyond the connecting membrane.
18. U. Leporinus, Peruvian B. Upper lip bifid.
B. Tailless Bats *, of which there are 6 ; viz.
19. V. Spasmu, Cordated B. A doul>le heart-shaped
leaf-like membrane on the nose.—20. / . Soncinus, Beat
B. Snout lengthened, furnished with a heart-shaped
leaf-iike membrane.— 21. P. Hustatus, Ja.vt\in B. No^e
furnished with a trefoil-shaped upright membrane.—
22. P. Nasutus, Great Serotiue B. Busty, with long
sloping nose, and long upright rounded ears —23. 1 •
Spectrum, Spectre B. Nose furnished with a funnel-
shaped pointed membrane.—24. Vampyms, \ ampyre
B. Nose without appendage ; flying membrane divid¬
ed between the thighs.
After having said so much on the general structure
and habits of this genus, we shall briefly notice only
two of the species.
Species 2. V. Auritus, Long-eared B.—This is
one of the most common species ot Britain, and may
be seen flying through the air in the evenings of sum¬
mer and autumn, in search of insects. If is about two
inches long, and seven from the tip of one wing to
that of the other. Its ears are half as long as its body,
very thin, and almost transparent, and within eacli
there is a membrane, which probably serves as a valve
to defend the organ of hearing during the inactive state
of the animal. These bats are sometimes taken by
throwing up at them the heads of burdock whitened
with flour. The animals either mistaking these for
prey, or accidentally striking against them, are entang¬
led by the hooked prickles, and brought to the ground.
This is one of the species that remains in a torpid state
during winter. At the end of summer they retire to
their hiding places in old buildings, walls, or caverns,
where they remain, generally in great numbers, sus¬
pended by the hind legs, and enveloped in their wings,
till the genial warmth of summer again calls them
forth. These animals are said lo drink on the wing
like swallows, and they love to frequent waters, partly
for the sake of drinking, and partly to prey on the in¬
sects which hover over them. As Mr White was go¬
ing pretty late on a warm summer’s evening, in a boat
on the Thames, from Richmond to Sunbury, he saw
prodigious multitudes of bats between the two places;
and he says, that the air swarmed with them all round
the Thames, so that hundreds were in sight at a time.
Bats are supposed to produce two young at a birth, and
these they suckle for a considerable time. The young,
. when recently born, adhere most tenaciously to the nip¬
ple of the parent, so as not to be removed without great
difficulty.
This animal is capable of being to a certain degree
domesticated ; and we are told by Mr TV bite, that
he was once much amused with the sight of a tame
bat. “ It would, says he, take flies out of a person’s
hand. If you gave it any thing to eat, it brought
its wings round before the mouth ; hovering and hi¬
ding its head in the manner of birds of prey when
A T
n I A. Part II
they feed. The adroitness it shewed in shearing eft Primates
the wings of flies (which were always rejected) was'1
worthy of observation, and pleased me much. Insects
seemed to be most acceptable, though it did not re¬
fuse raw flesh when oflered ; so that tne notion that
bats go down chimneys, and gnaw people’s bacon, seems
no improbable story. While I amused myseit with this
wonderful quadruped, I saw it several times confute the
vulgar opinion, that bats, when down on a flat surface,
cannot get on the wing again, by rising with great ease
from the floor It ran, I observed, with more dispatch
than I was aware of, but in a most ridiculous and gro-
tesque manner
* mite 1
Species 24. U. Vampyms. Vampyre Bat.—This isSelbome
one of the largest species, being about a foot long, FllJ°
and nearly four feet in the extent of its wings ; it 4 yulllp\re
sometimes found even larger, and of the extent of six Bat.
feet between the wings. Its colour is generally a Fig. iq.
deep reddish brown ; its head is shaped like that ot a
fox, the nose being sharp and black, and the tongue
pointed, and terminated by sharp prickles. The ears
are naked, flattish, and pointed; and in colour re¬
sembling those of the common bat. These animals
are said not to be carnivorous, but live principally up¬
on fruit; and are so fond of the juice of the palm tree,
that they will suck it till they are intoxicated, and fall
motionless to the ground. They often hang together
in vast clusters in hollow trees, or from the boughs of
trees, and make a horrid noise. They are found in
the Friendly islands, New-Holiand, in South America,
and in the East Indies.
Linnaeus has given to this species the name J’ampy-
nis, from the idea that this is the principal species that
sucks the blood oi people when asleep. It is not cer¬
tain whether the bat by which Captain Stedman was
attacked, while in Surinam, be this species ; but his ac¬
cent of the accident is so diverting, that we shall give
it in his own words. “ I cannot here (says he) forbear
relating a singular circumstance respecting mvself, viz.
that on waking about four o’clock one morning in my
hammock, I was extremely alarmed at finding my¬
self weltering in congealed blood, and without feeling
any pain whatever. Having started up, and rung tor
the surgeon, with a fire-brand m one liand, and all
over besmeared with gore ; to which, if added, my pak.
face, short hair, and tattered apparel, he might well ask
the question,
‘ Be thou a spirit of health, or goblin damn’d,
Bring with thee airs from heaven, or blasts from hell U
« The mystery, however, was, that I had been bitten
by the vampire or spectre of Guiana, which is called
the flying-dog of New Spain, and by the Spaniards,
perro volador: this is no other than a bat of a mon¬
strous size, that sucks the blood from men and cattle
while they are fast asleep, even sometimes till they
die ; and as the manner in which they proceed is truly
wonderful, I shall endeavour to give a distinct account
of it.—Knowing by instinct, that the person they in¬
tend to attack is in a sound slumber, they generally
alight near the feet, where, while the creature conti¬
nues fanning with his enormous wings, which keeps
one cool, he bites a piece out of the tip of the great
toe, so very small indeed, that the head of a piu couli
scarcely
Sted-
tn's Nat'
live.
■hap. II. M A M M
Bnita. scarcely be received into tlic wound, which is conse-
—\ ’ quently not painful j yet through this orifice he conti¬
nues to suck the blood, until he is obliged to disgorge.
He then begins again, and thus continues sucking and
disgorging till he is scarcely able to fly, and the suffer¬
er has often been known to sleep from time into eter¬
nity. Cattle they generally bite in the ear, but always
on places where the blood flows spontaneously. Having
applied tobacco ashes as the best remedy, and washed
the gore from myself and hammock, I observed several
heaps of congealed blood all round the place where I
had lain, upon the ground ; on examining which, the
surgeon judged that I had lost at least 12 or 14 ounces
of blood during the night
- The flesh of this species is considered by the Indians
as excellent food, and it is said that the French residents
sometimes boil them in their bouillon to aive it a re¬
lish.
From the general appearance and usual time of flight
of bats, they have always been looked on with a sort
of superstitious terror, and are commonly introduced as
principal objects in those awful scenes of haunted castles,
and mysterious caverns, that have exercised the fancy
of poets and romantic writers. The bat has been re¬
presented by the ancient epic poets as one of the inha¬
bitants of that dreary vault that forms the entrance to
the infernal regions $ and it has from time immemorial
lent its wings to decorate the shoulders of those terrific
figures under which the ingenious fancy of painters has
represented imps and daemons. Probably the fabulous
harpies of the ancient poets may be traced to a similar
origin, as some of the larger bats may with a little
poetical exaggeration, easily be converted into those ra¬
pacious and filthy beings.
This first order contains four genera, and about 100
species.
41
dypus
ik
t0 Sloth,
Chap. II. BRUTA.
Genus 5. Bradypus. Sloths.
Cutting teeth wanting in both jaws ; canine teeth
single, obtuse, longer than the grinders, and placed
opposite ; grinders five on each side, obtuse; fore
legs by much the longer j claws very long.
The animals of this genus are called sloths, as their
movements, more especially those of one species, are
very slow and sluggish. There are but three species,
two of which are natives of South America, and the
third of India. They all live chiefly on vegetable
food, and are mild harmless creatures. They are thus
distinguished.
x. B. Tridacti/lus, Three-toed S. Feet three-toed ;
tail short.—2. B. Didactyhis, Two-toed S. Tailless;
fore feet two-toed.—3. B. Ursinus, Ursine S. Black,
with very long shaggy hair; long snout, and five-toed
feet.
We shall here give an account only of the first species,
or the Three-toed S.
Bradypus Tndactylus. This animal is remarkable
for its slow movements, affording almost a singular ex¬
ample of languid motion and habitual inactivitv. The
following account of it is given us by Kircher. “ Its
figure is (he says) extraordinary: it is about the size
of a cat, has a very ugly countenance, and claws ex-
A L I A. 463
tended like fingers. It sweeps the ground with its bel- History of
ly, and moves so slowly that it would scarcely go the the Species.
length of a bow-shot in 15 days, though constantly in ' *  
motion ; hence it obtained the name of sloth. It lives
generally on the tops of trees, and employs two days
in crawling up, and as many in getting down again.
Nature has doubly guarded it against its enemies, first,
by giving ft such strength in its feet, that wherevei* it
seizes, it holds so fast, that it can never he freed, but
must there die of hunger. 2dly, In having given it
such an affecting countenance, that when it looks at
any one who might be tempted to injure it, it is almosf
impossible not to be moved with compassion ; it also
sheds tears, and upon the whole persuades one that a
creature so defenceless and so abject ought not to be
tormented.
. “ To try an experiment with this animal, the pro¬
vincial had one of them brought to the Jesuit’s college
at Carthagena. He put a long pole under its feet,
which it seized very firmly, and would not let go
again. rihe animal, therefore, thus voluntarily sus¬
pended, was placed between two beams, where it re¬
mained without food for 40 days, the eyes being al¬
ways fixed on those who looked at it, who xvere so af¬
fected that they could not forbear pitying its dejected
state. At length, being taken down, a dog was let
loose on it: this, after a while the sloth seized in its
claws, and held till he died of hunger.”
I he slowness of its motions is, in the above account
greatly exaggerated, as we are informed by later wri¬
ters that it will move fifty or sixty paces in a day, and
one that was on board ship climbed to the mast head in
about an hour.
In ascending a tree, this animal firstcarelessly stretches
out one of its fore paws, and fixes its claws in the bark
of the tree, as high as it can reach, then heavily raises
its body, and gradually fixes its other patv, thus as¬
cending with the greatest slowness and apparent difficul¬
ty. When got up into the tree, he continues there
till he has despoiled it of every thing that can serve
him for food, and then to save himself the trouble of a
tedious and difficult descent, it is said he suffers himself
to drop from the tree upon the ground, being safe
from any injury in the fall by his very tough and hairy
skin. Here he remains till the calls of hunger again
incite him to the arduous task of climbing another tree,
when he proceeds in the same manner.
J he female produces only one young, which she fre¬
quently carries on her back. This animal is a native
of the hotter parts of South America.
In Dr Shaw’s description of this species, it is remark¬
ed, that “ the fore legs arc short, the hinder ones far
longer.” As this contradicts the generic character,
and is different from the other descriptions that we
have read of the three-toed sloth, we suppose it to be
an inadvertency, though Mr Bingley has copied the
passage without remarking its incongruity.
The third species, or ursine sloth, is the same animal
that is figured in Mr Bewick’s History of Quadrupeds,
p. 266, (2d edit.) and which was by him considered as
a species of bear.
Mp:gatherium. Some years ago, there was dis-
covered below the surface of the earth in South Ameri-riUIjja
ca, an entire fossil skeleton of an animal at present un¬
known ; but which M. Cuvier found to resemble the
present
464
mammalia.
History of present genus more than any other. 1 rom its vast siz.e,
the Species Cuvier gave it the name of megatherium, (ply*
e«—v—^ at wji(j least), anti he has given the following de¬
scription of it in the “ Annales de Museum National”
~ accompanied with a figure.
“ This skeleton is twelve feet (French) long, by six
feet in height. The spine is composed of seven cervi¬
cal, 16 dorsal, and four lumbar vertebrae ; it has con-
eequently sixteen ribs. The sacrum is short; the ossa
ilia very broad, and their plane being almost perpendi¬
cular to the spino, they form a very open pelvis. There
is no pubis or ischium, at least they are wanting in this
skeleton, and there is no mark of their having existed
when the animal was alive.
“ The thigh bones are excessively thick, and the
leg bones still more so in proportion *, the entire sole
of the foot bore on the ground in walking } the shoul¬
der blade is much broader than long } the clavicles are
perfect, and the two bones of the fore arm are distinct
and moveable upon each other j the fore limbs are
longer than the hind. To judge by the form of the
last phalanges, there must have been very large pointed
claws, enclosed at their origin in a long sheath. There
appears to have been only three of these claws on the
fore feet, and a single one on the hind ; the other toes
seem to have been deprived of them, and perhaps, en¬
tirely concealed beneath the skin.
“ 'The head is the greatest -singularity of this skele¬
ton *, the occiput is elongated and flattened, but is
pretty convex above the eyes j the two jaws form a
considerable projection, but without teeth, there being
only four on each side above and below, all grinders,
with a flat crown, and grooved across } the breadth of
the brandies of the lower jaw, and the great apophysis
placed on the base of the zygomatic arch, deserve par¬
ticular notice.
This quadruped, in its characters, taken together,
differs from all known animals, and each of its bones,
considered apart, also differs from the corresponding
bones of all known animals. This results from a de¬
tailed comparison of the skeleton with that of other
animals, and will readily appear to those who are con¬
versant in such researches 5 for none of the animals
* Vid. 47i-which approach it in bulk have either pointed claws, or
nates de similarly formed head, shoulder blades, clavicles, pelvis,
Museum- or limbs
~SationaL
Genus 6. Myrmecophaga. Ant-eaters.
Teeth wanting *, tongue cylindrical and extensile ; mouth
lengthened out so as to be somewhat of a tubular
form *, body covered with hair.
The ant-eaters, as their name imports, live chiefly
on ants and similar insects, and for this purpose they
are furnished with a very remarkable tongue, it being
of great length and of a roundish or worm-like form,
and covered with a very glutinous saliva. This tongue
the animals thrust into the nests of the ants, &tc. and
■when a sufficient number of the insects has adhered to
it, they withdraw the tongue and swallow the prey.
Though the want of teeth makes part of the generic
character, it appears from the observations of M. Brous-
sonet, that in most of the species there are certain bones
or processes not unlike teeth, situated at the entrance
p£ the gullet, or rather, according to Camper, at the
44
Myrmeco-
phaga.
Part li
lower end of the jaws. The ant-eaters are confined to Bruta.
warm climates, and most of them have hitherto beenv-*'
found only in South America.
There are seven species described by Shaw, though
Gmelin admits only five.
1. M. Jubata Great A. Gray brown j with four
toes on the fore feet, five on the hind ; long snout, and
very long bushy tail—2. M. Tctradactyla, Middle A.
Four toes on the fore, and five on the hind feet, and
half naked, prehensile tail.—-3. M. Tridactyla, Three-
toed A. Three toes on the fore, and four on the hind
feet, and villose tail.—4. M. Didactylu, Little A.
Two toes on the fore, and four on the hind feet, and
prehensile tail—5. M. Capensis. Cape A. Four toes
on the fore feet ; long snout; large pendant ears; tad
shorter than the body, and attenuated towards the tip.
 6. M. Aculeata, Spiny A. Tail very short.—7. M.
Striata, Striped A. Yellowish, with trans\erse dusky
bands, and the upper jaw longer than the lower.
Of the above seven species, it is probable that the
third is only a variety of the second ; and M. M. Cu¬
vier and Geoffroy have placed the filth in a new genus,
orychteropus, (see p. 45**) as ^ 80 considerably
from the rest. Most naturalists agree that the spines on
the body of the sixth entitle it, equally with the genus
Manis, to a separate place in systematic arrangement.
On the whole, from an extensive consideration of this
tribe, M. La Cepede is of opinion that only three spe¬
cies should be admitted into it, viz. the first, second,
and fourth. Of these the first and fourth are best
known ; the second, or what Cepede calls tamandua-i,
or little tamandua, has been well described by this na¬
turalist in a memoir on the genus Myrmecophaga,
printed in the sixth volume of “ Memoires dc l Insti-
tut”
Genus 7* Manis.
Teeth wanting; tongue cylindrical and extensile :
mouth lengthened into a narrow snout; body cover¬
ed with scales.
This genus is nearly allied to the last, differing in
little more than in the nature of the covering of the
body, which in this is composed of large scales that are
of a horny consistence, and extremely strong, constitut¬
ing a suit of armour that is capable of defending the
animals, when rolled up, against the attacks of the
most ferocious enemies. The animals have the power
of raising these scales ; thus presenting to the assailants
a most formidable front. From some distant resem¬
blance to the lizard tribe (see Frpetology), toe ani¬
mals of this genus have been called scaly lizards, but
they are more commonly known by the name of pango¬
lins. They are harmless creatures, and feed on simi¬
lar food with the ant-eaters, taking it in the same man¬
ner. They are found in India and the Indian is¬
lands.
There are only two, or at most three species, viz.
1. M. Tctradactyla, Long-tailed M, or Phatagin. leet
four-toed, and tail very long.—2. M. Pentadactyla,
Short-tailed M, or Pangolin. Feet five-toed, and tail
about as long as the body.—3. M. Platurus, Broad¬
tailed M. Tail extremely broad.
It is doubtful whether the last be-a distinct species,
or only a variety, the effect perhaps of advanced age.
45
Manis.
little
animals
MAMMALIA.
is known of the hahits and manners of divided into three hands,
that we shall not dwell lon<
46
Genus 8. Dasypus. Armadillos.
TmadUb ^utt^n£ an<^ canine teeth wanting; grinders several;
body covered with a
zones or bands.
shelly armour, divided into
The animals of this tribe are called armadillos, from
the very singular armour, by which the upper part of
their bodies is defended. This is composed partly of
large irregular pieces covering the shoulders and rump,
and partly of regular bands lying between these, and
folding one over another, like the parts of a lobster’s
tail, so as to accommodate themselves to all the motions
of the animal. The number of these bands varies in
the several species j and though this circumstance makes
part of the specific characters, it is doubtful whether it
is sufficiently constant or exact, as various authors have
numbered them very differently. The armadillos re¬
semble each other so much in their habits and way
of life, that a general account of them may suf¬
fice.
They are very harmless animals, and live retired in
subterraneous retreats, which they burrow for themselves
by means of the large strong claws with which their
leet are furnished. They wander about chiefly by night,
in search of roots, grain, worms, insects, and other
small animals j when attacked, they coil themselves up
in a ball like the pangolins, and are then invulnerable.
I hey are said to drink much, and often grow very fat.
They are very prolific, breeding three or four times in
a, year, and producing several young at a birth. They
are all natives of South America, and are considered as
excellent food. The Indians hunt them with small
dogs trained for that purpose. When surprised, they
run to their holes, or attempt to make a new one,
which they do with great expedition, having strong
claws on their fore feet, with which they adhere so
firmly to the ground, that if they should be caught by
the tail whilst making their way into the earth, their
resistance is so great, that they will sometimes leave
their tails in the hand of their pursuers : to avoid this,
the hunter has recourse to artifice j and, by tickling
the animal with a stick, it gives up its hold, and suffers
itself to be taken alive. If no other means of escape
be left, it rolls itself up within its covering, by drawing
in its head and legs, and bringing its tail round them,
as a band to connect them more forcibly together : in
this situation it sometimes escapes by rolling itself over
the edge of a precipice, and generally falls to the bot¬
tom unhurt.
The most successful method of catching armadillos
is by snares laid for them by the sides of rivers or other
places which they frequent.
There are six species of armadillos, that are, as we
have said, chiefly distinguished by the number of shelly
bands that envelope the middle part of their body.
I. Dasypus Tricinctus. Three-banded A. Armour
Vol. XII. Part II. f
465
, and five-toed feet.—2. D. Hfciory 0f
oexcinctus. Six-banded A. Six bands, and five-toed the Species,
feet.—3. D. Septemcinctus, Seven-banded A. Seven v—
bands, and fore feet four-toed, hind feet five-toed. 
4. D. Novemcinctus, Nine-banded A. Nine bands ;
lore feet four-toed, bind feet five-toed.—5. D. 12-cinc-
tus, 12-banded A. Twelve bands.—6. D. \%-cwctus,
Eighteen-banded A. Eighteen bands.
Genus 9. Rhinoceros.
Horn solid, perennial, conical, seated on the nose.
.47
Ithino-
There are at least two species, viz. R. Unicornis,
Single-horned R. with a single horn, and, 2. R. Ricor-
nis, Two-horned R. with two horns.
As both species are remarkable, both for their form
and habits, we shall describe both pretty much at
large.
1. R. Unicornis, Single-horned rhinoceros. This Unicornis.
animal, if we except the elephant, is the largest of all Single¬
terrestrial animals, and in strength and power it is ex- ^orfle(i
ceeded by none. It is generally about 1 2 feet long, Rllino*
and nearly as many in the circumference of its body.
Its whole form is very awkward and clumsy j its head is
large and long ; its back sinks in considerably, and its
skin is puckered up into several folds, giving the ani¬
mal the appearance as if it were invested with a coat of
mail. The upper lip hangs over the lower in the form
of a lengthened tip, which seems to answer the purpose
of a small proboscis, and, being extremely pliable, is
useful to the animal in taking hold of the shoots of vege¬
tables, and delivering them into the mouth. The horn
is situated on the nose, and is slightly curved, sharp
pointed, and very strong, and is sometimes three feet
long, and 18 inches round at the base. This horn the
rhinoceros uses both as an offensive and defensive wea¬
pon, by which it is completely armed against the at¬
tacks of the most ferocious animals, who cannot face it
without danger of having their bowels torn out. The
Roman epigrammatist, Martial, long ago remarked, that
with this horn the rhinoceros could lift up a bull as
easily as a foot-ball. The ears are pi'etty large, up¬
right and pointed j the eyes small. The skin is naked,
very rough, and marked with numerous large callous
granulations *, it is destitute of hair, except a few
straggling coarse bristles on some parts of the head.
The folds of the skin are very remarkable, and are dis¬
posed in various parts of the body in a singular manner.
There is one large plait about the neck, another pas¬
sing through the shoulders to the fore legs, and a third
from the hind part of the back to the thighs. The
belly is pendulous like that of a hog; the legs are very
short, strong and thick $ and the feet marked with
three large hoofs all standing forwards. The tail is
slender, flattened at the end, and covered on the sides
with very stiff, thick, black hairs (c).
This animal is a native both of the continent of
Asia, and of several of the islands in the Indian ocean,
especially Ceylon, Java, and Sumatra 5 and is some¬
times found in Ethiopia. It usually resides in cool se-
3 N questered
(C) For an accurate osteological account of this species, with a figure of his skeleton by Cuvier, see Annalesdc
Museum National, N° 13, or Philosophical Magazine, vol. xix.
6 M A M M
jtoi’y of questered spots near waters and in shady woods, and de-
Species.lights to roll itself in the mud. It seems to live en-
tirely on vegetables. . , , . , •
The sight of this animal is but indifferent; hut he is
said to possess an acute and most attentive ear, and to
listen with a deep, long-continued attention to any kind
of noise. It is generally of a quiet inoffensive opposi¬
tion, but when provoked' or attacked, he becomes fu¬
rious and implacable. He is even said to be subject
to paroxysms of rage which nothing can allay. One
that was sent as a present to the pope by Emmanuel
king of Portugal in 1513, destroyed the vessel m which
thev were transporting it. He runs with great swift¬
ness, and from his prodigious strength rushes with re¬
sistless violence through woods, and over every ob¬
stacle, bending the small trees as he passes like so many
twigs.
The female produces but one young at a birth, but
its time of gestation is not certainly known.
The flesh of this animal is eaten by the natives, who
often engage in hunting parties against it. It is a dif¬
ficult matter to kill the rhinoceros, its skin being so
hard that an ordinary leaden bullet will not pierce it,
and they are obliged to use iron bullets for that pur¬
pose. The horn is employed for many useful purposes,
especially for making drinking cups, which are used by
the Indian princes, under an idea that if any poisonous
liquor is poured into them, it will ferment and boil
over the top. Professor Thunberg tried several of
these horns, both of old and young animals, wrought
into goblets and unwrought, with several poisonous li¬
quors, both weak and strong, without observing any
effervescence ; but on pouring a solution of corrosive
sublimate into one of them, there arose a few bubbles,
which he supposes to have been inclosed in the pores
of the horn, and disengaged from them by the liquor.
The skin is also employed by the Javanese for making
shields, and in some parts of India almost every part of
the animal is used medicinally. .
Several of these animals have been brought into Eu¬
rope. Buffon gives an account of one, and Dr Par¬
sons has given a particular description of one that was
brought to England from Bengal. This animal was
only two years old, and yet consumed so much food,
that his voyage cost 1000I. He had every day at
three meals seven pounds of rice mixed with three
pounds of sugar, besides hay and green plants, and he
drank large quantities of water. He was in general,
very quiet and peaceable, readily suffering people to
touch every part of his body; but when hungry, ox
when struck, be became very mischievous, and nothing
would appease him but food. At this time he was about
the size of a young cow. .
In the year 1748, there was exhibited at -Fans a
rhinoceros brought from the kingdom of Ava. It
was very tame, gentle, and even caressing; was fed
principally on hay and corn ; and was much delighted
with sharp or prickly plants, and the thorny branches
of trees. The attendants frequently gave him branches
that had very sharp and strong thorns on them; hut he
bent and broke them in his mouth without seeming in
the least incommoded. It is true they sometimes drew
blood from the mouth and tongue, but that, says I ather
Le Comte, who gives us the description, might even
render them more palatable, and those little wounds
4 ‘
A L 1 A.
might serve only to cause a sensation similar to that
excited by salt, pepper, or mustard on ours.
The rhinoceros is even sometimes domesticated, and
brought into the field of battle by the Asiatics, in or¬
der to terrify their enemies; but he is so unmanageable,
that his use seems to be attended with more disadvan¬
tage than benefit, and when wounded, they are as like¬
ly to turn on their masters as on the enemy. 49
It Bicornis, Two-horned rhinoceros. In size, and Bicomu
in many of its general habits, Ibis species greatly re-Twobon
sembles the former, but differs much ... ,ts external ap-rfa™.
pearance, as the skin, instead of the regularly marked
folds in that, has only a slight wrinkle across the shoul¬
ders, and on the hind parts, so as, in comparison with
the other species, to appear almost smooth, though its
surface is rough and tuberculated, especially m the
larger specimens. It is chiefly distinguished, however,
by the two horns, one smaller than the other, and situ¬
ated higher up on the front. These horns are said to
he loose when the animal is quiet, hut to become fixed
and immoveable when he is in an enraged state. Ur
Sparrman has observed that these horns are fixed to
the nose by a strong apparatus of muscles or tendons,
so as to enable the animal to fix or relax them at plea¬
sure, and on inspecting the horns and skin on which
they are seated, it does not appear that the horns are
firmly attached to the skull bone, or closely connected
^ This species is found in various parts of Africa, and
appears to have been that which was introduced by the
Romans into their public shows. . .
Mr Bruce has given us an account ol this ammaS,
which is highly interesting. He says, that besides the
trees capable of most resistance, there are in the vast
forests within the rains, trees of a softer consistence, amt
of a very succulent quality, which seem to be destined
for his principal food. For the purpose of gaming the
highest branches of these, his upper lip is capable ot
being lengthened out so as to increase his power ot lay¬
ing hold with it, in the same manner as the elephant
does with his trunk. With this lip, and the assistance
of his tongue, he pulls down the upper branches which
have most leaves, and these he devours first ; having
stripped the tree of its branches, he does not therefore
abandon it, but placing his snout as low in the trunk
as he finds his horns will enter, he rips up the body ot
the tree, and reduces it to thin pieces like so many
laths ; and when he has thus prepared it, he embraces
as much of it as he can in his monstrous jaws, and
twists it round with as much ease as an ox would do
a root of celery, or any such pot herb or garden
St When pursued, and in fear, he possesses an astonishing
degree of swiftness, considering his size, the apparent
unwieldiness of his body, his great weight before, and
the shortness of his legs. He is long, and has a kind
of trot, which after a few minutes increases in a great
proportion, and takes in a great distance ; but this is
to be understood with a degree of moderation. It is
not true, that in a plain he beats the horse in swiltness.
Mr Bruce has passed him with ease, and seen many worse
mounted do the same ; and though it is certainly true
that a horse can seldom come up with him, this is owing
to his cunning, and not to his swiftness. He makes
constantly from wood to wood, and forces himselx in^
hap. II. M A M M
Bruta. the thickest parts of them. The trees that are dead or
—-v——'dry, are broken down, as with a cannon shot, and fall
behind him and on his side in all directions. Others
that are more pliable, greener, or fuller of sap, are
bent back by his weight and the velocity of his mo¬
tions : and after he has passed, restoring themselves like
a green branch to their natural position, they often
sweep the incautious pursuer and his horse from the
ground, and dash them in pieces against the surround¬
ing trees.
The eyes of the rhinoceros are very small ; he seldom
turns his head, and therefore sees nothing but what is
before him. To this he owes his death, and never es¬
capes if there be so much plain as to enable the horse
to get before him. His pride and fury then make him
lay aside all thoughts of escaping but by victory over
his enemy. He stands for a moment at bay 5 then at a
start runs forward at the horse like a wild boar, which
in his manner of action he very much resembles.
The horse easily avoids him by turning to one side, and
this is the fatal instant; the naked man with the sword
drops from behind the principal horseman, and unseen
by the rhinoceros, who is seeking his enemy the horse,
jie gives him a stroke across the tendon of the heel,
which renders him incapable of further flight or resist¬
ance.
In speaking of the great quantity of food necessary
to support this enormous mass, we must likewise con¬
sider the vast quantity of water which he needs. No
country but that of the Shangalla, which he possesses,
deluged with six months rain, and full of large deep ba¬
sons made in the living rock, and shaded by dark woods
from evaporation, or watered by large and deep rivers,
which never fall low oy to a state of dryness, can sup¬
ply the vast draughts of this monstrous creature : but it
is not for drinking alone, that he frequents wet and
marshy places j large, fierce, and strong as he is, be
must submit to prepare himself against the weakest of
all his adversaries. The great consumption he makes
of food and water necessarily confine him to certain li¬
mited spaces j for it is not every place that can main¬
tain him; he cannot emigrate or seek his defence
among the sands of Atbara.
This adversary is a fly (probably of the genus Oes¬
trus) which is bred in the black earth of the marshes :
it persecutes him so unremittingly, that it would in a
short time entirely subdue him, but for a stratagem
which he practises for his preservation. In the night
when the fly is at rest, the rhinoceros chooses a conve¬
nient place, and there rolling in the mud, clothes
himself with a kind of case, which defends him against
his enemy for the following day. The wrinkles and
folds of his skin serve to keep this muddy plaister firm
upon him, except about his hips, legs, and shoulders,
where by motion it cracks and falls off, leaving him
exposed to the attacks of the fly. The itching and
pain which follow, occasion him to rub himself in those
parts against the roughest trees, and this is supposed
to be one cause of the numerous pustules or tubercles
which we see upon him.
He seems to enjoy the rubbing of himself very
much, and groans and grunts so loud during this ac¬
tion that he is heard at a considerable distance. The
pleasure he receives from this enjoyment, added to
the darkness of the night, deprives him of his usual vi-
467
ALIA.
gilance and attention. The hunters guided by his noise, History of
steal secretly on him ; and while lying on the ground, the Species,
wound him with their javelins, mostly in the belly, “v—'~J
where the wound is mortal.
It is by no means true that the skin of the rhinoce¬
ros, a« it has been often represented, is hard and im¬
penetrable like a board. In his wild state he is easily
killed by javelins thrown from different hands, some of
winch enter many feet into his body. A musket shot
vyill go through him, if it meet not with the interven¬
tion oi a bone 5 and the Shangalla, an Abyssinian tribe.,
kill him by the worst and most inartificial arrows that
ever were used by any people practising that weapon,
and cut him to pieces afterwards with the very worst
of knives.
To shew the amazing strength of the rhinoceros,
even after being severely wounded, we shall quote Mr
Bruce’s account of the hunting of this animal in Abys¬
sinia. “ We were on horseback (says this gentleman)
by the dawn of day in search of the rhinoceros, manv
of which we had heard making a very deep groan and
cry as the morning approached. Several of the aga-
geers (hunters) then joined us, and after we had search¬
ed about an hour in the very thickest part of the wood,
one of them rushed out with great violence, crossing the
plain towards a wood of canes that was about two miles
distance. But though he ran, or rather trotted, with
surprising speed considering his bulk, he was in a very
little time transfixed with 30 or 40 javelins, which so
confounded him that he left his purpose of going to the
wood, and ran into a deep hole or ravine, a cul de sac,
without outlet, breaking above a dozen javelins as he
entered. Here we thought he was caught as in a trap,
for he had scarce room to turn, when a servant who
had a gun standing directly over him, fired at his head,
and the animal fell immediately to all appearance dead.
All those on foot now jumped in with their knives to
cut him up 5 and they had scarce begun, when the
animal recovered so far as to rise upon his knees: hap¬
py then was the man that escaped first 5 and had not
one of the agageers who was himself engaged in the ra¬
vine, cut the sinews of the hind leg as he was retreat¬
ing, there would have been a very sorrowful account of
the foot hunters that day.
“ After having dispatched him, I was curious to see
what wound the shot had given which had operated
so violently upon so huge an animal, and I doubted
not it was in the brain ; but it had struck him no where
fiut upon one of the horns, of which it had carried oft’
above an inch, and this occasioned a concussion, that
had stunned him for a minute till the bleeding had re¬
covered him.”
It has been often asserted that the tongue of the
rhinoceros is so hard and rough as to take away tire
skin and flesh wherever it licks any person that has un¬
fortunately fallen a victim to its fury. Hr Sparrman
says, however, that he thrust his hand into the mouth
of one that had just been shot, and found the tongue-
perfectly smooth and soft.
Fossil bones have been found below the earth in Si¬
beria that seem to belong to a third species of rhino¬
ceros, differing from the two above mentioned in hav¬
ing a longer head, and in the partition between the
nostrils being otherwise shaped. It seems also to have
had two horns. In 1772 a speimen was dug up
3 N 2 almost
4-68
History of
the Species
S°‘
Kleplias.
5T
Maximus.
Elephant.
i'ig- 17-
MAM M ALIA.
almost entire, with the flesh anil skin not yet quite
corrupted.
Genus 10. Elephas.
No cutting teeth in either jaw, very long tusks in the
upper jaw •, nose ending in a very long prehensile
proboscis •, body nearly naked.
We know of only one species, which has been call¬
ed elephas maximus. Of all the animals that have en¬
gaged the attention of mankind from the earliest times,
none has been so much, or perhaps so deservedly cele¬
brated as the elephant. Possessed of magnitude and
strength superior to all other quadrupeds, he is more
gentle and tractable than almost any of them, and in
sagacity and obedience to the commands of man, he is
not excelled by any, except perhaps the dog.
The usual height of the elephant is nine or ten feet,
though he is said to be sometimes found at least twelve
feet high (d). His body is of a very clumsy and awk¬
ward form ; his head very large ; his back very much
arched, and his legs very short, and extremely thick.
His eyes are very small j but his ears large, pendulous,
and irregularly waved about the edges. His trunk
may be considered as one of the most wonderful instru¬
ments with which nature has gifted her most favoured
animals, being little inferior in flexibility and utility,
even to the hand of man. This organ appears to be
composed of a great number of flexible rings, forming
a double tube, ending in a circular tip that is some¬
what flattened, and furnished with a projecting point,
or fleshy moveable hook, of exquisite sensibility, and
so pliable, that by means of it the animal can pick up
from the ground almost the smallest object. Its lower
surface is" somewhat flattened, and it is circularly form¬
ed on the upper. The trunk is the principal organ of
breathing to the elephant, being terminated by two
orifices that are the nostrils. By means of this tube he
supplies himself with food, taking hold of it with the
trunk, and conveying it into his mouth. He drinks
by sucking up the water into his trunk, and then pour¬
ing it into his mouth. The skull of the elephant is ex¬
tremely thick, but not solid, there being a number of
cavernous cells between the outer and inner laminae.
The feet of this animal are edged with five rounded
hoofs •, the tail is of a moderate length, and is termi¬
nated by a few scattered hairs, very thick, and of a
black colour. The general colour of the skin is a dusky
or blackish brown, but in some parts of India they are
found of a white colour, though this is a rare occur¬
rence.
The teeth of the elephant deserve particular notice,
as, till lately, our information respecting them was
very imperfect. It has long been known that the fe¬
males either seldom have tusks, or that in them these
are very short. The tusks of the male are sometimes
of an immense length, those brought from the Mosam-
bique and Cochin China having been seen 10 feet long.
Part II|
Mr Scot has given us the best account of the elephant’s Bma.
teeth ‘j and we shall extract some of the most interest-1 r—
ing particulars from his paper, which appeared in the
Philosophical Transactions for 1799.
The tusks in some female elephants are so small as
not to appear beyond the lip, whilst in others they are
almost as large and long as in one variety of the male,
called mooknah. The grinders are so much alike in
both sexes, that one description may serve for both.
The largest tusks, and from which the best ivory is sup¬
plied, are taken from that kind of male elephant,
called dauntelah from this circumstance, in opposition
to the mooknah, whose tusks are not larger than those
of some females. In one variety of the elephant, the
tusks point downwards, projecting only a little way be¬
yond the trunk. The tusks in elephants are fixed very
deep in the upper jaw j and the root or upper part,
which is hollow, and filled with a core, goes as high as
the insertion of the trunk, round the margin of the nasal
opening to the throat-, which opening is just below the
protuberance of the forehead. Through this opening
the elephant breathes, and by its means he sucks up
water into his trunk : between it and the roots ol the
tusks there is only a thin bony plate. The first or milk-
tusks of an elephant never grow to any considerable
size, but are shed between the first and second year,,
when not two incites in length. The time at which
the tusks cut the gum varies considerably : sometimes a.
young elephant has his tusks at five months old, and
sometimes not till seven. Even in a foetus which has
arrived at its full time, these deciduous tusks are lormed.
A young elephant shed one of his milk-tusks on the
6th of November, 1790, when about 13 months old,
and the other on the 7th of December, when above
fourteen months old. Two months afterwards the per¬
manent ones cut the gums, and on the 19th of April,
1791, they were an inch long. Another young ele¬
phant did not shed his milk-tusks till he was 16 months
old, which proves that the time ot this process varies
considerably. The permanent tusks ol the female are
very small compared with those of the male, and do not
take their rise so deep in the jaw. The largest elephant
tusks Mr Scot ever saw in Bengal did not exceed the
weight of 72 pounds avoirdupois 5 and at Tiperah they
seldom exceed 50 pounds each. Both these weights
are very inferior to that of the tusks brought from other
parts to the India house, where some have weighed 150
pounds each. These, Mr Scot suspects, were from
Pegu. The African elephant is said to be smaller than
the Asiatic 5 yet the ivory dealers in London affirm
that the largest tusks come from Africa, and are of a
better texture, and less liable to turn yellow, than the
Indian ones. The increase of the tusks arises from cir¬
cular layers of ivory, applied internally, from the core
on which they are formed, similar to what happens in
the horns of some animals.
The grinders of elephants may he considered as
composed of several distinct laminae or teeth, each co-
(D) There is little doubt that the accounts generally given of the great height of the elephant have been much
exaggerated. To John Corse Scot, Esq. F. R. S. naturalists are greatly indebted for clearing up many circum¬
stances relating to this animal. That gentleman declares that he never saw an elephant above ten feet high, and
that the highest of which he could procure any authentic account did not exceed ten feet six inches.
hap. II.
Bruta.
M A M M
vered with its proper enamel; and these teeth are
■* merely joined to each other by an intermediate softer
substance, acting as a cement. This structure, even at
the first glance, must appear very curious, being com¬
posed of a number of perpendicular laminae, which
may be considered as so many teeth, each covered with
a strong enamel, and joined to one another by the com¬
mon osseous matter : this, being much softer than the
enamel, wear's away faster by the mastication of the
food ; and in a few months after these teeth cut the
gum, the enamel rises considerably higher, so that the
surface of each grinder soon acquires a ribbed appear¬
ance, as if originally formed of ridges. The number
of these teeth or portions, of which an elephant’s grin¬
der is composed, varies from four to 23, according as
the animal advances in age ; so that a grinder or case
of teeth in a full grown elephant is more than sufficient
to fill one side of the mouth. The shape of the grinders
of the lower jaw differs from those of the upper, which
are very convex on the back part; whereas the lower
has a bent or curved direction, adapting itself to the
shape of the jaw, and is concave on the surface. The
grinders, like the tusks, are already formed, even in
the very young animal. The first set of grinders, or
milk-teeth, begin to cut the gum eight or ten days af¬
ter birth ; they are not shed or cast, as the milk-tusks
are, but are gradually worn away during the time the
second set are coming forward. Mr Scot could not
ascertain the exact time at which the second set of
grinders make their appearance 5 but when the elephant
is two years old, the second set are then completely in
use. At about this period the third set begins to cut
the gum •, and from the end of the second to the begin¬
ning of the sixth year, the third set comes gradually
forward as the jaw lengthens, not only to fill up this
additional space, but also to supply the place of the se¬
cond set, which are during the same period gradually
worn away, and their fangs or roots absorbed. From
the beginning of the sixth to the end of the ninth year,
the fourth set of grinders comes forward, to supply the
gradual waste of the third set. After this period other
sets are produced, but in what time, and in what pro¬
portion, is not yet ascertained ; but it is reasonable to
conclude, that every succeeding grinder takes a year
longer than its predecessor to be completed ; and con¬
sequently, that the fifth, sixth, seventh, and eighth set
of grinders will take from five to eight years (and pro¬
bably much longer) each set, before the posterior lami¬
na has cut the gum.
The time of gestation of the female elephant has
been much disputed. Aristotle stated it at two years,
and Buffon was at one time led to fix the same period.
Afterwards, however, this naturalist was induced to
consider nine months as the most likely time, and in
this he was followed by Mr Pennant. We are indebt¬
ed to Mr Scot for setting us right in this particular al¬
so ; that gentleman having ascertained by actual expe¬
riment, that the female goes with young nearly twenty-
one months.
It is now fully proved that the elephant will readily
breed in captivity, and that neither male nor female
shew those signs of modesty and shyness which have
been attributed to them. Mr Scot has repeatedly wit¬
nessed the ceromony.
M. Buffon was led to conceive that elephants could
ALIA.
469
not copulate in the situation that is customary to other History of
quadrupeds, but this Mr Scot has also found to be an the Species,
error. The young when first born is about three feetv—
high, and continues growing for 16 or 18 years. The
female has two teats a little behind the fore legs. It
was supposed by Bufton, that the young elephant suck¬
ed by means ol its trunk, but later observations have
shewn, that they suck in the usual way with their mouth,
using the trunk for grasping the dug of the mother to
press out the milk.
Mr Scot cori’ects another mistake, respecting the
fondness or the female for her young. It was supposed
that this was most exemplary, and that she would de¬
fend her young w’ith her life; but Mr Scot relates an
instance where females suffered then’ young to be gored
to death by a male elephant, without attempting to pro¬
tect or rescue them.
It has not yet been ascertained how long an elephant
usually lives in its native forests. In captivity they are
said to live above 100 years.
I he elephant is found on the continent of Asia, in
several of the Asiatic islands, especially Ceylon, and in
the southern part of Africa. Ihe Ceylonese elephants
are, in general, larger than those of Africa. Captain
Beaver informs us, that the little island of Bulama (on
the western coast of Africa) abounds with them. He
says “ the number of these animals on this little island
almost exceeds belief', it was nearly impossible for us to
proceed fifty yards inland without meeting recent and
palpable vestiges of them, and the skeletons of old ones
that had died in the woods are frequently found.” They
often pass over the arm of the sea from the continent to
this island 5 but, what is very extraordinary, they have
never been observed to return to the continent *. * Beaver's*
The ordinary food of the elephant consists of herbs, African
roots, leaves, and the tender branches of trees, which Memaran-.
he breaks off with his trunk. As he is not a rumina- ^ l>’
ting animal, he has only one stomach j but the extent
of his bowels is very considerable, the colon alone be¬
ing 15 or 20 feet long, and two or three in diameter.
When an elephant discovers a plentiful pasture, he calls
his neighbours together, to partake with him of the
feast. They feed together in considerable herds, and
as they require a large quantity of fodder, frequently
shift their situation. They usually march in troops, the
oldest keeping foremost, and the middle-aged bringing
up the rear. The females are placed in the centre,
carrying their young firmly held in their trunks. This
order they observe when they forage near the haunts
of men $ but when at liberty to range in extensive de¬
sert plains, they are less guarded. They often make
great havock in the cultivated fields, destroying even
more with the weight of their enormous feet than they
consume as food. They are fond of cool sequestered
places, where they may be sheltered from the mid-day
sun, and love to bathe themselves with water, which
they do by pouring it over their bodies with their
trunks. They are said frequently to roll themselves in
mud, probably like the rhinoceros, for the purpose of
sheathing their skin from the attacks of insects. The
elephant uses many other artifices to rid himself of these
winged enemies ; he strikes them with his tail, his ears,
or his trunk ; he contracts his skin, and crushes them
between its wrinkles } he gathers boughs from the trees
with his trunk, and brushes them away j and when all
these
47o MAM M
History of these arts are unsuccessful, he collects dust with his
the Species, trunk, and strews it over the most sensible paits ot ns
^ body. He has been seen to dust himself in this man¬
ner several times a-day, especially after bathing. He
swims with great ease, and in this way whole troops ot
them sometimes pass over rivers and narrow straits.
The largest tusk elephants lead the way, and pass first.
When they arrive at the opposite shore, they try whe¬
ther the landing place is good, and if so, they make a
signal with their trunk, and some more of the old ele¬
phants swim over, the young following with their trunks
locked together, and the rest of the old ones biing up
the rear.
This is nearly all we know of the manners ot the
elephant in the wild state. Still more interesting obser¬
vations remain to be noticed respecting this animal
when domesticated. A\e shall first give an account of
fche manner in which elephants are taken and this dif¬
fers according as the object is to capture single ele¬
phants, or a whole troop. Of the mode of taking ele.-
phants in Ceylon, Captain Percival has given us an in¬
teresting description in his account of Ceylon, to which
we refer the reader.
The following is the method usually employed at
Tiperah in the East Indies, for securing a single male
elephant. As the hunters know the places whither the
elephants come to feed, they advance towards them in
the evening, bringing with them four koomkees, or fe¬
male elephants trained for the purpose. In the dark
nights it is easy to discover the male elephants by the
noise they make in cleaning their food, by whisking it
against their fore legs, and by moon light they may he
distinctly seen at some distance. Having determined
on the animal they wish to secure, they silently and
slowly conduct three of the koomkees at a little distance
from each other, near the place where the male is feed¬
ing. The females advance very cautiously, feeding as
they approach, and appear like wild elephants that have
strayed from the forest. When the male perceives
them, he sometimes takes the alarm, and if viciously in¬
clined, he makes a noise, and beats the ground with his
trunk, shewing evident marks of displeasure, and of his
unwillingness for them to come near him. If they per¬
sist, he will immediately attack and gore them with his
tusks 5 they therefore take care to retreat in time. He
generally, however, allows them to approach, and some¬
times even advances to meet them.
When the drivers find him thus gentle, they con¬
duct two of the females close to him, one on each side,
and make them press gently against his neck and shoul¬
ders ; the third then comes up, and is placed directly
across his tail. In this situation he is so far from sus¬
pecting any design against his liberty, that he begins to
toy with the females, and caresses them with his trunk.
The fourth female is now brought near, and proper
assistants furnished with ropes get under his belly at
the tail, and fasten a slight cord round his hind legs. If
he takes no notice of this, they proceed to tie his legs
with a stronger cord, passed alternately from one leg
to the other, so as to form a figure of 8. Six or eight
such cords are usually employed, one above another,
and fastened at their intersections, by another cord
made to pass perpendicularly up and down. A strong
cable about 6o cubits long, with a running noose
ALIA. Part II
next put round each hind leg, above tire other cords, Bnita.
is
and over these six or eight more cords are crossed as
before from one leg to the other, all which takes up
about 20 minutes, a strict silence being observed all the
time.
When thus properly secured, he is left to himself,
the koomkees retiring to a little distance in attempt¬
ing to follow them, he finds his legs tied, and becom¬
ing sensible ot the danger of bis situation, immediately
retreats towards the jungle. The drivers on the tame
elephants, accompanied by a number of people who
till this time had been kept out of sight, follow him at
a little distance, and as soon as he passes near a tree
sufficiently stout to hold him, they make a few turns of
the long cables which trailed behind him round its
trunk. His progress being thus stopped, he becomes
furious, and exerts his utmost efforts to disengage him¬
self. The koomkees dare not now come near him, and in
his fury he falls down on the earth and tears it up with
his tusks. In these exertions he sometimes breaks the
cables, and escapes into the thick jungle : here the dri¬
vers dare not advance lor fear ot the other wild ele¬
phants, and are therefore obliged to leave him to Ins
fate •, and in this hampered situation, it is said, he is
even ungenerously attacked by his former companions.
But as the cables are strong, and very seldom give way,
when he has exhausted himself by his exertions, the
koomkees are again brought near him, and take then
former positions, one on each side, and the other be¬
hind. After getting him nearer the tree, the people
carry the ends of the long cables two or three times
round it, so as to prevent even the possibility of Ins
escape. His fore legs are now tied exactly in the same
manner as his hind legs were, and the cables are made
fast, one on each side, to trees or stakes driven deep in¬
to the earth.
When he has become more settled, and will eat a
little food, with which he is supplied as soon as he is
taken, the koornkees are again brought near, and a
strong rope is put twice round his body, close to his
fore legs, like a girth, and tied behind his shoulder •,
then the long end is carried back close to his rump, and
there fastened, after a couple of turns more have been
made round his body. Another cord is next fastened
to this, and from thence carried under his tail like a
crupper, and brought forward and fastened to each of
the girths. A strong rope is now put round his but¬
tocks, and made fast to each side of the crupper, so as
to confine the motion of his thighs, and prevent Ins
taking a full step. A couple of large cables, with
running nooses, are put about his neck, there secured,
and then tied to the ropes on each side. Ihus com¬
pletely hampered, the cables round his neck are made
fast to two koomkees, one on each side.
Every thing being now ready, all the ropes are taken
from his legs, except the strong one round his buttocks
to confine the motion of his hind legs, which is stik
left. The koomkees pull him forward, sometimes,
however, not without much struggling and violence
on his part. When brought to his proper station,
and made fast, he is treated with a mixture of seve¬
rity and gentleness, and generally in a few months be¬
comes tractable, and appears perfectly reconciled to his
fale. u
5hap. II. M A M M
Bruta. It Ii3.s happened that an elephant which escaped
—V—from captivity, suffered itself to be taken again by the
hunters. This is not the only fact, as we shall see
hereafter, that contradicts the observation of Horace,
that no beast once escaped from slavery, suffers himself
again to be entrapped (e).
The elephant when tamed, is gentle, obedient, and
tractable, patient of labour, and submits to the most
toilful drudgery. He is so attentive to the com¬
mands of his governor, that a word or look is sufficient
to stimulate him to the greatest exertions. His attach¬
ment to his keeper is remarkable : he caresses him with
his trunk, and frequently will obey no other master.
He knows his voice, and can distinguish between the
tones of command, of approbation, and of anger. He
receives his orders with attention, and executes them
with eagerness, but without precipitation. All his mo¬
tions are grave, majestic, regular and cautious, and
seem to correspond with the dignity of his appearance'.
He kneels down for the accommodation of those who
would mount upon his back, and even helps them to
ascend with his trunk. He suffers himself to be har¬
nessed, and seems proud of the finery of his trappings;
he will easily perform the work of several horses, being
able to carry from 3000 to 4000 weight. His conduc¬
tor or comae is usually mounted on the neck of the
elephant, and uses a rod of iron sharp at the end and
hooked, with which he urges the animal forward,
by pricking his head, ears, or muzzle, though this is
seldom necessary, a word being usually sufficient.
In India, Mr Scot tells us, elephants are divided
into two casts, viz. the koomareah and the merghee.
The first consists of the large or full-bodied kind; the
second of the more slender, with longer legs and thin¬
ner trunk in proportion ; it is also a taller animal, but
not so strong as the former. A large trunk is always
considered as a great beauty in an elephant, so that the
koomareah is preferred not only on this account, but
for his superior strength in carrying burthens, &c.
Many indistinct varieties are again produced from the
intermixture of these two breeds. The torrid zone
seems to be the natural clime of the elephant, and the
most favourable for the production of the largest and
hardiest race; and when this animal migrates beyond
the tropics, the species degenerates.
The following marks are laid down by Mr Scot as
descriptive of a perfect elephant. His ears should be
large and rounded, not ragged nor indented at the mar¬
gin : his eyes of a dark hazel colour, free from specks:
the roof of his mouth and his tongue without dark or
blackish spots of any considerable size : his trunk large :
bis tail long, with a tuft of hair reaching nearly to the
ground. There must be five nails on each of his fore
feet, and four on each of his hind ones ; his head well
set on, and carried rather high ; the arch or curve of
his back rising gradually from the shoulder to the mid¬
dle, and thence descending to the insertion of the tail;
and all his joints firm and strong.
The value ot an elephant varies much, according to
ALIA.
471
his cast, and as he has more or less of the above marks. History of
I he usual price at Ceylon is 50 guineas, but they some-the Species,
times fetch considerably more. v»— y" 1
Elephants are kept by the princes and grandees of
India, chiefly for shew and magnificence. In their
travels the Indian princes are attended by hundreds of
these animals.. Some are employed to carry the ladies
which compose the seraglio, who are placed in latticed
cages covered with branches of trees ; while others trans¬
port the immense quantities of baggage which the sove¬
reigns of the east usually carry with them in their jour¬
neys. Great care is taken in the management and de¬
coration of these elephants. They are daily fed,
bathed, oiled, and rubbed, and frequently painted,
about the ears and head with various colours, and their
tusks surrounded with rings of gold and silver. When
employed in processions, they are covered with the most
gaudy and sumptuous trappings.
Elephants are now seldom employed in war, as in
the present state of warfare they can be of little ad¬
vantage. The ancients, as is well known, used num¬
bers of them in their armies, and we are told thatPorus-
opposed the passage of Alexander over the Hydaspes
with 85 elephants. The accounts related of those
brought by Pyrrhus against the Romans, are familiar,
to most of our readers, and Buffon supposes that some of
these were among the number that Alexander took and
sent into Greece. In the later periods of the Roman
republic, elephants were frequently exhibited to the
people, for the cruel purpose of being put to death in
conflicts with armed men. It is said that Pompey, in
the space of five days, destroyed 18 elephants in this
way, with a view of entertaining the populace, among
wdiom the cries of the elephants are said to have excit¬
ed much commiseration.
In the east^ elephants are sometimes employed as the
executioners of public justice, and they will trample a
criminal to death, break his limbs with their trunk, or
impale him on their enormous tusks, according to the
orders given them. In some parts of India they were
formerly employed in launching ships, which thev ef¬
fect by pushing the vessel with their heads. We are
told that one of them being directed to force a large
vessel into the water, and this proving too much for his
strength, the master in an angry tone cried out, Take
away that lazy beast, and bring another in his place.
The poor animal repeated his efforts, fractured his skull,
and died upon the spot.
A great many instances have been recorded of the
sagacity, and almost reasoning power of this wonderful
animal. WTe shall mention a few of these. “ I was,
says M. Philippe, an eye witness to the following facts :
~At Goa, there are always some elephants employed
in the building of ships. I one day w'ent to the side
of the river, near which a great ship was building,
where there is a large area filled with beams for that
purpose. Some men tie the ends of the heaviest beams
with a rope, which is handed to an elephant, who car¬
ries it to his mouth, and after twisting it round his
trunk,
(E)
•Quae bellua ruptis,
Cum semel eftugit, reddit se prava catenis,.
472 M A
History of trunk, draws it, without any conductor, to the place
the Species, where the ship is building, though it may have been
     only once pointed out to him. One of these sometimes
drew beams so large, that more than 20 men would
have been unable to move them. But what surprised
me still more, when other beams obstructed [the road,
he elevated the ends of his own beams that they might
run easily over those which lay in his way. Could the
.most enlightened man do more ? .
He well knows when he is mocked, or otherwise ill
treated. The story of the tailors of Delhi, who were
drenched with puddle water by an elephant for having
pricked his trunk with a needle, is well known. J he
following instance of retaliation is not less worthy ot
notice. An elephant driver at Macasa having a cocoa
nut given him, he out of wantonness struck it twice
against his elephant’s head, to break it. Hie next day
when the animal was passing through the street, he saw
some cocoa nuts exposed to sale, and taking up one oi
them with his trunk, he beat it about the driver’s head
till he completely killed the man. This comes, says the
relater, of jesting with an elephant.
When much provoked, he has been known to take
the most dreadful vengeance. He is extremely fond of
■wine and spirits, and by shewing him a vessel of arack,
he is induced to use the greatest efforts, and take the
utmost pains in hopes of gaining it as the reward of his
labour. An elephant disappointed of his reward in this
way, out of revenge killed his cornac or governor.
The poor man’s wife, who beheld the dreadful scene,
took her two infants, and threw them at the feet of the
enraged animal, saying, “ since you have slain my hus¬
band, take my life also, as well as that of my children.’’
The elephant instantly stopped, relented, and as if
stung with remorse, took the eldest boy in his trunk,
placed him on his neck, adopted him for his cornac, and
would never allow any other person to mount it.
The elephant is sometimes seized with periodical fits
of rage, and during these he will destroy the first
person he meets with j but what is very remarkable,
when he has sacrificed one victim, he becomes in¬
stantly appeased, and may be then led and governed as
usual. , ,v • i
The following instance of mutual affection between
a male and female elephant, who had before befen
much together, and were brought to Paris in separate
conveyances is very interesting.
The place for their reception had been long prepa¬
red. It was a spacious hall in the museum ol natural
history, well aired and lighted. A stove was placed
in it to warm it during the winter j and it was divided
into two apartments, which had a communication with
each other by means of a large door resembling a port¬
cullis. The inclosure round these apartments, consist¬
ed of rails made of strong thick beams, and a second in¬
closure, breast high, ran round them, to keep the specta¬
tors at some distance, and preserve them from accidents.
The morning after their arrival, these animals were
put in possession of their new habitation. I he first con¬
ducted to it was the male, who issued from his cage
with precaution, and seemed to enter his apartment
with a degree of suspicion. His first care was to recon¬
noitre the place. He examined each bar with Ins
trunk, and tried their solidity by shaking them. Care
had been taken to place on the outside the large screws
M M A L I A.
Part II
by which they were held together. These he sought Bruta.
out, and, having found them, tried to turn them, but1 v*—.
was not able. When he arrived at the portcullis which
separates the two apartments, he observed that it was
fixed only by an iron bar, which rose in a perpendicu¬
lar direction. He raised it with his trunk, pushed up
the door, and entered into the second apartment, where
he received his breakfast. He ate quietly, and ap¬
peared to be perfectly easy.
During this time people were endeavouring to make
the female enter. We still recollect the mutual at¬
tachment of these two animals, and with what difficulty
they were parted and induced to travel separately.
From the time of their departure they had not seen
each other, not even at Cambray, where they passed
the winter. They had only been sensible that they
were near neighbours. The male never lay down, but
always stood upright or leaned against the bars of his
cage, and kept watch'for his female, who lay down
and slept every night. On the least noise, or the
smallest alarm, he sent forth a cry to give notice to his
companion.
The joy which they expressed on seeing each other,
after so long a separation, may be readily imagined.
When the female entered, she sent forth a cry expres-
sive only of the pleasure which she felt at finding her¬
self at liberty. She did not at first observe the male,
who was busy feeding in the second apartment. The
latter did not immediately discover that Ins companion
was so near him ; but J he keeper having called him, he
turned round, and immediately the two animals rushed
towards each other, and sent forth cries of joy so ani¬
mated and loud, that they shook the whole hall. They
breathed also through their trunks with such violence,
that the blast resembled an impetuous gust of wind.
The joy of the female was the most lively : She ex¬
pressed it by quickly flapping her ears, which she made
to move with astonishing velocity, and drew her trunk
over the body of the male with the utmost tenderness.
She in particular applied it to his ear, where she kept
it a long time j and after having drawn it over the
whole body of the male, would often move it affection¬
ately towards her own mouth. The male did the same
thing over the body of the female', but Ins joy was
more concentrated: He seemed to express it by Ins
tears, which fell from his eyes in abundance.
Besides the use made of the elephant, when living,
he is sometimes hunted for the sake of his tusks and
flesh. Mr Bruce has given us an interesting account of
the mode of hunting elephants in Abyssinia, and with
this we shall conclude our history of this animal.
The men who make the hunting of elephants their
business, dwell constantly in the woods, and live entirely
upon the flesh of the animals they kill^ which is chieiiy
that of the elephant or rhinoceros. They are exceed¬
ingly thin, light, and agile, both on horseback and on
foot. They are called agageer, a name derived from
the word agar, which signifies to hamstring with a sharp
weapon. More properly it means, indeed, the cutting
of the tendon of the heel, and is a characteristic o the
manner in which they kill the elephant, which is thus :
—Two men, quite naked, to prevent their being laid
hold of by the trees or bushes in making their escape
from this very watchful enemy, get on horseback.
One of these riders sits on the back of the horse, some¬
times
hap II. M A M M
Bniia. times with a saddle, and sometimes without one, with
only a short stick in one hand, carefully managing the
bridle with the other ? behind him sits his companion,
armed only with a broadsword. His left hand is em¬
ployed in grasping the sword by the handle j about 14
inches of the blade ot winch are covered with whip
cord. 1 his part he takes in his right hand, without
any danger of being hurt by it j and though the edges
ot the lower part ot the sword are as sharp as a razor,
he carries it without a scabbard.
“ As soon as an elephant is found feeding, the horse¬
man rides before him, as near his face as possible; or
it he flies, crosses him in alt directions, calling out, ‘ I
am such a man and such a man, this is my horse, that
has such a name ; I killed your father in such a place,
and X am now come to kill you ; you are but an ass in
comparison with them.’ This nonsense he believes the
elephant perfectly understands, who, chafed and angry
at hearing the noise immediately before him, attempts
to seize him with his trunk; and, intent upon this, fol¬
lows the horse everywhere, turning round and round
with him, neglectful of making his escape by running
Straight forward, in which consists his only safety. Af¬
ter having made him turn a few times in pursuit of the
horse, the horseman rides up alongside of him, and
drops his companion just behind on the off-side ; and
while he engages the elephant’s attention upon the
horse, the footman behind gives him a drawn stroke
just above the heel, into what in man is called the ten¬
don oj Achilles. This is the critical moment ; the
horseman immediately wheels round, again takes his
companion up behind him, and rides off after the rest
of the herd, if they have started more than one; and
sometimes an expert agageer will kill three out of one
herd, ft the sword is good, and the man not afraid,
the tendon is commonly entirely separated; and if it is
not cut through, is generally so far divided, that the
animal, with the stress he puts upon it, breaks the re¬
maining part asunder. In either case, he remains in¬
capable of advancing a step, till the horseman return¬
ing, or his companions coming up, pierce him through
with javelins and lances ; he then falls to the ground,
and expires from loss of blood.
Iho elephant once slain, they cut the whole flesh
oil his bones iiito thongs, like the reins of a bridle, and
bang these, like festoons, upon the branches of trees,
till they become perfectly dry, without salt, and they
then lay them by for their provision in the season of the
rams
p*. Bosman and Labat give us terrible ideas of the cou¬
rage of the elephant, and his fury when wounded ; but
either their accounts are much exaggerated, or the mo¬
dern elephant is a much more timid animal than that"
of their time. Captain Beaver assures us, that when an
elephant is attacked, it will endeavour to escape by any
opening it can perceive; that whenever they flred^at it
on shore, it never turned on its enemies, but made for
110 openings that led into tho woods. The Uijugas and
Biafbras use a very long gun, loaded with a piece of an
iron rod nearly equal to its caliber, for attacking the
e ephant, and always aim at the flank, or behind the
ear, these being the most dangerous parts in which the
P’J car* wounded. The elephant is scarcely ever
r by a single shot f.
i3so ma?LXears l,ast a number of larcc bones and
Vol. XIX. Part II. c
ALIA.
extraordinary teeth, have been discovered in the north¬
ern parts both of Asia and America, which at first were
generally attributed to the elephant, though in Siberia
they were considered as belonging to a monstrous ani¬
mal called mammoth, whose fabulous existence they
supposed to be under ground. In North America these
laige bones and carnivorous grinders have been found
in great abundance on the Ohio and its tributary
streams, washed from their banks, or discovered by
digging in salt morasses in the neighbourhood of Cinci-
nati, where they are found intermixed with the bones
of buflalees and deer, which a tradition of the Indians
states to have been destroyed by a herd of these animals
which came upon them from the north. This event
happened, the Indians believe, as a punishment for
their sins ; but they say that the good spirit at length
interposed to save them, and seating himself on a neigh¬
bouring rock, where they shew you the print of his
seat and of one foot, hurled his thunderbolts against
them.. All were killed except one male, who, present¬
ing his forehead to the shafts, shook them off, until at
length wounded, he sprang over the Wabash, the Illi¬
nois., and the Great Lake, where he still lives.
These bones wrere forwarded with eagerness to all
parts of Europe, and deposited in museums, where they
attracted the curiosity.of all naturalists, whose conjec¬
tures and theories on them w'ere very various, until Hr
Hunter, by a more accurate comparison between them
and the bones of other animals, determined that thev
must have belonged to a large non-descript animal of
the carnivorous kind, somewhat resembling the hippo
potamus and the elephant, yet essentially different from
both.
. 1be subject is now completely elucidated. Not Joiu>
since some farmers in the state of New York, in Ame¬
rica, digging marl from their morasses in the neigh¬
bourhood ol New Windsor, accidentally discovered se¬
veral ot these boues, which were preserved by physi¬
cians in the neighbourhood. In the autumn of 1801,
Mr Charles Peale, and his son Mr Rembrandt Peale,
having obtained possession of these bones, persevered
for near three months, with much labour and expence,
in searching for the remainder of this animal, and were
at length so fortunate as to obtain two skeletons found
in two distinct situations, and unmixed with the bones
ot any other individual. One of these is preserved in
the museum at Philadelphia, and the other was exhi¬
bited a few years ago in London, previously to its being
taken to Paris.
I ho length of this skeleton, from the chin to the
rump, was 15 feet, and its height over the shoulders
11 feet; and from the point of the tusks to the end of
the tail, in a straight line, it was 17 feet long. The
whole skeleton weighed about tooolb.
ihe following dilferences between the skull of the
mammoth, and that of the elephant, are given by Mr
R. Peale.
On examining the head of the elephant, it will ap¬
pear, that the sockets of the tusks are situated, with
respect to the condyle of the neck, nearly in an angle
of 450, so that the tusks, which have but little curve,
are directed downwards and forwards,, and may be
with ease employed offensively and defensively. On the
other hand it will be observed, that, in the mammoth,
the socket is nearly in a horizontal line with the con-
3 0 dyle;
M A M M
4J4 f dvk • and therefore the tusks, which arc semicircular,
ll' In thifelephanC Ae orbit of the eye is situated where,
in the mammoth, there is a large mass of bone,
cheek of the elephant is formed of two bones, but
the mammoth, besides other variations, there is but one
bone. The whole figure of the under jaw differs con¬
siderably, in the length of the condyles or arms whmh
in the mammoth is short and angular, but m the ele
i phant forms a semicircular line . .
* Pk o- P ]yjr R. Peale seems to have no doubt that the m
soph. Mag. h carnivorous animal, feeding chiefly on she 1
X‘V- S but if the animal, whose stomach was lately found
in digging a well near a salt lake in ^7the C0U1J^
Virginia, were really a mammoth, it is clear
animal was at least capable of living °.nher^e-
contents of this stomach, which were in a state ot per
4 Kichot. fect preservation, consisted of half masticated reed ,
Journ. Sm twigs, and grass or leaves+.
yoLxi1u Genus ii. Sukotyro.
Of this genus there is only one species, of which we
know little or nothing, and are not even certain that t
exists: the little information that has been given of it
being confined to a single traveller, Nieuhoff He
describes it as a quadruped of a very smgular shape
about the size of a large ox, with a snout like that of
horr long and rough ears, and a thick and bushy tai .
He’saysSthat the eyes are placed upright in the head,
and that on each side of the head, next to the eyes
stand two horns or rather tusks not quite so large as
those of the elephant, that it feeds on herbage, and is a
native of Java.
Genus 12. Platypus.
Platypus, jyiouth shaped like the bill of a duck, with two grind-
Hg-19- ers 0n each side in each jaw •> feet webbed.
ALIA.
P- 35a-
53
Sukotyrus.
Tig. 13.
There is only one species, which has been called P.
Anatinus, or Duck-billed Platypus Jt was brought
from New Holland, and presented to Sir Joseph Banks.
An account of it was first published by Hr Shaw in the
Naturalists Miscellany, and afterwards in the General
Zoology of the same author, from which the following
“Torall^e" mammalia yet known, this seems the
most extraordinary in its conformation, exhibiting the
perfect resemblance of the beak of a duck engrafted on
the head of a quadruped. So accurate is the similitude,
that at first view, it naturally excites the idea of some
deceptive preparation by artificial means j the very epi¬
dermis, proportion, serratures, manner of opening, and
other particulars of the beak ot a shoveler, or other
broad-billed species of duck, presenting themselves to
the view; nor is it without the most minute and rigid
examination that we can persuade ourselves ot its bung
the real beak or snout of a quadruped.
^ Part II
actly resembles that of some broad-billed species of _ Rnita.
duck, that it might be mistaken for such. Hound the
base is a flat circular membrane, somewhat deeper or
wider below than above, viz. below, near the fifth of an
inch, and above, about an eighth. The tail is flat,
furry like the body, rather short, and obtuse, with an
almost bifid termination-, it is broader at the base, and
gradually lessens to the tip, and is about three inches in
length its colour is similar to that of the body The
length of the whole animal, from the tip of the beak to
that of the tail, is 13 inches 5 of the beak an inch and
a half. The legs are very short, terminating in a
broad web, which on the fore feet extends to a consi¬
derable distance beyond the claws; but on the hind
feet reaches no farther than the roots of the claws. On
the fore feet are five claws, straight, strong, and sharp-
pointed ; the two exterior ones somewhat shorter than
the three middle ones. On the hind feet are six claws,
longer and more inclining to a curved form than those
on the fore feet: the exterior toe and claw are consi¬
derably shorter than the four middle ones : the interior, ^
or sixth, is seated much higher up than the rest and
resembles a strong sharp spur. All the legs are hairy
above : the fore feet are naked, both above and below.
The internal edges of the under mandible (which is nar¬
rower than the upper) are serrated or channelled with
numerous strise, as in a duck’s bill. The nostr*lb 5^
small and round, and are situated about a quarter of an
inch from the tip of the bill, and are about one-eighth
of an inch distant from each other. I here is no ap¬
pearance of teeth : the palate is removed ; but it seems
to have resembled that of a duck : the tongue also is
wanting in the specimen here described. Hie ears or
auditory orifices, are placed about an inch beyond the
eyes ; they appear like a pair of oval holes of the eighth
of an inch in diameter, there being no external ear.
On the upper part of the head, on each side, a litt e
beyond the beak, are situated two smallish owl whit
spots, in the lower part of each of which are imbedded
the eyes, or at least the parts allotted to the animal fo
somePkind of vision ; for, from the thickness of the fmv
and the smallness of the organs, they seem to hai e been
but obscurely calculated for distinct vision, and are pro¬
bably like those of moles, and some other animals of
that tribe ; or perhaps even subcutaneous, the whole
apparent diameter of the cavity in winch they are pla¬
ced not exceeding the tenth of an inch.
“ When we consider the general form of this animal,
and particularly its bill and webbed feet, we shall rea¬
dily perceive, that it must be a resident in watery situa¬
tions ; that it has the habits of digging or burrowing
in the banks of rivers, or under ground and that lts
food consists of aquatic plants and animals. I his is a t
that can at present be reasonably guessed at; future ob
serrations, made in its native regions, w.U, itis hoped,
afford us ample information, and will make us ll> J
quainted with the natural history of an amma w c
differs so widely from all other quadrupeds, and which
verifies in a most striking manner the observation
Bnffon, viz. that whatever was possible foi nature
nroduce, has actually been produced .
p This animal was first called Ormaor^cfas P<»a- M
and it has been described ""^L1 " . Lo/-™'1'
Blumenbach of Gottingen, and by Mr Home oi
don. See Phil. Trans, for 1800.
Chap. II.
linjU
SS
Tricbeeus.
Iwmrus-
U'ctio
Wfiw
'fa *s.
Mr Home found on dissection
1 platypus differs materially from the bill of a bird; that
it was independent of the cavity of the mouth, which
was similar to that of other quadrupeds, having two
grinders on each side in both jaws, hut without fangs.
Genus 13. TmcnKcus, JFaliwsses,
No fore teeth in the full-grown animal in either jaw.
Tusks in the upper jaw solitary ; grinders with
wrinkled surfaces. Lips double. Hind feet uniting
at the extremity of the body into a ffn,
This genus constitutes one of the links that connect
the quadrupeds with the fishes; the walrusses and manati
being marine animals, who, though they sometimes
come on shore, pass most of their time in the water.
They feed on sea weeds and shell fish, and do not ap.
pear to be carnivorous. There are about seven species,
which are distinguished by the following names and
characters,
I, Tt Rosmarm, Morse or Arctic Walrus. Tusks dis¬
tant and exserted.~—3. T, JDugon} Dugon or Indian
W, Tusks exserted and approximate.—3. T, Borea*
lis} ‘Whale-tailed W. Hairless, with a horizontal tail
in place of hind feet.—4, T, Australis, Round-tailed
W. Hairy, with a horizontal tail in place of feet,—»
5, T, Mamtls, Guiana W, Slightly hairy, without
tusks, and with a horizontal tail in place of hind feet.
The following are named, but not characterized, by Dr
Shaw, viz. 6. T, Amamnim, and, 7. T, Hydropitfiecm.
t. T* Rosmarus, Arctic Walrus,—This is a very
large animal, growing sometimes to the length of 18
feet, and so thick as to measure 12 feet about the mid¬
dle of the body, Its form is clumsy and inelegant, hav¬
ing a small head, short neck, thick body, and short
legs, The Ups are very thick, and the upper Up is
indented or cleft into two large rounded lobes: over
the whole surface of this part are scattered numerous se¬
mitransparent bristles, of a yellowish tinge, and of such
a thickness as almost to equal a straw in diameter.;
they are about three inches long, and are slightly point¬
ed at their extremities. The eyes are small. Instead of
external ears, there are only two small round orifices.
The skin, on the whole, is thick, and more or less
wrinkled, and is scattered over with short brownish
hair, On each foot are five toes, all connected by webs,
and on each toe is a small nail 5 the hind feet are consi¬
derably broader than the fore feet. The tail is extreme¬
ly short. In the upper jaw are two large and long
tusks bending downwards.
The arctic walrus inhabits the northern seas, and is
chiefly found within the arctic circle, Great numbers
are often met with in the Magdalen isles in the gulf of
Ut Lawrence, They are gregarious, and are sometimes
seen in vast multitudes on the masses of floating ice that
are found in those high latitudes, They are harmless,
ruffeas when attacked or provoked, in which case they
become furious, and extremely vindictive. When sur¬
prised on the ice, the females first provide for the safe,
ty of their young, by flinging them into the sea, and
themselves after them, Having carried these to a se¬
cure distance, they will return to the place again with
great rage to revenge any injury they have received,
They will sometimes attempt to fasten their teeth on
the boats, in order to sink them, or rise in great num-
M A M M A h I A.
that the beak of the hers under them with the intention of oversetting them,
at the same time shewing all the marks of rage, by
roaring in a dreadful manner, and gnashing their teeth
with great violence. They are strongly attached to
each other, and will make every effort in their power,
even to death, to set at liberty their harpooned compa¬
nions. A wounded walrus has been known to sink to
the bottom, rise suddenly again, and bring up with it
multitudes of others, who have united in an attack on
the boat from which the insult came.
The following picture of a herd of walrusses on a
mass of floating ice, is given by Captain Cook. “ They
lie in herds of many hundreds upon the ice, huddling
over one another like swine, and roar or bray very
loud, so that in the night, or in foggy weather, they
gave us notice of the vicinity of the ice, before we
could see it. We never found the whole herd asleep,
some being always upon the watch. These, on the ap¬
proach of the boat, would wake those next to them;
and the alarm being thus gradually communicated, the
whole herd would be awake presently. But they were
seldom in a hurry to get away, till after they had been
once fired at. They then would tumble over one an¬
other into the sea in the utmost confusion. And if we
did not, at the first discharge, kill those we fired at,
we generally lost them, though mortally wounded.
They did not appear to us to be that dangerous animal
which some authors have described, not even when at¬
tacked, They are rather more so in appearance than
in reality. Vast numbers of them would follow and
come close up to the boats. But the flash of a musket
in the pan, or even the bare pointing of one at them,
would send them down in an instant. The female will
defend the young to the very last, and at the expence
of her own life, whether in the water or upon the ice.
Nor will the young one quit the dam, though she be
dead 5 so that if one is killed, the other is certain prey.
The dam, when in the water, holds the young one be-
tween her fore fins.”
The tusks of this animal are used as ivory; but au¬
thors seem to differ with respect to its quality, some
taking it as superior, and others far inferior to that of
the elephant. The walrus is taken chiefly for the sake
of its oil and its skin, from which latter is prepared a
very strong and elastic leather.
This order contains nine genera, and about 30 species.
Chap, HI, FEJLfE.
Genus 14. Phoca. Seals.
Six fore teeth in the upper jaw, pointed, parallel, out¬
er the larger; four in the lower jaw, blimtisb, paral¬
lel, equal and distinct. One canine tooth on each
side in both jaws, large and pointed ; the upper di¬
stinct from the cutting teeth; the lower from the
grinders. Five grinders on each side in the upper,
and six in the lower jaw; obtusely tricuspidated.
Hind feet growing together.
This constitutes another tribe of marine animals; but
these are much better fitted for living on land than the
walrusses, and indeed they jiass much of their time ei¬
ther on the sea shores, on insulated rocks, or on the
ice in the frozen seas, assembling in these places in vast
numbers, especially at the time when the females bring
3 0 2 v forth
47 6
History of
the Species.
. 5?
Vituhna.
Common
Seal.
Fig. 21.
forth their young. Here they lie basking in the sun or
sporting with each other, and here they take their re¬
pose. They are found in all seas, and some ol them
are said to inhabit large inland lakes, lliey feed chiefly
on fish and sea weeds.
The species are numerous, at least 19 being describ¬
ed by naturalists, viz.
1.* P. Vitalina, Common Seal. Earless, brown, with
smooth head and neck.—2. Bicolor, Pied S. Earless,
black, variegated with white, with elongated nose and
lunated hind feet.—3. P. Monachus, Mediterranean S.
Earless, with four cutting teeth in each jaw, undivided
fore feet, and the hinder pinniform and without claws.
 P. Longicollis, Long-necked S. Earless, long¬
necked, with the fore feet pinniform.—5. P. Falklan-
dica, Falkland-isle S. Cinereous, with small-pointed
ears, and furrowed cutting teeth.—6. P. Testmlinea,
Tortoise-headed S. tortoise-shaped head and slender
neck.—7. P. Fasciata, Ribbon S. Blackish, with a
squarish dorsal yelloiv band.—8. P. Lepo¬
rine S. with white, soft, suberect fur.—9. * P. Bar'ba-
ta. Great S. Earless, blackish, with smooth head.—
10. P. Hispida, Rough S. Pale brown, subauricula-
ted, with smooth head, and the body covered with
rising bristly hair.— II. P. Porcina, Porcine S. Ear¬
ed, with hog-like snout and five-toed feet.—12. P.Fla-
vescens, Yellow S. Yellowish, with pointed ears.—
13. P. Cristata, Hooded S. Gray, with a folding
skinny crest on the forehead.—14. P. Groenlandica,
Harp. S. Earless, gray, with a black dorsal crescent j
the horns pointing downwards along the sides.—15.
P. Pusilla, Little S. Subauriculated, dusky, with
smooth head.—16. P. Ursina, Ursine S. Eared, black¬
ish, with flattish nose, and fin-like fore feet.—17.P. Leo-
nina, Bottle-nosed S. Brown, male having a project¬
ing crest or inflated membrane on the snout—18. P. Ju-
bata. Leonine Reddish brown, male furnished with
a large mane round the neck.—19. P. Lupiora, X5-
rigne S. Earless, with dog-like head, and fin-like lore
feet.
1. P. Vitalina, Common Seal, or Sea-Calf.—Ihe
usual length of this species is from five to six feet. It
has a large round head, a small short neck, and several
strong bristles on each side of its mouth j large eyes,
no external ears, and a forked tongue. The body ta¬
pers from the shoulders to the tail. The legs are very
short, and the feet all webbed. The hind legs are
placed so far back as to be of but little use, except in
swimming. The tail is very short. They vary in co¬
lour, being sometimes gray, sometimes bnnvn or black¬
ish, and now and then spotted with white and yellow.
They inhabit all the European seas, and are found
round all the coasts of the northern hemisphere. They
are also seen in vast quantities about the southern polar-
regions $ and Mr Pennant informs us that they even
inhabit some fresh-water lakes, especially that of Baikal.
Their dens or habitations are formed in hollow rocks or
caverns out of the reach of the tide.
They are excellent swimmers and ready divers, and
are very bold when in the sea. In the summer they
will come out of the water, to bask or sleep in the sun,
on the top of large stones, or shivers of rocks j and that
is the opportunity our countrymen take of shooting
them: if they chance to escape, they hasten towards
MAMMALIA. Part I]
their proper element, flinging stones and dirt behind rcne.
them as they scramble along at the same time expres¬
sing their fears by piteous moans } but if they happen
to be overtaken, they will make a vigorous defence
with their feet and teeth, till they are killed. They
are taken for the sake of their skins, and for the oil
their fat yields 5 the former sell lor 4s. or 4s. 6d. a
piece, and, when dressed, are very useful in covering
trunks, making waistcoats, shot pouches and several
other conveniences. The flesh ol these animals, and
even of porpoises, formerly found a place at the tables
of the great, as appears from the bill of fare of that
vast feast that Archbishop Nevill gave in the reign ol
Edward IV. in which is seen, that several seals were
provided on the occasion. They couple about April, on
large rocks, or small islands, not remote from the shore j
and bring forth in those vast caverns that are frequent on
our coasts. They commonly bring forth two at a time,
which, in their infant state, are covered with a whitish
down, or woolly substance.
They suckle their young for about a fortnight, in the
place where they were born, and then take them out
to sea, and instruct them in swimming, and seeking for
their prey, which consists chiefly of sea weed. \\ hen
the young are fatigued, the parents are said to carry
them on their backs. The growth of the young seals is
said to be so rapid, that, in about nine tides after their
birth, they become as active as their parents.
Seals are very swift in their proper depth of water,
dive like a shot, and in a trice rise at 50 yards distance }
so that weaker fishes cannot avoid their tyranny, except
in shallow water; a person of the parish of Sennon, saw,
not long since, a seal in pursuit of a mullet (that strong
and swift fish) : the seal turned it to and fro in deep
water, as a greyhound does a hare. rIhe mullet at
last found it had no way to escape, but by running into
shoal water : the seal pursued, and the mullet, to get
more securely out of danger, threw itself on its side, by
which means it darted into shoaler water than it could
have swam in with the depth of its haunch and fins, and
so escaped.
They sleep on rocks surrounded by the sea, or on the
less accessible parts of our cliffs, left dry by the ebb of
the, tide and if disturbed by any thing, take care to
tumble over the rocks into the Sea. They are extreme¬
ly watchful, and never sleep long without moving-, sel¬
dom longer than a minute : then raise their heads, and
if they hear or see nothing more than ordinary, lie
down again, and so on, raising their heads a little, and
reclining them alternately, in about a minute’s time.
Nature seems to have given them this precaution, as
being unprovided with auricles, or external ears 5 and
consequently not hearing very quick, nor from any great
distance.
’ When taken young, these animals may be domesti¬
cated, will follow- their master like a dog, and come to
him when called by name. Some years ago a young
seal was thus domesticated that had been taken at a
little distance from the sea. It was usually kept in a
vessel full of salt w-ater, but w-as allowed to crawl about
the house, and would sometimes come near the fire } its
natural food wras regularly brought to it, and it was
every day taken to the sea, and thrown in from a boat,
but rvould swim after the boat, and always allowed it¬
self
HI- M A M M
self to be taken back, it lived in this way for several
weeks, and appears to have died in consequence of ill
usage.
477
59
auis.
60
tuestic
Gen. 15. Canis. Dogs.
Six cutting teeth in each jaw; the lateral of the upper
jaw longer and distant, the intermediate lobated ;
the lateral of the lower jaw lobated. Canine teeth
solitary and curved. Grinders six or seven, or more
than in the other genera of this order.
The individuals of this genus, like those of the next,
have so little in common with respect to their habits and
manners, and are otherwise so important in themselves,
as to call lor a separate account. Without making any
general remarks here, we shall merely give the specific
differences, and then proceed to such of the species as
are most worthy of notice.
There are about 23 species ; viz.
1. ^ Cams 1 amiliaris, Common Do<r. Recurved
tail, turned towards the left.—2. C. Lupus, Wolf,
lail incurvated.—3. C. Mexicanus, Mexican wolf,
lail deflected 5 body ash-coloured, and variegated with
dusky bands and fulvous spots.—4. C. Lycaon, Black
wolf. lail straight.—y. C. liycena, liygena. Pale
brown, striped with black, with upright mane, naked
ears, straight tail, and four-toed feet.—6. C. Cvocata,
Spotted hyaena. Reddish brown, spotted with black j
with straight tail, and four-toed feet.—7. C. Aureus^
Jackall. Pale fulvous, with straight tail.—8. C. Mcso-
welos, Cape jackal). Ferruginous, with straight tail,
and black doi’sal band.—p. C. Jiurbarus, Barbary jack-
all. Pale brown with straight tail j a black descend¬
ing forked band behind each ear, and three dusky
bands on the tail.—10. C, Ceilonicus, Ceylonese dog.
Yellowish gray, with lengthened snout, long sharp
pointed tail, and crooked claws.—11. * C. Vulpes, Fox.
Tail straight, tipped with white—12. C. Alopex, Brant
fox. Tail straight, tipped with black 13. C. Corsac,
Corsac fox. Tail straight, fulvous, with the base and
tip white.—14. C. Karagan, Karagan fox. Tail
straight; body gray, and ears black.—15. C. Cinereo-
argenteus, Fulvous-necked fox. Ash gray, with
straight tail ; and the sides of the neck fulvous. 
16. C. Vtrgineanus, Virginian fox. Whitish gray, with
straight tail.—17. C. Argentatus, Silvery fox. .Deep
brown, with longer hairs 0/ a silvery white.—18. C. La-
gopus, Arctic lox. fail straight, feet covered with
thick fur.—19. C. T/ious, Surinam dog. Grayish,
white beneath, with deflected tail.—20. C. Sengalensis,
Bengal fox. Light brown, with a longitudinal black
stripe down the face, white orbits, fulvous legs, and tail
tipped with black.—21. C. Fuliginosus, Sooty fox. Of
a sooty colour, with straight tail.—22. C. Antarcticus,
Antarctic fox. Cinereous brown, villous; tail tipt with
white. 23. C. Zerda, Fennee. Whitish, with straight
tail, and very large upright ears, that are internally of
a rose colour.
^ G Familiaris. Domestic dog.—The varieties of
the common dog are so numerous, that it is scarcely
possible to give any general description of the species
that would apply to all. We shall here, therefore, only
give Linnaeus’s characteristic picture, as modified by Mr
Daniel, and then enumerate the several varieties with
alia.
Linnaeus’s characters, marking with a star those that History of
are generally found in this country. the Species.
1 he dog eats flesh and farinaceous vegetables, but - J
not greens (this is a mistake, for they null eat greens
u hen boiled); its stomach digests bones; it uses the
tops of grass as a vomit; is fond of rolling in carrion;
voids its excrements on a stone; its dung (the album
grcecum) is one ol the greatest encouragers of putrefac¬
tion ; it laps up its drink with its tongue; makes wrater
sideways, by lilting up one of its hind legs ; is most
inretic in the company ol a strange dog, and very apt
to repeat it where another dog has done the same:
dorat anutn altenus; menstruans catalit cum varus ;
mordet ilia illos ; coharet copula junctus. Its scent is
most exquisite when its nose is moist; it treads lightly
on its toes, scarcely ever sweats, but when hot lolls
out its tongue ; generally walks frequently round the
place it intends to lie down on ; its sense of hearing is
very quick; when asleep, it dreams. It goes with
young 63 days, and commonly brings from four to ten;
the male puppies resemble the dog, the female the
bitch (an assertion by no means accurate, any more than
the tail always bending to the left is a common charac¬
ter of the species). It is the most faithful of animals,
is \eiy docile, fawns at its master’s approach; runs be¬
fore him on a journey; often passes over the same
ground ; on coming to crossways stops, and looks back;
duves cattle home from the field; keeps herds and
flocks within bounds, protects them from wild beasts ;
points out to the sportsman the game, brings the birds
that are shot to its master; will turn a spit; at Brussels,
and m Holland, draws little carts to the herb market;
in more northern regions, draws sledges with provisions,
travellers, &c.; will find out what is dropt; watchful
by night, and when the charge of a house or garden is
at such times committed to him, his boldness increases,
and he sometimes becomes perfectly ferocious; when he
has been guilty of a theft, slinks away with his tail be¬
tween his legs; eats voraciously with oblique eyes ; ene¬
my to beggars ; attacks strangers without provocation ;
hates strange dogs ; howls at certain notes in music,
and olten urines on hearing them; wall snap at a stone
thrown at it; is sick at the approach of bad weather
(a remark vague and uncertain); is afflicted with
worms; spreads its madness; grows blind with age;
swpe gonorrhoea infcctus ; driven as unclean from the
houses of the Mahometans ; yet the same people esta¬
blish hospitals for, and allow them daily food.
1. * Shepherd's dog; ears erect, tail woolly under- Varieties,
neath.
2. Jiolf-dog; hair on the head long, ears erect, tail
very much curved on the rump.
3. Siberian dog ; ears erect, hair all long.
4. Iceland dog; ears erect, tips pendulous, hair long,
except on the snout.
5. Water-dog ; hair long, curled like a sheep.
6. * Little water-dog; less; hair long, curled, round;,
the ears long, and hanging down.
7. King Charles's dog; head less, rounded; snout
short, tail curved back.
8. * Spaniel; ears long, woolly, pendulous.
9. Maltese dog; hair soft, silky, very long.
10. Lion-dog ; very small; hair on the belly and tail
shorter.
II. Danish
473
M A M M
History of l>. Vanish dog; ears smalt, sttbpeudulous S snout
the Species, small, acute j legs slender, ,
—v-—12. Bastard pug-dog; ears small, subpendulous *, no.se
> thick, flattish.
13. * Pug-dog; nose crooked upwards; ears pern
. dulous j body square, „ , , , , ,
14. * Bull-dog; sides of the lips pendulous 5 body
Tobust \ size ot a wolf, ,
, 5. * Mastiff; very large j sides of the Ups pendu¬
lous 'y body robust, ,
16. Gorman hound; ears pendulous j a spurious claw
on the hind feet, ,
17. * Hound; ears pendulous j a spurious claw on
the hind feet j whitish.
j8. * Bloodhound; very sagacious,
19. * Pointer; tail truncate; spotted,
20 Barbel; tail truncate ; hair long, coarse.
21. * Greyhound; head long; snout robust; ears
small, subpendulous; legs long, stout; body long,
slender,
22. Irish greyhound; body curved ; snout narrow¬
ing ; size of 15-
23. Turkish greyhound; curved 5 snout taper¬
ing ; hair a little curled ; size of 25,
24. Common greyhound} body curved ; snout taper,
ing ; size of a wolf.
25. Rough greyhound; body curved •, snout taper’*
ing ; hair longer, curled ; size of a woli.
26. Radian greyhound; less; body curved; snout
- tapering.
27. Naked dog ; body naked.
28. Oriental dog; tall, slender; ears pendulous; batr
on the tail very long, hanging down.
29. * Lurcher; body narrow ; legs stout; tail stiong,
-straight; hair short, thick set.
30. Rough lurcher; body narrow; legs stout; tail
thick, straight; hair long, rough,
31. Boar lurcher; head and snout thick; body nar¬
row behind ; feet long ; hair long, rough.
32. * Turnspit; legs short; body long, often spot-
33. Aleo; head small; ears pendulous; back cur¬
ved ; tall .short; size of 9.
34. New Holland dog; tail bushy, pendulous; ears
short, erect; snout pointed, , ,,
Of these, the shepherd's dog, the Siberian dog, the
bull dog, the mastiff, the hound, the bloodhound, the
greyhound, the Irish greyhound, and the temer, are
% <-4be most deserving of our attention, W e shall make a
very few remarks on each, and shall take occasion to
intersperse a lev/ anecdotes characteristic of the saga¬
city, cunning, strength,-,.or courage, of this most va«
iuable species, , ,,
Shepherd’s The- Shepherd's dog is supposed by many to be the
Dog. original stock, whence most of the other varieties are
- Fig. 22. derived. Tins is one of the most useful of the species,
and is ever faithful to his charge. This sagacious ani¬
mal is of the greatest importance in those arge tracts
of land winch in many parts of our island are appro-
priated to the feeding of sheep and cattle, and where
vast flocks may be seen ranging without controul, their
only guides being the shepherd and his dog. i bis ani¬
mal is strictly attentive to the commands of his master,
and always prompt in the execution ot them, rte is
ethe watchful guardian of the flock, keeps them togt-
A X, t A. t t’svrt III
tlier and often drives them by himself Siam one pasture Fciw.
to another, WTe have heard of one of these dugs wha
was employed bv a farmer in the south ot Scotland tu
gteal other people’s sheep. His master had only to point
out to him beforehand the sheep which he wished m
appropriate to himself, and to send the dog at a con e-
nient time to fetch them home, Tins charge he was
sure ,to execute with the utmost punctuality and address.
The proprietors of the stolen sheep were surprised at
their loss, when they could not discover the person who
had robbed them. The roaster of the dog was at length
detected and hanged, , ,, ,
Mr Bewick speaks of a remarkable singularity in tiK?
feet of the shepherds dogs in the northern parts ol this
island, viz, their having one or two toes more than
other dogs, -which appear to be destitute 01 muscles, and
• hang dangling behind like an unnatural excrescence,
This, however, is not peculiar to the shepherd s dog,
but is found in the spaniel, pointer, mid hound.
The Siberian ox- Greenland dog is a mosy usetinsiberiat?
animal to the inhabitants of the dreary regions ot Dog.
North America, and the north-east of Asia, especially
Greenland and Kamtscbatka, It bears a considerable
.resemblance to the shepherdV dogv but is much larger,
and has more shaggy hair, and a more bushy tail, it is
ferocious and savage, and rather howls than barks, it
4s principally employed in drawing sledges across the
.frozen snow; several of these animals being tautened
-to the sledge, which they draw with so much speed, that
-they have been known to perform a journey ot S70
. miles in less than four days, „ , „ »
The sledges are usually drawn by five dogs, tour, ot
-them yoked two and two abreast; the foremost acting
-as a leader to the test. The reins are fastened to a cob
lar round the leading dog’s neck, but are of Uttle use
4n directing the pack, the driver depending chielly up«
• on their obedience to his voice, with which be ani¬
mates them to proceed, Great care and attention are
consequently used in training up those intended mr
loaders, which are more valuable according to their
Steadiness and docility; the sum of 4Q rublesor lOh
being no unusual price for cue of them, i he rider has
a crooked stick, answering the purpose both 01 wjup
and reins, with which, by striking on the snow, he re¬
gulates the speed of the dogs, or stops them at lua plea¬
sure. When they are inattentive to their dug, he ob
ten chastises them by throwing it at them. He aisco*
-vers great dexterity in regaining his stick, which is m
greatest difficulty attending his situation; tor it he
should happen to lose it, the dogs immediately discover
the circumstance, and seldom tad to set oil at m
speed, and continue to run till them strength is ex«
hausted, or till the carriage is overturned and dashed
to pieces, or hurried down a precipice, , a u k
The Bulldog-U the -fiercest ot the species, and
courage is scarcely excelled by any creature tri the
world. It Is of a low stature, but very strong and mus--
cular; has a short nose, and its under jaw projects tor-
ward, so as to render its aspect fierce and unplea-mg,
The cruel purpose for which these animals were iorroei*’
ly much employed, viz, buWting, tr now, much H
tho credit of the present times, going fast out ol lash on,
and wo should hope, in the course ot another century,
will he entirely abolished. The uncommon ardow,
and obstinacy displayed by those dogs in attackt g
MAMMALIA.
Ehap. III.
Ferae. even under the greatest pain, are well illustrated
   1 by the following fact, related by Mr Bewick. Some
yeai's ago at a bull-baiting in the north of Eng¬
land, a young man, confident of the courage of his dog,
laid some trifling wager, that he would, at separate
times, cut oft' all the four feet of his dog, and that it
would, after each amputation, still attack the bull.
The inhuman experiment was tried j and the dog con-
^ tinned to seize the bull as eagerly as at first.
Mastiff. Mastitis one of the lai'gest and strongest dogs,
fig. 23. and one of those lor which this country is particularly
famous. His principal office is that of guarding and
securing houses, gardens, and other property, and for
this he is admirably calculated, both from his strength
and courage. The power of this dog was put to a severe
trial in the reign of James I. when three of them were
made to attack a lion. The result of the engagement
is thus related by Stow. “ One of the dogs being put
into the den, was soon disabled by the lion, which
took it by the head and neck, and dragged it about;
another dog was then let loose, and served in the same
manner ; but the third being put in, immediately seized
the lion by the lip, and held him for a considei’able
time, till being severely torn by his claws, the dog was
obliged to quit his hold, and the lion, gi’eatly exhausted
in the conflict, refused to renew the engagement •, but
taking a sudden leap over the dogs, fled into the inte¬
rior part of his den. Two of the' dogs soon died of their
wounds; the last survived, and was taken great care of
by the king’s son, who said, he that had fought with
the king of beasts, should never after fight with any in¬
ferior creature.
M. D’Obsonville x-elates an instance of memory in a
mastiff, which exceeds any thing of which even the hu¬
man race seems capable. This dog, which had been
brought up by him in India from a puppy, accompanied
himself and a friend from Pondicherry to Benglour, a
distance of above 300 leagues. The journey occupied
nearly three weeks, and they had to traverse plains and
mountains, to ford rivers, and go through several bye-
paths. rlhe dog, which had certainly never before
been in that country, lost his master at Benglour, and
immediately returned to Pondicherry. He went di¬
rectly to the house of a friend of M. D’Obsonville’s,
with whom that gentleman had generally resided.
Now the difficulty is, not so much to know how the
dog subsisted on the road (for he was very strong, and
able to procure himself food), but how he should so
well have found his way, after an interval of more than
a month.
An anecdote related by Mr Bewick shews that the
rr.astift possesses forbearance equal to his courage, and
that he disdains to attack an inferior foe, while he
knows how to chastise his impertinence. A large dog
of this kind belonging to the late M. Ridley, Esq. of
Heatton, near Newcastle, being frequently molested
by a mongrel, and teazed by its continual barking, at
last took it up in his mouth by the back, and with gi*eat
composure dropped it over the quay into the river,
without doing any farther injury to an enemy so much
66 his inferior. J
s hound. Jhere are several varieties of hounds, as the fox-
■ hound, the beagle, and the harrier. Of these the fox¬
hound most merits our attention.
The Fox-hounds of Britain are considered as superior
in swiftness, strength, and activity, to those of every History of
other country in Europe. As fox-hunting forms one of the Species,
the most favourite diversions among our country gentle- '   v"*"-
men, the greatest attention is paid to the breeding, edu¬
cation, and maintenance of the fox hounds ; and this
climate seems so congenial to their nature, that they
will thrive nowhere else. It is asserted that when our
fox-hounds are carried over to the continent, they al¬
ways degenerate.
The proper shape of a fox-hound is of considerable
Consequence, for if he is not of a perfect symmetry he
will neither run fast nor bear hard work, and in a fox-
chase, both great speed and strength are required. Ac¬
cording to Mr Daniel, his legs should be as straight as
arrows, his feet round and not too large ; his shoulders
should lie back ; his breast should be rather wide than
narrow *, his chest deep, his back broad, his neck thin0
his head moderately small, his tail thick and bushy.
Fox-hounds are sometimes employed to hunt the stag,
and there is on record a remarkable instance of the
stoutness displayed by these dogs in such a chase.
Many years since a stag was hunted from Whinfield
park, in the county of Westmoreland, until by fatigue
or accident the whole pack was thrown out except two
fox-hounds, bred by Lord Thanet, who continued the
chase the greatest part of the day. The stag returned
to the park from whence he had been driven, and as
his last eftort leapt the wall, and died as soon as he had
accomplished it. One of the hounds ran to the wall,
but being unable to get over it, lay down, and almost
immediately expired : the other hound was found dead
about half a mile from the park. The length of this
chase is uncertain, but as they were seen at Red-kirks,
near Annan, in Scotland, distant by the post-road about -
46 miles, it is conjectured that the circuitous course
they took, could not make the distance run, less than
120 miles.
The following anecdote is an admirable proof of the
sagacity of the fox-hound. Two gentlemen had their
hounds at Whinneck, Northamptonshire, and used
sometimes to go to Lutterworth in Leicestershire for a
fortnight’s hunting. A favourite hound was left in ;
Northamptonshire, on account of not being quite sound. ^ -
The first day’s hunting from Lutterworth produced an
extraordinary chase, in which the hounds and horses
were so tired, that it was deemed necessary to stop that
night at Leicester. Upon their arrival next day at
Lutterworth, they were told that a hound (which an¬
swered the description of that left in Northamptonshire),
came there soon after their going out the preceding
morning, and waited quietly until towards the evening;
he had then shown signs of uneasiness, and in the morn¬
ing had disappeared. It was concluded that, disap¬
pointed of finding his companions where he expected,
the hound, whose name was Dancer, had returned to
Whinneck; but to the surprise and concern of his
masters, upon their returning home, they were inform¬
ed that the hound had come back from Leicestershire, ,
staid one day at the kennel, and then left it. Every
possible inquiry was made, at length it was discovered
that Dancer, upon not finding the pack either at Lut¬
terworth or Whinneck, had proceeded into Warwick¬
shire, to a Mr Newsome’s where the hounds had been * Daniel'^ ^
for a week some months before *. Rural
The Brood-hound was held in great esteem by our Sports,
ancestors.Toi ^
480
History of
the Species,
67
Blood-
hound.
68
Grey¬
hound,
i'ig. 26.
69
Irish Grey
hound.
Tig. 27.
7°
'Uerrier.
rig. 28,
ancestors, and was so femark.al)le for the fineness of its
scent, that they employed it for recovering game that
had escaped wounded from the hunters. It would also
follow with considerable certainty the footsteps. of a
man to a great distance. In barbarous and uncivilized
times, when a thief or murderer had fled, the blood¬
hound would trace him through the thickest and most
secret coverts, and ceased not the pursuit till it had
seized the felon. This is finely described by Som-
merville in his poem of The Chase.
Mr Boyle relates a story that shews the extreme
acuteness of this dog’s smell, as well as his surprising
sagacity. A person of quality, to make a trial whether
a young blood hound was well instructed, caused one
of his servants to walk to a town four miles oft, nnd
then to a market town three miles from thence. the
dog, without seeing the man he was to pursue, followed
him by the scent to the above-mentioned places, not¬
withstanding the multitude of market-people that went
along the same way, and of travellers that had occa¬
sion to cross it} and when the blood-hound came to the
chief market-town, he passed through the streets with¬
out taking notice of any of the people there, and left
it not till he had gone to the house where the man he
sought rested himself, and he found him in an upper
room, to the wonder of those that followed him.
Blood-hounds are still employed in the southern part
of the kingdom, either for recovering wounded deer,
or for pursuing deer-stealers, whom they infallibly trace
by the blood that issues from the wounds of their vic¬
tims.
The Greyhound is the fleetest of all dogs, and can
out-run every animal of the chase j hut it has not
the fine scent of other hounds, it can pursue only by
the eye, and must be indebted for success to its asto¬
nishing speed. The swiftness, of this dog is so great,
that a swift horse can do little more than keep up with
him, and his ardour in pursuit of game is such as not
unfrequently to occasion his death.
Greyhounds were formerly held in such repute as to
be considered a most valuable present even from or to
princes.
The Irish greyhound is supposed to be the largest of
the species, as well as the most beautiful and majestic.
One described by Mr Lambert, in the third volume of
the Linncean Transactions, measured above five feet
from the nose to the tip of the tail, and they are said
formerly to have been of a much larger size. They are
found only in Ireland, and even in that country are
now become extremely rare. The earl of Altamont
is said to be the only person who possesses them, and
his lordship has not more than eight. They were
formerly employed in cleaving the country of wolves,
and are hence sometimes called Irish wolf-dog.
The Terrier is of two kinds, one with smooth glossy
hair commonly of a black colour, or black marked
with reddish spots ; and the other rough and shaggy,
usually of a reddish brown mixed with gray. This
dog is generally an attendant on every pack of fox¬
hounds, being employed to force the fox from his ken¬
nel, in which he is very expert. He is also the deter¬
mined enemy of rats, weazels, and oilier vermin, and
no dog is better calculated for the useless and cruel
sport of hunting the badger
dog*. 2
MAM M A L I A,
Mr Hope has related an anecdote respecting the ter¬
rier, which shews that this animal is both capable of
resentment when injured, and of great contrivance in
order to accomplish his revenge > it indeed shews that
he is possessed of a certain power of combining ideas,
and communicating his thoughts to other dogs,
A gentleman of Whitmore in Staffordshire, used to
come twice a-vear to town, and being fond of exercise,
generally performed the journey on horseback, accom¬
panied most part of the way by a faithful little terrier
dog, which, lest he might lose it in town, he always
left to the cure of Mrs Langford, the landlady at St
Alban’s j and on his return he was sure to find his
little companion well taken care of. The gentleman
calling one time, as usual, for his dog, Mrs Langford
appeared before him with a woeful countenance :—Alas!
sir, your terrier is lost! Our great house-dog and he
had a quarrel, and the poor terrier was so worried and
hit before w'e could part them, that I thought he could
never have got the better of it. He, however, crawled
out of the yard, and no one saw him for almost a week
he then returned, and brought with him another dog,
bigger by far than ours, and they both together fell ou
.our great dog, and bit him so unmercifully, that he has
scai’cely since been able to go about the yard, or to eat
his meat. Your dog and his companion then disap¬
peared, and have never since been seen at St Alban’s.
The gentleman heard the stoi-y with patience, and en¬
deavoured to reconcile himself to his loss. On his ar¬
rival at Whitmore, he found his little terrier 5 and on
inquiring into circumstances, was informed that he had.
been at Whitmore, and had coaxed away the great
He is also a good water-
dog, who it seems had, in consequence, followed him
to St Alban’s, and completely avenged hia injury.
The above anecdote, with others which we have he- Speskis^
fore given, are abundantly sufficient to shew the great dog.
sagacity of the dog 5 but of all the qualifications that
have been attributed to him, that of learning to speak
must appear the most extraordinary. The French aca¬
demicians, however, have given us an account of a dog
in Germany which would call for tea, coftee, chocolate,
&c. The account was communicated to the Koval
Academy by the celebrated Leibnitz, and in substance
is as follows: “This dog was of a middling size, and
was the property of a peasant in Saxony. A little boy,
the peasant’s son, imagined that he perceived in the
dog’s voice an indistinct resemblance to certain words,
and therefore took it into his head to teach him to
speak. For this purpose he spared neither time nor
pains-with his pupil, who was about three years old
when this his learned education commenced j and at
length he made such a progress in language as to ho
able to articulate so many as thirty words. It appears,
however, that he was somewhat of a truant, ami did
not very willingly exert his talents^being rather pressed
into the service of literature, and it was necessary that
the words should be first pronounced to him each time,
which he, as it were, echoed from his preceptor. Leib¬
nitz, however, attests that he himself heard him speak j
and the French academicians add, that unless they had
received the testimony of so great a man as Leibnitz,
they should scarcely have dared to report the circum¬
stance. This wonderful dog was horn at Zeiiz 111 *
Misnia, in Saxony , Zoology
The flesh of the dog is eaten by some savage nations, yqI. i
& J andpart
:kp.
Fene.
72
'olf.
j. zS.
In- M A M M
and we have heard of some epicures in this country who
'fatten young puppies for their table. The skin of this
animal is made into leather for gloves, &c.
For the construction and management of dog ken¬
nels, see Farriery, Part iv. chap."i. sect 3. For the
best method of feeding hounds, see chap. ii. of the same
part; and for the diseases of dogs and their treatment
especially the distemper and canine madness, see Far¬
riery, Part vi.
2. C. Lupus. The Wolf.—The wolf is much larger,
stronger, and more muscular than the dog ; the upper
part of his face is broader, and his whole form lon-ier •
the tail <mo has an inward direction, and is rather ?on«-
bushy; the opening of his mouth appears a little
alia.
40 I
am
shorter in proportion than that of the dog, but his jaws
are much stronger, his teeth larger, and his eyes placed
more obliquely. His general colour is a pale gray with
a cast of yellow; but it varies much in shade in dif¬
ferent parts of the world.
He is found in almost all the temperate and cold
regions of the globe, even as high as the arctic circle.
He was formerly very common in Britain and Ireland,
insomuch that King Edgar commuted the punishment
of certain crimes into the acceptance of a number of
wolves tongues, and in Wales converted the tax of
gold and silver into an annual tribute of 300 wolves
heads. Notwithstanding these endeavours to extirpate
the race of wolves, we find that in the reign of Ed-
wai d I. these animals had so much increased in number
as to require a mandate from that monarch to Peter
Corbet to assist in their destruction. In the county of
Derby certain persons held their lands by the suit of
hunting and destroying the wolves that infested the
country; whence they were called wolve-hunt. They
infested Ireland many centuries after their extinction
in England 5 for we are told that they were found there
so lately as the year 1710. In Scotland the last wolf
Was killed in the latter end of the 17th century, by
Sir Ewen Cameron of Lochiel. In the parts of Ame¬
rica possessed by the United States, wolves are nearly
extirpated; but very lately a reward of 20 or 30
shillings was offered for killing a wolf.
Wolves prey on all kinds of animals: but in case
of necessity will feed upon carrion 5 in hard weather
assemble in vast troops, and join in dreadful bowlings.
Horses generally defend themselves against their attacks,
but all weaker animals fall a prey to them. Throughout
great combats } goes with young ten weeks j near her History of
time prepares a soft bed of moss, in some retired place; the Species
brings from five to nine, at a birth; the young born' ' '
blind. Iheir bite is terrible, as their strength is great;
the hunters therefore clothe their dogs, and guard their
necks with sjdked collars. Wolves are proscribed ani¬
mals ; destroyed by pitfalls, traps, or poison ; a peasant
in France who kills a wolf, carries its head through the
villages, and collects some small reward from the in¬
habitants. I he Ivhaissocks take the wolves by the help
ol a large sort of hawk called beskat, which is trained
tor the diversion, and will fasten on them and tear out
their eyes .
These animals abound in the immense forests of Ger- L5?
many, where the following methods are taken to de- Qmdru.
stroy them. In some very sequestered part of the {0-Peds-
rest they hang up a large piece of carrion to the branch
of a tree, having previously made a train of some miles
long, leaving small pieces of putrid flesh here and there
to alluie the wolves to the spot; they then wait till it
is dark, and approach the place with great circum¬
spection. Here they sometimes find two or three
wolves assembled, leaping up, and straining themselves
to catch the bait, which is placed just within their
reach ; while the animals are busily employed in this
way, the hunters being provided with fire-arms, seldom
fail to dispatch them. Again, in a convenient place,
at the foot of a declivity, they make a small enclosure
of strong poles, so high, that the wolf having once en¬
tered, cannot return again. An opening is left at the
top of the bank ; and a sheep that has been long dead,
is the bait; to which he is allured by long trains, made
from different places where he is known to haunt. As
soon as he arrives at the spot, he examines every part
of the enclosure, and finding no other way to come at
the booty, he precipitates himself to the bottom; and
having made a plentiful meal, endeavours in vain to
re-ascend. His disappointment at not being able to get
back, is productive of the most direful bowlings, which
alarm his enemies, and they either take him alive, or
dispatch him with bludgeons. It is remarkable that
when tins animal finds there is no possibility of escap¬
ing, his courage entirely forsakes him ; and he is for
some time so stupified with fear, that he may be killed
without offering to resist, or taken alive without much
danger.
Notwithstanding the savage ferocity of the wolf,
fioctr Tfe" "1 °b;;gCd nigh,'V »° «>"> one instance °'b‘“g IT
fiocks. The wolf ,s naturally a susptcous animal, and ed. Buffon brought up one which remained very nuiet
~   ,o __ .1 ,, Z1.
though so ravenous as to devour his own species when
pressed by hunger, yet he is so mistrustful as to imagine
every thing he sfces to be a snare laid to entrap him.
If he finds a rein-deer tied to a post for the purpose of
being milked, he dares not approach it for fear it
should be placed there only to betray him ; but when
once the deer is let loose, he will pursue and seize him.
He is, however, so cowardly, that if the animal stands
mi the defensive, he will scarcely venture to attack it.
Hiey sally forth with great caution in quest of their
prey; have a fine scent; hunt by nose ; they are ca-
m cnf ,be.aring .l0ng abstinence 5 to allay their hunger
will hll their bellies with mud ; a mutual enmity sub¬
sists between the dogs and them : the female is in heat
n winter, followed by several males, which occasions
^ ol. XII. Part II. f
and docile till he was 18 or 19 months old, when he
broke his fetters, and ran oil, after destroying a num¬
ber of fowls, and killing a dog with whom he had lived
in the greatest familiarity. It is said that Sir Ashton
Eever had a tame wrolf, which by' proper education,
was entirely divested of the ferocious character of
its species.
The wolf is valuable for nothing but his skin, which
makes a warm and durable fur.
It is now fully ascertained that the wolf and dog
will breed together, and that the breed may be conti
nued between the mules themselves, or between them
and other dogs.
It has hence been conjectured that the wolf is the
original stock whence the dog is derived, but the dif-
3 P ferences
43 2
History of
the Species.
73
Hyaena.
Tig. ap.
M A M M
ferences between the two animals are so striking, that
this supposition must be abandoned in favour of some
other animal.
5. C. Hycena. Hyaena.—This animal is about the
size of a large dog, though it is sometimes found nearly
six feet long from the root to the base of the tail, it
is chiefly distinguished by its great strength of limbs,
and a remarkable fullness of the snout, which is black;
the ears are long, sharp pointed, and nearly naked, and
from the neck there runs a strong bristly mane along
the upper part of the back. The tail is rather short,
but extremely thick and bristly with hair. All the
feet have four toes. Its usual colour is a pale grayish
brown, with a tawney cast, and the whole body is mark¬
ed with several blackish transverse bands, running from
the back downwards, those on the legs being most nu¬
merous, and of the deepest colour.
The hyaena is found in Asiatic Turkey, Syria, Per¬
sia, and in some parts of Africa, especially Barbary and
Abyssinia. 4 '
It is one of the most ferocious animals of which we
have any account; will prey on cattle, and frequently
commits great devastation among the flocks, and prowls
about in the night to feed on the remains of dead ani¬
mals, or on whatever living prey it can seize. Troops
of hyamas sometimes assemble, and follow the move¬
ments of an army, in order to feast on the bodies of
the slain. They will even violate the repositories of the
dead, and greedily devour the putrid contents of the
grave. The courage of this animal is equal to its ra¬
pacity, and on occasion he will obstinately defend him¬
self against much larger animals. He will sometimes
attack the ounce and the panther, and Ktempfer speaks
of one that he saw put two lions to flight. This cha¬
racter, however, seems not to apply to the hyaenas of
Barbary ; for we are told by Mr Bruce, that he has
seen the Moors in the day time take this animal by the
ears, and drag him along without his offering any other
resistance than drawing back. The Abyssinian hyaenas
on the contrary, are extremely bold, and infest the
towns so much in the night, that it is dangerous to stir
out after dark. Mr Bruce tells us, that they were a
plague in Abyssinia in every situation, both in the city
and in the field, and he thinks surpassed even the sheep
in number. “ Gondar was full of them, from the time
it became dark till the dawn of day, seeking the dif¬
ferent pieces of slaughtered carcases, which this cruel
and unclean people expose in the streets without burial,
and who firmly believe that these animals are Falasha
from the neighbouring mountains, transformed by ma-
rric, and come down to eat human flesh in the dark in
safety. Many a time in the night, when the king had
kept me late in the palace, and it was not my duty to
lie there, in going across the square from the king’s
house, not many hundred yards distant, I have been
apprehensive lest they should bite me in the leg. I hey
grunted in great numbers about me, although I was
surrounded with several armed men, who seldom passed
a night without wounding or slaughtering some of
them. ,
“ One night in Maitsha, being very intent on an ob¬
servation, 1 heard something pass behind me towards the
bed ; but upon looking round, could perceive nothing.
Having finished what I wTas then about, I went out of
my tent, resolving directly to return, which I immedi-
A L I A. Parti]
ately did, when I perceived two large blue eyes gla- Ferre,
ring at me in the dark. I called upon my servant with y—
a light, and there was the hyaena standing near the
head of the bed, with two or three large bunches of
candles in his mouth. To have fired at him, I was in
danger of breaking my quadrant or other tinniture;
and he seemed, by keeping the candles steadily in his
mouth, to wish for no other prey at that time. As
his mouth was full, and he had no claws to tear with,
I was not afraid of him, but with a pike struck him as
near the heart as I could judge. It was not till then
that he shewed any sign of fierceness ; but upon feeling
his wound, he let drop the candles, and endeavoured
to run up the shaft of the spear to arrive at me ; so
that, in self defence, I was obliged to draw my pistol
from my girdle and shoot him ; and nearly at the same
time my servant cleft his skull with a battle-axe. In a
word, the hyaena was the plague of our lives, the ter¬
ror of our night walks, and the destruction of our
mules and asses; which above all others, is his favour¬
ite food.”
The voice of this animal is singular, beginning some¬
what like the moaning of a human voice, and ending
like a person making a violent effort to vomit.
Hyaenas generally inhabit caverns and rocky places,
where they keep themselves retired during the day.
There is said to be a remarkable particularity in this
animal, viz. that when it is first dislodged from cover,
and obliged to run, it always appears lame for a con¬
siderable space, sometimes to such a degree as would
lead people to suppose one of his hind legs to be broken,
though after running for some time this affection goes
entirely off. .
Th ere is something peculiarly savage and gloomy in
the aspect of the hyaena, which seems to indicate an
extreme malignity of disposition, and his manners while
in captivity seem to correspond with this appearance,
being in general fierce and untractable. The opinion
so decidedly maintained by most keepers of wild beasts,
that the hyaena cannot be tamed, appears, however, to
be erroneous, as there are at least two instances of the
contrary on record, one by Mr Pennant, who declares
that he saw a hytena that had been rendered as tame as
a dog, and the other by Buffon, who assures us, that
in an exhibition of animals at I aris, in the yeai I773>
there was a hycena which had been tamed very early,
and was apparently divested of all its natuial malevo¬
lence of disposition. 74
7. C. Aureus. Jackal.—In external figure the jack-jackal
nl resembles the wolf more than the fox. It is also Fig. j-
larger, and stands higher on its legs than the fox. Jhe
head is of a fox-red above, mixed with ash gray hairs,
which have each a blackish ring and tip; the upper
lip is white on each side of the nose, and the throat is
of the same colour; the whiskers, the long hairs on the
chin, and those above the eyes, which are five in num¬
ber, are black ; the ears are fox-red externally, and
white internally ; the neck and back are all over gray
yellow, and both, but especially the latter, are dasbei
with a shade of dusky, owing to the tips of the long
hairs on those parts ; the under parts of the body and
the legs are of a light reddish yellow, but the shoulders
and thighs are externally of a fox-red ; the claws are
black ; the thumb claw stands higher than in the dog,
and is crooked ; the tail is straight, somewhat longer.
C 2
hap. III. M A M M
Per*, ami move hairy than in the wolf, and is of a grayish
—v—^ yellow, more inclining to fox-red towards the end j the
long hairs have black tips, and consequently the tip of
the tail appears black ; the hair of the jackal is strong¬
er and Coarser than that ot the wolf, and is longest on
the shoulders and tail, where it measures four inches j
on the neck and back it is shorter by an inch ; between
the hairs is situated a woolly fur of a gray colour. The
four middle front teeth are of a truncated form, or if
cut off, flat, not perceptibly notched or indented; the
two exterior larger ones in the upper jaw are somewhat
carinated, in the lower rounded *, the side or canine
teeth in the upper jaw arc somewhat larger than in the
under 5 the grinders are six on each side, the first being
the smallest, and of a conical shape ; the next grinders,
to the number of two in the upper and three in the
lower, are gradually larger, and divided into three
points ; the fourth of the upper jaw and the fifth of the
under are the largest, and have two points : the remain¬
ing ones stand deeper in the jaw, or more inwards,
and are smaller than the preceding 5 the tongue has
on each side a border or row of small verruca; or
ALIA.
11. C. Vtilpes. Fox. The fox is found in all the
temperate regions of the globe ; throughout Europe, and
great part of Asia j he abounds in North America, but
is scarcely met with in Africa, except in Barbary. It
is very common in this island. There are several va¬
rieties of the common fox j and three of these, viz. the
grey hound, the mastijj, and the cur fox, are met with
in Britain. Ot these the greyhound is the largest, and
is chiefly found in the mountainous parts of this
island j the cur is the smallest, but the most com¬
mon.
warts.
The female breeds only once a year, goes with young
about four weeks, and brings forth from six to eight at
a time.
Jackals go in packs of 40, 50, or even 20c at a time,
and hunt like hounds in full cry, from evening to morn¬
ing. They are less destructive to poultry than the wolf •,
they ravage the streets and villages, and gardens, and
will even destroy children, if they are left unprotected.
I hey will enter stables and out-houses, and eat any ma¬
terials made of leather j they will familiarly come into
a tent, and carry off whatever they can take from the
sleeping traveller. For want of living prey, they will
devour putrid carcases, eat the most infected carrion,
and even disinter the dead, for which reason the graves
in many countries are made of a great depth. Like
the hymna they will follow armies, in hopes of feasting
on the slain. When they cannot get animal food, they
will even feed on fruits and roots. They burrow in
the earth, and lie there all the day, coming out at night
to hunt. I hey hunt by the nose, and are very quick
in scent, filling the air with the most horrid bowlings
when they begin the chase. The lion, panther, and
other beasts ot prey, take advantage of the general
consternation, and follow the jackals in silence till they
have hnnted down their prey, when they come up and
devour the fruits of the jackal’s labours, leaving them
only the remains of the spoil. Hence the jackal has
been vulgarly termed the lion's provider.
There is great reason to believe that the jackal forms
the primeval stock from which the domestic dog has
originated. rl he external form, internal structure, and
manners of both are very similar. According to Mr
Luldenstadt, the jackal has a natural propensity to fol¬
low mankind, instead of flying from him like the wolf
or the fox $ the whelp of the jackal is readily tamed,
and when grown up, assumes all the habits of the do¬
mestic dog j fawns on his master, expresses his joy by
wagging his tail, throws himself on his back, murmurs
gently, distinguishes his name, jumps on the table, &c.
ihe jackal and dog also readily breed together, as ap¬
pears from various testimonies.
I oxes. difier very much m point of colour, according
to the climate which they inhabit. In Britain they arc
usually of a yellowish brown colour, with white or ash-
colouied marks on the forehead, shoulders, hind part
of the neck, and outside of the hind legs ; the lips,
throat, and cheeks are white, and there is usually a
white stripe running along the under side of the legs ;
the breast and belly whitish gray, mixed with ash colour ;
the tips of the ears and feet are black, and the tail is
ot a reddish yellow, with the tip white. In general
form the fox much resembles the dog, except that his
head is larger in proportion to his body, his snout more
pointed, his ears shorter, and his tail more long and
bushy. His eyes are prominent and piercing, of a
lively hazel colour, and very expressive of the several
passions by which the animal is agitated.
ihe smell of this animal is proverbially strong and
offensive *, and is said to resemble so exactly that of the
root of crown imperial (fritMaria imperialis Lin.), as
scarcely to he distinguished from it. It has however
been remarked, that from a spot at the base of the
tail, there proceeds an odour which has been compared
to that ol violets. He possesses the faculty of smelling
in a degree equal to the dog, and can scent his food or
lus foe at the distance of some hundred yards. He has
a yelping kind of bark, consisting of a quick succession
ot similar tones, concluding in an elevation of the
voice, something like the cry of a peacock. He yelps
much when in heat, and during winter, especially in
frost and snow ; but in summer he is almost entirely
silent. In summer he casts his hair.
The fox chooses his habitation in brakes, woods, or
coppices •, and here he prepares his bed below hard
ground, the roots of trees, or similar situations, where
lie can make proper outlets to escape danger. The
fox’s bed, in the language of hunters, is called his
kennel; when he retires to it, he is said to go to earth,
and when forced from it by his pursuers, he is said to
be unkenneled. Foxes have been known to form their
beds in hollow trees, that they may the better secure
their young. This animal does not always take the
trouble to construct a hole for himself, but often pro¬
cures one by dispossessing the badger, which he does,
as is said, by depositing his urine in the badger’s hole,
and thus obliging that cleanly animal to abandon his
contaminated dwelling. He usually fixes his habitation
not far from the dwellings of man, especially in the
neighbourhood of farm yards. He generally keeps re¬
tired during the day, though sometimes he may be seen
in clear warm weather basking in the sunshine in some
dry place, and sometimes amusing himself with running
round after his tail. He is so much attached to his
usual abode, that it is not easy to induce him to leave
3 r 2 it.
48.;
History of
the Species.
484
History of
the Species
* Dnnid's
Rural/
Sports,
vol. i.
p. 2 2p.
M A M M
it for another, and the same fox has been caught in the
same place four successive times, having repeatedly af¬
ter his escape made lor his old cover*.
The food of the fox consists chiefly of birds, espe¬
cially game and poultry, and of the lesser quadrupeds,
as of young hares, rabbits, and even field mice, rats,
lizards, toads, and serpents. The greyhound fox is
said to attack sheep, and carry o(f young lambs. When
pressed by hunger he will eat carrion, roots, and in¬
sects, and near the sea coast will feed on crabs, shrimps,
or shell fish. He is very fond of grapes, and in France
and Italy often does great mischief among the vines.
He is said also to be fond of honey, for which he will
attack the bee-hives, and though obliged repeatedly
to make off by the fury of the enraged bees, after
ridding himself of bis enemies by rolling on the ground
and killing them, he successively returns to the charge,
and seldom fails to make himself master of the
booty.
In his attack upon the neighbouring poultry, he
chooses his time with judgment j and concealing his
road, glides forward with caution. If he can leap the
fence, or get in below it, he ravages the yard, puts all
the poultry to death, and then takes measures for se¬
curing what he has killed. He retires softly with his
prey, which he either hides in holes that he digs for
that purpose, carefully covering it with earth, or car¬
ries it to his kennel if this be near •, in a few minutes
he returns for more, which he conceals in a similar
manner, but in a different place, and he will thus car¬
ry off a whole flock of poultry, one by one, to his bid¬
ing places, thrusting them in with his nose, and leav¬
ing them till hunger calls for a supply. In this way
he proceeds till the rising of the sun, or some noise
about the farm house, gives him notice that it is time
to retire.
In procuring young rabbits from their burrows, he
exhibits a great degree of cunning. He does not enter
the hole, for as this is very narrow, he W'ould be ob¬
liged to dig several feet along the ground below the
surface ; but he follows the scent of the rabbits above,
till he comes to the end where they lie, and then
scratching up the earth, descends upon them and de¬
vours them.
When foxes are in heat they are said by sportsmen to
go to clicket; this takes place in winter: the females
produce but once a-year, and have from three to six
voung ones at a birth. White breeding, the bitch
seldom lies far from the earth, and after littering, if
she perceives her retreat to be discovered, she removes
her cubs one by one to some more secure situation.
The cubs are usually first found in the latter end of
March } when brought forth, they are blind like pup¬
pies, and of a very dark brown colour j they grow for
a 8 months, and live about 13 or 14 years. The fox
is exceedingly careful of her young, and a remarkable
instance of her parental affection is recorded by Gold¬
smith. A she fox that had, as it should seem, but one
cub, was unkenneled by a gentleman’s hounds, and
hotly pursued. The poor animal oraving every dan¬
ger, rather than leave her cub behind to be worned by
the dogs, took it up in her mouth, and ran with it m
this manner for some miles \ at last, passing through a
farmer’s vard, she was assaulted by a mastiff, and ob¬
liged to drop -her cuby which was taken up by the far-
A L I A. Part
mer. It is pleasing to add that the affectionate crea- ^er*
ture got oft in safety.
The fox and the dog readily breed together, and the
produce is a very useful animal as a dog.
Foxes are sometimes domesticated, but are scarcely
ever fully tamed.
The hunting of this animal is one of the greatest di¬
versions of our country gentlemen. For an account of
fox-hunting, see Hunting. The skins are valuable
for muffs, tippets, &c.
The arctic fox, C. lagopus, is well described by Stel-
ler, for whose entertaining account of their manners,
we must refer to Mr Bingley’s Animal Biography,
vol. i. ..... 75
23. C. Tierda. Fenncc.—This beautiful little Zerda
mal is about 10 inches long, and of a yellowish white Fennec
colour *, its eyes are large, and of a bright black 5 itsiig. 31
ears of an uncommon size, internally of a bright rose
colour, and edged with a broad margin of Avhite hair,
with an orifice so small as to be scax-cely visible j its
legs and feet are shaped like those of a dog; its tail
long, tapering, and tipped with black.
It inhabits the vast deserts of Saara, that extend be¬
yond Mount Atlas, and is said to be called by the
Moors, ‘zerda, though Mr Bruce, who saw it often,
and kept two or three specimens of it, says that its
proper name is fcnncc. It feeds on insects, especially
locusts, sits on its rump, barks like a dog, only with a
shriller voice 5 is very vigilant, and so switt that it is
very rarelv taken alive.
The following interesting account of its manners and
appearance is given by Mr Bruce.
“ Though his favourite food seemed to be dates, or
any sweet fruit, yet 1 observed he was very fond of
eggs •, and small birds eggs were first brought him,
which be devoured wfith great avidity j but he did not
seem to know how to manage that of a hen 5 but when
broke for him, he ate it with the same avidity as the
others. When he was hungry he would eat bread,
especially with honey or sugar. It was very observable
that a bird, whether confined in a cage near him, or
flying across the room, engrossed his whole attention.
He followed it with his eyes wherever it went, nor
was he, at this time, to be diverted by placing biscuit
before him 3 and it was obvious, by the great interest
he. seemed to take in its motions, that he was accus¬
tomed to watch for victories over it, either for his
pleasure or his food. He seemed very much alarmed
at the approach of a cat, and endeavoured to hide him¬
self, but shewed no symptom of preparing fora defence.
I never heard he had any voice 3 he suffered himself,
not without some difficulty, to be handled in the day,
when he seemed rather inclined to sleep, but was ex¬
ceedingly unquiet and restless so soon as night came,
and always endeavouring his escape, and though he did
not attempt the wire, yet with his sharp teeth be very
soon mastered the wood of any common bird cage.
From the snout to the anus he was about 10 inches
long, his tail five and a, quarter, near an inch on the
tip of it was black. From the point of his fore
shoulder to the point of his fore toe, was two inches
and seven-eights. He was two inches and a half from
his occiput to the point of his nose 3 the length of bis
ears three inches and three-eighths. These were dou¬
bled or had a plait on the bottom on the outside 3 the
borders
hap. III. M A M M A L I A.
Ferx. borders of Ms ears on tbe inside were thick covered body black above, whitislibelow.
with soft white hair, but the middle part was bare, and
of a pink or rose colour. They were about an inch
and a half broad, and the cavities within wei'e very
large. It was very difficult to measure these j for he
was very impatient at having his ears touched, and
always kept them erect, unless when terrified by a cat.
The pupil of the eye was large and black, surrounded
by a deep blue iris. He had strong, thick mustachoes;
the tip of his nose very sharp, black, and polished. His
upper jaw reached beyond the lower, and had four
grinders on each side of the mouth. It had six fore
teeth in each jawr j those in the under jaw are smaller
than the upper j the canine teeth are long, large, and
exceedingly pointed j his legs are small and his feet
very broad j he has four toes armed with crooked,
black, sharp claws ; those on his fore feet more crook¬
ed and sharp than behind. All his body is nearly of a
dirty white, bordering on cream colour; the hair of
ins belly rather whiter, softer, and longer than the
I’est; and on it a number of paps, but he was so impa¬
tient it was impossible to count them. He very seldom
extended or stiffened his tail, the hair of which was
harder. He had a very sly and wily appearance. But
as he is a solitary animal, and not gregarious, as he
has no particular mark of feelings about him, no shift
or particular cunning which might occasion Solomon
to qualify him as wise, as he builds his nest upon trees,
and not on the rock, he cannot be the Saphan (or coney')
of the scripture, as some, both Jews and Arabians, not
sufficiently attentive to the qualities attributed to that
animal, have nevertheless erroneously imagined.”
Genus 16. Feus.
Six front teeth, of which the intermediate are equal;
three grinders on each side ; tongue beset with re¬
versed prickles j claws retractile.
In this as in the last genus, the individuals would re¬
quire a particular examination, though they agree
more together in their form and habits than those of
the dog tribe. We shall here, as in the last genus,
first discriminate the species, and then give an account
of some of the most remarkable individuals.
Dr Shaw distinguishes 25 species by the following
names and characters.
Species 1. Felis Leo, Lion. Colour pale tawney, or
dun- tail long, and flocky at the tip.—2. I\ Tigris,
liger. Tail elongated ; body marked with long trans¬
verse streaks.—3. F. Pardus, Panther. Tail elonga¬
ted ; body yellow, marked with orbicular spots above,
and lengthened ones below.—4. F. Leopardus, Leo¬
pard. Body yellow, marked with black spots, nearly
contiguous, disposed in circles.—5. F. Jubeta, Hunting
Leopard. Colour pale fulvous, with round black spots 5
tail of moderate length; neck slightly maned.—6.
^ F. Uncut, Ounce. Tail long j body whitish, with
irregular black marks.—7. F. Onca, Jaguar. Tail of
moderate length ; body yellowish, with black ocella-
ted roundish cornered spots, with yellow central spaces.
F Pardalis, Ocelot. Tail longish, long stripe-
fiaped spots on the upper parts, and round ones on
the lower—9. Cinsrea, Cinereous Cat.—10. F. Puma,
Puma. Tail long; body reddish brown, whitish be¬
neath.—ix. F. Discolor, Black Tiger. Tail long;
3
485
rp .. . - , , 12. F. Tigriha, Mar- History of
gay. 1 ail long ; body fulvous, striped and spotted the Species.
with black, whitish beneath.—13. F. Capensis, Cape v'—■"v* 1
Cat. Julvous, with long tail annulated with black;
body marked with black stripes above, with rounded
and lunated black spots on the other parts, and a lu-
nated white bar on the ears.—14. F. Bengalensis. 
Manul, Manul. I ail elongated, and annula¬
ted with black ; head marked with spots, and two
latex al hands of black 16. F. Catus, Common Cat.
Yellowish gray, with dusky bands, three on the back
longitudinal ; those on the sides spiral; tail barred with
dusky rings.—17. F. Japancnsis, Japan Cat.—18. F.
Guigna, Guigna Cat.—19. F. Corololo, Corololo.—
F. Servo/, Serval. Jail shortish ; body tawney
Inown, whitish beneath, marked with roundish dusky
spots; mbits of the eyes white.—21. F. Motitcino,
Mountain Lynx—22. F. C/taus, Chaus. Tail mode¬
rately short, annulated towards the tip, with the tip
black; body brownish yellow; ears brown, bearded
with black at the tips.—23. F. Rufa, Bay Lynx. Tail
short; body hay, obscurely spotted with black ; tail
white beneath and at the tip ; ears bearded at the tip.
24* J . Caracal, Caracal. Jail shortish ; body reddish-
brown ; ears black externally, and tipt with long black
hairs—25. F. Lynx, Common Lynx. Tail short j
body rufous gray, slightly spotted with black, white
beneath ; tail black at the tip ; cars terminated by
long black hairs. ^
1. -F. Leo, The Lion.—The Lion has usually been Lion-
considered as the most dignified and majestic inhabitant Fig. 32,
of the forest. His vast size and prodigious strength
well entitle him to the rank cf lord over most other
beasts; though from the observations of modern tra¬
vellers and naturalists, we are obliged to consider him
in a light less formidable and less amiable than that in
which he is displayed by earlier writers.
J'his animal seldom exceeds eight feet in length
from nose to tail, and the tail itself usually measures
about four feet; his head is very large ; his ears
rounded; his face covered with short or close hair,
while the upper part of the head, the neck and
shoulders, are coated with long and shaggy hair, hang¬
ing down below the breast and fore part of the belly,
like a mane ; the hair on the body is short and smooth ;
and the tail is terminated by a blackish tuft. The usual
colour of the lion is a pale tawney, inclining to white
on the lower part of the body.
The lioness is smaller than the lion, of a whiter co¬
lour beneath, and destitute of mane.
The lion is principally found in Africa, and is also
met with, though by far less plentifully, in the hotter
parts of Asia ; hut it is in the interior of Africa that he
exerts his greatest ravages, and reigns superior among
the weaker quadrupeds. His habitation is in the thick¬
est parts of the forest, and he is seldom seen by day ; but,
when night approaches, he quits his retreat, and prowls
about for prey. The roaring of this animal, when in
quest of prey, is generally said to resemble the sound
of thunder; and being re-echoed by the rocks and
mountains, it appals the whole race of animals. Fre¬
quently, however, he varies his voice into a sort of a
scream or yell. His strength is so great, that it is af¬
firmed a single stroke of his paw is sufficient to break
the back of a horse; and he has been seen to carry off
with
History
tlic Spec
0f wiih apparent ra t: a niid<l!c>-sizcd ox, or even a bufialo.
ics. We are tohl bv Kolben, that he usually knocks down
— liis prey with his paw, anti seldom bites it till he has
given the mortal blow. His teeth are so strong that
he breaks the largest bones with ease, and swallows them
with the flesh •, and the prickles on his tongue are so
large and strong, as to be capable of lacerating the
fckin. He usually conceals himself in a thicket, from
Which he darts upon his prey } and, it is said, that if
he chances to miss his aim, he will not follow his prey
any farther but, as though ashamed, he turns back to
<he place from which lie sprung on it, slowly, and
step by step, as it were, measuring the distance between
the two points, as it to find out how much too short,
or how much beyond the mark, lie had taken lus
leap.
Dr Sparrman says, that from all the most credible
accounts he could collect concerning lions, as Well as
from what lie himself saw, he thinks he may safely
Conclude, that this wild beast is frequently a great cow¬
ard, or, at least, deficient in point ot courage compa-
fatively to his strength *, on the other hand, however,
he sometimes shews an unusual degree of intrepidity, of
which he mentions the following instance as it was re¬
lated to him.
A lion had broken into a walled inclosure for Cattle
through the latticed gate, and done considerable da¬
mage. The people belonging to the farm were as¬
sured of his coming again by the same svay : in conse¬
quence of which they stretched a rope directlv across
the entrance, to which several loaded guns tvere fasten¬
ed in such a manner, that they must necessarily dis¬
charge themselves into the lion’s body, as soon as ever
he should push against the cord, as it was expected he
Would, with his breast. But the lion, who came be¬
fore it was dark, having probably some suspicions re¬
specting the cord, struck it away with his toot, and with
out betraying the least fear, in consequence of the te-
port made by the loaded pieces, went on steadily, and
careless of every thing, and devoured the prey he had
left untouched before.
The lion is said to prefer the flesh of a Hottentot to
that of any other animal} and in order to procure it,
will sometimes depart from his usual method ot quitting
liis prey when he misses his aim. It is surprising with
■what obstinacy he will follow one of these unfortunate
savages. We are informed by Mr Barrow, that one of
the Namaaqua Hottentots, endeavouring to drive his
master’s cattle into a pool of w’ater, inclosed, between
two ridges of rocks, espied a huge lion couching in the
midst of the pool. Terrified at the unexpected sight
of such a beast, that seemed to have its eyes fixed upon
•him, he instantly took to his heels. In doing this he
bad presence of mind enough to run through the herd,
concluding that, if the lion should pursue,, he Would
take up with the first beast that presented itself. In
this, however, he was mistaken. The lion broke
through the herd, making directly after the Hottentot,
Who, on turning round, and perceiving that the monster
had singled him out, breathless and half (lead with fear,
scrambled up one of the tree-aloes, in the trunk of
which a few steps had luckily been cut out, to come at
some birds nests that the branches contained. At the
same moment the lion made a spring at him, but
sing his aim, fell upon the ground. In surly silence he
4
MAMMALIA. Part II
walked round the tree, casting at times a dreadful look Fcra
towards the poor Hottentot, who had crept behind the -v—»
nests. We should here remark, that these nests belong
to a small bird ot the genus Loxio^ that lives in a.state
of society with the rest of its species, constructing a
whole republic of nests in one clump, and under one
cover. One of these clumps of nests will sometimes ex¬
tend a space of 10 feet in diameter, and contain a popu¬
lation of several hundred individuals. It was under the
edver of one of these edifices that the Hottentot screen¬
ed himself from the sight of the lion. Haying remain¬
ed silent and motionless for a length of time, he ven¬
tured to peep over the side of the nest, hoping that thr1
lion had taken his departure } when to his great terror
and astonishment, his eyes met those of the animal,
which, as the poor fellow afterwards expressed himself,
flashed fire at him. In short, the lion laid himself down
at the foot of the tree, and did not remove from the
place for 24 hours. At the end of this time becoming
parched with thirst, he went to a spring at some distance
in order to drink. The Hottentot now, with trepida¬
tion Ventured to descend, and scampered off home,
which was not more than a mile distant, as fast as his
feet could carry him, where he arrived in safety. T-lie
perseverance of the lion was such, that it afteinards
appeared, he returned to the tree, and finding the man
had descended, hunted him by the scent to within 300
paces of the house *. * ,, • * Barm'
An elderly Hottentot observed a lion following Travels»
him at a great distance for two hours together. He Africa^
thence naturally concluded, that the lion only waited vol. i.
the approach of darkness, in order to make him his
prey j and in the meantime expected nothing else than
to serve for this fierce animal’s supper, as he had no other
weapon of defence than a staff. But as he was well
acquainted with the nature of the lion, and the manner
of its seizing upon its prey, and at the same time had
leisure at intervals to ponder on the ways and means in
which it was most probable that his existence would be
put an end to, he at length bethought of a method of
saving his life. For this end, in place of making his way
home, he looked out for a klipkrans, or a rocky place
level at top, and having a perpendicular precipice on
one side of it j and sitting down on the edge of one
of these precipices, he found to his great satisfaction,
that the lion also made a halt, and kept the same di¬
stance as before. As soon as it grew dark, the Hotten¬
tot sliding a little forwards, let himself down, below the
upper edge of the precipice upon a projecting part of
the rock, where he could barely keep himself from fall¬
ing. But in order to deceive the lion still more, he set
bis hat and cloak on the stick, making with it at the
same time a gentle motion just over his head, and a lit¬
tle way from the edge of the mountain. Ihis crafty
expedient had the desired effect. He did not remain
long in that situation, before the lion came creeping soltly
towards him like a cat, and mistaking the skin cloak
for the Hottentot himself, took his leap with such ex¬
actness and precision, as to fall headlong down the
precipice, directly close to the snare which had been
placed for him •, when the Hottentot is said, in great
joy, exultingly to have called out, tykatsi ,* an inter-
iection which is of very extensive import and significa¬
tion t. f Sir-
Next to Hottentot’s flesh he is said to prefer that of^s
horses * °y 0
hap. III. MAMMAL
Fera;. horses and bufl'aloes, but on the sheep he seldom deigns
»" v to fix his paw, perhaps from his woolly covering, which
he is too indolent to be at the labour of uncasing. It
is commonly said that a lion will devour as much at
once as will serve him for two or three days, and when
satiated with food, he returns to his den, where he re¬
mains in a state of inactivity till hunger again compels
him to seek for food.
Though this animal has generally been represented
as extremely brave as well as ferocious, it has not unfre-
quently happened, that he has been frightened or dri¬
ven away by the opposition of a much inferior enemy.
It is said, that a traveller once had an opportunity
of seeing a female buffalo with her calf, defended by
a river at her back, keep at bay for a long time five
lions which had partly surrounded her, but did not,
as long as the traveller looked on, dare to attack
her 5 and we are informed, that Mr Brew, command-
tler of the Senegal company on the African coast,
had once near him a large full-grown tame lion, about
four years old, when a flock of goats passed. All
the goats except one, ran off with terror at the sight
nt the lion \ but this one looking1 stedfastly at the
lion, stamped with his foot on the ground in a mena¬
cing manner, then retreated three steps, and instantly
returning, struck the lion’s forehead so violently with
his horns, that the animal was stunned by the blow, and
having repeated this several times before the lion could
recover himself, the monstrous animal was thrown into
sueh confusion, that he went behind his master for pro¬
tection.
I he lion does not always destroy the object that he
attacks, but seems sometimes to spring on an animal
through wantonness. Dr Sparrman was told of several
who had escaped from the paw of lions. At St Ca¬
tharine Cru’s church, Leadenhall-street, London, pro¬
vision is made, under the will of Sir John Gager, who
was lord mayor in the year 1646, for a sermon to be
Annually preached, with a charitable donation, on the
16th of November, in commemoration of his happy de¬
liverance from a lion, which he met in a desert as he
was travelling in the Turkish dominions, and which suf-
lered him to pass unmolested.
There seems no doubt, that in those places where
mankind have made the greatest advances towards civi¬
lization, the lion has lost much of his native boldness
and ferocity. Experience seems to have taught him,
that in cunning and resources he is inferior to man, and
he therefore seldom attacks the human race, except
iorced to it by the imperious calls of hunger.
The lioness is said to breed only once a-year, and
to produce four or five at a birth, which she nurses
with great assiduity, and attends in their first excur¬
sions for plunder. These animals readily breed in cap¬
tivity.
Buffon, reasoning from the size and constitution of
the lion, and the time required for his arrival at full
growth, concluded, that he ought to live about 2 if years 5
hut il we may depend upon the accounts that have been
given of some lions kept in the Tower of London, the
period of his life may be considerably extended. One
of these, called Pompey, is said to have lived at least
70 years, and another 63.
The lion has been often brought from his native
forests into Europe j and, when taken young, is capa-
I -A.*
ble of being made very gentle and tractable. Many History of
of our readers will have seen the keepers of wild jbe ^eeies.
beasts play tricks with this monstrous animal, which ' v
he appears to hear without shewing any marks of an¬
ger. lie seems to bear all with the greatest composure,
and we seldon hear ot his revenging these unprovoked
sallies of impertinent curiosity. It is, however, not
always safe to play with, and still less so to mingle
blows with caresses, as is done by some injudicious
keepers.
Numerous instances are on record of the lion’s gen¬
tleness, sagacity, and gratitude, while in a state of do¬
mestication. He has been known to spare the lives of
animals that were thrown to be devoured by him ; to
live peaceably with them j to aft'ord them part of his
food, and even to want food himself, rather than de¬
prive them ot that life winch his generosity had once
spared. A dog was put into the cage of a lion in the
menagery at the Tower, some years ago, for food ; the
stately animal, however, spared his life, and they lived
together for a considerable time in the same den, in the
most perfect harmony, and appeared to have a great af¬
fection for each other. I he dog had sometimes the
impudence to growl at the lion, and even dispute with
him the food which was thrown to them *, so true is the
o\d proverb, familiariti/breeds contempt: but the no¬
ble animal was never known to chastise the impertinent
conduct of his little companion, but usually suffered him
to eat quietly till he was satisfied, before he began his
own repast.
Mr Hope relates an anecdote of a lion in the pos¬
session of the duchess of Hamilton some years ago,
which affords a striking instance both of the retentive
memory of this animal, and of his attachment to those
who have been kind to him. “ One day (says Mr
Hope) I had the honour of dining with the duchess of
Hamilton : after dinner the company attended her
grace to see a lion, that she had in the court, fed. While
we were admiring bis fierceness, and teazing him with
sticks to make him abandon his prey and fly at us, the
porter came and informed the duchess, that a serjeant
with some recruits at the gate, begged permission to see
the lion. Her grace, with great condescension, and
good nature, asked permission of the company for the
travellers to come in, as they would then have the sa¬
tisfaction of seeing the animal fed. They were accord¬
ingly admitted at the moment the lion- was growling
over his prey. The serjeant, advancing to the. cage,
called out, “ Nero, Nero, poor Nero,, don’t you know
me ?” The animal instantly, turned his head to look at
him, then rose up, left his prey, and came wagging bis
tail, to the side of the cage. The man then put his
hands upon him, and patted him: telling us, at tho
same time, that it was three years since they had seen
each other, but that the care of the lion on his passage
from Gibraltar, had been committed to. him, and he
was happy, to see the poor beast show so much gratitude
for his attention. The lion, indeed seemed perfectly
pleased 5 he went to and fro, rubbing himself against
the place where his benefactor stood, and: licked the
Serjeant’s hand as he held it out to him. The man
wanted to go into the cage to him, but was prevented
by the company, who were not altogether convinced of
the safety of the act * Thoughts
The lion is frequently, hunted at the Cape of Good™
Hope,
488
History of
the Species,
79
Tiger.
Fig- 33-
Hope, for the sake of his skin and flesh, which latter is
esteemed by some an excellent food, and is often eaten
by the negroes. The colonists o.f the iLape hunt him
with dogs, and it is said that 12 or 16 are sufficient to
overcome one lion. The lion runs lor some time
being roused, then stops and shakes his mane, as if in
defiance of the dogs, who, as soon as they have an op¬
portunity, rush all at once upon him, and soon over¬
power him. Three or four of the dogs, however, are
commonly killed in the conflict, being struck dead by
the first strokes of his paw.
2. F. Tigris, the Tiger.—This most beautiful, but
most destructive of quadrupeds, is nearly equal in size
to the lion, and has even been seen larger, viz. 15 ieet
long from the nose to the tip of the tail. Ine pre¬
vailing colour of the body is a deep tawney, or orange
yellow j the face, throat, and lower part of the 'oeby
being nearly white, and the whole is traversed by nu¬
merous long black stripes, forming a bold and striking
contrast w'ith the ground colour. These stripes are pro¬
portionally smaller on the face and breast, than on the
other parts of the body. The tail is shorter than the
body, and is surrounded with black rings. Dr Shaw
observes, that when seen in perfection, and before its
health has been impaired by confinement, it is scarcely
possible to conceive a more elegantly variegated animal
than the tiger : the bright and intense orange yellow
which constitutes the ground colour *, the deep and well-
defined stripes of black, in some parts double, in others
single 5 the pure white of the cheeks and lower parts
of the sides, over which a part of the black striping is
continued, form, altogether, an appearance far superior
in beauty to the skin of the zebra, or that of any other
regularly marked quadruped, not excepting even the
panther itself. .
This animal is confined to the warmer parts of Asia,
and is principally found in the peninsula of India, and
the Indian islands. The species extends, however, as
far as China and Chinese Tartary, to the lake Ural and
the Altaic mountains.
The tiger is of a disposition so fierce and sanguinary,
as to surpass in rapacity every other wild beast j indeed
there is no animal that he will not venture to attack.
Dreadful combats sometimes take place between him
and the lion, and they are carried on with such fury
and obstinacy, that both parties are often found dead
together. He commits horrid ravages among the flocks
and herds, and neither the sight nor opposition of man
have power to make him desist. It is said that when
undisturbed, he plunges his head into the body of the
animal he has slaughtered, and greedily sucks its blood.
His strength is astonishing. We are told that a pea¬
sant in the East Indies, had a buffalo fallen into a quag¬
mire, and while he went to call for assistance, an im¬
mense tiger came, that immediately drew out the ani¬
mal, on which the united efforts of several men had no
effect. When the people returned, the first object they
beheld was the tiger, with the buffalo thrown over his
shoulder, as a goose is by a fox : he was carrying him
away with his feet upward, towards his den. As soon
however, as he saw the men, he let fall his prey, and
instantly fled to the woods j but he had previously kill¬
ed the buffalo, and sucked its blood. If we consider
that a buffalo is often twice the size of our ordinary
rattle, we may form some idea of the immense strength
MAMMALIA. ' _ Part 11!
of an animal that could thus run off with a carcase as j-cr!e
large again as himself. . _ _ '**“$**“<
The tiger’s method of seizing his prey is similar to
that of the lion, rushing on it at once from his conceal¬
ment, with a horrid roar. His voice when springing on
his victim, is said to be hideous beyond conception.
Like the lion, if be misses his aim, he makes oft with¬
out repeating the attack for that time.
The tiger seems to prefer the flesh of man to that of
any other prey, as he takes all opportunities of seizing
a man where he thinks there is any chance of success.
Many of our readers will perhaps remember to have
read an account of the melancholy fate of Mr Munro,
who was killed by a tiger in the East Indies in the
year 1792. “Me went (says the narrator) on shore
on San gar island, 10 shoot deer, of which we saw innu¬
merable tracks, as well as of tigers notwithstanding
which, we continued our diversion till near three
o’clock, when, sitting down by the side of a jungle to
refresh ourselves, a roar like thunder was heard, and an
immense tiger seized on our unfortunate friend, and
rushed again into the jungle, dragging him through
the thickest bushes and trees, every thing giving way
to his monstrous strength ; a tigress accompanied his
progress. The united" agonies of horror, regret, and
fear, rushed at once upon us. I fired on the tiger j he
seemed agitated j my companion fired also *, and m a
few moments after this, our unfortunate friend came
up to us bathed in blood. Every medical assistance was
vain, and he expired in 24 hours, having received such
deep wounds from the teeth and claws of the animal,
as rendered his recovery hopeless. A large fire, con¬
sisting of 10 or 12 whole trees, was blazing by us at
the time this accident took place, and ten or more of
the natives were with us. The human mind can
scarcely form an idea of this scene of horror. M e had
hardly pushed our boat from that accursed shore, when
the tigress made her appearance, almost raging mad,
and remained on the sand all the while we continued in
sight.” ^
In the beginning of the last century, as Mr Pennant
was informed, some gentlemen and ladies being on £W
party of pleasure, under a shade of trees, on the banks
of a river in Bengal, observed a tiger preparing for its
fatal spring. One of the ladies, with amazing pie
sence of mind, laid hold of an umbrella, and furled it
full in the animal’s face, which instantly retired, and
gave the company opportunity of removing from so ter¬
rible a neighbour.
The tigress, like the lioness, produces four or hve
young at a litter, and though at all times furious, her
rage rises to the greatest extremity in defence of her
young. If robbed of them, she pursues her plunderers
with the greatest fury and obstinacy, and they are often
obliged to drop some of the young tigers, to prevent
her from attacking them. .
We are told by keepers of un/d beasts, that the tigei
when full grown, is incapable of being tamed but it
appears that when young, they are gentle, and as play¬
ful as a kitten. ,
The skin of this animal is much esteemed througn-
out the east, especially in China, where the seats
of justice, on which the mandarins sit, are covered
with it. „ .i0_andLe!
3. and 4. F.'.Pardtis and F. Leopardns, the Pantn ^pani,
St
lit.
S- 34'
ul. M A M M
and the Leopard.—These species have frequently been
confounded, and we mention them together for the sake
of marking their distinguishing characters. They are
usually distinguished by the form of the spots j those on
the panther, having commonly a central spot in each
circle, while in those of the leopard this is usually
wanting. This distinction, however, by no means
■holds universally, and the animals are better distinguish*
ed by the general shade of colour, and by their size.
The panther is of a darker colour, and larger than the
leopard. After all, the distinction is by no means so
strongly marked that we can always discriminate be¬
tween them, and perhaps they should rather be consi¬
dered as varieties of the same species. In manners and
disposition they nearly resemble the tiger, yet the leo¬
pard is generally considered as less fierce than the pan¬
ther. Both are found in Africa, especially about the
river Senegal. It was supposed that they were to be
met with in America, but this appears to be a mis¬
take.
16. jP. Catus, Common Cat.—This animal is found
wild in several parts of the north of Europe, and is so
formidable, that it may be called the European tiger.
It is three or four times as large as the house cat; the
head larger, and the face flatter. The teeth and claws
tremendous ; its muscles very strong, as being formed
for rapine ; the tail is of a moderate length, but very
thick and flat, marked with alternate bars of black and
white, the end always black ; the hips and hind part
of the lower joints of the leg, are always black ; the
fur is very soft and fine. The general colour of these
animals is a yellowish white, mixed with a deep gray.
rIhese colours, though they appear at first sight con¬
fusedly blended together, yet on a close inspection will
be found to be disposed like the streaks on the skin of
the tiger, pointing from the back downwards, rising
from a black list that runs from the head along the
middle of the hack to the tail.
It is the fiercest and most destructive beast we have,
making dreadful havock among our poultry, lambs, and
kids. It inhabits the most mountainous and woody
parts of these islands, living mostly in trees, and feed¬
ing only by night. It multiplies as fast as our common
cats; and often the females of the latter will quit
their domestic mates, and return home pregnant by the
former.
Mr Bingley informs us, that at Barnborougb, a vil¬
lage between .Doncaster and Barnsby, in Yorkshire,
there is a tradition extant of a serious contest that once
took place between a man and a wild cat. The inha¬
bitants say that the fight commenced in an adjacent
wood, and that it was -continued from thence into the
porch of the church. We do not recollect in what
manner it is reported to have begun ; they, however,
tell us, that it ended fatally to both combatants, for
each died of the wounds he received. A rude paint¬
ing in the church commemorates the event; and, as in
many similar traditions, the accidentally natural red
A L I A.
itlgley'b
\mi
f g«j%,
Pit,
tinge of some of the stones has been construed into
bloody stains, which all the properties of soap and wa¬
ster have not'been able to efface *.
I hey are taken either in traps, or by shooting: in
the latter case it is very dangerous only to wound
them ; lor they attack the person who injured them,
and have strength enough to be no despicable enemy,
Vol. XII. Part II. f
Wild cats were formerly reckoned among the beasts of History of
chase, as appears by a charter of Richard II. to the ah-the Species,
hot of Peterborough, giving him leave to hunt the hare,-'v”—-*
fox, and wild eat ; and in much earlier times it was al¬
so the object of the sportsman’s diversion.
Ihe domestic cat is so well known as to render a de¬
scription of it unnecessary. It is an useful but general¬
ly a deceitful domestic $ active, neat, sedate, intent on
its prey. When pleased, purs and moves its tail. When
angry, spits, hisses, and strikes with rts foot. When
walking, it draws in its claws ; it drinks little ; is fond
of fish \ its urine is corrosive ; it buries its dungy it
washes its face with its fore foot (Linnaeus says at the
approach of a storm) j the female is remarkably sala¬
cious ; a piteous, squalling, jarring lover. Its eyes
shine in the night ; its hair when rubbed in the dark
emits electric sparks j it is even proverbially tenacious
of life ; always lights on its feet, is fond of perfumes,
as marum, cat-mint, valerian, &e.
Uhe cat usually lives from 6 to 10 years. A friend
of ours had a cat that lived 18 years. *
The female brings forth twice, and sometimes
thrice, a-year. The period of her gestation is fifty-
five or fifty-six days, and she generally produces 5 or 6
at one litter. She conceals her kittens from the male,
lest he should devour them, as he is sometimes inclined j
and, it apprehensive of being disturbed, will take them
up in her mouth, and remove them one by one to a
more secure retreat. Even the female herself, contra¬
ry to the established law of nature, which binds the pa¬
rent to its offspring by an almost indissoluble tie, is
sometimes known to eat her own young the moment she
has produced them.
Instances of such conduct in the female cat are, how¬
ever very rare, and few mothers exhibit more tender¬
ness or greater attachment to their young. The assi¬
duity with which she attends them, and the pleasure
she seems to take in witnessing their playful tricks, are
extremely amusing. She has also been known, not
only to suckle kittens belonging to other cats, hut even
the young of such animals as are generally objects of
prey to her kind. A very extraordinary example of
this is recorded by Mr White, in his Natural History
of Selborne, in a cat belonging to a friend of his.
“ My friend (says Mr White) had a little helpless
leveret brought to him, which the servants fed with
milk from a spoon, and about the same time his cat
kittened, and the young were dispatched and buried.
The hare was soon lost, and was supposed, as with most
foundlings, to have been killed by some dog or cat.
However, in about a fortnight, as the master was sit¬
ting in his garden, in the dusk of the evening, he ob¬
served his cat, with tail erect, trotting towards him,
and calling with little short inward notes of complacen¬
cy, such as they use towards their kittens, and some¬
thing gamboling after, which proved to be the leveret,
that the cat had supported with her milk, and continued
to support with great affection.-—Thus was a grani-
vorous animal nurtured by a carnivorous and predaceous
one
u This strange affection was probably occasioned by
that desiderium, those tender maternal feelings which
the loss of her kittens had awakened in her breast; and
by the complacency and ease she derived to herself from
the procuring of her teats to be drawn j which were
3 Q too
mammalia.
490
History of too much distended with milk * from habit, she be-
t he Species, came as much delighted with this foundling as if it had
' -v ' been her offspring. >111
“ A boy (says this same gentleman) had taken three
young squirrels in their nest. These small creatures he
put under a cat who had lately lost her kittens, and
finds that she nurses and suckles them with the same
assiduity and affection, as if they were her own od-
many people went to see the little squirrels
suckled by a cat, that the foster-mother became jealous
of her charge, and in pain for their safety, and there¬
fore bid them over the ceiling, where one died. This
circumstance shewed her aftection for these found¬
lings, and that she supposed the squirrels to be her own
young.” . ^ r 1 •
The cat is usually stigmatized as an ungrateful ani¬
mal, incapable of attachment to her master. There
are, however, not wanting instances that shew this cha¬
racter to be unmerited. Mr Pennant, in his history of
London, tells us that Henry Wriothsley earl of South¬
ampton, the friend and companion of the earl of Lssex
in his fatal insurrection, having been some time con¬
fined in the Tower, was one day surprised by a visit from
his favourite cat, which, says tradition, reached its
master by descending the chimney of his apartment.
The following anecdote affords a striking example,
both of the sagacity of this animal, and of its grateful
remembrance of those with whom it had been ac¬
customed to live. A physician of Lyons was in July
1800, requested to inquire into a murder that had been
committed on a woman of that city. In consequence
of this request he went to the habitation of the deceas¬
ed, where he found her extended lifeless on the floor
and weltering in her blood. A large white cat was
mounted on the cornice of a cupboard, at the far end
of the apartment, where he seemed to have taken re¬
fuge. He sat motionless, with his eyes fixed on the
corpse, and his attitude and looks expressing horror and
affright. The following morning he was found in the
same station and attitude j. and when the room was till¬
ed with officers of justice, neither the clattering of the
soldiers arms, nor the loud conversation of the compa¬
ny, could in the least degree divert his attention. As
soon, however, as the suspected persons were brought
in, his eyes glared with increased tury, his hair bristled,
he darted into the middle of the apartment, where he
<razed for a moment at them, and then retreated pre¬
cipitately under the bed. The countenances of the as¬
sassins were disconcerted, and they were now, for the
first time during the whole course of the horrid business,
abandoned by their atrocious audacity.
Our ancestors seem to have had a high sense of the
utility of this animal. That excellent prince Howel
the Good, did not think it beneath him to include that
of the cat, and to describe the qualities it ought to
have. The price of a kitten before it could see, was
to be a penny j till it caught a mouse, 2d.when it
commenced mouser, 4d. It was required besides, that
it should be perfect in its senses of hearing and seeing,
be a good mouser, have the claws whole, and be a good
nurse ; but if it failed in any of these qualities, the
seller was to forfeit to the buyer the third part of its
value. If any one stole or killed the cat that guarded
the prince’s granary, he was to forfeit a milch ewe, its
fleece and lamb, or as much wheat as, when poured on
the cat suspended by its tail, would form a heap high
enough to cover the tip of the former. This is an evi¬
dence of the simplicity of ancient manners 5 and it al¬
most proves to a demonstration that cats are not abori¬
gines of these islands, or known to the earliest inhabi¬
tants. The large price set on them, and the great cate
taken of the improvement and breed of an animal that
multiplies so fast, are almost certain proofs of their be-
inw little known at that period.
A beautiful variety of the cat, the Cat of Angora, it>
described in an interesting manner by M. Sonnim in
his Travels in Egypt, vol. 1.
Genus 17. Viverra. Weasels.
Six sharp cutting teeth } canine teeth longer than the
former. Tongue smooth in some species} in others
furnished with reversed prickles. Body of a length¬
ened form.
The last circumstance mentioned in the generic cha¬
racter is one of the principal characteristics of tins t^be,
most of the species being remarkable for the length and
slenderness of their form. The visage is usually sharp,
the feet short, and the tail in most species long. _ Ma¬
ny of the species are notorious for a most abominable
odour, with which they are capable of annoying their
enemies, when attacked or disturbed. If the accounts
given of this odious vapour are not aggravated by the
abhorrent recollection of those who have experienced
its effects, every other ill smell which nature can pro¬
duce, is surpassed by the overpowering foetor of these ex¬
traordinary quadrupeds. In consequence of this dread¬
ful emanation, the dogs are said to relinquish the pur¬
suit, and the men to fly with precipitation from the
tainted spot j but if unfortunately the least particle of
the fluid, which the animal commonly discharges at tins
juncture, should happen to light on the clothes of the
hunter, he becomes a general nuisance wherever he ap¬
pears, and is obliged to divest himself of his dress, and
practise all the arts of ablution, in order to be restored
to the society of mankind. They are generally barm-
less animals, live on rabbits, birds, and vermin, and
many of them are extremely useful in destroying rats
and mice, and catching rabbits. _ The skins of many
of the species form a valuable article of the fur trade.
There are about 43 species that have been distin¬
guished by specific characters. . ,
1. V. Ichneumon, Ichneumon. Gray, with distant
thumbs, and tail tapering gradually from a thick
base, and tufted at the end.—2. V. Cafra, Caftra-
lian W. Yellowish brown, with tail gradually ta¬
pering from a thick base, and black at the tip.—
o. V.Zenik, Zenik. Gray, four-toed, with 10 trans¬
verse black bands, and deep chesnut-coloured tail, black
at the tip.—4. V. Surikatta, Surikate. Gray brown,
with long moveable snout, four-toed feet, and ius|y
black-tipped tail.—5. V. Nasua, Coatiraondi. Reddish,
tail marked with white rings, and a lengthened move¬
able snout.—6. V. Vulpccula, Coesse. Dark ches-
nut, with lengthened snout.—7. V. Striata, btnated •
Blackish, with five parallel white stripes on the bac •
 8. V. Conepati, Conepati. Blackish, with two white
lines on the back extending to the tail.—9.
tica. Mephitic W. or Chinche. Brown, with wlnte
Vivenra.
C3
s3
neumon.
35-
back, marked with a longitudinal black stripe. 10.
V. Chinge, Chinge. Black with a changeable cast
of blue, and a row of white spots from head to tail.
—IX. V. X or ilia, Zorilla. Variegated black and
white. —12. V. Mapurito, Mapurito. Black, with
white band from the forehead to the middle of the
back, and no external ears.—13. V. Vittata, Grison.
Blackish, with a broad white band from the forehead
to each shoulder. 14. V. Quasge, Quasge. Chesnut,
yellowish beneath, with lengthened moveable snout,
and ring-marked tail—15. V. Zcrjlanica, Ceylonese W.
Ash, mixed with gray, whitish beneath.—16. V. Ca-
pensis, Cape W. Black, with gray back, edged with
white.—17. F. Mellivora, Honey W. Back ash, with
a black lateral band j belly black 5 claws long.—18.
F. Civetta, Civet. Ash-coloured, spotted with black,
with chesnut-coloured mane, and dusky spotted tail.
—19. F. Xibctha, Zibet. Ash gray, waved with
black and ring-marked tail.—20. F. Hermaphrodita,
Three-stripped W. Dark gray, with long black-tipped
tail, and three black stripes on the back.—21. F. Ge¬
netic, Genet. Fulvous gray; body spotted with
black, and ring-marked tail.—22. F. Fossa, Fossane.
Ash-coloured, spotted with black, and ring-marked tail.
723’ ^ Caudrvoltila, Prehensile W. Yellow, shaded
with dusky, and prehensile tail.—24. F. Fasciata, Fas-
eiated W. Gray, with six longitudinal black bands.—
25. F. Malaccensis, Malacca W. Gray, with longi¬
tudinal black stripes on the neck and rump, and round
black spots on the sides. 26. F. Tigrina, Tigerine W.
Yellowish gray, with brown variegations, ring-marked
black-tipped tail, and a black stripe along the back.
——27* * F. loina. Marten. Blackish fulvous, with
white throat.—28. *F. Maries, Pine Marten. Black¬
ish fulvous, with yellow' throat.—29. F. Zibellina,
Sable. Blackish fulvous, with gray throat.—30.
F. Bisector, Fisher W. Back, belly, feet, and tail
black ; sides brown, and face subcinereous, with black
nose. 31. * T. Putomis, Pole cat. Blackish tawney,
with whitish muzzle and ears.—32. F. Furo, Fer¬
ret. Yellow, with red eyes 33. * F. Vulgaris,
Common YV. Pale-reddish brown, white beneath. 
34. * F. Erminia, Stoat. Tip of the tail black.
~—35* Galera, Galera. Entirely brown.—36. F.
Barbara, Guiana W. Black, with a white trilobate
spot below the throat—37. F. (-luadricolor, White¬
cheeked W. Yellow, cinereous, with black head,
legs, and tail, bright-yellow throat, and white cheeks
and chin—38. F. Canadensis, Pezan. Blackish ful¬
vous, with white pectoral spot—39. F. Sarmatia, Sar-
matian W. ^ Variegated above with brown and yel¬
low.—40. Sibirica, Siberian W. Fulvous, with
extremely hairy feet—41. F. Touan, Touan. Fer¬
ruginous, white beneath, with the tail naked towards
the tip.—42. Quiqin, Quiqui. Brown, with wedge-
shaped snout—43. F. Cuja, Cuja. Black, with turn¬
ed-up snout.—The following are enumerated by Dr
Shaw, without character, viz. 44. Gray-headed YV.
~~45- South American YV.—46. YY'oody YV 47.
Musky YV. and, 48. Slender-toed YV.
I. F. Ichneumon, the Ichneumon.—Of this species
there are two distinct varieties found in different coun¬
tries, varying chiefly as to size, the larger being com¬
monly about 40 inches from the nose to the tip of the tail,
while the lesserscarcely exceeds two-thirds of that length,
M A M MALI A.
491
The greater variety has also the tail slightly tufted at History of
the end. In other respects they bear a near resem-the Species,
blance to each other. They are commonly of a pale 1 v—~
reddish gray colour, each hair being mottled with
brown, so as to make the whole body appear speckled.
The eyes are of a bright red or flame colour; the ears
rounded and almost naked; the nose long and slender,
and the body rathey thicker than in most other species
of this genus. The tail is very thick at the base, and
the hair on the whole animal is hard and coarse.
The larger ichneumon is found chiefly in Egypt,
and in some other parts of Africa ; the smaller seems
confined to the East Indies. In their wild state these
animals frequent the banks of rivers, and, during
floods, approach the highest grounds and inhabited
places in quest of prey. They are said to swum and
dive occasionally, and are able to continue under water
for a considerable time. The voice of the ichneumon
is very soft, resembling a murmur; but it is said never
to exert it unless struck or irritated. When going to
sleep, it rolls itself up like a ball, and is not easily
awakened.
Both varieties, but especially the Egyptian, are great
enemies to serpents, rats, and other noxious animals;
and the Indian variety attacks wTith great eagerness that
dieadful snake, the cobra-di-capcllo. Hence they are
held in great esteem both by the Egyptians and the
naiives of India, and are kept like our dogs and cats as
domestic animals. It is easily tamed, is very active,
and springs with great agility on its prey. It will glide
along the ground like a serpent, and seem as if without
feet. It sits up like a squirrel, and eats with its fore
feet; catches any thing that is flung to it. It is a great
enemy to poultry, and will feign itself dead till they
come within its reach. It is said to be extremely skil
ful in seizing the serpents by the throat, in such a man¬
ner as to avoid receiving any injury. Lucan has beau¬
tifully described the same address of this animal in con¬
quering the Egyptian asp.
M. d’Obsonville had an ichneumon very young,
which he brought up ; he fed it at first with milk, and
afterwards with baked meat mixed with rice. It soon
became tamer even than a cat; for it came when call ¬
ed, and followed him, though at liberty, into the
country, One day he brought to the animal a small
water serpent alive, being desirous to know how far
his instinct would carry him against a being with which
he had been hitherto unacquainted. His first emotion
seemed to be astonishment mixed with anger, for his
hair became erect; but an instant after, he slipped be¬
hind the reptile, and with a remarkable swiftness and
agility leaped upon its head, seized it, and crushed it
between his teeth. This essay, and new aliment, seem¬
ed to have awakened in him his innate and destructive
voracity, which till then had given way to the gentle¬
ness he had acquired from his education. M. d’Ob¬
sonville had about the house several curious kinds of
fowls, among which the ichneumon had been brought
up, and which before the above adventure he had suf¬
fered to go and come unmolested and unregarded ; but
in a few days after, when he found himself alone, he
strangled every one of them, ate a little, and, as ap¬
peared, had drunk the blood of two.
The ichneumon is said to be short-lived, but growrs
very rapidly. They have been brought into our cli-
3 Q 2 mates ;
492
History of
the Species.
34
Civet,
rig. 36.
M A M M
mates t but cannot, ■without great difficulty, be either
reared or preserved. They appear much incommoded
by frosty weather, and soon fall victims to the change
of climate. . , .
V. Civet to. Civet, or Civet Cat.—This animal is
*5
1'oina,
Marten,
rig- 37-
about two feet long from nose to tail, and the tail mea¬
sures about 14 inches. The ground colour of the body
is a yellowish gray, marked with large blackish or
dusky spots, disposed in longitudinal rows on each side,
and sometimes intermixed with a tinge of rusty colour.
The hair is coarse, and stands up along the top ot the
back like a sort of mane ; the ears are short and round¬
ed ; the eyes of a bright sky blue ; the tip ol the nose,
sides of the face, chin, breast, lips, and feet, are black ;
the remainder of the face and part of the sides oi the
neck of a yellowish white 5 and Irom each ear there are
three black stripes terminating at the throat and shoul¬
ders. The tail is generally black, but is sometimes
marked with pale spots near its base. At a little dis¬
tance below the tail there is a large, double, glandular
receptacle, which contains the secretion called civet,
employed as a perfume. See Civet.
This animal is found in several parts of Africa and
India. It is of a wild disposition, living, like most ot
its kind, on birds and the smaller quadrupeds, it is
said to be very voracious, and will sometimes roll itselt
for some time on its food before it eats it. It is very
destructive to poultry, which it seizes whenever it can
steal into a farm yard. It is very prolihc, active, and
nimble, jumping like a cat, and running very nimbly.
Its voice is stronger than that of a cat, and somewhat
resembles the cry "of an enraged dog. It is capable ot
being tamed, and is usually kept by perfumers at Am¬
sterdam and some other places for the sake of the
These animals, in a state of confinement, are placed,
from time to time, in strong wooden cages or recepta¬
cles, so constructed as to prevent the creature from
turning round, and biting the person employed in col¬
lecting the civet : this operation is said to be perform¬
ed twice a week, and is done by scraping out the civet
with a small spoon. The quantity usually collected at
each time amounts to about a dram. .
27. V. Foina, the Marten.—This is an animal of a
very elegant appearance. It is about 18 inches long
from nose to tail, and its tail is about 10 inches, it is
of a blackish tawney colour, with a white throat, and a
dusky brown belly. The tail is bushy, and darker than
the rest of the body j the ears are pretty large and
rounded, and the eyes are very lively. .
It is found in most parts of Europe, and is not un¬
common in Britain. It inhabits woods and fields and
preys on birds and other small animals. It breeds in
the hollows of trees, and brings forth from three to five
The marten attacks pheasants when at roost, and
makes great havock among them, tor this reason
game-keepers are careful to set traps for them, which
are baited with a piece of pheasant or wood-pigeon.
Mr Daniel recommends the following mode of catching
them, in parks or places that are paled in. As they
constantly run to the pales and posts to dry themselves
in the morning, have a groove cut in some of tbe £sts
or gate-posts where they run, sufficient 0
ALIA. Part II.
strong hawk or rat trap} the trap must he set in this Ferae, t
groove without a bait *, in leaping upon the place they ' v
are sure to be taken •, a small chain should be fixed to
the trap and fastened to the post. rIhe skin of the mar¬
ten affords a valuable fur. . 8f.
29. V. Zibellina, the Sable.—This animal is very si- ZiMhm, |
milar in its general appearance to the marten, but its
fur is finer, and of a deep glossy brown •, the hah being
ash-coloured at the root, and black at the tips. I he
tail is also much shorter than in the marten.
It inhabits the northern parts of Asia, where it lives
in holes under ground, especially below the roots of
trees. In manners and disposition it greatly resembles
the marten.
The skins of sables form one of the most valuable
articles of the fur trade j and for these the animals are
hunted with great eagerness. . .
The hunting is usually carried on by criminals con¬
fined to the desert regions of Siberia, or by soldiers sent
thither for that purpose, who generally remain there tor-
several years. Both are obliged to furnish a certain
quantity of furs. They shoot with a single ball, to in¬
jure the skin as little as possible. They frequently take
them in traps, or kill them with blunt arrows. As an
encouragement to the hunters, they are allowed to share
among themselves whatever skins they take above the
allotted number 5 and this, in a few years, amounts to
a considerable premium.—The hunters form themselves
into small troops, each of which is directed by a leader
of their own choosing. ^ ,
The season of hunting is from November to I'ebru-
arv; for at that time the sables are in the highest per¬
fection. Those caught at any other time of the year
are full of short hairs, and are sold at inferior prices.
The best skins are such as have only long hair, which
is always black, and of a glossy brightness. Old furs
do not retain their gloss—Both the Russians and Chi¬
nese have a method of dyeing their furs ; but the dyed
sables are easily discovered, having neither the smooth¬
ness nor the brightness of the natural hair. S7
01. V. Puterius, the Polecat, Fitchet, or Foumart,
—The length of this animal is about 17 inches, exc u‘
sive of the tail-, that of the tail six. Its shape is long
and slender 5 the nose sharp-pointed, and the legs short.
in fine, admirably formed for insinuating itselt into the
smallest holes and passages, in search of prey, it is
very nimble and active, runs very fast, will creep up
the sides of walls with great agility, and spring with
vast force. In running, the belly seems to touch the
ground ; in preparing to jump, it arches its back, which
assists it greatly in that action. The ears are short,
rounded, and tipt with white ; the circumference of the
mouth is wholly of a chocolate colour, almost black.
The sides are covered with hairs of two colours, tie
ends of which are of a blackish hue, like the other
parts ; the middle of a full tawney colour. . .
The toes are long, and separated to the very origin',
the tail is covered with pretty long hair.
The polecat is very destructive to young game ot a
kinds, and to poultry : it generally resides in woods,
or thick brakes, burrowing under ground, forming
shallow retreat, about two yards in length, which com¬
monly ends for its security, among the roots ot some
large trees. It will sometimes lodge under bay ri^j|
■uro. Fer-
‘S' 38-
■ part's.
easel
III.
amt in barns; in the winter it frequents houses, and
makes a common practice of robbing the dairy of the
milk. It also makes great havock in warrens.
Though the smell of the polecat, when alive, is rank
and disagreeable, even to a proverb, yet the skin is
dressed with the hair on, and used as other furs for tip¬
pets, &c. and is also sent abroad to line clothes.
Mr Bewick mentions an extraordinary method which
this animal sometimes practises to procure itself subsist¬
ence. During a severe storm, one of these animals was
traced in the snow from the side of a rivulet to its hole,
at some distance from it. As it was observed to have
made frequent trips, and as other marks were to be seen
in the snow which could not be easily accounted for, it
was thought a matter worthy of greater attention. Its
hole was accordingly examined, the foumart taken, and
11 fine eels were discovered to be the fruits of its noc¬
turnal excursions. The marks in the snow were found
to have been made by the motion of the eels in the
creature’s mouth.
32. V. Faro, the Ferret.—This animal is about 14
inches long, and its tail about five. Its nose is sharper
than that of the polecat 5 its ears are round, eyes red
and fiery, and the colour of its whole body a very pale
yellow. It breeds twice in the year, unless it devours
its offspring, as it sometimes does as soon as brought
forth ; it then has three litters. The ferret goes with
young six weeks and has generally six or seven young,
which are blind for a month.
It is a native of Africa, and was originally brought
into Spain, to free that country from the multitudes of
rabbits with which it was overrun.
After two months the young are fit for service in
catching rabbits; they should be kept in tubs, or small
boxes, where they can be supplied with plenty of clean
staw, as they are offensive and smell strong; before
yrou use, do not feed them, for with their bellies full
they will not hunt, but sleep in the burrows for hours.
The ferret is the natural enemy to the rabbit, insomuch,
that if a dead rabbit be laid before a ferret, it instantly
seizes upon it, although it has never seen one before ;
if shewn a living rabbit, the ferret is still more eager,
fastens on the neck, winds itself round and sucks the
blood until satiated. The ferret, however, is apt to
lose its savage nature, unless the breed is crossed with
the polecat, which the warreners frequently^ do, and
the produce is of a much darker colour, partaking of
that of the fire.
33- ^ Vulgaris, Common Weasel.—This is one of
the smallest of the tribe ; its general length being a-
bout seven inches, with a tail little more than two inches
long. It is usually of a reddish brown on the back,
sides, and legs, white on the throat and belly, and
below the corners of the mouth on each jaw is a spot of
brown. The ears are small and rounded; the mouth
furnished with whiskers, and the eyes are black.
The female brings forth in the spring, and produces
four or five at a birth. Of these she is very careful,
and, as we are told by Aldrovandus, will carry them
about from place to place, when she suspects that they
will be stolen from her.
The food of this animal is similar to that of the other
species, and it is very destructive to young birds, poul¬
try, and rabbits. Its favourite food seems to be the
field mouse. It is ^Iso very fond of eggs. It is exceed-
MAMMALIA.
493
ingly active, and will run up the sides of walls with History of
such facility, that scarcely any place is secure from it j the Species,
and its body is so small, that there are few holes through
which it cannot creep.
It is found in most of the temperate parts of Europe,
is very common in this island, and is also occasionallv
met with in Barbary. It inhabits the cavities below
the roots of trees, and the banks of rivulets, from
■which it sallies out in quest of its prey.
The weasel was supposed by Bufton to be untame-
able 5 but it appears from a communication made to
him by a lady, and published in his 7th supplemental
volume, that it may be rendered very gentle and do¬
mestic. The account is very amusing, but we have not
room for it here. It is given by Dr Shaw, vol. i,
p. 521. and Mr Binglcy, vol. i. p. 314.
90
Lutra
Genus 18. Lutra. Otters.
Teeth as in the former genus. Feet webbed.
Linmeus formed two genera of the animals which
are usually called weasels, viz. viverra and mustela, in
the latter of which he comprised the otters. Mr Pen¬
nant and Dr Shaw have united the mustelfe to the vi-
verrae, and have made a new genus of the otters, to
which Dr Shaw gives the name of lutra.
There are eight species, viz,
1, * L. Vulgaris, Common O. Brown, with naked
feet, and tail half as long as the body.—2. L. Lutreola,
Smaller O. Blackish tawney, with hairy feet, equal
toes, and white muzzle.—3. L. Marina, Sea O. Black,
wdth hairy feet, and very short tail.—4. L. Brasilia?ia,
Brazilian O. Black, with yellow throat.—5. L. Sari-
covienna, Saricovienne O. Gray, spotted with black.
—6. L. Gracilis, Slender O. Brown, with extremely
slender body.—7. L. Vison, Vison O. Body entirely-
of a deep chesnut colour.—7. L. Felina, Chinchemin O;
Of the shape and appearance of a cat.
1. L. Vulgaris, Common O. The usual length of Vulgaris,
this animal is about two feet from nose to tail, and the Conimou
tail is about 16 inches long. The head and nose are ^.tter*
broad and flat j the eyes are small, but very brilliant, ^
and are placed nearer to each other than in most qua¬
drupeds, which gives the otter a singular appearance,
not unlike an eel. The ears are extremely short j the
opening of the mouth small; the lips very muscular,
capable of being brought very close together; and the
nose arid corners of the mouth are furnished with long
whiskers. The legs are remarkably short, but veiy
muscular ; and the joints are articulated so loosely, that
the animal can bring its legs on a line with its body,
and use them as fins for swimming. Its fur is of a deep
brown colour.
Otters are found in most parts of Europe, and are
met with occasionally in Britain. They inhabit tbe
banks of rivers, and their principal food consists offish,
though they will sometimes attack poultry and the
smaller quadrupeds. They are said to be as destructive
in a fishpond as a polecat is in a henhouse.
The otter makes its nest in some retired spot, where
it can have an easy and secure access to the water, to
which it immediately flies on the least alarm ; and as it
is very active, and swims with great rapidity, it is not
easily taken. This animal is very nice, and will eat no
fish but such as are perfectly fresh. As soon as he
catches
494 M A M M
History of catches a fish, he drags it on shore, and devours it as
the Species, far as the vent j but unless extremely pressed with hun-
  v 1 ger, he always leaves the rest._ It swims against the
stream in rivers, and may sometimes be seen in concert
with a companion hunting the salmon. It has been
supposed that the otter never goes out to sea, but this
appears to be a mistake, for they have been seen about
the Orkneys, hunting sea fish, especially cod.
When taken young, the otter is easily tamed, and
may be made to catch fish for its master’s use. The
usual way of teaching them is, first to make them fetch
and carry like a dog $ they have then given them a
truss stuffed with wool, in the shape of a fish, which
they are accustomed to take in their mouths, and drop
at command. From this they proceed to real fish,
which are thrown dead into the water, whence they
are taught to fetch it 5 and thus by degrees they are
made to catch living fish. Mr Bewick informs us that
a man near Wooler had a tame otter, which followed
him wherever he went. He frequently carried it to
fish in the river, and, when satiated, it never failed re¬
turning to its master. One day, in the absence of Ins
master, being taken out by his son to lish, instead of
returning as usual, it refused to come at the accustomed
call, and was lost. The father tried every means to re¬
cover it •, and after several days search, being near the
place where his son had lost it, and calling it by its
name, to his inexpressible joy it came creeping to his
feet, and shewed many marks of aflection and firm at¬
tachment. Its food, exclusive of fish, consisted chiefly
of milk and hasty pudding.
Some years ago, one James Campbell, near Inver¬
ness, had a young otter, which he brought up and
tamed. It would follow' him wherever he chose, and
if called on by its name, would immediately obey.
When apprehensive of danger from dogs, it sought the
protection of its master, and would endeavour to fly in¬
to his arms for greater security. It was frequently em¬
ployed in catching fish, and would sometimes take eight
or ten salmons in a day. If not prevented, it always
made an attempt to break the fish behind the fin next
to the tail j and as soon as one w'as taken away, it im¬
mediately dived in pursuit of more. When tired, it
would refuse to fish any longer, and was then rewarded
with as much fish as it could devour. Being satisfied
with eating, it always curled itself round, and fell
asleep, in which state it was carried home. The same
otter fished as well in the sea as in the river, and took
great numbers of codlings and other fish. Its food was
generally fresh fish, and sometimes milk. What is still
more extraordinary, the otter has been made to hunt
fish along with dogs, who never gave him the small¬
est molestation, though accustomed to hunt other ot-
ters.
The flesh of the otter is rank and disagreeable, and
partakes so much of the nature of fish, that by the Ro¬
man Catholic religion it is allowed to be eaten on fast
days •, and Mr Pennant tells us, that he saw in the
kitchen of the Carthusian convent, near Dijon, an ot¬
ter preparing for the dinner of that religious order, who
by their rules are prohibited during their whole lives
the eating of flesh.
The sea otter is chiefly valuable on account of its fur,
which is thick and long, generally of a shining black
colour, but sometimes of a silvery hue. It is hunted
ALIA.
Part II
for its fur in Kamtschatka, and the opposite coasts of perjB
America. ' v—
Genus 19. Ursus. Bears.
9?
Ursyj.
Six front teeth in both jaws j the two lateral of the
lower jaw longer than the rest, and lobed, with small¬
er or secondary teeth at their inner bases. Canine
teeth solitary. Grinders five or six on each side, the
first very near the canine teeth. Tongue smooth.
Snout prominent. Eyes furnished with a nictitating
membrane.
The individuals of this species have not many circum ¬
stances in common, except those mentioned in the gene¬
ric character. The soles of their feet are long, and
extend to the heel, from which circumstance they tread
very firmly. Their claws are long and sharp, and they
are thus enabled to climb trees with great dexterity, ei¬
ther in search of prey, or to escape from their enemies.
Some of the species use their fore paws as hands.
There are about nine species, which are thus distin¬
guished.
1. U. Arctos, Brown Bear. Blackish brown, with
abrupt tail.—2. U. Americanus, American B. Black,
with rusty cheeks and throat.—3. V. Maritimus, White
or Polar Bear. White, with elongated neck and
head, and abrupt tail.—4. U. Gvh, Glutton. Reddish
brown, with tail of the same colour, and the middle
of the back black.—5. V. Luscus, Wolverine. Rusty,
with dusky snout, and forehead and lateral band oi
the body whitish.—6. U. Lotor, Racoon. Tail ring-
marked, and a black band across the eyes.—7. U.
Meleft, Badger. Tail unmarked j body gray above,
black below, and a longitudinal black band through
the eyes and head.—8. U. Labradorius, American Bad¬
ger. Pale yellowish gray, with the throat and beliy
white, and head striped with black.—9. U. Indie its,
Indian Badger. White above, black beneath. _ £5
1. Ursus Arctos, Common or Brown Bear.—There is Arcios,
a considerable variety of colour in different individuals Common
of this species, according to the climate it inhabits. r^r'40
The prevailing colour is a blackish brown, but they
ai'e sometimes seen gray', or even quite white. His
general appearance is very clumsy j his body thick, legs
very strong, head round, neck short, and he is covei-
ed with a very long thick fur.
He is a native of almost all the northern parts of
Europe and Asia, and is said to be found in some of the
Indian islands, especially Ceylon. He inhabits woods
and unfrequented forests, where he passes the greatest
part of winter in a state of repose and abstinence, com¬
ing out only at distant intervals, and again concealing
himself till the approach of spring. He lives chiefly on
vegetables, such as roots and fruits; hut when pressed
by&hunger, he becomes fierce and ravenous, and will
attack animals of almost every description. He is said
to be particularly fond of honey, in search of which he
climbs trees, in order to get at the nests of wild bees.
He will catch and devour fish, and occasionally fre¬
quents the banks of rivers for that purpose. It is ob¬
served that the brown and black varieties differ some¬
what in their choice of food, the former living almost
entirely on vegetables, while the latter frequently at¬
tack cattle, lambs, and kids, the blood of which they
suck, like many of the cat and weasel tribe.
Ihe
Chap. IIL M A M M
Fer*. The females bring forth-two young at a birth. It
•—-v—' was formerly supposed that these cubs were nearly shape¬
less masses, that were gradually licked and fashioned
into shape by the parent, whence the expression of an
unlicked cub, for an awkward ill-manner’d booby. This
has long been proved to be a vulgar error. Though
not shapeless, the cubs are, however, usually blind for
about a month. The bear is an animal that is extreme¬
ly useful to the inhabitants of the north of Europe ; his
Hesh is nearly as good as pork, and makes excellent
bacon. His skin is used for muffs, tippets, and other
articles ot dress, and the fat is held in great estimation
by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka as a very savoury
and wholesome nourishment.
When tamed, it appears mild and obedient to its
master, but is not to be trusted without the utmost cau¬
tion.—It may be taught to walk upright, to dance, to
lay hold of a pole with its paws, and perform various
tricks to entertain the multitude, who are highly plea¬
sed to see the awkward measures of this rugged crea¬
ture, which it seems to suit to the sound of an instru¬
ment, or to the voice of its leader. But to give the bear
this kind of education, it must be taken wdien young,
and early accustomed to restraint and discipline. An
old bear will suffer neither, without discovering the
most furious resentment; neither the voice nor menace
of his keeper has any effect upon him} he equally
growls at the hand that is held out to feed, as at that
which is raised to correct him.
The excessive cruelties practised upon this poor ani¬
mal, in teaching it to walk erect, and regulate its mo¬
tions to the sound of the flageolet, are such as make
sensibility shudder. Its eyes are put out, and an iron
ring being put through the cartilage of the nose, to
lead it by, it is kept from food, and beaten, till it yield
obedience to the will of its savage leaders. Some of
them are taught to perform by setting their feet upon
hot iron plates, and then playing to them whilst in this
uneasy situation. It is truly shocking to every feeling
mind, to reflect that such cruelties should be exercised
upon any part of the brute creation by our fellow men.
That they should be rewarded by numbers of unthink¬
ing people, who crowd around them to see the animal’s
rude attempts to imitate human actions, is not to be
wondered at *, but it is much to be wished, that the
timely interference of the magistrate would prevent
every exhibition of this kind, that, in Britain at least,
we might not he reproached with tolerating practices
so disgraceful to humanity.
One of these animals, presented to the prince of
Wales a few years ago, was kept in the Tower. By
the carelessness of the servant, the door of his den was
left open, and the keeper’s wife happening to go across
the court at the same time, the animal flew out, seized
the woman, threw her down, and fastened upon her
neck, which he bit, and without offering any farther
violence, lay upon her, sucking the blood out of the
wound. Resistance was in vain, as it only served to
irritate the brute, and she must inevitably have perished,
had not her husband luckily discovered her situation.
By a sudden blow he obliged the bear to quit his hold,
and retire to his den, which he did with great reluc¬
tance, and not without making a second attempt to come
at the woman, who was almost dead through fear and
loss of blood. It is somewhat remarkable, that when-
A L I A.
495
ever it happened to see her afterwards, it always growl- mtorv of
c , and made most violent struggles to get out to her. Ae Species
1 he prince, upon hearing of the circumstance, ordered '    
the bear to be killed.
A few years ago, a man exhibited at Edinburgh a
bear, which it was discovered he chiefly fed with dead
bodies taken from the bnrying-grounds. ‘ On complaint
being made to the magistrates, they ordered the bear
to be shot. \\ hat punishment was inflicted on the man
we do not recollect.
3,u.itaritmm or Polar Bear.-TIm MaXa.,
species is considerably larger and longer than the com- Polar Bear,
mon bear, having been sometimes found 12 feet inFig- 41-
ength. It is exceedingly strong and fierce, and its
body is covered with a very long, thick, white fur. It
inhabits the coldest regions of the north, and is some¬
times carried on floating ice as far to the southward as
^Newfoundland. In winter it buries itself in the snow
where it lies in a torpid state 5 but in summer it takes
up its residence in the cliffs and caverns of the nume¬
rous ice islands that are found in those high latitudes.
Here it brings forth its young, usually one or two at a
birth. I he parent is exceedingly tender and affection¬
ate to her young, of which the following anecdote af¬
fords a striking and interesting example.
While the Carcase frigate, which went out some
years ago to make discoveries towards the north pole,
was locked in the ice, early one morning the man at tlm
mast-head gave notice that three bears were making
t leu way very fast over the frozen ocean, and were
directing their course towards the ship. They had, no
doubt, been invited by the scent of some blubber of a
sea-horse that the crew had killed a few days before,
which had been set on fire, and drew out of the flames
a part of the flesh of the sea-horse that remained uncon-
sumed, and ate it voraciously. The crew from the ship
threw great lumps of the flesh of the sea-horse, which
they had still left, upon the ice, which the old bear fetched
singly, laid every lump before her cubs as she brought
it, and dividing it, gave to each a share, reserving but
a small portion to herself. As she was fetching away
the last piece, they levelled their muskets at the cubs,
and shot them both dead, and in her retreat they wound ¬
ed the dam, but not mortally. It would have drawn
tears of pity from any but unfeeling minds, to have mark¬
ed the affectionate concern expressed by this poor beast
in the dying moments of her expiring young. Though
she was herself dreadfully wounded, and could but just
crawl to the place where they lay, she carried the lump
of flesh she had fetched away, as she had done others
before 5 tore it in pieces, and laid it before them } and
when she saw that they refused to eat, she laid her paws
first upon one, and then upon the other, and endeavoured
to raise them up : all this while it was pitiful to hear
her moan. When she found she could not stir them,
she went oft, and when she had got at some distance,
looked back and moaned ; and that not availing her to
entice them away, she returned, and smelling round
them, began to lick their wounds. She went off’ a
second time as before, and having crawled a few paces,
looked again behind her, and for some time stood moan¬
ing. But still, her cubs not rising to follow her, she
returned to them again, and with signs of inexpressible
fondness went round one, and round the other, pawing
them, and moaning. Finding at last that they were
cold
496
History of
tlic Species.
95
Luscus.
Wolverine
90
Mehs,
Badger,
rig. 42.
M A M M
cold and lifeless, she raised her head towards the ship,
and uttered a growl of despair which the murderers
returned with a volley of musket-balls. She fell be¬
tween her cubs, and died licking their wounds.
The polar bear lives chiefly on fish, but sometimes
attacks the seals. He in his turn becomes a prey to the
inhabitants of the arctic regions, who eat t ie flesh,
though it is very coarse, and use the skin tor coverings
of various kinds.
c. U. Luscus, Wolverine.—This, by most naturalists,
is considered only as a variety of the glutton. It is a
large animal, almost equalling the wolt in size. It is
pretty common in the northern parts ot North America,
where it burrows under ground. It is a beast ot prey,
living on deer and similar animals. Though its pace is
very^ slow, it has a very acute scent, is extremely
strong, and possessed of great sagacity. It is said to be
so fierce, as to he n terror even to the wolves and bears j
and its strength is so great, that it has been known to
pull down a pile of immense logs ol wood, m order to
aet at some provisions that had been hidden there,
though some of the logs were as much as two men
could carry, ti is a great enemy to badgers and foxes.
It is hunted in North America for the sake dt. its
S T. U. Mclcs, The Badger.—This is an animal of a
very clumsy make, being thick-necked and thick-bo¬
died, with very short legs. His usual length from
nose to tail is about two feet and a half, and the tan
itself seldom exceeds six inches. His eyes are very
small, ears short and rounded.' The body is covered
with long coarse hairs like bristles, that are of a dirty
yellowish white next the root, black in the middle, and
gray at the tips. The badger differs from most other
animals in having his back of a lighter colour than
his belly. He is exceedingly strong, especially about
the legs and feet, which are formed for burrowing jo
the earth. , . c
This animal is found in all the temperate parts ot
Europe and of Asia. It makes its habitation below
ground, and is a very cleanly animal, so that when his
retreat is defiled by any other animal, as the fox, he
quits it for another. It seldom leaves its hole during
the day, feeding only by night, f Its principal food ap¬
pears to consist of the smaller quadrupeds, as rabbits,
birds, &c. though Mr Pennant will scarcely allow it
to he a carnivorous animal. ’ It is also §aid to he very
fond of honey. It sleeps much during winter, con¬
fining itself like the hear, in a half torpid state. _
The female brings forth three or lour young in the
early part of summer. . , , . , ,1
Badgers were formerly distinguished into sow batl-
aers and dog badgers, from, the supposed resemblance
of their heads to those animals,- though we do not
know of any with a head like that of swine, its usual
appearance being that ot the dog.
... No animal has suffered more from vulgar prejudices
than the badger : harmless in Ins nature, he seems to
have had the character of ferocity given him, merely
because he is a beast of great strength and is furnished
with strong teeth, as if formed to live by rapine , he is,
however, found to be an animal perfectly inoffensive.
Nature has denied the badger the speed requisite to
escape its enemies, hut lias supplied it with such wea¬
pons of offence that scarcely any creature will attack j
A L I A. Fart I
few animals defend themselves better, or bite harder *, Fen*,
when pursued, it soon comes to hay, and fights with —v—■
great obstinacy. The badger is very tenacious of life,
yet a small blow on the snout is mortal b,oth to him and
the otter. It is hunted with terriers, and its obstinate
defence affords great diversion to those human brutes
who are capable of finding pleasure in the torments of a
harmless, inoffensive creature.
Its skin is used for pistol furniture, when dressed with
the hair on the hairs arc made into brushes that ai e
used by painters to soften their shades, and the flesh is
said to make excellent bacon.
Genus 20. Didelfhis. Opossums.
Front teeth small and rounded •, superior xp, the two
middle ones longer 5 inferior eight, the two middle
ones broader and very short} canine teeth long $
grinders denticulated j tongue ciliated with papillae i
abdominal pouch (in most species) containing the
, teats.
97
Diiklple;
This curious tribe of animals- first became known to
-naturalists on the discovery of America, where only,
-most of the species are met with. They are principally
distimmished by the extraordinary contrivance which
nature has adopted for enabling most of the genus to
secure their young, and which consists of a pouch or
hag formed by a fold of the skin of the. belly. Into
this the young are received soon after birth, and aie
there suckled at teats within the bag, till they are able
to shift for themselves. In some of these there are two
or three distinct cavities that can he opened or shut at
pleasure, by means of hones with which they, are pio-
vided for that purpose. Some of the species carry
their young on their backs, covering them with their
tU This is a numerous genus, comprehending about 19
HTD. Virgimana, Virginian O. Yellowish gray,
with naked tail, and black, naked, rounded -ears, edged
with white—2. V. Marsupialis, Molucca O. _ Brown,
with naked tail—3. JO. Cayopolhn, Mexican O.
Brown, with tail longer than the body, and the eyes
surrounded with a blackish border—4. D. Brachjvra
Short-tailed O. With hairy tail $ very short, naked
ears, reddish body, and no pouch.—5. D. Brumi, Ja¬
van O. Short naked tail, and long three-toed hind
feet —6. D. Orienteilis, Bhalanger. Rusty white be¬
neath, with blackish dorsal line tail of the length ot
the body, and hairy almost to the middle, and the two
middle toes of the hind feet united—7. D. Camrivora,
Cayenne Q. Nearly nakedscaly tail almost the
length of the body, and the nails of the thumbs flat—
8. D. Philander, Philander. The tail hairy at the
base, and with four teats in the abdominal poueh—
q. D. Murina, Murine O, Tail half naked, and six
teats.—10 O. Dorsigera, Merian O, Tail naked,
hairv at the base, anil the fore feet without claws—
a. D. Lemurina, Lemurine O. Ash-coloured, tawney
beneath, with oylmdric, black, furry, prehensile tail—
12. 0. Obesula, Porcupine O. Subferrugtneus, whitisM
beneath, with longish tail *, the fore feet five-toed,
with small exterior claws j the hind feet four-toed, witft
two interior toes united.-—13- O, Petaums, Petaurine
0, Blackish gray, tinged with ferruginous j wfetisfl
fiCliap
Fer®.
9S
Virjriniana
Virginian
Opossum.
H 43-
( 99
orsigera.
erian
iposum.
44.
ICO
1 ■yurus.
HI. M A M M
beneath, with lateral flying membrane, ami long, sub-
J cylindric, very villose tail.—15. D. Scmrea, Squirrel
O. Pale gray, snow-white beneath, with lateral flying
membrane, and very villose prehensile tail.—15. if.
Macroura, Long-tailed O. Ash-coloured, whitish be¬
neath, with lateral flying membrane, and very long
black tail.—16. D. Pygmcea, Pygmy O. With lateral
flying membrane, and flatly pinnated linear tail. 17.
7). Vulpina, \ ulpineO. Ferruginous, with black villous
tail.—18. D. Amtralasiaticus. New Holland O. 19.
D. Urmia, Ursine O. Yellowish, with cleft upper lip.
1. 7). Virginiana, Virginian Opossum.—This animal
is about the size oi a cat, but appears of a thicker form,
from the length and erect position of the hair. It has
an inelegant aspect, having a long sharp face, and very
wide mouth, armed with numerous sharp teeth. The
legs are short ; and all the toes, except the thumbs of
the hind feet, are furnished with sharp claws. The tail
is Strongly prehensile, enabling the animal to suspend
itself thereby.
This is one of those species in which the abdominal
pouch is most strongly marked, and into this receptacle
the female receives her young when they are in danger,
or when fatigued.
The Virginian opossum, like all the other American
species, is a carnivorous animal, and preys on poultry,
small birds, &c. in the manner of the European pole¬
cat j it is also frugivorous, eating several kinds of fruits,
roots, &c. It is of a gentle disposition, and may ea¬
sily be tamed ; but, like some other species, it has a
disagreeable smell. Its voice is a sort of grunting
squeak ; its pace in running is not swift, but it is very
expert in climbing trees, and readily passes, by means
ot its clinging tail, from bough to bough, in the man¬
ner of a monkey. The female produces four or five at a
birth, and has the power of closing the pouch so strong¬
ly as to make it extremely difficult to open it by the
hand, nor will any torture compel the animal to loosen
it. 1 he female, when ready to bring forth her young,
is said to make herself a nest of dry grass, in some bush
near the root of a tree.
10. 7). Dorsigera, Merian O—Almost the only ac¬
count we have of this animal is given by Madame
Merian, in her work on the insects of Surinam. Her
account is as follows. “ By way of filling up a plate, I
have represented a kind of wood-rat, which always car¬
ries her young ones upon her back ; she is of a yellow¬
ish brown colour, and white beneath. When these rats
come out of their hole, either to play or to seek their
lood, they run about with their mother; but when they
are satisfied with food, or are apprehensive of danger,
they climb up again on the back of the mother, and
twist their tails round that of the parent, who runs with
them into her hole again.”
ALIA.
497
Genus 21. Dasyurus.
The organs of generation and abdominal pouch in the
female, as in the last genus. Front teeth in the up¬
per jaw eight, in the lower six. Canine teeth, two
in each jaw. Grinders 14, of which six are sharp,
^conical 5 snout furnished with large whiskers.
ai furnished with long hair. Five toes on each
loot, all separate ; the thumb of the hind feet ex¬
tremely short.
VOL. XII. Part II. f
This is a new genus, formed by Geoflioy, to com- History of
prebend several species which are placed by Dr Shaw the Species.
under Viverra and Didelp/iis, but which Geoffrey thinks ' 'v  
have sufficiently distinguishing characters to be separa¬
ted from both. They are all found in New Holland,
and are herbivorous animals.
Geoffroy enumerates six species, to which he gives •
the following names and characters.
1. 7). Metcrourus, Long-tailed D. Chesnut colour
spotted with white. Tail equally speckled—2. 7).
Maugei, Maugei D. Olive coloured, spotted with
white ; tail without spots.—3. 7). Viverrinm, Viver-
nne IL Black, spotted with white ; tail without spots.
4. 7). Tafa, Tafa D. Entirely brown ; tail of the
same colour—5. 7). Penicillatus, Brush-tailed D. Ash-
coloured, without spots—6.7). Minimus, Least D. En¬
tirely red ; tail of the same colour.
M. Geoffroy has also formed a new genus, which hep^V.
calls Perameles, m which he includes the didelphis obe-
sula of Shaw, and another species that had not before
been described. As we are not very certain of the ne¬
cessity of this new genus, we have not included it in
the arrangement of the generic characters; and for a
description of the genus, we must refer to Geoffroy’s
Memoir, in the fourth volume of Annales de Museum
Isational, p. 56.
Geoffroy calls the species Perameles nasuta, and Ob full.
-r. obesula. The latter has been thus described by Dr
Shaw. It is about the size of a half-grown domestic
rat, and is remarkable for a thicker or more corpulent
habit than most others of the genus. The hind legs
are considerably longer than the fore legs, and have in
miniature the form of those of the kanguroo, and some
other Australasian quadrupeds; though the middle
claws are far less in proportion ; the interior ones are
double, or both covered by a common skin. The co¬
lour of this species is a pale yellow brown, paler and
inclining to whitish below ; and its hair is of a coarser
or harsher appearance than the rest of the small opos¬
sums ; the ears are rounded, the tail rather long. When
viewed in a cursory manner, the animal bears a distant
resemblance to a pig in miniature. IQ
In Collins’s account of New South Wales, there is Wombat,
described a very curious animal under the name of Fig. 45.
wombat, which seems nearly allied to the opossums, and
the other animals which we have just mentioned. The
teeth, however, differ so much from those of the three
last genera, that it can scarcely be ranked as a species
of any of them, and perhaps it may hereafter constitute
a new genus. The account given in the work referred
to is as follows.
Its length, from the tip of the tail to the tip of the
nose, is two feet seven inches, of which its body takes
up one foot eleven inches. The head is, seven inches,
and the tail five-tenths of an inch. Its circumference
behind the fore legs, 27 inches ; across the thickest
part of the belly, 31 inches. Its weight by h^nd is
between 25 and 30 pounds. The hair is coarse, and is
about one inch, or one and five-tenths in length, thinly
set upon the belly, thicker on the back and head, and
thickest upon the loins and rump ; the colour of it a
light sandy brown, of varying shades, but darkest along
the back.
The head is large and flattish, and when looking
the animal full in the face, seems, excluding the ears,
3 ^ to
to form nearly an equilateral triangle, any side of which
is about seven inches and five-tenths ,n length; hut he
upper side, or that which constitutes the breadth ot the
Si, is rather the shortest. The hair upon the face
lies in regular order, as if it were combed, but its ends
point upwards in a kind of radii, from the nose their
<r The ears are sharp and erect, of two inches and
three-tenths in length, stand well asunder, and are in
nowise disproportionate. The eyes are small, and la¬
ther sunk than prominent, but quick and lively. icy
are placed about two inches and five-tenths asunder, a
little below the centre of the imaginary triangle to¬
wards the nose. The nice co-adaptation of their ciliary
processes, which are covered with a fine hair, seems to
afford the animal an extraordinary power oi excluding
whatever might be hurtful.
The nose is large or spreading, the nostrils large,
long, and capable of being closed. They stam angu
lari with each other, and a channel is cont.nued from
them towards the upper lip, winch is divided like
hare’s The whiskers are rather thick and strong,
and are in length from two to three inches and a
half
The opening of its mouth is small J it contains five
long grass-cutting teeth in the front of each jaw, like
those of the kanguroo; within them is a vacancy tor
an inch or more, then appear two sma l canine teeth ot
equal height with, and so much similar to, eight mo-
Jares situated behind, as scarcely to be distinguishable
from them. The whole number m both jaws amoun
t0 The neck is thick and short, and greatly restrains
the motions of the head, which, according to the
common expression, looks as if it were stuck upon the
Sh From the neck the back arches a little as far as the
loins, whence it goes off at a flat slope to the hinder-
most parts, where not any tail is visible. A tail, ho
ever, may be found by carefully pressing the fmger
over the fiat slope in a line with the back bone. _ Alter
separating the hairs, it is seen of some half an inch m
length, and from three-tenths to one-tenth of an inch
in diameter, naked, except a few fine short hairs near
its end. This curious tail seemed to hold a much
bolder proportion in the young than in the full grown
^The fore legs are very strong and muscular: their
length, to the sole of the paw, is five inches and a ha ,
and the distance between them is five inches and a halt.
The paws are fleshy, round, and large, being one me i
and nine-tenths in diameter. Their claws are five in
number, attached to as many short dotations. Ine
three middle claws are strong, and about nine-tenths
of an inch in length ; the thumb and little finger claws
are also strong, hot shorter than the others, being only
seven-tenths of an inch long. The fleshy root of the
thumb claw is stronger and more flexible than the °^er *
The sole of the paw is hard, and the upper part is co¬
vered with the common hair, down to the roots of the
claws which it overhangs. Tim hind legs are less strong
and muscular than the fore •, their length, o the sole i
five inches and a half-, the distance between, about
seven inches and a half. The him paw is longer than
the fore, but not kss fleshy j its length is two inches
MAMMAL I A. Fart 1
and seven-tenths, in breadth two inches and three- History
en-ienuis, in uicnuiu vwu - ---- ~
fifths. The claws are four in numberthe three inner the Speci
ones are less strong, but about one-fifth of an inch
longer than the longest of the fore, claws, and there is
a fleshy spur in the place of the thumb claw. 1 he
whole paw has a curve, which throws its fore part ra¬
ther inward. .
In size the two sexes are nearly the same, but the
female is perhaps rather the heaviest.
In the opinion of Mr Bass, this wombat seemed to
he very economically made 5 but he thought it unne¬
cessary to give an account of its internal structure in
his journal.
this animal has no claim to swiftness, as most men
could run it down. Its pace is hobbling, like the awk¬
ward gait of a bear. It is mild and gentle, as becomes
a grass-eater ; but it bites hard, and is furious, when
provoked. Mr Bass never heard its voice but then ; it
was a low erv, between a hissing and a whizzing, which
could not be heard at a distance of above 40 yards, lie
chased one, and suddenly lifted it off the ground with
his hands, and laid him along his arm like a child. It
made no noice, nor any eflort to escape. Its counte¬
nance was placid, and seemed as content as it Mr Bass
had nursed it from its infancy. He carried it more
than a mile, on his arm or his shoulder, which it
took in good part; but when he secured his legs, in
order to go into a bush to cut a specimen ot new
wood, its anger rose, and it snapped a piece from the
elbow of Mr Bass’s jacket with its grass-cutting teeth.
Here their friendship ended, and the creature remain¬
ed implacable all the way to the boat, and kicked till he
was exhausted. . , . . ,
This circumstance seemed to prove, that with kind
treatment the wombat might soon be rendered do¬
cile and affectionate but let his tutor beware of giv¬
ing him provocation, at least if he should be full
Sr<Bes*ides Furneaux island, the wombat inhabits the
mountains to the west of Port Jackson. It lives below
ground, being admirably formed for burrowing j but to
what depth it descends, does not seem to be ascertain¬
ed. According to the account given of it by the na¬
tives, the wombat of the mountains is never seen dur¬
ing the day, but lives retired in bis hole, feeding only
in the night j hut that of the islands seems to feed m all
parts of the day. His food is not well known, but it
is probably varied according to the situation in winch
he may be placed. The stomachs of such as Mr Bass
examined were distended by the coarse wiry grass j
and he, as well as others, had seen the animal scratch¬
ing among the dry ricks of sea-weed thrown upon the
shores, though he could never discover what the animal
was in search of.
Genus. 22. Macropus. Kasguroo.
Front teeth in the upper jaw six, emarginated ; in the
lower jaw two, very large, long, sharp, and pointing
forwards; grinders'five on each side, both in the up¬
per and lower jaw, distant from the other teeth ; f°r®
legs very short; hind legs very long; abdominal
pouch in the female.
There are only two species at present known, viz.
I. M. Major, Great K. Brownish, with sharpish ears,
J . and
ic4
Macro]
pimp. III.
Ferss.
105
Major,
ivanguroo
Fig- 47-
and five-toed fore foet—2. M. Minor, Rat K. or Kan¬
garoo rat. Brown, ash-coloured below, with rounded
ears, and four-toed fore feet.
These were ranked by Linnseus under the genus
DlDELPHlS, but ditfer so much in many circumstances,
that they have been very properly formed into a sepa¬
rate genus.
1. M. Major, Great R.—This animal was first dis¬
covered by Captain Cook’s people, while at Botany
Bay in New Holland, in 1770; and an interesting,
though not strictly accurate account of it, is given in
Captain Cook’s first voyage. It is thus described by
Shaw. The general size of the kanguroo is, at least,
equal to that of a full grown sheep ; the upper parts of
the animal are small, while the lower are remarkably
large in proportion ; yet such is the elegance of grada¬
tion in this respect, that the kanguroo may justly be con¬
sidered as one of the most picturesque of quadrupeds.
The head hears some resemblance to that of a deer, and
the visage is mild and placid •, the ears are moderately
large, of a slightly sharpened form, and upright; the
eyes large, and the mouth rather small; the neck thin
and finely proportioned, the fore legs extremely short,
with the feet divided into five toes, each furnished with
a sharp and somewhat crooked claw. From the breast
downwards the body gradually enlarges, and again de¬
creases a little towards the tail j the thighs and hind
legs are extremely stout and long, and the feet are so
constructed as to appear, at first sight, to consist but of
three toes, of which the middle is by far the largest,
and is furnished with a claw of great size and strength;
the exterior toe is also furnished with a very strong
claw, but far smaller than that of the middle one 3 and
the interior consists of two very small toes united under
a common skin, with their respective claws placed so
close to each other as to appear like a split or double
claw 3 the whole appearance of the foot bears a distant
resemblance to that of a bird. The kanguroo rests on
the whole length of the foot, which is callous, black¬
ish, and granulated beneath. The colour of the animal
is an elegant pale brown, lighter or more inclining to
whiteness on the abdomen 3 the ventral pouch, or re-
-ceptacle for the young, is situated iu the same man¬
ner as in the opossums, and is extremely large and
deep.
The dimensions of a full grown kanguroo are given as
follows, in Governor Phillip’s Voyage to Botany Bay,
viz. eight feet from the tip of the nose to that of the tail:
length of the tail three feet and an inch 3 of the head
eleven inches 3 of the fore legs two feet 3 of the hind,
three feet seven inches : circumference of the fore part
of the animal near the legs, three feet nine inches 3 of
the lower part near the legs, four feet five inches 3 round
the thickest end of the tail 13 inches. The weight of
the largest specimens is said to have been about 150
pounds 3 but it is imagined that this animal attains a
much larger size.
'Ihoug-h the general position of the kanguroo, when
at rest, is standing on its hind feet, yet it frequently
places its fore feet on the ground also, and thus feeds
in the manner of other quadrupeds. It drinks by lap¬
ping. In its natural state it is extremely timid, and
--■prings from the sight of mankind by vast bounds of
many feet in height, and to a surprising distance.
* hen in a state of captivity, it has sometimes a way of
MAMMALIA. ^
springing forwards and kicking with its hind feet in a History of
very forcible and violent manner 3 during which action the Species,
it rests or props itself on the base of the tail. In a nar '■*—v—*'
tuial state it sometimes uses its tail as a weapon of de¬
fence, and will give such severe blows with it to dogs
as to oblige them to desist from their attack. The fe¬
male kanguroo has two mammae situated in the abdo¬
minal pouch, and in each are seated two teats 3 yet so
fai as has hitherto been observed, the animal produces
hut one young at a birth j and so exceedingly diminu¬
tive is the young, when first found in the pouch, as
scarcely to exceed an inch in length. The young con¬
tinues in the pouch till it is grown to a large size, and
takes occasional refuge in it long after it has been ac¬
customed to come abroad.
I he kanguroo feeds entirely on vegetable substances,
and chiefly on grass. In their native state these ani¬
mals are said to feed in herds of 30 or 40 together,
and one is generally observed to lie stationed, as if ap¬
parently on the watch, at a distance from the rest.
I he flesh of the kanguroo is said to be rather coarse 3
and such as to he eaten rather in defect of other food
than as an article of luxury.
Genus 23. Talpa. Moles,
Front teeth in the upper jaw six, unequal; in the lower
eight. Canine teeth one on each side, tl • j-
larger.. Grinders in the upper jaw seven, in ‘ ;n
lower six.
T-F
The moles are furnished by nature for perforating
the earth in the most expeditious manner. Their head
is long, and provided with very strong muscles for ena¬
bling it to raise up the earth 3 their snout is much
lengthened, and is moveable 3 their hands are large,
broad, and flat, and armed with strong, fiat, pointed
claws, directed backwards for throwing the earth be¬
hind them, and the fore legs are very short and strong,
and nearly hidden below the skin. They have no ex¬
ternal ears, and their eyes are very small, and hidden
in the fur. They mostly feed on worms and insects,
and in this way wmuld be of service, were it not that iu
seeking for these, they make much havock among
young plants by turning up the earth. This circum¬
stance renders them very troublesome to gardeners
and farmers, who take every method to destroy
them.
Naturalists have described about 7 species, viz. 1.
* T. Europcea, Common M. Black (usually) with short
tail and five-toed feet.—2. F. Purpurascens, Purple M.
Black, with a gloss of purple, with white tail and five¬
toed feet.—3. '1. Capensis, Cape M. Gold-green, with
a gloss of copper colour, with three-toed fore feet.—
4. 1. Pufa, Red M. Red, with short tail 3 three¬
toed fore feet, and four-toed hind feet.—5. T. Lotigi-
caudata, Long-tailed M. Brown, with tail moderate¬
ly long, and five-toed feet, hinder scaly.—6. T. Radia~
ta, Radiated M. Black, with white feet, and nose
radiated with papillte.—7. T. Fusca, Brown M.
Brown, with white feet and tail, and very broad fore
feet.
Species 1. T. Europcea, Common M. Moldxvarp, or ~pAV^oJa,a
Moudicwarp. . . .... Common-’
The figure of this animal is well known. Its eyes Mole,
are so small that it was long doubted whether it really
3 K 2 had
MAMMAL I A.
500
History of had any. It has, however, been proved by dissections
the Species, assisted by the microscope, that this animal not only
* ' has eyes, but that its eyes are every way calculated tor
distinct vision. It possesses the senses of hearing and
smellino- in a very acute degree, and according to Kay
and Buffon is peculiarly gifted in another faculty, on
which it would be improper here to enlarge. It is
sometimes found white.
Moles are found in every part of Europe, and are
extremely common in Britain.
These animals, as is well known, live below the
earth, where they make subterranean passages leading
from one hillock 'to another. They live in pairs, and
are said to be the most domestic of all quadrupeds.
They seldom quit their holes except when compelled
to do so by heavy rains, or when the earth is so much
parched by constant drought, that they are unable to
continue their work of burrowing. In winter they re¬
tire to elevated places, where they may be best secured
from inundations ; but in summer descend to the low
and flat lands, especially meadows, which they preter
on account of the earth there being fresher and
° They generally breed in the spring, being found big
with young in January and February, and in April a
great many of their young may be seen.
It appears that moles are capable of swimming to a
considerable distance-, and a remarkable instance of one
having been seen swimming towards a small island in
the middle of a lake 180 yards from land, is given by
Mr Bruce in the third volume of the Linnaean Trans-
People in general are not aware of the great mischief
occasioned in fields and gardens by these animals. We
are however informed by Buffon, that in the yeai
he planted 15 or 16 acres of land with acorns, and that
the greater part of them was in a little time carried
away by the moles to their subterranean retreats. In
many of these there were found half a bushel, and in
others a bushel. Buffon, after this circumstance, caused
a great number of iron traps to be constructed, by
which in less than three weeks he caught 1300. Io
this instance of the devastation occasioned by these ani¬
mals, we may add the following: In the year I742
they were so numerous in some parts of Holland, that
one farmer alone caught between 5000 and 6000 ot
them. The destruction occasioned by these animals is
however no new phenomenon. We are informed by
history, that the inhabitants of the island of Tenedos,
♦he Trojans, and the iEolians, were infested by them
in the earliest ages. For this reason a temple was
erected to Apollo Smynthius, the destroyer of moles.
The catching of moles constitutes a profession which
is well understood in this country. For the particular
modes of taking them, we must refer our readers to
Dr Darwin’s Phytologia, p. 370, and to the second
volume of the Philosophical Magazine, p. 34- Accord¬
ing to Mortimer, as quoted by Pennant, the roots of
white hellebore made into a paste and laid into their
holes, will destroy them. They seem to have few ene¬
mies among other animals, but we are told y ir o
bert Sibbald, that there is a kind of mouse with a beak
that destroys moles. We are assured that these animals
are nok found in Ireland.
Part II
Fera.
ic8
Sores,
The skin of the mole is extremely tough j its fur
close set, and softer than the finest velvet, or perhaps'
than the fur of any other animal; it is usually black,
but moles have been found spotted with white, and
sometimes, though rarely, they have been seen altoge¬
ther white.
Genus 24. Sorex. Shrews.
Front teeth in the upper jaw two, long, bifid. In the
lower two or four •, the intermediate ones shorter j
canine teeth several on each side; grinders cuspi¬
dated.
This genus is nearly allied to the last, and indeed a
few of its species are scarcely to be distinguished from
some of the moles. It is therefore not surprising that
Linmeus, in the twelfth edition of his Systema Nature,
ranked two species under Sorex, which should more
properly have been placed under Talpa\
There are 16 species, which are thus distinguished.
j. * S. Arancus, Common S. or Shrew mouse. Rusty
brown, whitish below, with tail rather shorter than the
body. 2. S. Moschatus, Musk S. Web-footed, with
naked compressed tail.—3* Rodiatus, Canada S.
Blackish, with lengthened snout, radiated at the tip
with tentacula.—4. S. Ccerulescens, Perfuming S. Blue-
gray, with flesh-coloured snout, feet, and tail.—5. S.
Fodieiis, Water S. Black, and white below.—6. S.
Braziliensis, Brazilian S. Brown, with three black
stripes on the back.—7. S. Surinamensis, Surinam S.
Bay, yellowish ash colour below, with tail shorter than
the body. 8. S. Proboscideus, Elephant S. Brown,
with very long cylindric snout.—9. S. Leucodon, White¬
toothed S. Dusky, white below, with tail of middling
length. 10. S. Tetragonurus, Square-tailed S. Qua¬
drangular tail.—1X. S, Leucurus,S\ hite-tailedS. Brown¬
ish, whitish beneath, with short tail, whitish towards
the tip. 12. S. Unicolor, Cinereous S. Dusky ash-co¬
loured, with tail narrowed at the base.—13. S. Mun-
nus. Murine S. Brown, with ash-coloured feet and tail,
the latter of middling length.—14. S. Pusillus, Persian
S. With rounded ears and short subdistichious tail.—
i c. S. Minutus, Minute S. With very long snout.—
x6. S. Exilis, Pygmy S. Extremely small, with very
thlik,$\ Aranem, Shrew Mouse, or Hardy S. The 4™^
length of this little animal, from the end of the nose to shreWi
the origin of the tail, is two inches and a half j that olrjg, 4t,,
the tail, near one inch and a half-, the nose is very
long and slender, and the upper mandible is much
longer than the lower j the ears are short and rounded j
the eyes very small, and like those of the mole, almost
concealed in the hair. The colour of the head, and
upper part of the body, is of a brownish dark red, the
belly of a dirty white ; the tail is covered with short
dark hairs j the legs are very short the hind legs are
placed very far back; the feet are divided into five di¬
stinct toes. ,
The teeth are 28 in number, and of so singular a
form as to engage the attention of most naturalists.
Gesner is of opinion, that nature seems to have formed
in this animal teeth of mixed shape, between those oi
mice and serpents; the two upper fore teeth are very
sharp, and on each side of them grows- a minute pro-
17 ces?^
ihap. III.
MAMMALIA.
Tene.
no
rinaceus.
in
; iropceus
i mmon
j :dgehog,
K-S°-
cess, scarcely visible, except on a near inspection; the
J other teeth are placed close together, are very small,
ami seem scarcely separated.
The shrew mouse inhabits old walls, heaps of stones,
or holes in the earth 5 is frequently found near out¬
buildings, hay ricks, dunghills, and necessary houses ;
it lives on insects, corn, and any filth, and has been,
observed rooting like a hog in the last-named places.
Either from its food or its nature, it has a very disa¬
greeable smell, insomuch that the cat will kill it, yet
refuses to eat it. It is said to bring four or five young
at a time. It is a very common animal in this coun¬
try.
Genus 25. Erinaceus. Hedgehogs.
Front teeth, two both above and below; those of the up¬
per jaw distant, of the lower approximated. Canine
teeth on each side, in the upper jaw five, in the low¬
er three. Grinders on each side, both above and
below, four. Body covered on the upper parts with
spines.
There are five species, viz. 1. * Erinaceus Euro-
pans, European or Common H. With rounded ears
and crested nostrils.—2. E. Inauris, Earless H. With¬
out external ears.—3. E. Auritus, Long-eared H.
With long oval ears, and crested nostrils.—4. E. Mada-
gascariensis. Striped H. With spines and 1 mg bristles j
the body longitudinally banded with black and white,
with long, sharp-pointed snout.—5. E. Malaccensis,
Malacca H. With long spines and pendulous ears.
1. Erinaceus Europccus, Common Hedgehog, or
Urchin.
The usual length of this animal, exclusive of the
tail, is about ten inches; the tail is little more than an
inch long, but so concealed by the spines as scarcely to
be visible. The snout is like that of the hog; the up¬
per jaw being much longer than the lower, and the end
flat; the nostrils are narrow, terminated on each side
by a loose thin flap $ the colour of the snout is dusky 5
it is covered with a few scattered hairs ; the upper
part of the head, the sides, and the rump, are clothed
with strong stiff hair, approaching the nature of bristles,
of a yellowish and ash hue.
The legs are short, of a dusky colour, and almost
bare j the toes on each foot are five in number, long,
and separated the whole way j the thumb or interior
toe is much shorter than the others j the claws long
but weak j the whole upper part of the body and sides
are strongly covered with close spines of an inch in
length, and very sharp pointed; their lower part is
white, the middle black, the points white. The mouth
is small, but full of teeth. The barbarity of anatomists
turnishes us with an amazing instance of its patience ;
one that was dissected alive, and whose feet were nailed
down to the table, endured that, and every stroke of
the operator’s knife, without even one groan.
It is found in most parts of Europe, and is not un¬
common in this island.
It produces four or five young at a birth, which are
soon covered with prickles like those of the parent, but
shorter and weaker.
It is a nocturnal animal, keeping retired in the day,
but is in motion the whole night in search of food. It
generally resides in small thickets, in hedges, or in
501
ditches covered with bushes, lying well wrapped up in History of
moss, grass, or leaves ; its food is roots, fruits, worms, the Species.
and insects. It lies under the undeserved reproach 0fv -J
sucking cattle, and hurting their udders ; but the small¬
ness of its mouth renders that impossible. It is a mild
helpless, and patient animal 5 and would be liable to in-
jmy from every enemy, had not providence guarded it
with a strong covering, and the power of rolling itself
into a ball, by that means securing the defenceless
parts. It is hunted with dogs ; but few of them will
venture to attack it while rolled up, so that its perse¬
cutors throw it into water, to oblige it to unroll itself.
Its flesh is esteemed good food.
The hedgehog may be tamed j and we are told of
one that lived at the Angel inn at Felton in Northum¬
berland m 1799, which performed the duty of a turn¬
spit, as well in every respect as the dog of that name y
ran about the house as familiarly as any other domestic
quadruped j displayed a facility till then unknown in
this species of animals j and used to answer to the name
of 7b?n.
This order contains 12 genera, and about 184 species.
ns
Hystrix.
Chap. IV. Cures.
Gen. 26. Hystrix. Porcupine.
I ront teeth two, both in the upper and under jaw, ob¬
liquely^ cut; . grinders eight, Body covered with
spines intermixed with hairs. Four toes on the fore
feet, five on the hind.
There are six. species-j viz.
I. H. Cristata, Long-spined Porcupine} with four¬
toed fore feet, and five-toed hind feet ; crested head,
and short tail—2. H. Prehensilis, Prehensile P. Short-
spined, with four-toed feet; and long half-naked pre¬
hensile tail—3. H. Mexicana, Mexican P. $hort-
spined, with four-toed feet, and tail of moderate length.
—4. H. Macroura, Long-tailed P. Short-spined, with
five-toed feet, and very long tail, tufted at the end
with club-shaped bristles.—5. H. Fasciculata, Brush¬
tailed P. Four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and
tail terminated by a tuft of flattened bristles.—6. H.
Dorsata, Canada P. Short-spined, with very long
furg; four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet; spiny
back, and shortish tail. rj.
i.H. Cristata,Common Porcupine.—The figure which Cristaia,
we have given of this animal will convey a better idea Comm<*n
of it than any description. We may remark only that J?rcl,pinf-
it is about two feet long from head to tail; and that the ^ SI'
tail is about four inches long, being almost entirely hid¬
den by the quills and long hair.
It is a native of Africa, India, and the Indian islands;
and is found in some of the warmer parts of Europe,
particularly in Sicily and Malta.
It was long believed that the porcupine had the
power of darting its quills to a considerable distance, at
any enemy that assaulted it. This is proved to have
been a vulgar error, arising probably from the manner
in which the quills are detached when the animal is
moulting, at which time they are often thrown with a
jerk to a little distance. The quills seem intended
merely as weapons of defence, and when attacked, the
animal has the power of raising them, as was remarked
with respect to the scales of the manis.
The
5o
r. , The flesh of the porcupine is eaten in some places )
tleSpecieUml we are told by Mr Brydone, that when m Sicily,
—4  Jie dined on it, and found it extremely luscious, soon
nailing on the appetite. > .
1 This animal feeds chiefly -on fruits, xoots, and vege¬
table substances. It commonly lives under ground,
sleeps much by day, and goes in search of food only
during the night. The female produces two young
at a birth, and these, when -taken early, are easily
tamed.
Cavi”4 Gen. 27. Cavia, Cavy.
front teeth two, wedge-shaped *, grinders eight. 1 oes
on the fore feet, four or live •, on the hind feet, Irom
three to five. Tail very short, or wanting. Mo cla¬
vicles.
The animals of this genus are chiefly found m Ame¬
rica ; they live on vegetable substances, and inhabit
holes in the ground, or beneath the roots of trees.
There are seven species •, viz.
I. Cavia Cobay a. Variegated Cavy, or Guinea Big.
Tailless: generally variegated either with black and
white, or rufous, &c.—2. C. Paca, Spotted C. 1 ail¬
ed ; with five-toed feet, and sides marked by rows ot
yellowish white spots.—3. C. Capybara, Capybara.
Tailless*, with three-toed palmated hind feet.—4.
Ap-utL Agnti. Tailed ; with the body reddish brown,
and the belly yellowish.—5. C. A conchy, Acouchy.
Tailed 5 with olive-coloured body.—6. C. Apcna, Bock
C. Tailless*, with reddish ash-coloured body.—7. C.
Patagonica, Patagonian C. Busty gray, whitish be¬
low, with extremely short naked tail $ large white
TT. patch on each thigh, and black rump. .
Cobam. I. C. Cobaya, Bestless Cavy, or Guinea Pig.—iIns
.GuineaPig animal is pretty well known among us, being fiequent y
kept as a kind of pet. It is a native of South America,
and naturally of a chilly tender constitution; yet it
lives and breeds in our climates when kept in the house,
and properly fed. Few animals breed so early as the
Guinea pig. Though it does not attain its full growth
till eiofit or nine months old, it has been known to bring
forth ^at two months. The female goes with young
about three weeks, and at her first litter produces four
or five young, but her subsequent litters often consist or
ten or twelve. As these animals are thus prolific, and
will breed five or six times in a year, it is computed that
a thousand of them may be produced in one year from
a single pair. They seem capable of no sentiment but
the lowest sensuality, and pass their whole time in eat¬
ing, sleeping, &c. They live entirely on vegetable
food, and are very fond of parsley, apples, and other
fruits. They eat often, hut little at a time.
They are very neat and cleanly, and are often seen
dressing each other’s fur. They are easily tamed, but
seem to feel no attachment to man. They grunt like
a pig, make a chirping noise when pleased, and utter a
Sharp cry when hurt. .
The flesh may be eaten, but is very mdiilerent.
MAMMALIA.
at the tips. Grinders on each side lour
depressed and scaly.
Part IJ
Tail long,
Collar bones in the skeleton.
Glircs.
n5
^■Castor.
Gen. 28. Castor. Beaver.
There are two species *, viz. 117
C. Fiber, Common Beaver. Chesnut-coloured, Fiber.
with flat ovate naked tail.—2. C. Huidobrius, ClnhB.
With long, compressed, lance-shaped, hairy tail *, iobed^ ^
fore feet, and webbed hind feet. .
x. C. Fiber, Common Beaver.—This annual is easily
distinguished from all quadrupeds by the peculiar ap¬
pearance of its tail, which is oi an oval form,
flat, except on its upper surface, where it is slightly
convex, entirely destitute ot hair, except at the base,
and marked with scaly divisions like the skin ot a list:.
The body is about three feet long, and the tail about a
foot in length. The general colour of the fur is a deep
chesnut, but it is sometimes found penectly black,
white, cream-coloured, or spotted.
The beaver is found in most of the northern parts ot
Europe and Asia, and is very abundant in North Ame¬
rica. It was once met with in Britain, but the species
has long been there extinct. It delights in shady wa¬
tery situations. , .
Many accounts have been given of the manners arm
labours of this extraordinary animal, but we believe
none are in general more correct than the following by
The beavers begin to assemble in the month of June
or July, for the purpose of uniting into society. They
arrive in numbers from all corners, and soon lorm a
troop of 200 or 300. The place of rendezvous is gene¬
rally the place fixed for their establishment, and is al¬
ways on the banks of waters. If the waters be flat,
and never rise above their ordinary level, as in lakes,
the beavers make no bank or dam*, but in rivers or
brooks, where the waters are subject to risings and tail¬
ings, they build a bank, and by this artifice they form
a pond or piece of water which remains always at the
same height. The bank traverses the river from one
side to the other, like a sluice, and it is often from 80
to 100 feet long, by 10 or 12 broad at the base. I Ins
pile, for animals of a size so small, appears to be enor¬
mous, and supposes an incredible labour. But the soli¬
dity with which the work is constructed is still more
astonishing than its magnitude. '1 be part of the river
where they erect this bank is generally shallow, it
they find on the margin a large tree, which can be
made to fall into the water, they begin with cutting it
down, to form the principal part of their work. 1 Ins
tree is often thicker than the body of a man. By gnaw¬
ing the foot of the tree with their four cutting teeth,
they accomplish their purpose in a very short time, and
always make the tree fall across the river. _ They next
cut the branches from the trunk to make it lie le\e .
These operations are performed by the whole commu¬
nity. Several beavers are employed in gnawing t e
foot of the tree, and others in lopping oft the branches
after it has fallen. Others at the same time traverse
the banks of the river, and cot down smal er trees,
from the size of a man’s leg to that of Ins thigh. 1 hese
they dress, and cut to a certain length to make stakes
of them, and first drag them by land to the margin of
Front teeth in the upper jaw truncated.. and Mowed
with a transverse angle j m the lower jaw transverse building is carrying on. * J ana
'/hap.
Glircs.
IV. M A M M
and interweave the branches with the larger stakes.
-'This operation implies the vanquishing of many diffi¬
culties $ for to dress these stakes, and to put them in a
situation nearly perpendicular, some of the beavers must
elevate, with their teeth, the thick ends against the
margin of the river, or against the cross trCe, while
others plunge to the bottom, and dig holes with their
fore feet, to receive the points that they may stand on end.
While some are labouring in this manner, others bring
earth, which they plash with their feet, and beat firm
with their tails. They carry the earth in their mouths,
and with their fore feet, and transport it in such quan¬
tities that they fill with it all the intervals between the
piles. These piles consist of several rows of stakes of
-equal height, all placed opposite to each other, and
extend from one bank of the river to the other. The
stakes facing the under part of the river, are placed
perpendicularly •, but the rest of the work slopes up¬
wards, to sustain the pressure of the fluid, so that the
bank, which is 10 or 12 feet wide at the base, is re¬
duced to two or three at the top. It has, therefore,
not only all the necessary thickness and soliditv, but the
most advantageous form for supporting the weight of
the water, for preventing its issue, and to repel its
efforts. Near the top, or thinnest part of the bank,
they make two or three sloping holes, to allow the sur¬
face water to escape, and these they enlarge or contract,
according as the river rises or falls 5 and when any
breaches are made in the bank by sudden or violent in-
nndations, they know how to repair them as soon as the
water subsides.
It would be superfluous, after this account of their
public work, to give a detail of their particular opera¬
tions, were it not necessary, in a history of these ani¬
mals, to mention every fact, and were not the first
great structure made with a view to render their smaller
habitations more commodious. These cabins or houses
are built upon piles near the margin of the pond, and
have two openings, the one for going to the land, and
the other for throwing themselves into the water. The
form of the edifices is either oval or round, some of
them larger and some less, varying from four or five,
to eight or ten feet diameter. Some of them consist
of three or four stories, and their walls are about two
feet thick, raised perpendicularly upon planks, or plain
stakes, which serve both for foundations and floors to
their houses. When they consist but of one story, the
walls rise perpendicularly only a few feet, afterwards
assume a curved form, mid terminate in a dome or vault,
which serves them for a roof. They are built with
amazing solidity, and neatly plastered both without and
within. They are impenetrable to rain, and resist the
most impetuous winds. The partitions are covered
with a kind of stucco, as nicely plastered as if it had
been executed by the hand of man. In the appli¬
cation of this mortar, their tails serve for trowels, and
their feet for plashing. They employ different materi¬
als, as wood, stone, and a kind of sandy earth, which is
not subject to dissolution in water. The wood they use
is almost all of the light and tender kinds, as alders,
poplars, and willows, which generally grow on the
banks of rivers, and are more easily barked out, and
transported, than the heavier and more solid species of
timber. When they once attack a tree, they never
abandon it till they cut it down, and carry it off.
ALIA
They always begin the 0 eration of cutting at a foot,
or a foot and a half ah ve ground j they labour in a
sitting posture ; and, be de the convenience of this situ¬
ation, they enjoy the pleasure of gnawing perpetually
the bark and wood, which are most palatable to their
taste 5 for they prefer fresh hark and tender wood to
most of their ordinary aliment. Of these provisions
they lay up ample stores, to support them during the
winter $ but they are not fond of dry wood. It is in
the water, and near their habitations, that they esta¬
blish their magazines. Each cabin has its own maga¬
zine, proportioned to the number of its inhabitants,
who have all a common right to the store, and never
pillage their neighbours. Some villages are composed
of 20 or 25 cabins. But these large establishments are
rare, and the common republic seldom exceeds 10 or
12 families, of which each has bis own quarter of the
village, bis own magazine, and bis separate habitation.
They allow no strangers to sit down in their-neigh-*
bourhood. The smallest cabins contain 2, 4, or 6, and
the largest 18, 20, and, it is alleged, sometimes 30
beavers. They are almost always equally paired, be¬
ing the same number of females as of males. Thus,
upon a moderate computation, the society «is often com*
posed ot 150 or 200, who all, at first, laboured jointly,
in raising the great public building, and afterwards in
select tribes or companies, in making particular habi¬
tations. In this society, however numerous, an uni¬
versal peace is maintained. Their union is cemented
by common labours, and it is rendered perpetual by
mutual convenience, and the abundance of provisions
which they amass, and consume together. Moderate
appetites, a simple taste, an aversion against blood and
carnage, deprive them of the idea of rapine and wan
rI bey enjoy every possible good, while man only knows
how to pant after it. Friends to each other, if they
have some foreign enemies, they know bow to avoid
them. When danger approaches, they advertise one
another by striking their tail on the surface of the wa¬
ter, the noise of which is heard at a great distance, and
resounds through all the vaults of their habitations.
Each takes his post j some plunge into the lake, others
conceal themselves within their walls,. which can only
be penetrated by the fire of heaven or the steel of man,
and which no animal will attempt either to open or to
overturn. These retreats are not only very safe, but
neat and commodious. The floors are spread over with
verdure j the branches of the box and the fir serve them
for carpets, upon which they permit not the least dirti¬
ness. The window that faces the water answers for a
balcony to receive the fresh air, and to bathe. During
the greatest part of the day, they sit on end, with their
heads and anterior parts of the body elevated, and their
posterior parts sunk in the-water. This window is
made with caution, the aperture of which is sufficiently
raised to prevent its being stopped up with ice, which,
in the beaver climates, is often two or three feet thick.
When this happens, they slope the sole of the window^
cut obliquely the stakes which support it, and thns open
a communication with the unfrozen water. rIhis ele¬
ment is so necessary, or rather so agreeable to them,
that: they can seldom dispense with it. They often
swim a long way under the ice5 it is then that they are
most easily taken, by attacking the cabin on one band,
and, at the same time, watching at a hole made at some
distance.
5°J
History of
the Species.
S°4-
History of distance, wliere they are obliged to repair for the pur-
the Species, pose of respiration. The continual habit ot keeping
v 1 ■1 their tail and posterior parts in the water, appears to
have changed the nature of their flesh. That of their
anterior parts, as far as the reins, has the taste and con¬
sistence of the flesh of land or air animals ^ but that of
the tail and posteriors has the odour and all the other
qualities of fish. The tail, which is a foot long, an
inch thick, and five or six: inches broad, is just like an ex¬
tremity or genuine portion of a fish attached to the
body of a quadruped. It is entirely covered with scales,
and with skin perfectly similar to those of large fishes.
They may be scraped oft' with a knife, and, after tail¬
ing, they leave an impression on the skin, as is the case
with all fishes.
It is in the beginning of summer that the beavers as¬
semble. They employ the months of July and August
in the construction of their bank and cabins. 'Ihey
collect, in September, their provisions of bark and wood j
afterwards they enjoy the fruits of their labours, and
taste the sweets of domestic happiness. This is the time
of repose and the season of love. Knowing and loving
one another from habit, from the pleasures and fatigues
of a common labour, each couple join not by chance,
nor by the pressing necessities of nature, but unite from
choice and from taste. They pass together the autumn
and the winter, and perfectly satisfied with each other,
they never separate. At ease in their cabins, they go
not out but upon agreeable or useful excursions, to bring
in supplies of fresh bark, which they prefer to what is
too dry, or too much moistened with water. The fe¬
males are said to go pregnant for four months: they
bring forth in the end of winter, and generally pro¬
duce two or three young ones. About this time, they
are left by the males, who retire to the country to en¬
joy the pleasures and the fruits of the spring. They
return occasionally to their cabins, and are occupied in
nursing, protecting, and rearing their young, who at
the end of a few weeks, are in a condition to follow
their dams. The females, in their turn, make little ex¬
cursions to recruit themselves by the air, by eating fresh
bark and herbage ; and in this manner pass the summer
upon the waters, and in the woods. They assemble not
again till autumn, unless their banks or cabins be over¬
turned by inundations ; for when accidents of this kind
happen, they suddenly collect their forces, in order to
repair the breaches which have been made.
Some places they prefer to others for their habita¬
tions 5 and they have been observed, after having their
labours frequently destroyed, to return every summer to
repair them, till being fatigued with this persecution,
and weakened by the loss of several of their numbers,
they took the resolution of changing their abode, and of
retiring to solitudes still more profound. It is in winter
that they are chiefly sought by the hunters, because
their fur is not perfectly sound in any other season:
and, after their village is ruined, and numbers of them
are taken, the society is sometimes too much reduced
to admit of a fresh establishment $ but those which es¬
cape death or captivity, disperse and become vagabond.
Their genius, withered by fear, never again expands.
They hide themselves and their talents in holes $ or,
sunk to the condition of other animals, they lead a ti¬
mid and solitary life. Occupied only by pressing wants,
and exerting solely their individual powers, they lose
Part 111
for ever those social qualities which we have been so Glires.
justly admiring. —y—J
The beaver is hunted for the sake of its fur, which,
as is well known, forms a considerable article in the
manufacture of fine hats, as well as for the drug called
Castor, for an account of which see Materia Medica.
Its flesh is eaten in some places, and is said to have a
fishy taste.
n$
Genus 29. Mus. Rats and Mice. Mu?.
Upper front teeth wedge-shaped. Grinders on each
side thiee, sometimes only two. Clavicles or collar¬
bones in the skeleton.
These animals generally live in holes in the ground,
are verv swift, and able to climb trees. Their food is
chiefly vegetable, which most of them seek in the night,
keeping in their retreats during the day. They feed
in a somewhat upright position, carrying the food to
their mouth with their paws. They are very proli¬
fic, the females breeding many times a year and bring¬
ing numerous litters. The females have usually eight
teats. The ears of these animals are usually short
and rounded j their fore feet are commonly four-toed,
with a warty excrescence in place of a fifth. Many of
them are almost amphibious, living much in the water
and swimming very well. A few of them are furnished
with cheek pouches for carrying food to their holes.
They are found in almost all parts of the world,
and many of them are natives of Britain.
The species are very numerous, and are therefore by
Dr Shaw distributed into the following sections.
A. IFit/i flattened tails.
1. M. Zibethicus, Musk Rat. Rusty brown, with
long compressed lanceolate tail, and unwebbed feet.
B. With rornid naked tails.
2. M. Pilorides, Piloris. Whitish, with longisb,
scaly, obtuse truncated tail.—3. M. Caraco, American
rat. Gray, with long, scaly, somewhat obtuse tail,
and slightly semi-palmated hind feet.—4. * M. Decu-
manus, Norway R. Gray, stiff-haired, with very long
scaly tail, and body whitish below.—5. * M. Rattus,
Black R. Blackish, ash-coloured beneath, with very
long scaly tail.—6. M. Malabaricus, Bandicot R.
Gray, with naked round ears, and the two exterior
toes of the hind feet shorter than the rest.—7. M. Pei'-
chal, Perchal R. Rusty brown, with the hind legs
larger than the fore.—8. M. Muscuhts, Common M.
Brown, ash-coloured beneath, with four-toed fore-feet,
five-toed hind feet, and long nearly naked tail.—9.
* M. Sylvaticus, Wood M. Yellowish brown, with
long naked tail, and body white beneath, the colours
being abruptly separated on the sides.—10. M. Agra-
rius. Rustic M. Yellowish brown, with long scaly
tail and black dorsal streak.—II. M. Messonus, Har¬
vest M. Rusty, white beneath, with long slightly
hairy tail, and ears longer than the fur of the head.—
12. M. Minutus, Minute M. Rusty, whitish beneath,
with long scaly tail.—13. M. Soricintts, Soricine M.
Yellowish gray, with long snout, round furred ears,
and hairy tail of moderate length.—14. M. Vagus, Wan¬
dering M. Ash-coloured, with black dorsal band,
very long naked tail, and plaited ears.—15.
tidinus.
MAMMALIA.
lUiap. IV. M A
laires. tuhnus, Birch KI. Fulvous, with black dorsal band,
—r—•'plaited ears, and very long naked tail.—16. M. Stri-
atus, Streaked M. Rufous brown, with longish naked
tail, and the body marked by several longitudinal
rows of white spots.—17. M. Barbarm, Barbary M.
Brown, marked with ten pale streaks; with tail of
middling length, three-toed fore feet, and five-toed hind
feet.
M M A L I A. ^c-
Ash-brown, pouched, white beneath.—38. M. Songarus. History of
Ash-coloured, pouched, white beneath, with black spi-the Species,
nal line, and the sides spotted with white.—39. AI. i'u- '~m~~ w""—‘
runculus, Baraba R. Yellowish gray, pouched, whitish
beneath, with black dorsal streak.
C. With hairy tails, in general either of a middling
length or short.
18. J/. Cijanus, Blue R. Blue, whitish beneath,
with four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and slightly
hairy tail ol middling length.—19. M. Saxatilis, Rock
R. Grayish brown, with longish tail; ears longer than
the fur, and feet about four-toed.—20. Al. Aniphibius,
Water R. Blackish brown, ash-coloured below, with
ears scarcely projecting from the fur ; fore feet about
four-toed, and tail about half as long as the body.—
21. M. Scherman, Scherman R. Deep brown, ash-co¬
loured below, with slightly hairy tail of moderate length,
small feet, and ears shorter than the fur.—<-22. M. Lem¬
mas, Lemming R. Short-tailed, with ears shorter
than the fur, five-toed fore feet, and body white below,
variegated above v/ith black, white and fulvous.—23.
AL Arvalis, Meadow M. Dusky rusty, short-tailed,
deep ash-coloured beneath, with ears longer than the
tur, and about lour-toed fore feet.—24. AI. Toryuatns,
Collared M. Short-tailed, rusty, with dusky variega¬
tions ; ears shorter than the fur ; five-toed fore feet,
interrupted white collar, and black spinal stripe. 25.
M. Lagurus, Hare-tailed M. Short-tailed, ash-colour¬
ed, white below ; ears shorter than the fur; about four-
toed fore feet, and black dorsal line.—26. AI. Econo-
mus, Lconomic R. Short-tailed, tawney whitish be¬
low, with naked ears concealed by the fur, and about
four-toed fore feet.—27. AI. Alliarius, Garlick M.
Ash-coloured, whitish below, with rather large ears
slightly hairy, and tail about an inch long.—28. M.
Rutilus, Red M. Fulvous ash-coloured beneath, with
tail about an inch long; ears longer than the for, and
about four-toed feet.—29. AI. Laniger, Woolly M.
Ash-coloured, with four-toed fore feet, five-toed hind
feet, and tail of middling length.—30. Al. Gregalis,
Baikal M. Gray, with ears shorter than the fur, about
four-toed fore feet, and tail about one inch and a half
iong.—31. AI. Socialis, Social M. Pale gray, white
beneath, with very short rounded ears, about four-toed
lore feet, and tail of half an inch long.—32. AI. Hnd-
sonius, Hudson’s Bay M. Short-tailed, earless, ash-
coloured, white beneath, with yellowish brown dorsal
stripe, and five-toed hind feet.
D. IF1<,th cheek pouches for the temporary reception of
their food.
33. AI. Cricetus, Hamster R. Reddish brown, pouch¬
'd, with three white spots on each side, and deep black
belly.—34. Al. Bursarius, Canada R. Ash-coloured,
with short nearly naked tail, pouched cheeks, and the
claws of. the fore feet very large, and formed for bur¬
rowing in the ground. 35. AL Accedula, Yaik R.
1 ellowish gray, whitish beneath, with pouched cheeks
and sinuated ears.—36. AI. Arenarius, Sand R. Ash-
coloured, pouched; with the feet, sides of the body,
belly and tail white.—37. Al. Phceus, Astracan M.
Vol. XII. Part II. f
E. Subterranean or Ground Rats, resembling Aloles in
habit and manner of life.
40. AI. Alantimus, Coast R. Pale yellowish brown,
whitish beneath, with very large and long naked teeth,
five-toed feet, no external ears, and short tail.—41. AL
Lyphlus, Blind R. Short-tailed, rufous brown, duskv
beneath, with five-toed fore feet, broad front teeth, and
without eyes or external ears.—42. AL Aspalex, Dau-
rian R. Short-tailed, earless, yellowish ash-coloured,
with large wedged fore teeth, and long claws on the
fore feet.—43. AI. Capensis, Cape R. Short-tailed,
reddish ash, paler below, with very large naked fore
teeth, five-toed feet, and white muzzle.—44. AI. Tal-
pimis, Mole R. Short-tailed, brown, with large wedged
front teeth, no external ears, and five-toed fore feet
formed for burrowing. T t
4. . AL JAecunianus, Common brown or Norway rat. Decwna-
— Phis is one of the most common species of rat, bvmis’ ^or-
which our houses and granaries are infested, and is too Way ®'at
well known to require any description. It was origi¬
nally, it is said, brought to this country from Norwav,
and has multiplied so prodigiously, and is so strong and
voracious, as to form one of our most unpleasant in¬
mates. St Pierre informs us, that in the Isle of France
these rats are found in such prodigious swarms, that
30,000 of them have been killed in some of the houses
in a single year. It is even said that the Dutch en¬
tirely abandoned that post from the number of rats by
which it v/as infested. They will in a single night en¬
tirely destroy a whole crop of corn. They frequently
infest shijis in such numbers as to destroy large quan¬
tities ot provisions, and even endanger the vessel, by
gnawing its timbers. When the Valiant came from
the Havannah, in the year 1766, the rats had increa¬
sed on board her so much as to destroy nearly one hun¬
dred weight of biscuit in a day ; arid on the ship be¬
ing smoked between decks, to suffocate the rats, six
hampers were for some time filled every day with those
that had been thus killed.
In summer it frequents the banks of rivers, ponds,
and ditches; where it lives on frogs, fishes, and small
animals. But its rapacity is not confined entirely to
these : It destroys rabbits, poultry, young pigeons, &Ci
It infests the granary, the barn, and the store-house;
does infinite mischief among corn and fruit of all kinds;
and, not content with satisfying its hunger, frequently
carries off large quantities to its biding place. It is a
bold and fierce little animal; and when closely pur¬
sued, will turn and fasten on its assailant. Its bite is
keen, and the wound it inflicts is painful, and difficult
to heal, owing to the form of its teeth, which are long,
sharp, and irregular.
Their produce is enormous, as the female brings
forth from 12 to 18 at a litter’, and usually breeds
thxice a year, so that from a single pair, provided food
were sufficiently plentiful, and they had no enemies to
diminish their numbers, there might be propagated
above 1,000,000 in the space of two years ! Their ene¬
mies are, however, numerous. They are destroyed by
3 8 dogs,
5°S
History of
the Species.
M A M M A L I A.
120
Hamster.
Tig- 54-
do"s, cats, and especially weasels $ and it is said that
a strong rat is as much dreaded by its own species, as
the whole race is by those animals that are their prey.
They are commonly taken by traps, or destroyed by
poison, which latter is the surest method. Mr Bewick
recommends for the purpose a composition of nux vomi¬
ca mixed with oatmeal, and a small proportion of musk
and oil of rhodium. .
33. J/. Cricetus, Hamster, or Hamster hat.— Ibis is
one of the fiercest of the rat tribe, being rather larger
and much stronger than the Norway rat. It is of a pale
reddish brown colour above, and blackish below, with
a whitish muzzle, reddish cheeks, pretty large rounded
ears, and a short tail almost bare. The male is always
larger than the female.
The hamster is the only European species of rat that
is furnished with pouches. It is found in Austria, Si¬
lesia, and many parts of Germany. It lives under
ground, burrowing down obliquely. At the end of its
passage, the male sinks one perpendicular hole, and the
female several, sometimes seven or eight. At the end
of these are formed various vaults, either as lodges for
themselves and young, or as store-houses for food. Each
young has its different apartment, and each sort of
e-rain its different vault ; the former is lined with straw
or grass. The vaults are of different depths, according
to the age of the animals : a young hamster makes them
scarcely a foot deep ; an old one sinks them to the depth
of four or five. The whole diameter of the habitation,
with all its communications, is sometimes eight or 10
feet. The female breeds twice or three times a-year,
and produces from six to 18 at a litter. The young
grow very rapidly, and are soon able to shift for them¬
selves. The male and female have always separate
burrows} for, except in their short season of courtship,
they have no intercourse. rl he whole race is so male¬
volent, as constantly to reject all society with one another.
They will fight, kill, and devour each other. The fe¬
male shows little affection even for her young ; tor if
any person digs into the hole, she attempts to save herself
by burrowing deeper into the earth, leaving them a piey
to the intruder. They would willingly follow her, but
she is deaf to their cries, and even shuts up against them
the hole which she has made. They feed on grain and
fruits, which they collect in large quantities m their
granaries \ and in some countries they do so much
damage among the corn, that a considerable reward is
offered for destroying them. According to Mr Sultzer,
they abound to such a degree in Gotha, that in one year,
11,564, in another 54,429, and in a third, 80,136 of
their skins wreie delivered in at the hotel deville of that
capital. • i* -i a 1
The life of a hamster (says Buffon) is divided be¬
tween eating and fighting. He seems to have no other
passion than that of rage, which induces him to attack
every animal that comes in his way, without in the
least attending to the superior strength of the enemy.
Ignorant of the art of saving himself by flight, rather
than yield, he will allow himself to be beaten to pieces
witli a stick. If he seizes a man’s hand, he must be
Part II,
killed before he quits his hold. The magnitude of the Clircs.
horse terrifies him as little as the address of the     
dog, which last is fond of hunting him. When the
hamster perceives a dog at a distance, he begins by
emptying his cheek pouches, if they happen to he filled
with grain. He then blows them up so prodigiously,
that the sizejof the head and neck greatly exceeds that
of the rest of the body. He raises himself on his hind legs,
and thus dai’ts upon the enemy. If he catches hold, he
never quits it, but with the loss of life. But tlm dog
o-enerally seizes him behind, and strangles him. This
ferocious disposition prevents the hamster from being at
peace with any animal whatever. He even makes war
against his own species, not excepting the females.
When two hamsters meet, they never fail to attack
each other, and the stronger always devours the weaker.
A combat between a male and a female commonly lasts
longer than between two males. They begin by pur¬
suing and biting each other •, then each ol them retires
to a side, as if to take breath j a little after they renew
the combat, and continue to fly and to fight till one ot
them falls. The vanquished uniformly serves for a re¬
past to the conqueror.
r 121
Hydi'omyj.
Genus 30. Hydromys (f).
Cutting teeth two in each jaw *, canine j grinders two
in each row, furrowed on the side, and having a
double excavation on the crown. Feet five-toed *,
toes on the fore feet three ; those on the hind web¬
bed. Tail round and covered with short hair.
This is a new genus, constituted by Geofiroy to com¬
prehend the coypou, which is commonly ranked as a
species of mus, and two other species that had not been
described. . , . ,
His account of the genus is contained in the sixth
volume of the Annales de Museum National, and a
translation of his memoir is given in the 22d volume ot
the Philosophical Magazine.
The three species are thus distinguished by Geottroy.
1. H. Coypus, Coypou H. Hair chesnut brown on
the back, red on the flanks, and bright brown below
the belly.—2. H. C/wysogaster, Yellow-bellied H. xiair
chesnut brown above, orange below.—3. H. Leucoga-
ster. White-bellied H. Hair brown above, white be¬
low ' m
1. H. Coypus, Coypou, or Coypou Rat.—This cmi-Coypus,
ous animal was first described by Molina, who speaks t
of it as a species of water rat, of the size and colour olrigi JS.
an otter. According to Geoffrey, it is a large amnia ,
being about 14 inches from nose to tail, with a tail
about two inches long. The general tint of the hair
on the back is a chesnut brown. This colour be¬
comes brighter on the flanks, and passes to brig t re j
under the belly it is only a dirty and almost dark rus¬
set. Yet this colour is sufficiently changeable accord¬
ing to the manner in which the coypou raises or lowers
its hair. This mobility in the tone of its fur arises from
each hair being of an ash-coloured brown at the root,
and bright red at the point. The felt concealed under
l(F) Geoffrey chooses to spell this word hydromis ; but we have thought the orthography that we adopt more
conformable to the Greek origin of the name, viz. fyopvs, or water-rat.
i-hap. IV. M A M M
Glires. the long hair is an asli brown, of a brighter tint under
the beliy. The long hair on the back has the points
only reddish, and that on the flanks is of the latter co¬
lour throughout the half of its length.
As in all animals which go frequently into the water,
the hair of the tail is thin, short, stifl', and of a dirty
red colour: in its naked parts it is scaly. The contour
of the mouth and extremity of the muzzle are white.
The whiskers, which are long and stiff', are also white,
some black hairs excepted. Among the great number
of skins which form part of the collection of M. Bechem,
M. Geoflroy saw some belonging to animals which had
no doubt been afflicted with the albine disease; in one
of these the silky hairs were entirely russet, so that the
back appeared of the same tint as the sides and the
belly ; in another, the dorsal stripe, instead of being
chesnut, had passed entirely to a red colour, the flanks
being of a very pale red. He could not believe that
these varieties on the one hand, were the character of
youth or of the female, because these accidents were
rare, considering the great number of skins which he
examined *, and, on the other, because M. d’Azzara
has expressly told us that the female is entirely similar
to the male.
Molina and d’Azzara agree in regard to the mild
qualities by which the coypou is distinguished. It eats
every thing given to it. It may be easily tamed, and
soon becomes accustomed to the state of domesticity.
It is never heard to cry but when harshly used; it then
emits a piercing cry. The female produces five young,
which she always carries with her.
The coypou is very common in the provinces of Chili,
Buenos Ayres, and Tucuman. On the other hand, it
is rarely found in Paraguay.
Genus 31. Arctomys. Marmots.
A L I A.
507
| ctomys.
Front teeth two in each jaw, strong, sharp, and wedged.
Grinders in the upper jaw five on each side ; in the
lower jaw four. Clavicles or collar bones in the
skeleton.
This genus differs in very few particulars from that
of jnus. The marmots are of a thick form, with large,
roundish, and somewhat flattened heads, small mouths,
the fissure having somewhat of a perpendicular appear¬
ance j ears very short, and sometimes none; a short
villous tail, and five toed hind feet: the skeleton is
furnished with clavicles or collar-bones, and the coecum
or appendicular intestine is very large. They are diur¬
nal animals ; feed on roots and grain, reside in subterra¬
neous holes or burrows, and sleep during the winter.
There are eight species, viz.
1. A. Mar mot a, Alpine M. Brown, reddish be¬
neath.—2. A. Monax, Maryland M. Rusty brown,
with bluish gray snout, and longish villous tail 3.
A. Empetra, Quebec M. Gray, waved with darker
and lighter shades, reddish below, with dusky tail. 
4. A. Bobac, Bobac. Gray, reddish below, with a
thumb claw on the fore feet.—5. A. Pruijiosa, Hoary
M. Hoary, with black legs and tail.—6. A. Maulina,
Mauline M. Tail of middling length ; ears sharp-
pointed, and feet five-toed.—7. A. Gundi, Gundi M.
Reddish, with abruptly terminated ears.— 8. A. Citillus,
V ariegated M. Earless, with villous tail.
1. A. Mar mot a, Alpine M.—This animal is rather
larger than a rabbit, being about 16 inches long, ex- History of
elusive ol the tail, which measures about 6 inches. Its the Species,
head is rather large and llattish ; the ears short and hid- 1 " " ^'
den in the lur, and the tail thick and bushy. I24
It is a native ol the Alps and Pyrenees, being most
frequently found in Savoy and Switzerland, where it Manlfot.
inhabits the higher regions, and feeds on various roots, Fig. 56.
plants, insects, &c. It climbs readily, and ascends
with ease the rocky eminences and fissures.
It is an animal which delights in the regions of high
mountains. In such situations several individuals unite
in forming a place of retreat, which is contrived with
gieat art, and consists ol an oval cavity or general
receptacle, large enough to contain several of the
animals, and having a large canal or passage, which
divaricates in such a manner as to present two outlets
to the surface ol the ground. These recesses are prepared
on the declivity of elevated spots; and the cavern or
receptacle is well lined with moss and hay, which they
prepare during summer, as if conscious of the necessity
of providing for their long hybernal sleep. In fine
weather they are seen sporting about the neighbourhood
of their burrows, and delight in basking in the sunshine,
frequently assuming an upright posture, sitting on their
hind feet. When assembled in tins manner, it is
observed, that one of the exterior number seems to act
as a sentinel; and on the approach of any danger,
alarms the fraternity by a loud shrill whistle, on which
they instantly retire to their cavern. These animals
make no provision for winter; but as soon as the
autumnal frosts commence, they carefully stop up the
entrances to their mansions, and gradually fall into a
state of torpidity, in which they continue till the arrival
ol spring, when they again awake, and recommence
their excursions. Before they retire to their winter
quarters they are observed to grow excessively fat; and,
on the contrary, appear greatly emaciated on first
emerging Irom them. If carefully dug up during the
winter, from their holes, they may be conveyed away
in their sleeping state; and when brought into a warm
chamber, gradually awaken, nearly in the same manner
as the hamster. If kept in a warm situation, they do
not become torpid in winter. They breed early in
summer, and the litter commonly consists of three or
four, the growth of which is observed to be very rapid.
When taken young, the marmot may be easily tamed,
and is often taught to perform various gesticulations.
In a domestic state it will also eat almost any kind of
animal or vegetable food, and is extremely fond of milk.
In feeding it generally sits in an upright position, mak¬
ing use of its paws in the manner of a squirrel.
Genus 32. Sciurus. Squirrels. Scfuros.
Upper front teeth wredged; lower sharp. Upper grind¬
ers five on each side, lower four. Clavicles. Tail
in most species spreading towards each side.
The beautiful animals which compose this genus are
remarkable for the liveliness of their disposition, the ra¬
pidity of their movements, and the general neatness and
elegance of their appearance. A few of the species are
furnished with an expansile lateral skin, similar to that
in the calugo, by means of which they are enabled to
spring to a great distance, and to transport themselves
occasionally from tree to tree. Like the calugo, they can-
3 S 2 not,
508 M A M M
History of not, however, continue this motion, and are therefore
the Species, improperly called ftymg squirrels. T-he squnrels in-
v habit woods, and prepare their nests in hollow trees.
They live entirely on vegetable food.
There are 26 species, viz.
A. Not striped.
1. S. Maximus, Great S. Kusty, yellowish below,
with the outsides ot the limbs and tail black.-—2. >S. Ma-
dagascariensis, Madagascar S. Black, with the nose,
cars, and under parts yellowish white, and very long ta¬
pering tail.—3. S. Macrourus, Long-tailed S. Lark
brown, yellowish white below, with the tail twice the
length of the body.—4* ^ Bicolor, Javan S. Black¬
ish, fulvous below, with pointed beardless ears, and
large rounded thumb claw.—5* Anomalus, Geor¬
gian S. Dusky rusty, with tail and lower parts ful¬
vous, and rounded beardless ears.—6. &. Brythrceus,
Buddy S. Yellowish brown, with the under parts and
tail red rusty, and ciliated ears.—7. S. Indians, Bom¬
bay S. Purple brown ; yellow below j tip ot the tail
orange-coloured.—8. * S. Vulgaris, Common S. Red¬
dish "brown, white below, with pencilled ears.—9.
S. Cinereus, Gray S. Ash-coloured, white below, with
beardless ears.—10. S. Niger, Black S. Black, with
beardless ears.—II. S. Hudsomus, Hudsons Bay o.
Iron gray, dashed with rusty, whitish below, with dusky
side-stripe, and lance-shaped tail edged with black.-
12. S. Persicus, Persian S. Dusky, yellow below, with
white sides, beardless ears, and blackish gray tail, with
a white band.—13. S. Flavus, Fair S. Yellow, with
roundish ears and five-toed feet.—14* dEstuans, Bra¬
silian S. Dusky j yellow below, with longitudinal white
stripe in the middle.
B. Striped or var iegated.
15.5. Variegatus, Coquallin S. Rustyish, orange-
tawney below, with the upper parts varied crosswise
with black, brown, and whitish.—16. <S. Mexicanus,
Mexican S. Ash brown, with five or seven longitudi¬
nal white stripes.—17. S. Getulus, Barbary S. Brown,
with four longitudinal white stripes.—18. >S. Palmarvm,
Palm S. Brown, pale below, marked above with three
longitudinal yellowish stripes, and the tail with blackish
ones.—19. S. Ginginianus, Gingi S. Gray brown,
with a longitudinal white stripe on each side, and black¬
ish tail.—20. S. Degas, Chilian S. Yellowish brown,
with a black stripe on each shoulder.—-21. S. Stnatus,
Striped S. Yellowish brown, with five longitudinal
blackish stripes.
C. Flying Squir rels.
22. S. Volans, Common flying S. Pale gray, white
below, with the side skin dilated into a flying mem¬
brane —23. S. Volucella, Virginian flying S. Brown,
yellowish white below, with a flying membrane.—24.
S. Sahrinus, Severn flying S. Rusty brown yellowish
white below, with flattish villous tail.—25. S.Sagitta.
Hooded flying S. Rusty brown, pale rusty below, with
the flying membrane commencing on each side o the
head.—26. & Petaurista, Taguan S. Chesnut-colour-
ed ; pale rusty beneath, with very long, round, taper-
Vulgaris, villous tail. . „ , .
Common ^ ^ Vulgaris, Common Squirrel.—The tail of this
species is long enough to cover the whole body, and is
ALIA. Part II.
covered with long hairs, disposed on each side horizon- Glires.
tally, which gives it a great breadth. These serve a'■““■“v——^
double purpose. When erected, they prove a secure
protection from the injuries of heat or cold : When ex¬
tended, they are very instrumental in promoting those
vast leaps the squirrel takes from tree to tree. On the
authority of Klein and Linnaeus, we may add a third
application of the form of the tail. These naturalists
tell us, that when the squirrel is disposed to cross a ri¬
ver, a piece of bark is the boat, the tail the sail.
This animal is remarkably neat, lively, active, and
provident, never leaves its food to chance, but secures
in some hollow tree a vast magazine of nuts for winter
provision. In the summer it feeds on the buds and
young shoots, and is particularly fond of those of the fir
and pine, and also of the young cones. It makes its
nest of moss or dry leaves, between the fork ot two
branches, and brings forth four or five young at a time.
Squirrels are in heat early in the spring, when it is very
diverting to see the female feigning an escape from the
pursuit of two or three males, to observe the various
proofs they give of their agility, which is then exerted
in full force.
The colour of the whole head, body, tail, and legs
of this animal, is a bright reddish brown : the belly
and breast Avhite. In some parts of Wales there is a
variety of the squirrel kind, with a cream-coloured tail.
The ears are very beautifully ornamented with long
tufts of hair, of a deeper colour than those of the body.
The eyes are large, black, and lively. The fore teeth
strong, sharp, and well adapted to its food. The legs
are short and muscular j the toes long and divided to
their origin : the nails strong and sharp } in short, in
all respects fitted for climbing, or clinging to the small¬
est boughs. On the fore feet it has only four toes, with
a claw in the place of the thumb or interior toe . on the
hind feet there are five toes. When it eats or dresses
itself, it sits erect, covering the body with its tail, and
making use of the fore legs as hands. It is observed
that the gullet of this animat is very narrow, to prevent
it from disgorging its food, in descending of trees, or in
down leaps.
In northern climates these animals change their co¬
lour to gray on the approach of winter and it is singu¬
lar that this change will take place, even though they
are kept in the warmth of a stove.
127
Genus 33. Myoxus. Dormice. Myoxus.
Front teeth two •, upper wedged, lower compressed.
Grinders four in each jaw. Whiskers long. Tad
cylindric, villous, thicker towards the end. Legs of
equal length j fore feet four-toed.
There are seven species, viz.
1. M. Glis, Fat D. Gray, whitish below.—2. M.
Nitela, Garden D. Rufous, grayish white below, with
a black mark above the eyes and behind the ears.—
3. M. DryaSy Wood D. Grayish rufous, whitish be¬
low, with a straight black stripe across the eyes to the
ears.—4. * M. Muscardinus, Common D. Rufous,
with whitish throat, and the thumbs of the hind feet
without claws.—5. M. Chrysurus, Gilt-tailed D. Purp¬
lish brown, with the hind part of the tail and longitu¬
dinal stripe on the head gold yellow.—6. M. Gnerlin-
gus, Guerlinguet D. Rusty, yellowish rufous beneath.
rlil'CS.
, n8 .
utcardi-
C om¬
ul Dor¬
is?.
s-SS-
hap. IV. M A M M
with long rather depressed tapering tail.—7. M. Afri-
1 cams, African D. Rusty gray, whitish below, with a
white superciliary and lateral line; tail black in the
middle, and claws on the fore feet very long.
4. M. Muscardinus, Common D.—The size of the
dormouse is equal to that of a mouse, but has a plumper
appearance, and the nose is blunter; the eyes are large,
black, and prominent 5 the ears broad, rounded, thin,
and semitransparent. The fore feet are furnished with
four toes, the hind feet with five $ but the interior toes
of the hind feet are destitute of nails. The tail is about
two inches and a half long, covered on every side with
hair; the head, back, sides, belly, and tail, are of a
tawney red colour 5 the throat white.
These animals seldom appear far from their retreats,
or in any open place, for which reason they seem less
common in England than they really are. They make
their nests of grass, moss, and dead leaves, and usually
bring forth three or four young at a time.
This animal agrees with the squirrel with respect to
its food, residence, and in many of its actions j but it
wants much of the sprightliness of that animal, never
aspiring to the tops of trees, nor, like it, attempting to
bound from spray to spray. Like the squirrel, it forms
little magazines of nuts for winter provisions, takes its
food in the same manner, and same upright posture.
The consumption during the rigour of the season is but
small, for it sleeps most part of the time, retiring into
its hole at the first approach of the winter, where it lies
torpid for the greatest part of that gloomy season. In
that space it sometimes experiences a short revival, in a
warm sunny day, when it takes a little food, and then
relapses into its former state.
ALIA.
5°9
129
*1?
^■iion
a*.
Genus 34. Dipus. Jerboa.
Front teeth two both above and below. Fore legs very
short} hind legs very long. Clavicles.
There are six species, viz.
1. D. Sagitta, Common Jerboa.—Pale brown, white
beneath, with extremely long three-toed hind feet, and
very long tail, with subpinnated black and white tip.—
2. D. Jacidus, Alagtaga J. Pale brown j white below,
with extremely long five-toed hind feet, and very long
tail, with subpinnated black and white tip.—3. Z). Ca-
fer, Cape J. Rusty, pale ash-coloured below, with
five-toed fore feet, four-toed hind feet, and very vil¬
lous tail, tipped with black.—4. D. Meridianus, Tor¬
rid J. Yellowish brown, white below, with about four
toes on the fore feet and five-toed hind feet, and taper¬
ing tail.—5. Id. Tamaricinus, Tamarisk J. Yellow¬
ish brown j white below, with about four toes on the
fore feet, five-toed hind feet, and tapering tail obscure¬
ly ringed with brown.—6. D. Canadensis, Canadian J.
Yellowish brown, whitish below, with four-toed fore
feet, five-toed hind feet, the tail long and mouse¬
like.
1. Z). Sagitta, Common J.—This animal appears to
have been known to the ancients, under the name of
ftvs or two-footed mouse, and is represented,
though not very correctly, on some coins of Cyrene,
where it is found in great abundance. By some it is
supposed to be the saphan of the sacred writings (in our
translation rendered coney'), though this is denied by Mr
Bruce. It is found in Egypt, Barbary, Palestine, in
2
the deserts between Bassora and Aleppo-, the sandy History of
tracts betvyeen the Don and Volga, and some other the Species
parts of Asia. M. Sonnini has given a long account of1' "■“’v"''" 1
it, as he found it in Egypt, and from this we shall ex¬
tract the following description.
“ Its size is nearly equal to that of a large rat. Its
head is broad, large in proportion to the body, the up¬
per part flat, and of a light fawn colour, striped with
black ; the upper jaw projects beyond the lower : they
are both provided with two cutting teeth j the upper
ones broad, square, flat, and divided lengthwise by a
groove in the middle: the lower ones longer, convex
externally, pointed at the extremity, and bent inwards.
I he muzzle is short, wide, and obtuse a number
of stiff hairs grow out on each side, and form long
whiskers. The nose is white, bare, and cartilaginous.
The iris of its large and projecting eye is brown j the
ears long, large, and covered with hair, so short that
they appear naked except on very close inspection j ex¬
ternally they are white in the lower part, and gray up¬
wards : their middle, as well as the sides of the head,
is of a very light fawn colour, mixed with gray and
black : they entirely surround the meatus auditorius for
about one-third of their length, so that they exactly re-
semble the larger end of a cone. This conformation
must increase the animal’s faculty of hearing, and is
particularly well calculated to defend the inner part of
the organ from the extraneous substances that might
lodge there. The body is short, well provided with
long, soft, silky hair ; that which covers the back and
sides is of an ash colour throughout almost the whole of
its length, and of a light fawn colour where it ap¬
proaches the points, which are blacky but as the ash-
coloured part is not visible, it may be said that the fur
is fawn-coloured, with blackish zigzag stripes. These
tints, which are somewhat dusky, form an agreeable
contrast with the fine white of the belly. The fore legs
are so short that they scarcely extend beyond the hair:
they are white, and have five toes, the inner of which
is short, rounded at the end, and has no nail. The
four other toes, the second outer one of which is the
longest, are long, and armed with great hooked nails ;
the heel is very high, and the middle of the foot is na¬
ked and of a flesh colour. These fore feet are of no use
to the animal in walking, but serve him only to lay
hold of his food, and to carry it to Ins mouth, as also
to dig his subterraneous abode. The hind legs are co¬
vered with long hair, fawn-coloured and white *, its
long feet are almost entirely bare, especially on the out¬
side, which must necessarily be the case, since the ani¬
mal, whether in motion or at rest, constantly leans on
that part. Those feet, so exceedingly long, have each
three toes $ the middle one something longer than the
other two 5 they are all provided with nails, which are
short, but broad and obtuse j they have also at the heel
a kind of spur, or rather a very small rudiment of a
fourth toe, which gives the jerboa of Egypt some resem¬
blance to the alagtaga of Tartary, described by Gmelin
in the Petersburgh Transactions, and which part proba¬
bly escaped Hasselquist, as well as many others. The
toes and the heel are furnished below with long gray
hairs tinged with yellow, except that at the origin of
the toes, which is of a blackish cast j the nails, both of
the fore and hind feet, are of a dirty white. Accord¬
ing to Hasselquist the tail of the jerboa is three times
the*
5io
, *3*
Lepus.
History of the length of the body. I never, says Sonnim, found it
the Species. much more than half that length. It scarcely exceeds
' the circumference of a goose quill, but is of a quadran¬
gular and not a round shape. It is of a deeper gray
above than below, and is furnished with short hairs as
far as the extremity, which ends in a tuft of long silky
* Sonninis }iajr? jialf black and half gray
Travels in ThJs an;mal is as singular in its motions as in its
■BgyPL form> It always stands erect on its hind feet, the fore
feet performing the office of hands. It runs fast, and,
when pursued, jumps five or six feet from the ground j
burrows like rabbits ; keeps close in the day} sleeps
rolled up } is lively during night j when taken, emits a
plaintive feeble note j feeds on vegetables, and ^has
great strength in its fore feet. Two which Mr 1 en-
nant saw living in London, burrowed almost through
the brick wall of the room they were in, came out of
their hole at night for food, and, when caught, were
much fatter and sleeker than when confined to then
box. . .
The jerboa is easily tamed. M. Sonnim kept six ot
them for some time in a large iron cage, but found it
was very difficult to preserve them, owing to their great
tenderness.
Genus 35. Lefus. Habes and Rabbits.
Front teeth two in each jaw, the upper pair duplicate j
two small inner teeth standing behind the outer.
This genus approaches very nearly to the order of
Pecora, and it has even been supposed that the com¬
mon hare actually ruminates j an opinion which is ow’-
ing not merely to the peculiar motions of its mouth, si¬
milar to those in ruminating animals, but to the struc¬
ture of the stomach, which appears to be divided into
two regions by a particular fold. All the species are
herbivorous.
There 12 species, viz.
1. * Z. Tiinidus, Common H. Ilustyish brown, short-
tailed, with ears longer than the head and tipped with
black.—2. * L. Variabilis, Varying H. T-awney-gray,
short-tailed, (white in winter) with ears shorter than the
head, and tipped with black.—3. Z. Americanus, A-
merican H. Tawney-gray, short-tailed, white below,
with the hind legs longer than the body, and the ears
and tail tipped with gray.—4. Z. Zo/m, Baikal H.
Pale brown, short-tailed, with the upper edges of the
ears black.—5. * Z. Cuniculus, Rabbit. Short-tailed,
brown, with the tips of the ears black, and the hind
legs shorter than the body.—6. Z. Brasiliensts^ Biazi-
lian H. Tailless, brown, white below, with a white
collar round the neck.—7. Z. Capensis, Cape H. Brown,
with reddish legs, and tail the length of the head.—
8. Z. Visaccia, Visaccia. Brownish, with long bristly
tail.—9. Z. Alpinus, Alpine H. Tailless, rusty, with
rounded ears and brownish feet.—10. Z. 0got ana, O-
gotana H. Tailless, pale brown, with oval sharpish
ears of the same colour.—II. Z. Pusillus, Calling H.
Tailless, gray-brown, with nearly triangular ears edged
with white.—12. Z. Minimus, Minute H. Short-tail¬
ed, brown, long-nosed, Avith small hairy pointed eais.
Timddus, i. Z. Timidus, Common H.—To describe an animal
Common so w'ell known would be superfluous ; we may on y re-
Harc. mark, that nature, ever kind and provident, 111 pity to
i lg' 6o* its defenceless state against its numerous enemies, has
MAMMALIA. Fart II
bestowed on it many faculties, by which it is frequent- Glires.
ly enabled to evade their pursuit. Fearful of every1 _
danger, and attentive to every alarm, the hare is conti¬
nually upon the watch, and being provided with very
long ears, moveable at pleasure, and easily directed to
every quarter, is warned of the most distant approaches
of danger. Its eyes are large and prominent, adapted
to receive the rays of light on every side, and give no¬
tice of more immediate alarms. To these may be add¬
ed its great swiftness, by which it soon leaves most of
its pursuers far behind.—The hind are much longer
than the fore legs, and are furnished with strong mus¬
cles, which give the hare a singular advantage in run¬
ning up a hill •, and, as if sensible of its powers in this
respect, it is always observed to fly towards rising ground
when first started.
Thus formed for escape, the hare might be supposed
to enjoy a state of tolerable security ; but as every ra¬
pacious creature is its enemy, it is seldom permitted to
live out its natural term. Dogs and foxes pursue it by
instinct} wild cats and weasels of all kinds, catch and
devour it \ birds of prey are still more dangerous ene¬
mies, whilst man, far more powerful than all, makes
use of every artifice to obtain an animal which consti¬
tutes one of the numerous delicacies of his table. If
we were to enumerate the various stratagems which in¬
genuity has suggested to circumvent this persecuted
creature, we would willingly omit the notable atchieve-
ments and gallant exploits of the chase, which to a
cool and dispassionate observer, seem to demand a no¬
bler game. This animal has also another means of safety
from her colour very much resembling that of th(*
ground where she sits. In the colder regions she is said
to become white during the winter, when the ground is
covered with snow.
The hare is very prolific, breeds four or five times in
the year, goes with young 30 days, and generally pro¬
duces three or four at a litter. They are first in heat
about February. Hares generally keep within their
seats during the day, going out only at night in search
of food, and they always return to their forms by the
same paths by which they left them.
The following instances of the sagacity of the hare,
in endeavouring to escape from its enemies, are quoted
by Mr Bewick. Touilloux says, he has seen a hare
start from its form at the sound ot the hunter s hoin,
run towards a pool of w7ater at a considerable distance,
plunge itself in, and swim to some rushes in the middle,
where it lay down, and concealed itself from the pur¬
suit of the dogs. He mentions another, which, after
running twm hours before the dogs, pushed a hare fiom
its seat, and took possession of it. Others he has seen
run into a sheepfold, and lie down among the sheep 5
and some have effected their escape by mounting an old
w!all, and clapping themselves down in the midst of the
ivy which covered it.
The hare has been sometimes tamed, and rendered
very familiar. When Dr Townson was at Gottingen,
he had a young hare that became so frolicsome in the
evenings, as to run about upon the sofa and bed, sit
upon its hind legs, and pat him with its fore feet ; and
while he was reading, it would even knock the book
out of his hand. Mr Borlase saw a hare that was so fa¬
miliar as to feed from the hand, lay under a chair 111 a
common sitting room, and appeared, in every other re-
spect,
GUres.
133
■niculvs,
tbbit.
bap. IV. M A M
spect, as easy and comfortable in its situation as a lap-
dog. It now and then went out into the garden 5 but
after regaling itself, always returned to the house as its
proper habitation. Its usual companions were a grey¬
hound and a spaniel, both so fond of hare-hunting, that
they often went out together without any person ac¬
companying them. With these two dogs this tame hare
spent its evenings ; they always slept on the same
hearth, and very frequently it would rest itself upon
them.
The fur of the hare is used for hats j and for this pur¬
pose many thousands of their skins are imported into
this country from Russia, besides what are collected
here.
5. L. Cuniculus, the Rabbit.— Respecting an animal
so well known as the rabbit, we shall remark only, that
its fecundity is truly astonishing. It breeds seven times
in the year, and generally produces eight young at a
time. Hence it is calculated, that the produce of a
single pair may, in the course of four years, amount to
the amazing number ef 1,274,840, so that if frequent
reductions were not made by various ways, there is rea¬
son to apprehend that they would soon exceed the means
of their support, and overrun the face of the country.
They are, however, exposed to numerous enemies. Be¬
sides the havock made among them by man for their
flesh and skins, which latter are also used in the manu¬
facture of hats, they are the prey of foxes, weasels,
polecats, and other beasts of prey.
The rabbit is often kept in a domestic state; but the
flesh of the domestic rabbit is far inferior to that of the
wild animal.
Genus 36. Hyrax. Hyrax, or Daman.
Front teeth in the upper jaw two, broad, and rather
distant j in the lower four, broad, flat, twice notch¬
ed. Grinders four on each side in both jaws, large.
Fore feet four-toed 5 hind feet three-toed. No tail
or clavicles.
There are three species, viz.
1. H. Capensis, Cape H. Gray brown, paler be¬
low, with flat nails on the fore feet, and a single sharp
crooked claw on the hind feet.—2. H. Syi iactis, Syrian
H. Reddish gray, white below, with three-toed feet,
and nearly equal claws.—3. H. Hudsonius, Hudson’s
bay H. Ash brown, with the hair whitish at the tips,
and all the feet four-toed.
A long account is given of the second species in Mr
Bruce’s Travels to Abyssinia. Mr Bruce calls it as-
koko, and supposes it to be the saphan or coney of the
sacred writings. For his description we must refer to
the work itself.
This order contains 11 genera and 124 species.
MALI A.
511
History of
the Species.
I3S
’ax.
Chap. V. PECORA.
Genus 37. Camelus, Camels.
Horns wanting. Front teeth in the lower jaw six }
rather thin and broad. Canine teeth distant, three
in the upper jaw, two in the lower. Upper lip di¬
vided.
There are usually enumerated seven species, viz.
1. C. Dromcdarius, Arabian C. With a single
bunch on the back.—2. C. Bactrianus, Bactrian C.
With two bunches on the back.—3. C. Glama, Glama.
Pale rusty, whitish below, with level back and pectoral
bunch.—4. C. Vicugna, Vicuna. Purplish brown, whit¬
ish below, with level woolly back, blunt snout, and up¬
right tail.—5. C. Paco, Paco. Purplish brown, wool¬
ly, white below, with oblong snout.—6. C. Huanacus,
Guanaco. Tawney, white below, with gibbous back,
and upright tail.—7. C. Ai'curanus,C\n\\\m(]}ie. With
smooth woolly body, curved snout, and pendulous ears
and tail. 136
1. C. Dromcdarius, Arabian Camel. Dromedary. Dromedary,
A single bunch on the back.—This species is thus de- or Arat>ian
scribed by Dr Shaw.
The general height of the Arabian camel, measured ln 7
from the top of the dorsal bunch to the ground, is about
six feet and a half} but from the top of the head, when
the animal elevates it, not less than nine feet. The
head, however, is generally so carried as to be nearly
on a level with the bunch, or rather below it, the ani¬
mal bending the neck extremely in its general posture.
The head is small} the neck very long } the body of a
long and meagre shape } the legs rather slender, and
the tail, which is slightly tutted at the end, reaches to
the joint of the hind legs. The feet are very large,
and are hoofed in a peculiar style, being divided into
two lobes not reaching through the whole length of the
foot} and the extremity of each lobe is guarded by a
small hoof. The under part of the foot is covered with
an extremely strong, tough, and pliable skin, which,
by yielding in all directions, enables the animal to tra¬
vel with peculiar ease and security, over dry, stony, and
sandy regions. On each leg are six callosities, viz. one
on each knee, one on the inside of each fore leg on the
upper joint, and one on the inside of each hind leg at
the bottom of the thigh. On the lower part of the
breast is also a large callus or tough tubercle (g).
The camel is generally of a dusky-brown colour, with
a rusty tinge.
Its hair is very fine and soft, and is employed in
making pencils for painters, and in the manufacture of
various stuffs.
This
(g) It was formerly supposed that, besides the four stomachs common to all ruminating animals, the camel had
a sort of fifth stomach or appendage to the second stomacli, calculated for receiving a large quantity of water to
supply the animal in his long journeys over the deserts. There is no such reeeptacle : but in the first, and more
especially the second stomach, there are several row's of cells, furnished round their edges with strong muscular
fibres, by which they can be closed at pleasure. Into these cells part of the wrater which the camel drinks, is, by
a peculiar mechanism, received, and retained, in a pure state, till the animal has occasion for it. In an interest¬
ing paper on this subject in the Philosophical Transactions for 1806, Mr Home has given a comparative view of
the structure of the stomachs in the ox and the camel, illustrated by plates.
2
"M A M M
History of This animal attains its full strength at about the age
the Species, of six years, and lives about 40 years, or sometimes $0.
' ' v Only the males are usually employed for labour ^ the
females being kept for breeding, and suflered to range
at liberty. These go with young about 12 months, and
usually bring forth one at a time.
The camel is found wild in the deserts of Arabia, in
•Africa, and in most of the temperate parts of Asia. It
is domesticated chiefly among the Arabs, of whom it
forms the principal riches.
We are chiefly acquainted with this animal in a state
of domestication; and to this state only the accounts
that have been given of him are applicable. A few
days after birth the legs of the young camels are fold¬
ed up below their belly, and they are constrained to
remain in this position* on the ground, and are loaded
with a pretty heavy weight, which is never taken oil
but to replace it by a greater. Instead of allowing
them to feed and drink at pleasure, they begin by regu¬
lating their repasts, and increasing the intervals between
them, and diminishing the quantity of their nourish¬
ment. When they have acquired a little more strength
they are exercised in running, in which they are ex¬
cited to emulation by the example of horses ; and thus
in time they become both robust and active.
Thus instructed, the camels traverse with great rapi¬
dity the immense deserts of Arabia, marching night
and day almost without stopping, and almost without
taking food or drink. They are often made with ap¬
parent ease to travel 300 leagues in eight days ; and
during the whole of this time they are allowed but one
hour of the day for repose, and for nourishment: often
they will run for even nine or ten days without finding
water ; but when they happen to find water at some
distance in their route, if permitted, they eagerly make
towards it, and are said to scent it at more than half a
league’s distance.
The march of camels across the sandy plains of Ara¬
bia has been elegantly described by Button. “ Figure
to yourself (says this animated writer) a country with¬
out verdure and without water, a burning sun, an air
always parched, sandy plains, mountains still more
adust, which the eye runs over without perceiving an
animated being; a dead earth perpetually tossed with
the wind, and presenting nothing hut hones, scattered
flints, rocks perpendicular or overturned 5 a desert to¬
tally void, where the traveller never breathes under a
shade, where nothing accompanies him, nothing recals
the idea of animated nature 5 absolute solitude, more
dreadful than that of the deepest forests : more soli¬
tary and naked, more lost in an unlimited wild, he
every where beholds space surrounding him like a
tomb *, - the light of day, more dismal than the dark¬
ness of night, serves only to give him a clear idea of
his own .wretchedness and impotence, and to conceal
from his view the boundaries of the void, by extend¬
ing around him that immense abyss, which separates
him from the habitable parts of the earth.
“ The Arab, however, by the assistance of his .ca¬
mel} has learned to surmount, and even to appropriate
these frightful intervals of nature. They serve him
for an assylumy they secure his repose, and maintain
his independence ; but man never uses any thing with¬
out abuse. This same free, independent, tranquil, and
even rich Arab, instead of regarding his deserts as
A L I A. Parti
the ramparts of his liberty, pollutes them with his Peeora,
crimes •, he traverses them to carry oft’ goods and slaves -v~
from the adjacent nations •, he employs them for per¬
petrating his robberies, which unluckily he enjoys
more than his liberty, for his enterprises are almost al¬
ways successful •, notwithstanding the vigilance of his
neighbours and the superiority of their strength, he car¬
ries off with impunity all that he ravishes from them.
An Arab who gives himself up to this kind of land
piracy, is early accustomed to the fatigues of travel¬
ing, to want of sleep, and to hunger, thirst, and heat,
and with the same view he uses and instructs his ca¬
mels. After he is certain of the strength, fleetness, and
sobriety of his camels, he loads them both with his own
and their food, sets off with them, arrives unperceived
at the confines of the desert, robs the first passenger he
meets, pillages the solitary houses, loads his camels with
the booty; and, if pursued, he is obliged to accelerate
his retreat. It is on these occasions, that he unfolds his
own talents and those of the camels; he mounts one oi
the fleetest, and conducts the troop, and makes them
travel night and day, without almost either stopping,
eating, or drinking ; and in this manner he easily per¬
forms a journey of 300 leagues in eight days. During
this period of motion and fatigue his camels are perpe¬
tually loaded.”
In Turkey, Persia, Arabia, Egypt, and Barbary, the
only means of transporting merchandise is by camels,
as this is of all others the cheapest and most expediti¬
ous method. The merchants and other travellers unite
in a caravan, in order to avoid the insults, piracies,
and robberies of the Arabs. These caravans always
consist of a greater number of camels than of men }
each of these animals is loaded according to his strength,
and he so well knows the proper extent of his load,
that when he is overloaded, he utters the most lamen¬
table cries, and continues lying down till his burden
is lightened. The large camels usually carry 10 or
even 12 hundred weight, and the smaller 6 or 7 hun¬
dred weight.
In these commercial journeys they never hurry the
camels in their march, but regulate their days work $
they generally go a certain space, and travel about 10
or x 2 leagues every day 5 every evening their load is
taken off, and they are suffered to feed at liberty. If
they are in a country abounding with herbage, they
usually eat as much in an hour as is sufficient to serve
them for the next twenty-four hours } and, during the
remainder of the night, they continue to ruminate :
but they seldom find such good pasturage } and indeed
this delicate nourishment does not appear to be neces¬
sary for them j they even seem to prefer wormwood,
thistles, nettles, broom, cassia, and other prickly plants,
to more pleasant herbage. So long as they find plants
to browse, they easily go without drink.
Nothing is more admirable than their docility. At
the first sign they how their knees, and crouch to the
earth to suffer themselves to he loaded in this situation,
and, when loaded, they rise of their own accord without
assistance. They follow exactly the motions of their con¬
ductor, and require neither whip nor spur to urge them
forward 5 but, when they begin to be fatigued, their mas¬
ters support their spirit, or rather beguile their fatigue,
by singing or by the sound of musical instruments*
When they wish to prolong their journey, they glV®
I hap. V. MAMMALIA.
Pecora. them only an hour for repose ; and then resuming their
—V""”' song, they continue the march for several hours longer,
and give over singing only when they intend to stop j
then the camels crouch again with their burdens, from
which they are freed by loosening the cords and fasten¬
ings on each side, while the poor animals remain kneel¬
ing on the eartl), and sleep in this posture in the midst
of their baggage. Mr Pennant and some other writers
tell us, that camels are made to go more expeditiously
by being whistled to by the drivers ; but this is at least
not an universal practice, as we are told by Sonnini,
that the Bedouin Arabs, who possess great numbers
of camels, not c-nly never use whistling themselves,
hut express much uneasiness when they hear others
whistle.
When the caravan on these long journeys across the
deserts find themselves in want of water, and have no
other means of procuring it, it is not uncommon for
them to kill a camel for the sake of the water contained
in his stomach, which is said to be always sweet and
pleasant.
This animal, so patient, and so obedient to the voice of
man, has, however, his periodical fits of rage, at which
he becomes wholly unmanageable. These fits take
place at the rutting season, which happens every year
about spring, and continues about 40 days. At these
times they are quite outrageous, eat little, foam at the
mouth, and bite at other animals, and even their ma¬
sters j and they have been known to take up a man in
their teeth, throw him on the ground, and trample him
under their feet. Though so remarkably docile, except
during the rutting season, they are, however, abundant¬
ly sensible of injustice and ill treatment : and, when
they experience these, they seldom fail to shew their re¬
sentment, and endeavour to wreak their vengeance on
their unfeeling driver, who will not find it easy to escape
their vengeance, as they are said to retain for a long
time the remembrance of an injury. Though eager to
express their resentment, they seem incapable of har¬
bouring any rancour, when they are once satisfied $ and
it is sufficient to make them believe that they have ta¬
ken their desired vengeance on their persecutor. When¬
ever the Arab finds that he has excited the rage of his
camel, as he well knows that the animal will take the
first opportunity of seeking revenge, he lavs down his
clothes in a situation which the animal is to pass, and
arranges them in such a manner as to seem as if he
himself were lying there. The camel recognises the
clothes, seizes them in his teeth, shakes them violently,
and tramples them under his feet j but when his rage
has been thus satisfied, he leaves them, and after this
his owner may approach, load, and guide him as usual.
M. Sonnini says, that he has sometimes seen them, when
weary with the impatience of their riders, stop short,
turn round their long necks to bite them, and utter
cries of rage. Under these circumstances the rider must
be careful not to dismount, or he would infallibly be
torn in pieces j and he must also beware of striking the
beast, as that would only increase his fury. Nothing
can be done but to wait with patience, and endeavour
to appease the animal by patting him with the hand.
When once appeased, which sometimes is not speedily
effected, he can proceed on his journey at his usual
pace.
Vol. XII. Part II. t
Genus 38. MoSCHUS, Musk. History of
Horns wanting ; front teeth eight in the lower jaw j 1—A-' ■
tusks solitary in the upper jaw, exserted. 1 ^7
I here are *7 species, viz. 1. Mosc/ius Moschiferus^
Tibetian Musk. Gray-brown, with umbilical follicle.
-2. M. Indict/s, Indian M. Rufous, whitish below,
with spurious hoofs, and somewhat lengthened tail.—-
3. M. Pygmams, Pygmy M. Reddish-bi own, white be¬
low, without false hoofs.—4. M. Meminna, Meminna.
Olive ash, white below, with the sides spotted with
white, and no false hoofs.—3. M. Javanicus, Java M.
Rusty, longitudinally white beneath, with villous tail,
white below and at the tip, and small appendicular hoofs.
-—6. M. Americanus, American M. Rufous brown,
with black muzzle and white throat.—7. M. Deli-
catuluS)' Leverian M. Rusty brown, spotted above
with white. I,3
Species 1. Mosehvs Moschiferus, Tibetian Musk.— Moschife-
This is an animal of considerable importance, as it isr.MS> Tibe-
from it that the article musk, so useful as a medicine^" ^Iusk*
and perfume, is derived. ^
The size and general appearance of this animal not
ill resemble those of a small roebuck. It measures about
three feet three inches in length, about two feet three
inches in height from the tip of the shoulders to the
bottom of the fore feet, and two feet nine inches from
the top of the haunches to the bottom of the hind feet.
The upper jaw is considerably longer than the lower,
and is furnished on each side with a curved tusk about
two inches long, and consequently exposed to view
when the mouth is closed. These tusks are of a differ¬
ent form from those of any other quadruped, being sharp-
edged on their inner or lower side, so as to resemble in
some degree, a pair of small crooked knives ; their sub¬
stance is a kind of ivory, as in the tusks of the babyrussa
and some other animals. The ears are long and narrow,
of a pale yellow on the inside, and deep brown on the
outside; the chin is of a yellowish cast; the general
colour of the whole body a kind of deep iron-gray, the
tips of the hairs being of a rusty cast, the remainder
blackish, growing much paler or whitish towards the
roots. Each hair is somewhat waved throughout its
whole length $ and is of a strong elastic nature, grow¬
ing somewhat upright on the animal, and very thick.
In some specimens the cheeks are whitish, and the sides
of the neck marked by a longitudinal whitish band,
descending to the breast, while the flank and sides are
obscurely striped by a few waved whitish streaks 5 in
others the colour is uniform, or as at first described j
the hoofs are long and black, the tail extremely short,
and so concealed by the fur as to be scarcely, if at all,
visible on a general view.
The female is smaller than the male, and wants the
tusks j it has also two small teats.
The musk animal is principally found in the king¬
dom of Tibet, in the province of Mohang Meng, Ton-
quin, and Boutan j and it is also found about the lake
Baikal, and near the rivers Jenisea and Argun. Its
favourite haunts are the tops of mountains covered with
pines, where it delights to wander in places of the most
difficult access, bounding with great celerity, and,
when pursued, taking refuge among the most inacces¬
sible summits.
3 T It
t
Si4 M A M M
History of It is hunted for the sake of the musk contained in its
the Species, umbilical follicle, which is an oval receptacle, peculiar
^—  ' to the male, about the size of a small egg, hanging from
the middle of the belly. As soon as the animal is ki 1-
ed, the hunters cut oif the bag and tie it up for sale.
Tavernier informs us, that in one of his eastern jour¬
neys, he purchased no fewer than 7673 of these bags •,
a proof how numerous these animals must be in the east.
For the appearance and uses of musk, with the method
of detecting its adulteration, see Musk, Materia Me-
D!CA Index. Besides the musk that they produce, the
skins of these animals are useful as clothing. I he Bus-
sians scrape off the hair, and prepare the leather, so as
to render it as soft and bright as silk.
139
Cervus.
Gen. 39. Cervus. Deer.
Horns solid, covered while young with a hairy skin,
growing from the top, naked, annual, branched.
Front teeth in the lower jaw eight. Canine teeth
none (sometimes single in the upper jaw).
There are 12 species, viz.—C. Aloes, Elk. Mith
stemless palmated horns, and guttural caruncle.—2. C.
Tarandus, Rein D. Branched, recurvate, round horns,
with palmated extremities.—3. * C. Elaphus, btag.
Reddish brown, with cylindric, recurvate, branching
horns.—4. * C. Damn, Fallow D. Yellowish brown,
with slightly recurvate, compressed, branching horns,
palmated a/the top—5. C. Virginianus, Virginian D.
Pale brown, with slender round branched horns, bending
forward, and slightly palmated at the tip.—6. C. A.ns,
Spotted Axis. Pale reddish brown, spotted with white,
with slender three-forked horns—7. C. Pygargits, Tail¬
less Roe. Tailless, brown, yellowish below, white be¬
hind, with three-forked horns and nose surrounded with
black. 8. C. Mexicanus, Mexican Roe. Red, with
rough three-forked horns, bending forward—9. C. Por-
cinus, Porcine D. Brown, ash-coloured below, with
slender three-forked horns.—10. * C. Capreolus, Com¬
mon Roe. Reddish brown, with branching, upright cy¬
lindric horns, bifid at the top.—H. C. Muntjac, Rib¬
faced D. With three-forked horns rising from a cylin¬
dric hairy base, with the upper fork hooked.—12. C.
Guineensis, Gray D. Gray, blackish below.
; 14° 1. C. Aloes, Elk, or Moose Deer—In conformity
^64 with the opinion of most naturalists, we have given the
0' two English names of Elk and Moose Deer as synony¬
mous, though it is not yet clearly ascertained whether
they are not really distinct species. The elk is by far
the largest of the deer tribe, and if we may believe the
accounts of some travellers, a full grown moose is many
times bigger than an ox, the tips of its horns being some¬
times nearly 12 feet asunder. Its shape is represented as
very inelegant, having a short thick neck, large head,
horns spreading out immediately from the base into a
broad palmated form *, a thick, broad, heavy upper lip,
hanging considerably over the lower j high shoulders
and long legs. Its colour is a dark grayish brown, much
paler, or inclining to whiteness, on the legs, and beneath
the tail. The hair, which is of a strong, coarse, and
elastic nature, is much longer on the top of the shoul¬
ders and on the ridge of the neck than on the other
parts, forming a kind ot stiffish mane 5 beneath the
neck the hair is also of considerable length, and in
same specimens of the animal, a sort of caruncle or
4
ALIA. Part IT.
pendent excrescence, covered with long hair, is seen Pecora.
hanging from beneath the throat ; the eyes and ears v v—-
are large, the hoofs broad, and the tail extremely short.
It is usually bigger than a horse, and Mr Pennant esti¬
mates its greatest height at 17 hands, and its greatest
weight at 1 230 pounds. Its horns sometimes weigh 56
pounds •, and on a moderate calculation, measure each
about 32 inches in length. rIhe female is smaller than
the male, and is destitute of horns.
This animal inhabits both the Old and New Conti¬
nent j but it is commonly called elk on the former, and
moose deer on the latter. In Europe it is found chiefly
in Sweden, Norway, and in some parts of Russia *, m
Asia it is met with most frequently in Siberia, w here it
is of a prodigious size j and in America it is most com¬
mon in Canada, especially about the great lakes. It
usually resides in the midst of forests, where it lives by
browsing on the branches of the trees, as from its long
legs and short neck it cannot easily graze from the
ground. It feeds chiefly by night. Its usual pace is a
high, shambling, but very swift trot, the feet being lift¬
ed very high ; and, according to most writers, the hoofs
during its running separate as they approach the ground
in order to give the animal a better purchase, and come
together again when they rise, producing a clattering
noise that is heard at a considerable distance.
Its faculty of hearing is supposed to be more acute
than either its sight or scent, which renders it very dif¬
ficult to kill it in the summer time, as the Indians have
then no other method of doing it but by creeping after
it among the trees and bushes, till they get within gun¬
shot. In winter, w hen the snow is so hard frozen that
the natives can go upon it in their snow shoes, they are
able frequently to run it down 5 for its slender legs break
through the snow at every step, and plunge them up to
the belly. It is so tender-footed, and so short-winded,
that a good runner will generally tire it in less than a
day } there have been some, however, that have kept
the hunters in chase for two days. On these occasions
the Indians, in general, take with them nothing more
than a knife or bayonet, and a little bag containing
implements for lighting a fire. 'When the poor animal
is incapable of further speed, it stands, and keeps its^
pursuers at bay with its head and lore feet, in the use of
the latter of which it is so dexterous, that the Indians
are generally obliged to lash their knives or bayonets to
the end of a long stick, and stab the elk at a distance.
Some who have neglected this necessary precaution, and
rashly attempted to rush in upon it, have received very
serious blows from its fore feet. When wounded, it
sometimes becomes furious, rushes boldly on the hunters,
and endeavours to tread them down : in this case the
men aie frequently compelled to leave their outer gar¬
ments, and escape into the trees.
When suddenly roused, and endeavouring to make
its escape, the elk is observed at times to fall down, as
if deprived for some moments of motion. Whether
this be owing, as has been frequently imagined, to an
epileptic fit, or whether it merely arises from fear, is not
perhaps easy to determine. The fact, however, is too
well authenticated to admit of our doubting it. This has
given rise to the popular superstition of attributing to the
hoofs the virtue of an antiepileptic medicine j and the
Indians even still imagine that the elk has the power
of curing itself of its own disorder, or of preventing an
approaching
Sibap. V. M A M M
listory of approaching fit, by scratching its ear with the hoof till
rie Species, it draws blood.
The female produces from one to three young at a
time, generally about the end of April or beginning of
May.
The elk is an animal of great utility. Its flesh is eat¬
en, and is reckoned very good, but coarser and tough¬
er than any other kind of venison ; its tongue is excel¬
lent, and the fat of its nose is so much like marrow, as
to be esteemed a great delicacy; its skin makes excel¬
lent tent covers and shoe leather, and the hair of its
hams, which is ot great length, is employed in stuffing
141 saddles.
arandus, 2. C. Tarandus, Rein Deer.—This, in a domestic
cm Deer. p0jnt 0f view> is ti,e most usefui animal to the natives of
the countries where it resides, serving there most of the
purposes of our horses. The height of this species, when
full grown, is about four feet and a half. The body
is rather of a thick and square form, and the legs
shorter in proportion than those of the stag. Its general
colour is brown above, and white below ; but as it ad¬
vances in age, it often becomes of a grayish white, and
sometimes almost entirely white j the space about the
eyes is always black. The hair on the under part of
the neck is of much greater length than the rest, and
forms a kind of hanging beard in that part. Both sexes
are furnished with horns, but those of the male are much
larger and longer than those of the female. The hoofs
are long, large, and black, as are also the false or second¬
ary hoofs behind j and these latter, while the animal is
running, as was remarked of the elk, make a remark¬
able clattering sound, which may be heard at a consi¬
derable distance.
I he female begins to breed at the age of two years,
is in season the latter end of September, goes with young
eight mouths, and generally brings forth two at a time.
I he fondness of the dam for her young is very remark¬
able. They follow her for two or three years, but do
not acquire their full strength until four. It is at this
age that they are trained to labour, and they continue
serviceable four or five years. They seldom live above
15 or 16 years.
The rein deer is found in all the northern regions of
Europe, Asia, and America, particularly in Lapland,
Siberia, and Greenland, where it is employed to draw
the sledges of the inhabitants over the frozen snow. To
this exercise the animals are accustomed from an early
age. They are yoked to the sledge by a collar, from which
a trace is brought under the belly between the legs, and
iastened to the fore part of the sledge. These carriages
are extremely light, and covered at the bottom with the
skin of the rein deer. The person who sits in it guides
the animal with a cord fastened to its horns; he drives
it with a goad, and encourages it with his voice. Those
of the wild breed, though by far the strongest, often
prove refractory, and not only refuse to obey their mas¬
ter, but turn against him, and strike so furiously with
their feet, that bis only resource is to cover himself with
his sledge, upon which the enraged creature vents his
fury. The tame deer, on the contrary, is pliant, active,
and willing. When hard pushed, the rein deer will trot
the distance of 60 miles without stopping; but in such
exertions, the poor obedient creature fatigues itself so
exceedingly, that its master is obliged to kill it im¬
mediately, to prevent a lingering death that would
ALIA.
ensue. In general, they go about 30 miles without
stopping, and that without any dangerous effort. This
mode ot travelling can be performed only in the winter
season, when the face of the country is covered with
snow; and although the conveyance is speedy, it is in¬
convenient, dangerous, and troublesome.
As the rein-deer constitutes the sole riches of the
Laplander, it may well be supposed that a constant at¬
tention to preserve and secure it, forms the chief em¬
ployment of his life. It is no uncommon thing for one
person to possess above 500 in a single herd.
These animals are much tormented by gnats, and a
species of gadfly, called by Linnseus oestrus tarandi. The
havock made among them by the latter is so great, that
their skins are often found pierced almost full of holes.
The rein-deer has sometimes been brought into Eu¬
rope, and Sir H. G. Liddle, Bart, had several of them
in his possession, which he brought over from Lapland.
They do not, however, seem to agree with the more
temperate climates.
142
Camelopar¬
dalis, or
Gen. 40. Camelopardalis, Giraffe.
Horns permanent, bony, covered with a bristly skin,
Front teeth in the lower jaw eight; the exterior one A. 65
on each side deeply bilobate.
This genus was formed to include a single species
that Linnaeus and other naturalists had classed under
cervus; but as the form and connection of its horns
differ very materially from those of the deers and an¬
telopes, it was judged better to constitute of it a new
genus. This animal, with respect to its height, exceeds
all other known quadrupeds, as it measures, when full
grown, nearly 17 feet from the top of the head to the
fore feet. The female is lower than the male. Not¬
withstanding the unusual proportions of this animal, its
general form is in the highest degree elegant and pic¬
turesque ; the bead being small, the aspect mild, the .
neck extremely long and tapering, the fore parts much
higher than the hinder, and the disposition of the co¬
lours singular and pleasing. At first view, the fore
legs seem nearly twice the length of the hind ; but
this difference, on accurate examination, appears to re¬
sult chiefly from the extraordinary height of the shoul¬
ders, compared with that of the thighs ; accordingly,
among the old writers who have described this animal,-
Petrus Gyllius perhaps approaches nearest to the truth,
when he affirms, that all the legs or tibiae of the came-
lopardi are of nearly equal length, but that the fore
thighs are so long in comparison with the hind, that
the back appears inclined like the roof of a bouse.
The ho ns of the camelopai’dalis differ in texture .
from those of all other horned quadrupeds, forming, as
it were, a part of the skull, and consisting of a porous
bony substance covered externally with short, coarse,
bristly hair ; they terminate abruptly, on a flattisb or
slightly convex head, but little wider than the other
part of the horn, and edged with bristles all around the
outline. On the middle of the forehead is a con¬
siderable protuberance, owing to an elevation or bony
rising on that part of the skull. From the head to the
middle of the back runs a short stiffish mane. The tail
is of moderate length, of a cylindrical form, gradually
tapering towards the end, and terminating in a tuft of
lone; hair. The hoofs are moderately large and black.
3 T 2 The
Si6
History of
tUe Species.
MAMMALIA.
Part H.
Antilope.
The fore part of the body is very thick, and muscular,
and the hind part thin and meagre. 'I he ground colour
of the animal is whitish, variegated on all parts with
numerous, moderately large, and somewhat squarish
spots, which in the male are brown, and in the female
rustv. In the younger animals they are sometimes of
a bright reddish-yellow. These marks or spots are of
a somewhat less regular shape on the sides, than on the
neck and shoulders.
This animal is an inhabitant of Africa, where it is
found chiefly in Ethiopia, and other internal parts ot
the country, being rarely met with near the coasts. It
resides in the forests, where it lives by browsing on the
branches of trees. It is of a mild and timid disposition.
When pursued, it trots so fast, that even a good horse
is scarcely able to keep pace with it, and it continues
its course for a long time without requiring rest. When
it leaps, it lifts first the fore legs, and then the hinder
ones, in the manner of a horse whose fore legs are tied
together. Its general position, except when grazing, is,
with the head and neck erect. It feeds principally on the
leaves of trees, and particularly on those of a peculiar
species of mimosa, common in the country where it is
found, to which the extreme length of its legs and neck
admirably adapt it. When it feeds from the ground,
it is under the necessity of dividing its fore legs to
a considerable distance. In preparing to lie down, it
kneels like the camel.
It has been generally supposed that the girafle posses¬
sed neither the power nor the strength to defend itself
against the attacks of other animals •, this, however,
seems to be unfounded, for M.le \ aillant has asserted,
that by its kicks it frequently wearies, discourages, and
distances even the lion. The utility^if the horns appears
to be hitherto unknown } this writer says that they are
not used as weapons of defence.
The giraffe is hunted by the Hottentots for the sake
of its flesh, and its marrow, which latter they esteem
as a great delicay.
Gen. 41. Antilope. Antelopes.
Horns hollow, seated on a bony core, growing upwards,
ringed or wreathed, permanent. Front teeth in the
lower jaw eight. Canine teeth none.
The individuals of this genus, with the exception of
two or three species, inhabit the hottest parts of the
globe, or at least those parts of the temperate zones
that lie so near the tropics as to form a doubtful climate.
None, therefore, except the saiga and the chamois, are
to be met within Europe j and notwithstanding the
warmth of South America is suited to their nature, not
a single species has yet been discovered in any part of
the new world. Their proper climates seem, therefore,
to be those of Asia and Africa, where the species are
very numerous.
As there appears a general agreement in the nature
of the species that form this great genus, it will prevent
needless repetition to observe, that the antilopes are ani¬
mals generally of a most elegant and active make *, of a
restless and timid disposition 5 extremely watchful } ot
great vivacity ■, remarkably swift and agile, and most
of their foundings so light, so elastic, as to strike the
spectator with astonishment. What is very singular is,
that they will stop in the midst of their course, gaze
3
for a moment at their pursuers, and then resume their Pecora.
flight. < 'r~m
As the chase of these animals is a favourite amuse¬
ment with the eastern nations, from that may be collect¬
ed proofs of the rapid speed of the antelope tribe. The
greyhound, the fleetest of dogs, is usually unequal in
the course, and the sportsman is obliged to call in the
aid of the falcon, trained for the purpose, to seize on
the animal, and impede its motions, in order to give
the dogs an opportunity of overtaking it. In India and
Persia a species of leopard is made use of in the chase.
This is an animal that takes its prey not by swiftness of
foot, but by the greatness of its springs, by motions si¬
milar to those of the antelope *, but should the leopard
fail in its first essay, the game escapes.
The fleetness of the antelope was proverbial in the
country it inhabited, even in the earliest times: the
speed of Asahel is beautifully compared to that of the
tzebi, and the Gadites were said to be as swift as the
antelopes upon the mountains. To this day the great¬
est compliment that can be paid to female beauty in the
eastern regions is Aine el c%a%el. You have the eyes
of an antelope.
Some species of antelopes form herds of 2000 or 3000,
while others keep in troops of only five or six. They
generally reside in hilly countries, though some inhabit
plains. They often browse like the goat, and feed on
the tender shoots of trees, from which their flesh ac¬
quires an excellent flavour. 1 he flesh of most of the
species is eaten, but that of some of them is said to taste
of musk.
This is a very numerous genus, and most of the species
are comparatively new, only six having been known to
Linnaeus, who ranked them under the genus Capi'a.
The following are enumerated by Dr Shaw, though he
confesses himself not certain that they are all distinct
species.
A. With straight or nearly, straight horns.
I. Antilope Oryx, Egyptian A. Gray, with black
and white face, dusky dorsal stripe, and very long,
tapering, sharply ringed horns.—2. A. Leucoryx, White
A.- Milk white, with very> long, tapering, slightly-
ringed horns.—3. A. Gaxella, Gazel. Bay, with
slightly bowed, tapex-ing, wrinkled horns.—4. A. Orcas,
Indian A. Slate coloured, with reddish head, black
mane on the neck and breast, and tapering wreathed
horns.—A. Ourebi, Ourebi. Rusty brown, with
the breast, belly, hind part of the thighs, and insides of
the limbs, white •, and small horns.—6. A. Oreotragiis,
Klipspringer. Yellowish tawney •, whitish below, with
very straight upright tapering horns, slightly wrinkled
at their base.—7. A. SanpUts, Harnessed A. Chesnut-
coloured, with white crossed stripes on the sides; and
tapering wreathed horns.—&. A. Giimmia, Guinea A.
Yellowish bay, with short horns, and black bristly tuft
on the forehead.—9. A Pygmeea, Pigmy A. With short
convex horns, wrinkled at the base.
B. With curved, bent, or twisted horns.
10. A. Picta, Nyl-ghau. Slate-coloured, with the
back of the neck and breast maned, the feet barred
with black and white, and somewhat triangular horns
bending forwards.-—11. A. Trajocamelus, Indostan A.
Gray, with maned neck, and breast^ dorsal protuberance,
long
thap. V. - MAMMALIA.
!p£cora. long flock^tail, and tapering horns bending forwards. is considerably smaller
j,;44
J ghau.
^ 66.
'—12. sl. Bubalisy Cervine A. Reddish brown, with
large elongated head, thick, strongly wrinkled, lyrated
horns, and longish tail.—13. A. Strepsiceros, Striped A.
Reddish gray, with compressed spirally ridged horns,
white longitudinal dorsal, and transverse lateral stripes.
14. A. Cervicapra, Common A. Tawney brown, white
below, with round, lyrated, ringed horns.—15. A. Ler-
wia, Gambian A. Reddish, with the nape of the
neck bearded, and recurved wrinkled horns.—16. A.
Saiga, Saiga. Yellowish gray, with distant, semitrans¬
parent, lyrated, and ringed horns.—17 A. Gutturosa,
Chinese A. Tawney, whitish below, with lyrated
yellowish ringed horns, and prominent throat.—18. A.
Subgutturosa Guldensted’s A. Gray-brown, white
below, with lyrated horns, and tumid throat.—19. A.
Euehore, Springer. Yellowish brown, white below,
with dark lateral stripe, lyrated horns, and expansile
white patch above the tail.—20. A. Arundinacea, Rit-
bock. Ash-coloured, white below, with ringed horns,
bending forwards.—21. A. Sylvatica, Bosbock. Brown-
white below, the hind part of the body spotted with
white, the horns spirally, and ringed.— 22. A. E-
leotragus, Cinereous. A. Gray, snow-white below,
with spirally ringed horns.— 23. A. Dorcas, Barbary
A. Fulvous brown, white below, with lateral-brown
band, and lyrated horns.—24. A. Kevella, Flat-horned
A. Tawney-brown, white below, with brown lateral
band, and compressed lyrated horns.—25. A. Pijgars;a,
White-faced A. Rusty< brown, white belowr, with
brown lateral band, white rump, and lyrated horns. 
26. A. Corinna, Corine. Fulvous brown, white be¬
low, Avith dark lateral band, and sublyrated, rather
erect, smoothish horns.—27. A. Sumatrensts, Sumatran
A. Black, with recurved horns, and whitish bristly
mane between the shoulders.—28. A. Leucophcea, Blue
A. Blue gray, Avith roundish arcuated, recurved,
ringed horns.
C. If ith hooked horns.
29. A. Gnu, Gnu. Rusty brown, Avith maned neck,
whitish tail, and horns directed fonvards, and then sud¬
denly backwards.—30. A. Dama, Nanguer. White,
Avith fulvous back, and round horns, incurvated for-
Avards.—31. A. Bidunca, Red A. Red brown, with round
slightly ringed horns, recurved fomards at the tips.—
32. A. Bupicapra, Chamois. RroAvn, with smooth up¬
right horns, Avith the tips hooked forwards.
10. A. Picta, the Nyl-ghau. This curious animal
was first described by Dr W. Hunter, in the Philoso¬
phical Transactions, vol. Ixi. Its height is about four
feet to the top of the shoulders, and it measures nearly
about the same in length from the bottom of the neck
to the base of the tail. It is of a fine slate colour, with
a large Avhite spot below the throat, and two white
bands above each foot. Its ears are large, edged Avith
white, white Avithin, where they are marked with tAvo
black stripes. Along the top of the neck there is a
slight black mane, continued to some distance down the
back, and on the breast there is a much thicker mane$
or tuft of the same colour. The tail is moderately
long, and tufted at the end ; the horns are short, point¬
ed, smooth, and three-cornered at the base. The fe-
a>ale resembles the male in general appearance, but
517
. _ This animal is a native of the History of
interior parts of India, and Avas a favourite object of the Species,
the chase Avith the emperor Aurengzebe. Some years ■'
ago two of them were brought into England, and were
kept some time by Dr Hunter, who has given the fol-
Imving account of its manners.
Although the nyl-ghau is usually reported to be ex-<
ceedingly vicious, yet the one he had the care of Avas
very gentle. It seemed pleased Avith every kind of fa¬
milial ity, ahvays licked the hand which either stroked
it or gave it bread, and never once attempted to use
its horns offensively. It seemed to have much depend¬
ence on the organs of smell, and snuffed keenly, and
with considerable noise, Avhenever any person came
Avitlun sight. It did the same Avhen any food or drink
was brought to it, and was so offended with an uncom¬
mon smell, or was so cautious, that it would not taste
bread that Avas offered Avith a hand that had touched
oil of turpentine or spirits.
Its manner of fighting Avas very particular; this was
observed at Lord Clive’s, Avhere Iavo males Avere put in¬
to a little inclosure, and it Avas thus related by his lord-
ship. While they Avere at a considerable distance from
each other, they prepared for the attack by falling down
upon their fore knees, and Avhen they were come Avith¬
in some yards, they made a spring, and darted against
each other.
At the time that tAvo of them Avere in his stable, Dr
Hunter observed this particularitA', that whenever any
attempt Avas made on them, they immediately fell
doAvn upon their fore knees ; and sometimes they Avould
do so when he came before them ; but as they never
darted, he so little supposed this to be a hostile posture,
that he rather supposed it to be expressive of a timid
humility. «
The intrepidity and force Avith Avhich they dart against
any object may be conceived, from an anecdote that has
been related of the finest and largest of these animals
that has ever been seen in England. A poor labouring
man, Avithout knoAvdng that the animal Avas near him,
and therefore neither meaning to offend, nor suspecting
the danger, came up to the outside of the poles of the
inclosure Avhere it was kept; the nybghau, Avith the
swiftness of lightning, darted against the wood-Avork
Avith such violence that he shattered it to pieces, and
broke off one of his horns close to the root. This vio¬
lence was supposed to occasion his death, which happen¬
ed not long after. From this it appears, that at certain
seasons the animal is vicious and fierce, however gentle
it may be at other times.
Gen. 42. Capra, Goats.
Horns bolloAV, turning upAvards and backwards, rough,
almost close at their base. Front teeth in the Ioavcb
jaAv eight. No tusks. Chin bearded in the male, .
There are eight species ; viz. .
1. C. Ibex, Ibex. Gray broAvn, whitish below, with
large horns, bending over the back ; and bearded
throat.—2. C. Aegagrus, Caucasan I. Gray brown,
white below, with large, keeled, slightly wrinkled,
boAved horns, and bearded throat.—3. * C. Hircus,Com¬
mon G. W ith boAved keeled horns, commonly turning
outwards toAvards the end.—4. C. Mambricu, Syrian G.
With,
r45
Capra.
^i8
mammalia.
Part II
146
Ibex.
*'ig- ^7
llktory of With pendulous ears and horns reclined backwards.—
the Species. (7, Angoj'ensis', Angora (h With very long, pend-
Tri ent, spiially-curled hair.—6. C. Dcpressa, African G.
With very small depressed horns, closely incumbent on
the head.—7. C. lie versa, Whidaw G. With upright
horns, recurved at the tips.—C. Capricornus, Capri¬
corn G. With short horns, turning forwards at the
tips, and ringed on the sides.
1. Ibex, Ibex.—As this is supposed to have been the
original stock from which the common goat has been
derived, we shall here give a short account of it.
This is an animal of great strength and activity, and
is considerably larger than the common goat. It is of
a deep hoary, or grayish brown colour, with a whiter
shade below, and on the insides of the limbs. Hie
body is thick and strong, the head rather small j eyes
large, and the horns very large and long, so as some¬
times to extend the whole length of the body. These
are of a deep brown colour, and are marked above with
transverse semicircular protuberances or knots. T-he
legs are strong, with short hoofs j the tail is short, and
the chin is furnished with a brown or dusky beard. The
female is less than the male, and has smaller horns.
The ibex is found in several parts of Europe and
Asia, chiefly in the mountainous parts of the country,
especially the Carpathian and Pyrenean mountains, the
RliEetian Alps, Mount Taurus, the high lands between
Eastern Tartary and Siberia, and on the mountainous
parts of the island of Candia.
The flesh of the young ibex is said to be in good
esteem as an article of food. Its period of gestation is
said to be the same as in the common goat 5 viz. five
months.
In its general habits or manners the ibex resembles
the common goat, but possesses every attribute of
strength and activity in a degree proportioned to its na¬
tural state of wildness. It delights to climb mountains,
and bang upon the brinks of precipices; and its chase
is in consequence considered, like that of the chamois,
as in the highest degree difficult and laborious. It is
• even said, that when hard pressed, this animal will fling
itself down a steep precipice, and falling on his horns
escape unhurt from its pursuers *, nor will this appear
in the least incredible, if we may rely on the truth of
Motiardcs, who assures us that he saw a Caucasan ibex
leap from the top of a high tower, and, falling on its
horns, immediately spring up on its limbs, and leap
about without having received the least apparent in-
jnry.
Two or three hunters usually associate in this perilous
occupation ; they are armed with rifle-barreled guns,
and furnished with small bags of provisions ; they erect
a miserable hut of turf among the heights, where, with¬
out fire or covering, they pass the night •, and on awa¬
king in the morning, they not unfrequently find the en¬
trance blocked up with snow three or four feet deep.
Sometimes, in pursuit of this animal, being overtaken
by darkness, amid crags and precipices, they are obli¬
ged to pass the whole night standing, and embraced to¬
gether, in order to support each other, and to prevent
themselves from sleeping.
For an account of the common goat, we refer our
readers to Buffon and Mr Pennant’s British Zoology,
where they will meet with every thing of consequence
respecting that useful animal.
PecoraJl
—
I4>7
Gen. 43. Ovis, Sheep.
Horns hollowed, wrinkled, turning backwards, and spi- Ovis.
rally twisted inwards. Front teeth eight in the lower
jaw. Canine teeth none.
There are usually enumerated about eight species.
I. Ovis Ammon, Argali. With arched semicircular
horns, flat below, and loose hairy dewlaps.—2. * 0.
ries. Common S. With compressed lunated horns.—
3. O. Strepsiceros, Cretan S. With upright, keeled,
spirally twisted horns.—4. 0. Polycei'atu. Many-horned
S, O. Guineensis, African 8. With pendulous ears,
loose hairy dewlaps, and head prominent at the back.
 6. O. Laticaudatu, Broad-tailed S.—7. O. Steato-
phyga, Fat-rumped S.—8. O. Pudu, Pudu. With
smooth round diverging horns, and beardless throat. i^g
2. Ovis Aries, Common Sheep.—In its present state AriesXn
of domestication, the sheep seems so far removed frommon Shee
a state of nature as to make it a difficult matter to
point out its origin. But naturalists are now generally
of opinion, that it has proceeded from the argali or wild
sheep, (the wow/?o» of Buffon).
Climate, food, and, above all, the unwearied arts of
cultivation, contribute to render this animal in a pecu¬
liar manner, the creature of man, to whom it is obliged
to trust entirely for its protection, and to whose neces¬
sities it largely contributes. Though singularly inoffen-.
sive, and harmless even to a proverb, it does not appear
to be that stupid, inanimate creature described by Buf¬
fon : “ devoid of every necessary art of self-preservation,
without courage, and even deprived of every instinctive
faculty, we are led to conclude that the sheep, of all
other animals, is the most contemptible and stupid.”
But amidst those numerous flocks which range without
controul on extensive mountains, where they seldom de¬
pend upon the aid of the shepherd, it will be found to
assume a very different character. In those situations,
a ram or wedder will boldly attack a single dog, and
often come off victorious j but when the danger is more
alarming, they have recourse to the collected strength
of the whole flock. On such occasions they draw up
into a compact body, placing the young and the fe¬
males in the centre, while the males take the foremost
rank, keeping close to each other. I bus an arm¬
ed front is presented to all quarters, and cannot be
easily attacked without danger of destruction to the as¬
sailant. In this manner they w’ait with firmness the ap¬
proach of the enemy ; nor does their courage fail them
in the moment of attack; for when the aggressor ad¬
vances within a few yards of the line, the rams dart
upon him with such impetuosity, as lays him dead at
their feet, unless he save himself by flight. Against
the attacks of single dogs or foxes, when in this situa¬
tion, they are perfectly secure. A ram, regardless of
danger, will sometimes engage a bull, and his forehead
being much harder than that of any other animal, he
seldom fails to conquer. The bull, by lowering bis
head, receives the stroke of the ram between his eyes,
which usually brings him to the ground.
In the selection of their food, few animals discover
greater sagacity than the sheep, nor does any domestic
animal shew more dexterity and cunning in its attempts
to elude the vigilance of the shepherd, in order to stea
such delicacies as are agreeable to its palate.
iliap.
decora.
V. M A M M
Besides its hardiness in enduring great severities of
' weather, the natural instinct of the sheep, in foreseeing
the approach of a storm, is no less remarkable. In
their endeavours to secure themselves under the shelter
of some hill, whole flocks have frequently been buried
for many days under a covering of snow, and have after¬
wards been taken out without any material injury.
There have been instances, where sheep, at the ap¬
proach of a storm, have fled for shelter to a neighbour¬
ing cottage, and taken refuge under the same roof with
their shepherd.
The variety in this creature is so great, that scarcely
any two countries produce sheep of the same kirn).
There is found a manifest difl’erence in all, either in the
size, the covering, the shape or the horns. The woolly
sheep is found only in Europe, and the temperate pro¬
vinces of Asia. When transported into warmer cli¬
mates, it loses its wool, and becomes rough and hairy,
is less fertile, and its flesh no longer retains the same
flavour.
No country produces finer sheep than Great Britain;
their fleeces are large, and well adapted to the purposes
of clothing. The Spanish fleeces are indeed finer, but
for utility cannot be compared with those of Lincoln¬
shire or W arwickshire. In Edward III.’s time, when
wool was allowed to be exported, it brought into the
kingdom 150,000!. per annum, at the rate of 2I. 10s.
a pack. At this time, when our woollen manufactory
stands unrivalled by any nation of the world, and when
every method is taken to prevent this valuable commo¬
dity from being sent out of the kingdom, the annual
value of wool shorn in England is supposed to be about
5,000,000). sterling, and when manufactured together
with the Spanish wool imported, amounting to about
6oo,oool. the total value must be above 20,000,000!.
ALIA.
5*9
Two of the front teeth in the sheep drop out before
they are two years old, at which time they are replaced
by others; at three years old, four of them are renewed,
and the remainder at the age of four.
The ewe produces one or two lambs at a time, and
sometimes, though rarely, three or four. She bears her
young five months, and brings forth in the spring. The
ram lives to the age of about 15 years, and begins to
procreate at one. W hen castrated, they are called wed-
ders. They then grow sooner fat, and the flesh becomes
finer and better flavoured.
There is hardly any part of this animal that is not
serviceable to man : of the fleece we make our clothes ;
the skin produces leather, of which are made gloves,
parchment, and covers for books; the entrails are
formed into strings for fiddles, and other musical in¬
struments, likewise coverings for whips; its milk affords
both butter ami cheese, and its flesh is a delicate and
wholesome food.
To the foregoing account of the sheep, for which we
are indebted to Air Bewick, we shall add a few re¬
marks from Mr Cully’s observations on live stock, on
the most remarkable breeds of sheep at present culti¬
vated in this country.
Mr Cully begins with those of Lincolnshire, which
are of a large size, big-boned, and afford a greater
quantity of wool than any other kind, owing to the
rich fat marshes on which they feed , but their flesh is
coarse, leaner, and not so finely flavoured as that of
smaller sheep. The same breed extends, with some va^
nations, through most of the midland counties of Eng- History of
land. But the largest breed of sheep in this island, is the Species,
to be met with on the banks of the Tees, which runs v——v—'
through a rich and fertile country, dividing the two
counties of Yorkshire and Durham. This kind differs
from the preceding, in their wool not being so long and
heavy ; their legs are longer, but finer boned, and sup¬
port a thicker, firmer carcase. Their flesh is likewise
much fatter, and finer grained. These sheep weigh
fi om 25 to 45 lbs. per quarter; some have been fed to
50 lbs. and one in particular was killed which weighed
02lbs. 10 oz. per quarter, avoirdupois; a circumstance
never before beard of in this island. The ewes of this
hieed generally bring forth two lambs each season ;
sometimes 3, 4, and even 5. As an instance of extra¬
ordinary fecundity, it deserves to be mentioned, that
one of these ewes at the age of two years, brought forth
six lambs at one time, the next season five, both within
11 months.
The Dorsetshire breed is likewise remarkably proli¬
fic, the ewes being capable of bringing forth twice a
year. It is from these, that the tables of our nobility
and gentry are supplied with early lamb at Christmas,
or sooner if required. Great numbers of those early
victims to luxury are yearly sent to the London markets,
where they are sold at the enormous price of 10s 6d.
or perhaps 15s. per quarter. The maimer of rearing
the lamb is curious. They are imprisoned in little
dark cabins ; the ewes are fed with oil-cakes, hay, corn,
turnips, cabbages, or any other food which the season of
the year affords; »aese are given them in a field, con¬
tiguous to the apartments where the lambs are kept;
and at proper intervals, the nurses are brought in to give
suck to their young ones, while the attendants, at the
same time make their lodgings perfectly clean, and lit-
f Cl Y* »■» Cl Vwr ■ 4- I. t. l-% /-i 4- — -- — C   C C   C * * 1 .
ter them with fresh straw. Great attention is paid to
this, as much of the success of rearing these unseason¬
able productions depends upon warmth and cleanliness.
The Dorsetshire sheep are mostly white-faced, their
legs are long and small, and great numbers of them have
no wool upon their bellies, which gives them an uncouth
appearance. They produce a small quantity of wool,
but of a good quality, from which our fine Wiltshire
cloths are made. The mutton of these sheep is very
sweet and well flavoured. The variations of this breed
are spread through most of the southern counties, but
the true kind is only to be found in Dorsetshire and
Wiltshire. There is a breed, not unlike this, in Nor¬
folk and Suffolk, but they are all gray or black-faced.
For some observations on feeding sheep, see Agri*
culture, N° 600 ; for the best method of providing
them with shelter against the weather, see Farriery,
N° 109; and for some account of their diseases, with
the most approved methods of treatment, see the same
article, Part vi. passim.
Gen. 44. Bos, Ox.
Horns concave, turned outwards, lunated,
Front teeth eight in the lower jaw.
smooth.
Canine teeth
Bos.
14i>
none.
There are numerous varieties, but naturalists have
not distinguished more than about six species ; viz.
1. *Bos Taurus, Common O. With round horns curv¬
ing outwards, and loose dewlap.—2. B. Amec, Arnee.
With
\20
MAMMALIA.
tjo
Commou
Ox.
History of With upright lunated horns, flat and wrinkled in their
the Species, upper surface.—3. B. Bubalus, Buffa o. With horns
”*lying backwards, turning inwards, and flat on the tore
part?—4. B. Moschatus, Musk O. With very long
pendent hair, and horns approximated at the base,
bending inwards and downwards, and outwards at the
tjps. j. B. Grunnietis, Yzk* 'With cylindric horns
curving outwards, very Ibng pendent hair, and extreme¬
ly villous horse-like tail.—6. B< Caffer, Cape O. M ith
the horns very broad at the base, then spreading down¬
wards, next upwards, and at the tips curving inwards.
1. Bos Taurus, Common Ox.—Few animals are more
‘ widely diffused over the globe than the common ox.
Under different names, distinguishing several varieties,
it is found in a wild or domestic state throughout al¬
most the whole of the old continent, in most of the
European and Asiatic islands, and is very abundant in
several parts of America. It seems capable of enduring
equally the rigours of heat and cold, and inhabits the
frozen as well as the most scorching climates. Most
animals preserve nature in their form with inflexible
perseverance, but the ox appears to suit himself m
every respect to the wants and conveniences ot man¬
kind. In no animal is there to be found a greater va¬
riety of kinds, and in none a more humble and tractable
disposition. Though in many countries these animals
are larger than those of Britain, yet on the whole
our cattle are to be preferred, both for beauty of form,
excellence of flesh, and general utility, to those of most
* other countries.
The climate of the British isles is, above most others,
• productive of the greatest variety and abundance of
wholesome vegetables, which are most equally dif¬
fused throughout every part of them. Hence the num¬
ber, variety, and excellence of our cattle, the richness of
our dairies, and innumerable other advantages. Caesar
speaks of the numbers of our cattle* and adds that we
neglected tillage, but lived on milk and flesh. Strabo
takes notice of our plenty of milk, but says we were
ignorant of the art of making cheese.. Mela informs
us that the wealth of the Britons consisted in cattle *,
and in his account of Ireland reports that such was
the richness of the pastures in that kingdom, that the
cattle would even burst if they were suffered to feed in
them long at a time.
This preference of pasturage to tillage was delivered
down from our British ancestors to much latter times;
and continued equally prevalent during the whole period
of our feodal government: the chieftain whose power
and safety depended on the promptness ol his vassals to
execute his commands, found it his interest to encourage
those employments that favoured that disposition •, the
vassal, who made it his glory to fly at the first call to the
standard of his chieftain, was sure to prefer that employ¬
ment which might be transacted by his family with equal
success during his absence. Tillage would require an at¬
tendance incompatible with the services he owed the ba-
I’art 111
ron : while the former occupation not only gave leisure Pecora.
for those duties, but furnished the hospitable board of bis »
lord with ample provision, ot which the vassal was equal¬
ly partaker. The relics of the larder of the elder Spencer
are evident proofs of the plenty of cattle in his days ;
for after his winter provisions may have been supposed
to be mostly consumed, there were found, so late as the
month of May, in salt, the carcases of no fewer than 80
beeves, 6zo bacons, and 600 muttons. The accounts
of the several great feasts in after times, afford amazing
instances of the quantity of cattle that were consumed iit
them. Tills was owing partly to the continued attach¬
ment of the people to grazing'; partly to the preference
that the English at all times gave to animal food. Tho
quantity of cattle that appear from the latest calculation
tO have been consumed in London, is a sufficient ar¬
gument of the vast plenty of these times ; particularly
when we consider the great advancement of tillage, and
the numberless variety of provisions, unknown to past
acres, that are now introduced into these kingdoms irofn
all parts of the world.
This animal seems to have originated from a large
wild variety called the bison* distinguished by its gene¬
ral largeness, particular strength ot its tore parts, and
a thick shaggy mane and beard about its neck and chin.
This variety is found both in Europe and America, and
from all this the varieties at present met with are de¬
scended. Besides the bison, and what may strictly be
called the common ox, writers enumerate under this
species the varieties called czebu, distinguished by a small
single bunch over the shoulders ; the Indian ox, having
a very large double or treble protuberance over the
shoulders ; the loose-horned ox, whose horns seem attach¬
ed only by the skin ; the boury, having a protuberance
on the back ; the Tinian ox, of a white colour with
black ears ; and several other less important varieties.
In Britain we distinguish chiefly the Holstein breed,
the Lancashire and Lincolnshire breeds, the Kyloe or
Highland cattle, the Alderney cow, and a particular
species of wild cattle.
In most points of view, the female of this species is
of more importance than the male. The cow goes with
young nine months, and seldom produces more than
one at a time. She has, as is well known, four teats,
which, in proportion to her young, is a peculiarity
scarcely to be found in any other animal, the females
of which seldom have more teats than are sufficient to
suckle the number of young which they produce.
The age of a cow is known by its horns. At the
age of four years, a ring is formed at their roots, and
every succeeding year another ring is added. Thub,
by allowing three years before their appearance, and
then reckoning the number of rings, the creature’s age
may be exactly known (h).
the quantity of milk given by cows is very various;
some will yield only about six quarts in one day, while
others give from 10 to 15, and sometimes even 20.
Tn t(,, eariler editions of his natural history, Buffon asserted that the bull and cow shed their horns at the
ai of three ye“s lnd at this time had then, replaced by others that were permanent. As tins cor¬
rected in one'of ins supplemental volumes, we should not now have thought ,t necessary to notice it, ha
l«n it copied into a late work of considerable merit, and seemingly the result of much experience, Mr John
Eawrence’s Treatise on Cattle, p. 17*
PaP*v- mammalia,
liPecora. The nclmess of the pasture contributes not a little to its
"T—increase. There have been instances of cows giving
upwards of 30 quarts of milk in one day. In such
cases there is a necessity for milking them thrice. From
the milk of some cows, I2lbs. or I4lbs. of butter are
made in a week.
It is a curious tact, that, in some instances, cows
are naturally barren j and this is said to happen when a
cow brings forth two calves, one of them a male, the
other a female: the former is a perfect animal, but the
latter is incapable of propagation, and is well known to
farmers under the denomination of a free-martiti. It
resembles the ox, or spayed heifer, in figure, and is con¬
siderably larger than the cow. It is sometimes preser¬
ved by the farmer, for the purpose of yoking with the
oxen, 01 fattening for the "table. Air Hunter observes,
that the flesh of the free-martin, like that of the ox, is
in common much finer in the fibre than either the bull
01 cow. Ii is supposed to exceed that of the heifer in
bee Hun-delicacy of: flavour, and bears a higher price at market*.
, lt is| unnecessary to enlarge further on the ox in a
my, domestic state. \Ve shall therefore only give a short
account of a very singular species of wild cattle that
were loimerly found m this country, but which are now
nearly extinct.
Numerous herds of them were kept in several parts
of England and Scotland, hut they have been destroyed
by various means. I he only breeds now remaining in
the kingdom are in the park at Clnllingham-castle in
Northumberland j at Wollaton in Nottinghamshire,
the seat of Lord Aliddleton ; at Gisborne, in Craven,
Yorkshiie; at Eimehail in Cheshire, and at Chartley
in Staffordshire.
pile principal external appearances which distinguish
this breed ot cattle from all others are the following.
Their colour is invariably white, muzzles black j the
whole of the inside of the ear, and about one-third of
the outside, from the tip downwards, red ; horns white,
with black tips, very fine, and bent upwards. Some
ol the bulls have a thin upright mane, about one inch
and a half or two inches long.
At the first appearance ol any person, they set off in
full gallop, and. at the distance of 200 or 300 yards,
make a wheel round, and come boldly up again, tossing
their heads in a menacing manner. ” On a sudden they
make a full stop, at the distance of 40 or 50 yards,
looking wildly at the object of their surprise; but upon
the least motion being made, they all again turn round,
and fly off vfith equal speed, but not to the same dis¬
tance. forming a short .circle, and again returning
with a bolder and more threatening aspect than before,
they approach much nearer, probably within 30 yards’
when they make another stand, and again fly off. “ This
they do several times, shortening their distance, and ad¬
vancing nearer, till they come within ten yards, when
most people think it prudent to leave them, not choosing
to provoke them further, for there is little doubt but
m two or three turns more they would make an attack.
The mode of killing them was, perhaps, the only
modem remains of the grandeur of ancient hunting.
On notice being given, that a wild bull would be kill¬
ed on a certain day, the inhabitants of the neighbour¬
hood came mounted, and armed with guns, &c. some-
trnies to the amount of 100 horse and coo foot, who
Vol. XII. Part II. ^ J t
stood upon walls, or got into trees, while the horsemen History of
rode off the bull from the rest of the herd, until he the Species,
stood at bay, when a marksman dismounted and shot.
At some of these huntings, 20 or 30 shots have been
fired before he was subdued. On such occasions the
bleeding victim grew desperately furious, from the
smarting ot his wounds, and the shouts of savage joy
that were echoing from every side. But, from the
number of accidents that happened, this dangerous
mode has been little practised of late years; the park-
keeper alone generally shooting them With a rifled gun
at one shot.
When the cows calve, they hide their calves for a
week or ten days in some sequestered situation, and g«
and suckle them two or three times a-day. If any per¬
son come near the calves, they clap their heads close
to the ground, and lie like a hare in form, to hide
themselves. This is a proof of their native wildness,
and is corroborated by the following circumstance that
happened to the writer of this narrative, who found .a
hidden calf, two days old, very lean, and very weak.
On stroking its head, it got up, pawed two or three
times like an old bull, bellowed very loud, stepped
back a few steps, and butted at his legs with all its
force : it then began to paw again, bellowed, stepped
back, and hutted as before j but knowing its intention,
and stepping aside, it missed him, fell, and was so very
weak that it could not rise, though it made several ef¬
forts. But it had done enough. The whole herd
were alarmed, and coming to its rescue, obliged him
to retire for the dams will allow no person to touch
their calves without attacking them with impetuous fe¬
rocity. When any one happens to be wounded, or
is grown weak and feeble through age or weakness,
the rest of the herd set upon it, and gore it to
death.
The weight of the oxen is generally from 30 to
50 stones the four hind quarters, the cows about 30.
The beef is finely marbled, and of excellent fla¬
vour*.
There is scarcely any part of the ox that is not of^j^f *
some use to mankind. Boxes, combs, knife-handles,pe*.
and drinking vessels, are made of the boms. These,
when softened with boiling water, become so pliable,
as to he formed into transparent plates for lanterns 5 an
invention ascribed to King Alfred, who is said to have
first used them to preserve his candle time-measures
from the wind. Their dung is useful for manure.
Glue is made of the cartilages, gristles, and the finer
pieces of cuttings and parings of the hides, boiled in
water till they become gelatinous, and the parts suffi-
ciently dissolved, and then dried. The bone is a cheap
substitute, in many instances, For ivory. The thinnest
of the calves-skins are manufactured into vellum. The
blood is used as the basis of Prussian blue. Saddlers and
others use a fine sort of thread, prepared from the
sinews, which is much stronger than any other equally
fine. The hair is valuable in various manufactures,
and the suet, fat, and tallow, for candles. The uti¬
lity of the milk and cream is well known.
From the circumstance of these animals furnishing
the Gentoos with milk, butter and cheese, their fa¬
vourite food, they bear for them a superstitious venera¬
tion, founded thus principally in gratitude. There is
3 ^ scarcely
522
History of
the Species.
mammalia.
Part H.
'S'.
Grumnens,
Yak of Tar¬
tary.
Fig. 71.
scarcely a Gentoo to be found that would not, were he
under a forced option, prefer sacrificing his parents or
children to the slaying of a bull or cow.
For the application of oxen to the purposes ol agri¬
culture, and for the best methods of rearing, breeding,
and feeding of cows and cattle, see Agriculture ; for
an account of the internal structure of this genus, see
Anatomy, Part IV. Chap. 1^ . Sect. III.} for the con¬
struction of byres or cow-houses, with some observa¬
tions on the feeding of cows and cal ves, see Farrier y,
Part IV. j and for the diseases incident to cattle, rvith
their treatment, see the same article. Part VI.
3. B. Grunniens, Yak, or Grunting Ox. Hie best
' account of this singular species is that given by C aptain
Turner, in his account of an embassy to Tibet. It is as
as follows. . . ,
The yak of Tartary, called soora gay in Hindostan,
and which Captain Turner terms the bushy-tailed bull
of Tibet, is about the height of an English bull, which
it resembles in the general figure of the body, head,
and legs. He could discover between them no essen¬
tial difference, except that the yak is covered all oyer
with a thick coat of long hair. The head is rather
short, crowned with two smooth round horns, which,
tapering from the root upwards, terminate in sharp
points ; they are arched inwards, bending towards eacli
other, but near the extremities are a little turned back.
The ears are small 5 the forehead appears prominent,
being adorned with much curling hair j the eyes are
full and large ; the nose small and convex the nostrils
small; the neck short, describing a curvature nearly
equal both above and below j the withers are high and
arched. The rump is low j over the shoulder rises a
thick muscle, which seems to be the same kind ot
protuberance peculiar to the cattle of Hindostan, co¬
vered with a profusion of soft hair, which in general,
is longer and more copious than that along the ridge
of the back to the setting on of the tail. The tail is
composed of a prodigious quantity of long, flowing,
glossy hair, and is so abundantly furnished, that not a
joint of it is perceptible , but it has much the appear¬
ance of a large cluster of hair artificially set on j the
shoulders, rump, and upper part of the body, are cloth¬
ed with a sort of thick soft wool, but the inferior parts
with straight pendent hair that descends below the
knee ; and Captain Turner has seen it so long in some
cattle, which were in high health and condition, as to
trail upon the ground. From the chest between the
legs, issues a large pointed tuft of straight hair, grow¬
ing somewhat longer than the rest ; the legs are very
short j in every other respect he yesembles the ordinary
These cattle, though not large-boned, seem, from the
profuse quantity of hair with which they are provided,
to be of great bulk. They have a downcast heavy look,
and appear, what indeed they are, sullen and suspicious,
discovering much impatience at the near approach o
strangers. They do not low loud like the cattle of
Britain, any more than those of Hindostan, but make
a low grunting noise, scarcely audible, and that but
seldom, when under some impression of uneasiness.
These cattle are pastured in the coldest parts of Iibet,
upon the short herbage peculiar to the tops of moun¬
tains and bleak plains. The chain of mountains situ¬
ated between the latitudes ef 270 and 28°, which di- Belli?®,
vides Tibet from Boutan, and whose summits are most '~-\r—.
commonly clothed with snow, is their favourite haunt.
In this vicinity the southern glens afford them food and
shelter during the severity of winter j in milder seasons,
the northern aspect is more congenial to their nature,
and admits a wider range. They are a very valuable
property to the tribes of itinerant Tartars, called Duck-
ba, who live in tents, and tend them from place to
place they at the same time afford their herdsmen an
easy mode of conveyance, a good covering, and whole¬
some subsistence. "They are never employed in agri¬
culture, but are extremely useful as beasts of burden,
for they are strong, sure-footed, and carry a great
weight. rl ents and ropes are manutactuicd of their
hair j and among the humbler ranks of herdsmen, he
has seen caps and jackets made of their skins. T-heir
tails are esteemed throughout the east, as far as luxury
and parade have any influence on the manners of the
people ; and on the continent of India, they are found,
under the denomination of chmvries, in the hands of
the meanest grooms, as well as occasionally in those of
the first minister of state. They are in universal use
for driving away winged insects, flies, and musketoes,
and are employed as ornamental furniture upon horses
and elephants 5 yet the best requital with which the
care of their keepers is at length rewarded, for select¬
ing them good pastures, is in the abundant quantity of
rich milk which they give, and the butter produced
from it, which is most excellent. It is their custom, to
preserve this in skins or bladders, and the an being
thus excluded from it, it will keep in this cold climate
throughout the year; so that, after some time tending
their herds, when a sufficient store is accumulated, it
remains only to load their cattle, and drive them to a
proper market with their own produce, which consti¬
tutes, to the utmost verge of Tartary, a most material
article of commerce.
Dr Pallas informs us, that the calves of this species,
when first born, are covered with a strong woolly hair,
resembling that of a water spaniel, and that in about
three months they begin to acquire the long hair of the
throat, lower parts, and tail.
This animal was described by ./Elian, under the name
of Poephagus.
This order contains eight genera and about 82 species.
Chap. VI. BELLILE.
Genus 45. Equus. Horse.
Front teeth in the upper jaw six, parallel. In the
lower jaw, six, somewhat projecting. Canine teeth,
one on each side, in both jaws, remote from the rest.
Feet with undivided hoofs.
Dr Shaw enumerates six species, viz. I. * Equus
Caballm, The Horse.—Tail uniformly covered with
long hair.—2. E. Hemionus, Jickta. Of an uniform co¬
lour, without a distinct humeral cross, with naked tail
haired at the tip.—3. * E. Asinus, Ass. Blackish cross
over the shoulders, and tail tipped with long hair.—
4. E. Zebra, Zebra. Variegated with numerous dark
brown stripes.—5- QuaS§ai Quagga* Rather rus-
r5*
Equus.
i
hap. VI. M A M M
Bellu*. ty, whitish below, stripcfl above with brown. Spotted
-6. K. Bisulcus, Cloven-footed
fS.3
'aballus,
ommon
forse.
ig.?*.
J towards the hind parts.-
H. With cloven hoofs.
I. Equus Cubalhts, Common II.—Though it is
in a state of domestication that we are chiefly to consi¬
der this most noble animal, we must first, liowevex*,
mention a few circumstances respecting him in his na¬
tive state of liberty.
Horses are found wild in several parts of the globe.
Large herds of them are occasionally seen in the south¬
ern parts of Siberia, and in the great Mongalian de¬
serts, and among the Kalkas to the north-west of Chi¬
na. They are also found in the deserts on each side
the river Hon ; but it is supposed that these are descend¬
ed from the Russian horses employed in the siege of
Asoph, in the year 1697, who being turned loose for
want of forage, escaped into the deserts, and their de¬
scendants have gradually acquired the appearance of
native wildness.
The horse in its wild state is considerably smaller
than most of our domestic horses, and possesses much
less symmetry of form. He is extremely swift, active
and vigilant, and like some other tribes of animals,
these horses have always a centinel, who by a loud
neigh gives notice to the herd of approaching dan¬
ger, when they all gallop off with astonishing rapi¬
dity.
In South America there are also found large herds
of wild horses j but these are of Spanish origin, derived
from those that were carried over by the first conque¬
rors of America. They are now become so numerous
as to live in herds, some of which are said to consist of
10,000. As soon as they perceive domestic horses in
the fields, they gallop to them, caress, and by a kind
of grave and prolonged neighing, invite them to run
off. The domestic horses are soon seduced, unite them¬
selves to the independent herd, and depart along with
them. It happens not unfrequently that travellers are
stopped on the road by the effect of this desertion. To
prevent this, they halt as soon as they perceive these
wanderers, watch their own horses, and endeavour to
frighten away the others. In this case the wild horses
resort to stratagem j some are detached before, and the
rest advance in a close column, which nothing can in¬
terrupt. If they are so alarmed as to be obliged to re¬
tire, they change their direction, hut without suffering
themselves to be dispersed. Sometimes they make se¬
veral turns round those they wish to seduce, in order to
frighten them, but they often retire after making one
turn. When the inhabitants wish to convert some of
these wild horses into domestic ones, which they find
not very difficult to he done, persons mounted on horse¬
back attack a troop of them, and when they approach
them, they throw ropes with great care round their
legs, which prevent them from running away. When
brought home they are tied with a halter to a stake or
tree, without food or drink for two or three days.
After this they are cut, and then broke in the same
manner as the domestic horses. They soon become do¬
cile ; but if not carefully watched, will again join their
wild friends.
The attention with which the wild horses of Siberia
protect their young, is finely exemplified in a commu¬
nication by a gentleman in that country to the editor
the Bee. The wild horse, be says, though a grega-
A JL I A. 523
rious animal, does not go in promiscuous flocks like Histoiv of
cattle or sheep j but each male chooses for himself a the Specie.*,
certain number of females, with whom alone he associ-v——-Y"—”'
ates during the whole year, beating oil every other
male which ofl’ers to approach them. The strongest of
course has the best haram, and the weaker are obliged
to go without any. But when he has once fixed him-
sell, he defends his own property, never attempting to
encroach on that of another. The battles that are
fought for the females at the beginning of the season are
furious, and often prove fatal to one of the parties
but when the victory is once decided, the W'eakest
never afterwards for that season dispute for superi¬
ority.
The horse, when he has once obtained his females,
governs them with despotic authority. Whenever he
calls upon them they must obey, otherwise they are pu¬
nished severely 5 and the mares are so sensible of this,
that they discover every symptom of the most perfect
obedience to their lord and master.
His government, however, is founded on love, and
his authority is exercised, rather for the protection of
his subjects, than their injury. The great enemy they
have there to dread is the wolf; and if the horse did
not take care to keep them close together, so as to re¬
ceive the benefit of his protection, they would be soon
exterminated. It is the foals only that the wolf ever
attacks, and against his attacks they are much upon
their guard. When they see any appearance of dan¬
ger, the horse gives the call, and they all instantly
gallop up to him. The foals are then put all together,
and the mares laying their heads together above the
foals, form a circle all round with their heels outward,
ready to strike their enemy if he approaches. The
horse in the mean time remains without the circle to
be ready to attack wherever the danger shall be great¬
est. One wolf dares never make the attack by him¬
self. When they come up, the horse gallops round
his family, trampling to death every one he can reach,
or tearing them with his teeth ; and so strong is his
bite when thus enraged, that they frequently have been
known with a single gnash of their teeth, to break
the hack of a wolf, and to kill him entirely. It sel¬
dom happens that the wolves prevail in this contest j
and they so much dread the power of this noble ani¬
mal, that they seldom make the attack unless when
they are much pinched with hunger.
This breed of horses, though nimble and active, are
not of a very large size. The hunting of these horses,
which is only attempted by the natives for catching
them alive, especially the young ones, is attended with
difficulty and danger, and must not be attempted with¬
out due precautions *. * voj^
In a domestic or improved state, the horse is found xvii, p.
in almost every country of the world, except within
the Arctic circle j but he is found in bis highest per¬
fection in Arabia, where he seems as little degenerated
in his race and powers as the lion or tiger of the Afri¬
can forests. To the Arabian hordes the horses are as
dear as their children ; and the constant intercourse ari¬
sing from living in the same tent with their owner and
his family, creates a familiarity that could not other¬
wise be effected, and a tractability that arises only
from the kindest usage. They are the fleetest animals
of the desert, and are so well trained as to stop in their
,3 U 2 most
5H
M A M M
History of most rapid course, by the slightest check of the rider,
the Species. Unaccustomed to the spur, the least touch with the
f00t sets them again in motion, and so obedient are
they to the rider’s will, as to be directed in their course
merely by the motion of a switch. T-hey form the
principal’ riches of many of the Arab tribes, who use
them both in the chase and in their plundering expedi¬
tions. In the day time they are generally kept saddled
at the door of the tent, prepared for any excursion
their master may take. They never carry any heavy
burdens, or are employed on long journeys. Their
constant food, except in spring, when they get a little
grass, is barley, which they are suffered to eat only
during the night. The Arab, his wife, and children,
always lie in the same apartment with the mare and
foal, who, instead of injuring them, suffer the chil¬
dren to rest on their necks and bodies without incom¬
moding them in the least. The poor gentle animals
even seem afraid to move lest they should hurt them.
The Arabs never beat or correct their horses, but always
treat them with the utmost kindness. They talk to and
reason with them.
The whole stock of a poor Arabian of the desert,
consisted of a beautiful mare} this the French consul
at Said offered to purchase, with an intention to send
her to Louis XIV. The Arab, pressed by want, hesi¬
tated for a long, time, but at length consented, on con¬
dition of receiving a very considerable sum of money,
which he named. The consul wrote to France for
permission to close the bargain, and having obtained
it, sent immediately to the Arab the information. The
man, so poor as to possess only a miserable rag, a co¬
vering for his body, arrived with his magnificent cour¬
ser, and looking first at the gold, and then stedtastly at
his mare, heaved a deep sigh. “ To whom is it (he ex¬
claimed) that I am going to yield thee up ? To Euro¬
peans ! who will tie thee close, who will beat thee,
who will render thee miserable. Keturn with me, my
beauty, my jewel ! and rejoice the hearts of my chil¬
dren !” As he pronounced the last words, he sprang
upon her back, and was out of sight almost in a mo¬
ment.
The horses of France are thus characterized by Buf-
fon. Those of Bretagne are pretty strongly made, and
have generally black hair, or brown bay j and they
have good legs and feet, with a hardy mouth, and a
head short and fleshy, but in general they are rather
clumsy. The horses of Franche Compte are said to
have the legs of tigers, and belly of a hind} but they
are short and thick, and of a middle size, being much
more proper for drawing than riding. The horses of
Gascony are not unlike those of Spain $ but they are
not so handsome nor so active, and therefore they are
more proper to draw carriages. The Limosin horses
are very vicious, and are good for little till they are
six years old. Their colour is generally bay, or a bay
brown. The horses of Normandy are much like those
of Bretagne j and those of Poitou have good bodies,
legs, feet and eyes, but they are far from being hand¬
some.
The horses of Germany are much better and hand¬
somer than those of the Low Countries. They are of
great use for carriages, but much more for the army,
and for drawing the artillery. They have a great deal
of hair, especially about the legs. They are not large,
ALIA. Part II.
but they are well set, and yet they have tender feet. Beiiu®.
The Hungarian horses are excellent for the coach, as y-""*'
well as for riding j but they are large, though well
proportioned -7 and they are of all colours, and in ge¬
neral very swift.
The Danish horses are low, short, and square 5 but
they have a fine head, and short hair. The horses of
the Low Countries are very fit for the coach, and they
are best known by the name of Flajiders mares. The
Polish horses are like the Danish, only they have not
so fine a forehead } their colour is generally a bright
bay, and that of the outward peel of an onion, and
they are fiery and vicious. The horses ol Switzerland
are pretty much like those of Germany, which is not
surprising, since the Germans purchase a great number
of them." The horses of Piedmont are fiery, of a middle
size, and of all sorts of colours; their legs are good
and handsome, their eyes fine, their ears small, and
their mouths good 5 but they do not carry their heads
well.
The horses of Naples and Italy are generally ill
made and lean, and yet they are good and useful, for
they are light and proper for racing, though not for a
long course j they never do well in a colder climate.
The Spanish horses are very well made and handsome,
as well as very active and nimble •, they have good
eyes, handsome legs and heads, and are easily mana¬
ged y they are also good for racing, if they are well-
kept 5 however, they are not so good in northern cli¬
mates as in their own country. The Turkish horses
are of different shapes, but they are generally swift,
though their mouths are bad. Most of them are white,
though there are other colours, and they are large,
hardy, strong, and fit for the road.
The horses of Barb ary, commonly called barbs, have
strong hoofs, and are more proper for racing than any
others whatever } some have said they never grow old,
because they preserve their vigour to the last. T hey
are excellent stallions, and some of them are used as
such in Britain 5 however, the Arabian horses are not
quite so good as the Barbary, though some think they
are both of the same kind j only those that are used ti>
the deserts of Arabia are always in action. The horses
of the Gold coast of Guinea are very few in number,
and in other parts of that coast there are none at ally,
for many of the negroes, when they have been first
brought over to our American plantations, have ex¬
pressed great admiration at the sight of the horse, and
even been afraid to come near one.
The horses of the Cape were originally brought from
Persia, and they are small, of a chesnut colour, as the
natives of that country are all wild, and could never
be tamed. The horses of China are good, and more
particularly those in the province of Yun Nan, for
they are vigorous, though rather low. I he horses of
the Elutli Tartars are good and full of fire, and their
size is much the same as that of the Polish horses 3 they
are afraid of nothing, not even of lions and tigers, but
this perhaps may be owing to use. In the country of
the Moguls they are very numerous, and of all colours 3
they are generally of the middle size, though some are
as large and handsome as those of Europe.
The breed of horses in Great Britain is as mixed as
that of its inhabitants, The frequent introduction of
foreign horses has given us a variety, that no single
country
^ ■ ■
« ^
VL
country can boast of; most other countries produce on¬
ly one kind, while ours, by a judicious mixture of the
several species, by the happy difference of our soils, and
by our superior skill in management, may triumph over
the rest of Europe, in having brought each quality of
this noble animal to the highest perfection.
In the annals of Newmarket, may be found instances
of horses that have literally outstripped the wind.
Childers is an amazing instance of rapidity, his speed
having been more than once exerted equal to 82^ feet
in a second, or nearly a mile in a minute. The same
horse has also run the round course at Neivmarket
(which is about 400 yards less than four miles) in six
minutes and 40 seconds, in which case his fleetness is
to that of the swiftest Barb as four to three. This
horse was allowed to be the fleetest that was ever bred
in the world 5 he started repeatedly at Newmarket a-
gainst the best horses of his time, and was never beaten.
He won in different prizes to the amount of nearly
2000I. and was afterwards reserved as a'stallion. His
sire was an Arabian, sent by a gentleman as a present
to his brother in England. Next to Childers was the
famous Eclipse, who won prizes to a great amount.
High-flier was accounted the best horse of his time in
England. Though he never started after he was five
years old, he won to the amount of nearly 9000I. He
was never beaten, nor ever paid a forfeit. Bay Mal-
ton, the property of the late marquis of Rockingham,
won, in seven prizes, nearly 6000I. At York he ran
four miles in less than eight minutes.
One of the most remarkable instances of the work
done by post-horses, in a short time, is that mentioned
by Buffon, of the post-master of Stretton, who in the
year IJ45> r°de on different horses along the London
road no less than 215 miles in 11 hours and a half}
a rate of above 18 miles an hour. In July 1788, a
horse belonging to a gentleman of Billeter square, Lon¬
don, was, for a wager, trotted 30 miles in an hour and
25 minutes, which is above 21 miles in an hour.
No country can be compared with ours with respect
to the strength and size of draught horses, and for the
activity and strength of those that form our cavalry. In
London there have been instances of a single horse
drawing, for a short space, the weight of three tons }
and some of the pack horses of the north usually carry
burdens weighing upwards of 4001b. But the most
remarkable proof of the strength of the British horses
is m oui mill horses, some of which have been known
to carry, at one load, 13 measures of corn, that in tire
whole would amount to more than poolb. in weight.
Our cavalry in the late campaigns, showed over those
©f our allies, as well as the French, a. great superiority
both of strength and activity: the enemy was broken
through by the impetuous charge of our squadrons,
while, the German horses, from their great weight, and
inactive make, were unable to second our efforts, though
those troops were actuated by the noblest ardour. The
present.cavalry of this island only supports its ancient
glory } it was eminent in the earliest times ; our scythed
chariots, and the activity and good discipline of our
horses, even struck terror into Caesars legions. It is
now impossible to trace out this species, for those which
exist among the indigenae of Great Britain, such as the
httle horses of Wales and Cornwall, the hobbies of Ire-
nd, and the shelties of Scotland, though admirably well
M A M M A L I A.
I Xi. 5215
adapted to the uses of those countries, could never have History of
been equal to the work of war. Those we employ for the Species,
that purpose, or for the draught, are an offspring of the —y——'
German or Flemish breed, meliorated by our soil, and
a judicious culture.
The English were ever attentive to an exact culture
of these animals, and in very early times set a high
value on their breed. The esteem that our horses were
held in by foreigners so long ago as the reign of Athel-
stan, may be collected from a law of that monarch pro¬
hibiting their exportation, except they were designed as
presents. These must have been the native kind, or the
pi ohibition would have been needless, for our commerce
was at that time too limited to receive improvement
fiom any but the German kind, to which country their
own breed could be of no value.
But when our intercourse with the other parts of Eu¬
rope was enlarged, we soon laid hold of the advantages-
this gave of improving our breed. Roger de Bellesme,
earl of Shrewsbury, is the first that is upon record. He
introduced the Spanish stallions into his estate in Powis-
land, from which that part of Wales was for many
ages celebrated for a swift and generous race of horses.
Giraldus Cambrensis, who lived in the reign of Henry
II. takes notice of it, and Michael Drayton, cotempo¬
rary with Shakespeare, sings their excellence in the 6th
part of Wis Polyalbion. This kind was probably destined
to mount our gallant nobility, our courteous knights
for feats of chivalry, in the generous contests of the
tilt-yard. From there sprung, to speak the language of
the times, the flower of coursers, whose elegant form
added charms to the rider, and whose activity and ma¬
naged dexterity gained him the palm in that field of
gallantry and romantic honour. That this was the chief
object of cultivating the mixed breed) is very probable,,
for racing in its present form was not introduced into
England till the reign of James I. the earliest notice of
the diversion being in that reign. Croyden in the south,
and Garterly in Yorkshire, were then famous horse
courses. That it was not in vogue in the preceding
reign, is reasonable to imagine, for among the nume¬
rous entertainments exhibited at Kenelworth by Eliza¬
beth’s favourite on her visit there, and where no amuse¬
ment then practised was omitted, we do not find horse-
racing among them.
Not that we deny this diversion to be known in these
kingdoms in earlier times } we only assert a different
mode of it, gentlemen being then their own jockeys,
and riding their own horses. Lord Herbert of Cher-
bury enumerates it among the sports that gallant philo¬
sopher thought unworthy of a man of honour. “ The
exercise (says he) I do not approve of, is running of
horses, there being much cheating in that kind; nei¬
ther do I see why a brave man should delight in a crea¬
ture whose chief use is to help him to run away.”
As no kingdom can boast of parallel circumstances,
so none can vie with us in the number of these noble
quadrupeds. It would be extremely difficult to guess
at the exact number of them, or to form a periodical
account of their increase} tbe number seems very fluc¬
tuating. Mr William Fitz-Stephen relates, that in the
reign of King Stephen, London alone poured out
20,000 horsemen in the wars of those times ; yet we
find that in the beginning of Queen Elizabeth’s reign,
the whole kingdom could not supply 2000 horses to
form
f
526
History of form our cavalry *, and even in toe year 1588, when
the Species, the nation was in the most imminent danger from the
Spanish invasion, all the cavalry which the nation could
then furnish amounted only to 3000* account fox
this dift’erence we must imagine, that the number of
horses which took the field in Stephen’s reign was no
more than an undisciplined rabble ; the few that ap¬
peared under the banners of Elizabeth, a corps well
formed, and such as might be opposed to such a formi¬
dable enemy as was then expected. But such is their
present increase, that in a late War, the number em¬
ployed was 13,375^ and such is our improvement in
the bleed of horses, that most of those which are used
in our waggons and carriages of different kinds, might
be applied to the same purpose. Of those our capital
alone employs near 22,000.
Of all quadrupeds, says Buffon, the horse, together
with grandeur of stature, possesses the greatest elegance
and proportion of parts. If we compare him with the
animals immediately above and below him, we shall
find that the ass is ill-made ; that the head of the lion
is too large ; the limbs of the ox too short and slender j
that the camel is deformed, and the elephant a shape¬
less mass. The regularity and proportion of the parts
of his head, give him a light and sprightly aspect, which
is well supported by the beauty of his chest. He ei&-
vates his head as if anxious to exalt himself above the
condition of quadrupeds, and in this noble attitude he
beholds man face to face.
We shall here give Buffon’s description of what he
considers as a perfect horse ‘7 but that this and similar
descriptions may be better understood, we shall premise
an explanation of the technical terms commonly em¬
ployed in describing a horse. The figures prefixed to
the terms refer to fig. 72, Tlate CCCXIII. The fore
part. 1. The forehead. 2. The temples. 3. Cavity
above the eye. 4* The jaw. 5* lip8* 6. The
nostrils. 7. The tip of the nose. 8. The chin. 9.
The beard. 10. The neck. 11. The mane. 12. The
fore-top. 13. The throat- 14. The withers. 15.
The shoulders. 16. The chest. 17. The elbow. 18.
The arm. 19. The plate vein. 20. The chesnut.
21. The knee. 22. The shank. 23. The main ten¬
dons. 24. The fetlock joint. 25. The fetlock. 26.
The pastern. 27. The coronet. 28. The hoof. 29.
The quarters. 30* The toe. 31* heel." -The
body. 32. The reins. 33. The fillets. 34. The
ribs. 35. The belly. 36. The flanks.-' 1 he hind
part. 37. The rump. 38. The tail. 39. I he but¬
tocks. 40. The haunches. 41. The stifle. 42. Ihe
thighs. 43. The hock. 44. The kerb. 45. The point
of the hock.
When the horse is without blemish, says Buffon, the
legs and thighs are clean, the knees straight, the shin
and shank thin, and the back sinexv strong and well
braced. The sinews and the bones should be so distinct,
as to make the legs appear thin and lathy, not full and
round. The pastern joints should never be large and
round ; nor must there be any swelling near the coronet.
The hock should be lean and dry, not puffed up with
yvind. With regard to the hoof, the coronet should be
equallv thick, and the horn shining and grayish. A
white horn is a sign ol a bad hoof, for it will weax* out
in a short time } and likewise when the horn is thin, it
liable to be spoiled in shoeing, and by travelling hard
Part [
on stony grounds. This is best known when the shoe Belli
is taken off, for then the verge ail round the sole will ap- u—-y- ■
pear thin, and the horse will wince at the least touch of
the pincers.
A strong foot has the fibres of the hoof very distinct,
running in a direct line from the coronet to the toe,
like the grain of wood. In this case, care must be
taken to keep the foot moist and pliable. The greatest
inconvenience attending a hard strong loot, is its being
Subject to rifts and fissures, which cleave the hoof
quite through sometimes from the coronet down to the
bottom.
A narrow heel is likewise a defect j and when it is
not above two fingers in breadth, the foot is bad. A
high heel causes a horse to trip and stumble often 3 and
the low one, with long yielding pasterns, is very apt to
be worn quite awray on a journey. Too large a foot in
proportion to the rest of the body, renders a horse weak
and heavy.
The head of a horse should be small, and rather lean
than fleshy. The ears should be small, erect, thin,
sprightly, and pointed. The forehead, or brow, should
have a star or snip thereon. The nose should rise a
little, and the nostrils should be wide that he may
breathe more freely. The muzzle should be small, and
the mouth neither too deep nor too shallow. 'Ihe jaws
should be thin, and not approach too near together at
the throat, nor too high upwards towards the onset,
that the horse may have sufficient room to carry his head
in an easy graceful posture. The eyes shoulu be of a
middle size, bright, lively, and full of fire. The tongue
should be small, that it may not be too much pressed on
by the bit 3 and it is a good sign when his mouth is full
of white froth, as it shows that he will not soon be over¬
heated.
The neck should be arched towards the middle,
growing smaller by degrees from the breast and shoul¬
ders to the head. The hair of the mane should be long,
small, and fine, and it will not be amiss ifit be a little
frizzled. The shoulders should be pretty long, the wi¬
thers thin, and should gradually enlarge downwards,
but so as to render the breast neither too narrow nor
too thick. A thick shouldered horse soon tires, and
trips and stumbles every minute, especially if he has at
the same time a thick, large neck. W hen the breast
is so narrow that the fore thighs almost touch, the horse
is never good for much. A horse of a middle size
should have the distance of five or six inches between
his fore thighs, and there should be less distance be¬
tween his feet than his thighs near the shoulders when
he stands upright.
The body or carcase of a horse should be of a mi<*'
dling size in proportion to his bulk, and the back should
sink a little below the withers; but the other parts
should be straight, and no higher behind than befon;.
He should also be home-ribbed, but the short ribs should
not approach too near the haunches, and then he will
have room to fetch his breath. When a horse’s back is
short in proportion to his bulk, and yet otherwise we
limbed, he will hold out a journey, though he wil tra¬
vel slow. When he is tall, with very long legs, he is
but of little value. 1 • f
The wind should never be overlooked in the choice 0
a horse, and it may easily be known by his flanks, whet tr
he is broken-winded, when he stands quiet in the s a.
MAMMALIA,
VI.
He 5 because then he always pinches them in with a very
slow motion, and drops them suddenly. A thick-wind-
ed norse fetches his breath often, and sometimes rattles
and wheezes. This may be always discovered when he
is put to brisk exercises.
The temper of a horse should always be observed • a
vicious horse generally lays his ears close to his pole
shows the whites of his eyes, and looks sullen and dog’
ged. An angry horse may be known by his frowning
looks; and he generally seems to stand in a posture of
defence. When he is very vicious, he pays no regard
to the groom that feeds him, though some horses that
are ticklish will lay back their ears, without being
of a bad disposition. A fearful horse is apt to start
and never leaves off till he is old and useless. A fret¬
ful horse is very unfit for a journey, and you may dis-
cover his temper as soon as he gets out of the stable.
A dull, heavy, sluggish horse, may be easily known
whatever tricks are used to rouse his spirits. With re-
gard to the colour of a horse, the bright bay, and in¬
deed all bays m general, are accounted good colours.
Ihe chesnut horse is generally to be preferred to the
sorrel, unless the former happens to be party-coloured
with white legs. Brown horses have generally black
manes and tails, and their joints are of a rusty black,
ihose of this colour that are dapple are much hand¬
somer than the rest. Horses of a shining black, and
well marked, without too much white, are in high
esteem for their beauty. A star, or blaze, or white
muzzle, or one or more feet tipped with white, are ge¬
nerally thought to be rather better than those that are
quite black.
Of grays, the dappled are accounted best, though
the silver gray make a more beautiful appearance, and
often prove good. The iron gray with white manes and
tails, are thought not to be so hardy. Grays of every
kind will turn white sooner or later 5 but the nutmeg
gray, when the dappled parts incline to bay or chesnut
are said to be good hardy horses. Roan horses have a
diversity of colours mixed together ; but the white is
more predominant than the rest. They are all general-
y hardy, and fit for the road j and some are exceeding
good. 1 hose of a strawberry colour most resemble the
sorrel, and they are often marked with white on the
legs and face. _ When the bay is blended with it, he
seems to be tinctured with claret, and some of these
prove to be very good. Dun, sallow, and cream-co¬
loured horses have a list down their backs, and their
manes an tails are black. Dun horses are seldom cho-
sen y gentlemen, and yet they may be very useful to
the country farmer. The swallow and cream-colour¬
ed are more esteemed, both for beauty and use. Those
horses that are finely spotted with gray colours like leo-
.pards are a great rarity, and for that reason they are
only in the hands of great men.
As in this country the form of the race-horse is more
niUCf arIattiended t0’ We Sha11 glve the following
d °rJhe.best proportions of race-horses, as laid
down by Mr Ferron.
aJw.haS be<ln observed by several authors, with good
em 1 1 liie bead °* a korse> divided into 22
Parts’ 18 t,le common measure for every part of
shorf°dt!\bUt lf the head Sb°uld aPPear too long or too
IZu tbat ™asfe be abandoned, to tfke the
ght of the from the top of the withers to the
mammalia.
527
ground. The third part of this measure will give you rr * ^ i
shiw vouf'l! i0r Ty 0t',C:' lm't 0r,1,e WyAnd
shew you likewise how much the head was defective. 1    
A horse well made and beautiful in his fore hand
should measure 3 heads and 16 parts from the top of the
fmad to the ground, the head standing in its natural po-
sition-—the neck should measure one head and 13 parts
from the withers to the top of the head,-the same mea!
j^ure gives the length of the neck from the top of the
head to its termination in the chest—the height of the
body should measure three heads from the withers to
grounc we observe the same measure from the
rump to the ground,—the length of the bodv should
“l1-? h®a(ls and f°ur Parts, from the point of
the ^shoulder to the posterior part of the buttock.
Ihe line vvhich falls from the articulation of the
shoulder with the arm, should measure two heads and
seven parts, i his line must directly touch the hoof in
front of the toe. If the foot should stand before this
i e, the leg will he in an oblique direction forward,
which structure will confine the horse in all his ac¬
tions, because the fore legs are obliged to come upon
the ground nearly the same way as those of a horse go¬
ing down hill j that is to say, the heels will touch the
groundfirst, instead of the toes j but if the legs stand
0 iliquely backwards from above, which is the opposite
etect, the case is a great deal worse, because the ani¬
mal is continually stumbling or even falling, on ac-
eount ot Ins feet being drawn too much under the belly,
which situation obliges him to support too great a weight
of the body. When this defect originates from the
knees only, it bends the legs more or less, in which case
the horse is called bow-legged. In either case such an
animal must be rejected, and considered as unfit for a
racer.
“ The line which falls from the top of the fore leg to
the point of the heel, should measure one head and 20
parts. This line is extended to show the perfect per¬
pendicular position of the whole limb. The distance
from the top of the withers to the stifle should measure
one head and 20 parts ; the same measure gives the
distance from the rump to the elbow, or vice versa.
Ihe width of the neck should measure one head, ta¬
ken from the top of the withers to the point of the
shoulder.
The narrowest part of the neck, and the breadth
of the head taken a little below the eyes, measures 12
parts of a head each. The thickness of the body, from
the middle of the back to the middle of the belly,
should be one head and two parts. The same line con¬
tinued to the ground, shews the centre of gravity of the
horse’s body. The distance from the root of the tail to
the stifle, should measure one head and four parts. The
same measure gives the length from the stifle to the
hock. The same measure gives the distance from the
hock to the ground. The breadth of the fore-arm,
taken from the anterior parts of the elbow, should mea¬
sure 11 parts of a head. The same measure gives the
breadth of one of the hind-legs, taken just under the
fold of the buttocks. The breadth of the hock, taken
from its anterior part to the top of the os calcis, should
measure seven parts of a head. The same measure gives
the breadth of the head above the nostrils, measured
sideway.
“ The breadth of the head, taken from one eye to the
other,
i
528
History of
the Species,
M
r\. iv
1 M
* perron'
Farriery,
p. 28.
. 1S4
Asmus.
The Ass.
37-
other, should measure seven parts of a head. The same
measure should give the distance between the foie 1< gs.
The thickness of the knees should measure five parts of
a head. The same measure gives the breadth of the
fore legs, just above the knees. The breadth of the
hind fetlock joints should measure four par ts of a head.
The breadth of the fore pasterns should measure 2-J
parts of a head. The breadth of the coronet should
measure 4^ parts of a head. The breadth of the hin¬
der legs or shank bones, should measure three parts of a
head. The breadth of the fore legs should measure
parts of a head. The perpendicular line which tails
from the articulation of the stifle, should touch the
ground at the distance of half a head from the-toe. Too
far or too near this-direction, proves the hock defec¬
tive. If the hind feet advance too much under the bel¬
ly, the hocks must be proportionably bent, and ^the
weight of the body overcharging them, will of course
increase the deformity. <The feet being too much under
the belly, will render it impossible for them to cover
much ground j therefore their-steps will be very much
confined. The extension of the hocks terminating al¬
most in an upright direction, will rather serve to raise
the body than to push it forward. It, on the contiai\,
the hind feet stand too far behind this line, the hocks
will be too strait, and their flexion too confined. The
extension of the hinder parts taking place, only in a per¬
pendicular direction backward, will produce a detect
capable of retarding their speed *.M
The flesh of the horse is dark and coarse 5 but it has
appeared from the accounts we have of long sieges, that
it may be employed for food, and we are assured that it
is by no means unpalatable. In fact, in some countries
it is employed as food from choice. In the medical dic¬
tionary of the Encyclopedie Methodiqve, art. Chevcd,
tom. iv. p. 696. is a curious account of the mode of pre¬
paring an extraordinary part of this animal, that forms
an ingredient in ragouts, with which some ol the Mogul
Tartars regale themselves in their most splendid enter¬
tainments.
The chief use to which the remains of the horse can
be applied, is for collars, traces, and other parts of the
harness and thus, even after death, he preserves some
analogy with his former employment. The hair of the
mane is sometimes used in making wigs 5 that of the
tail in making the bottoms of chairs, floor cloths, and
cords, and to the angler in making lines.
For several other particulars respecting the horse,
especially on the use of that animal among the Jews, on
the management of horses upon and after a journey,
and on the breeding-of horses, see the article Horse.
On the use of horses in husbandry, with a comparative
view of the profits arising from them and oxen, see the
article Agriculture, Part HI. 5 fora short account
of the anatomical structure of the horse, see Farriery,
Part II. for various methods of shoeing horses, and
several other operations, see the same article, Part III.*,
for the best method of constructing stables, and the:most
proper food of horses, see Part IV. 5 and for the descrip¬
tion and treatment ;of the diseases incident to horses,
with the remedies employed, see Parts V. and >1. ol
the same article $ and for the art of riding, training,
and managing horses, see Horsemanship.
3. ih Asinus, the Ass.—It is unnecessary to describe
the appearance of the domestic ass j but as this animal
.2
A L I A. Part i!
in his native state of wildness differs considerably from Belliue,
him who is the slave of man, wre shall give a short de- y—
scription of the wild ass.
Its usual colour is said to be white, or a pale silvery
gray, with a slight shade of straw colour on the sides of
the neck and body. Along the back runs a deep brown
stripe of thickish wavy hair, to the beginning of the
tail *, this stripe is crossed over the shoulders, as in the
tame animal, by another of similar colour j but it is
said that this is peculiar to the male. The neck is fur¬
nished with a brown mane three or four inches long,
consisting of.soft woolly hair j the tail is tufted at the
end by dusky hairs of about six inches in length j the
forehead is arched, and the ears erect, pointed, and lined
internally with white curling hairs. It stands higher
on its limbs than the domesticated animal, and its legs
are more slender in proportion. The hair on the whole
body is very fine, bright, soft, and silky j and on some
parts is marked by a few obscure undulations of a dark¬
er shade than the rest. Those which are found in Afri¬
ca are said, to be of a pale-ash colour, rather than of the
cast above described.
The food of the wild ass consists chiefly of saline, or
bitter and lactescent plants. It is also fond, of salt or
brackish water. The manners of these animals very
much resemble those of the wild horse. They assemble
in troops under the conduct of a leader, and are ex¬
tremely shy and vigilant, and, like the former animals,
dart off with the utmost rapidity on the .sight of man¬
kind. They have been at.all times celebrated for their
swiftness. Their voice resembles that of the common
but is somewhat shfiller
ass
Wild asses are found in several parts of Asia, espe¬
cially in the dry and mountainous deserts of Tartary,
and in the southern parts of India and Persia. Large
herds of them are also found in South America, whci e
thev were originally introduced by the Spaniards, and
as the climate seems peculiarly favourable to them, they
have multiplied to so great a number, as in some places
to have become quite a nuisance. In the kingdom of
Quito they are hunted for the purpose of domestica¬
tion, and the hunting is conducted in the following
manner.
A number of persons go on horseback, and are at¬
tended by Indians on foot.’; When arrived at the proper
places, they form a circle in order to drive them into
some valley, where, at full speed,.they throw the noose
and endeavour to halter them. I he creatures, finding
themselves inclosed, make very furious efforts to escape j
and if only one forces his way through, they all fol¬
low with an irresistible impetuosity. However, when
noosed, the hunters throw them down and secure them
with fetters, and thus leave them till the chase is over.
Then, in order to bring them away with greater facili¬
ty, they pair them with tame asses $ but this is not ea¬
sily performed, for they are so remarkably fierce, that
they often wound the persons who undertake to manage
them. ,
They have all the swiftness of horses, and neither de¬
clivities nor precipices can retard their career. When
attacked, they defend themselves with their heels and
mouth with such address, that without slackening their
pace, they often maim their pursuers. But the most re¬
markable property in these creatures is, that, aftercai-
rying their first load, their celerity leaves them, their
J fa dangerous
/hap.
Rslluae.
VI. M A M M
dangerous ferftity is lost, and they soon contract the
stupid look and the dulness peculiar to their species.
It is also observable that these creatures will not per¬
mit a horse to live among them. They always feed
together, and if a horse happens to stray into the place
where they graze, they all fall upon him, and without
even giving him the choice of flying, bite and kick him
till they leave him dead on the spot.
Though the ass is at present naturalized in this coun¬
try, his introduction into Britain seems to have been
very late, as he was entirely lost among us during the
reign of Queen Elizabeth, when, as Hollinshed in¬
forms us, “ our lande did yeelde no asses.” There is,
however, no reason to suppose that the ass was unknown
among us some hundred years before, as we find men¬
tion made of him so early as the time of Athelred, and
again in the reign of Henry III. so that the loss of
them during the reign of Queen Elizabeth must have
been owing to some accident. They were probably in¬
troduced again under the succeeding reign, when we
renewed our intercourse with Spain, "in which country
this animal is much used, and where it has been brought
to great perfection.
T. he qualities of this animal are so well known as to
need no description. His gentleness, patience, and
perseverance, are without example. He is temperate
with regaid to food, and eats contentedly the coarsest
and most neglected herbage. If he give the preference
to any vegetable, it is to the plantain, for which he
will neglect every other herb in the pasture. In his wa¬
ter he is singularly nice, drinking only from the clearest
brooks. He is so much afraid of wetting his feet, that,
even when laden, he will turn aside to avoid the*dirty
parts of the road.
He is stronger, in proportion to his size, than the
horse, but more sluggish, stubborn, and untractable.
He is healthier than the horse, and of all other quadru¬
peds is least infested with lice or other vermin •, proba¬
bly owing to the extreme hardness and dryness of his
skin. For the same reason, perhaps, he is less sensible
of the goads of the whip, or the stinging of flies.
He is three or four years in coming to perfection,
and lives to the age of 20, or sometimes 25 years. He
sleeps much less than the horse, and never lies down for
that purpose but when he is much fatigued. The she-
ass goes 11 months with young, and seldom produces
more than one at a time.
In pleading the cause of this injured and neglected
animal, we cannot do better than copy the euloirv of
the abbe la Pluche.
“ I confess (says he) that the ass is not master of
very shining qualities, but then he enjoys those that are
very solid. If we resort to other animals for distinguish¬
ed services, this at least furnishes us with such as are
most necessary. His voice is not altogether melodious,
nor his air majestic, nor his manners very lively 5 but
then a fine voice has very little merit with people of
solidity. With him the want of a noble air has its
compensation in a mild and modest countenance ; and in¬
stead of the boisterous and irregular qualities of the
horse, which are frequently more incommodious than
agreeable, the behaviour of the ass is entirely simple
and unaffected ; no supercilious and self-sufficient airs.
He marches with a very uniform pace, and though he
is not extraordinarily swift, he pursues his iourneYfor a
Vol. XU, Part II. ^
ALIA.
long time, and without intermission. He finishes his Ii:
work in silence, serves you with a steady perseverance, the
and discovers no ostentation in his proceedings, which is
certainly a considerable accomplishment in a domestic.
His meat requires no preparation, for he is perfectly
well contented with the first thistle that presents itself
in his wray. He does not pretend that any thing is due
to him, and never appears squeamish or dissatisfied : he
thankfully accepts whatever is offered to him ; he has
an elegant relish for the best things, and very civilly con
tents himself with the most indifferent. If lie happens
to be forgotten, or is fastened a little too far from his
fodder, he entreats his master, in the most pathetic lan¬
guage he can utter, to be so good as to supply his ne¬
cessities. It is very just that he should live, and he em¬
ploys all his rhetoric with that view. When he has fi
nished his expostulation, he patiently waits the arrival
of a little bran, or a few withered leaves; and the mo¬
ment he has dispatched his meal, he returns to his busi¬
ness, and marches on without a murmur or reply. His
occupations have a tinge of the meanness of those who
set him to work : but the judgments that are formed,
both ot the ass and his master, are equally partial.
The employments of a judge, a man of consequence,
and an officer ot the revenue, have an important air,
and their habit imposes on the spectators. On the con¬
trary, the labour of the peasant has a mean and con¬
temptible appearance, because his dress is poor and his
condition despised. But we really make a false estima¬
tion of these particulars. It is the labour of the pea¬
sant which is most valuable, and alone truly necessary.
Of what importance is it to us when a manager of the.
revenue glitters from head to foot with gold ? We have
no advantage from his labours. I confess, judges and
advocates are, in some measure, necessary, but they are
made so by our folly and misbehaviour ; tor they would
no longer be wanted, could we conduct ourselves in a
rational manner, But, on the other hand, we could
on 110 account, and in no season or condition of life, be
without the peasant and the artizan. These people may
be considered as the souls and sinews of the community,
and the support of our life. It is from them we are
constantly deriving some accommodations for our wants.
Our houses, our habits, our furniture, and our suste¬
nance rise from their labours. Now, what would be¬
come of your vine dressers, gardeners, masons, and the
generality of country people, that is to say, of two-
thirds of all mankind, if they were destitute of men and
horses to convey the commodities and materials which
they employ and manufacture ? The ass is perpetually
at their service; he carries fruit, herbs, coal, wood,
bricks, tiles, plaster, lime, and straw. The most abject
offices are his ordinary lot', and it is as singular an ad¬
vantage to this multitude of workmen, as well as to
ourselves, to find a gentle, strong, and indefatigable
animal, who, without expence or pride, furnishes our
cities and villages with all sorts of commodities. A
Short comparison will complete the illustration of his
services, and in some measure raise them from their ob¬
scurity. The horse very much resembles those nations
who are fond of glitter aiid hurry ; who are perpetual*
ly singing and dancing, and extremely studious to set
off their exterior, and mix gaiety in all their actions.
They are admirable on some distinguished and decisive
occasions, but their fire frequently degenerates into r.04
+ 3 X mantic
529
lory of
Species
Mule,
rig- 74-
^30 M A M M
History of mantle enthusiasm j they fall into wild transports j they
ttie Species, exhaust themselves, and lose the most favoui able t on-
■ 'v itinctures for want of management and moderation.
The ass, on the contrary, resembles those people who
are naturally heavy and pacific, whose understanding
and capacity are limited to husbandry or commerce,
and who proceed in the same track without discompo¬
sure, and complete, with a positive air, whatever they
have once undertaken.”
The skin of this animal is very hard and elastic, and
may be used for drums, shoes, and many other purposes.
It is, we believe, seldom employed, except for the
leaves of pocket memorandum books. The flesh of the
wild ass is said to be good food, and easy ot digestion.
The he-ass and the mare readily breed together, but
the commerce between the stallion and the she-ass is
said to be difficult. The produce of either connexion
is the common mule, an animal superior both to the
horse and ass for travelling over wild and mountainous
tracts of country.
The common mule is very healthy, and will live a-
bove 30 years. It is found very serviceable in carrying
burthens, particularly in mountainous places, where
horses are not so sure-footed. The size and strength of
our breed have lately been much improved by the im¬
portation of Spanish male asses j and it were much to
be wished, that the useful qualities of this animal were
more attended to } for, by proper care in its breaking,
its natural obstinacy would in a great measure be cor¬
rected j and it might be formed with success, for the
saddle, the draught, or the burthen.
People of the first quality in Spain are drawn by mules,
where qo or 60 guineas is no uncommon price for one ot
them; nor is it surprising, when we consider how tar
they excel the horse in travelling in a mountainous coun¬
try', the mule being able to tread securely where the
former can hardly stand.' Their manner of going down
the Alps, Andes,' &c. is very extraordinary. In the^e
passages, on one side, are steep eminences, and on the
other frightful abysses 5 and as they generally follow
the direction of the mountain, the road instead ot lying
in a level, forms at every little distance steep declivi¬
ties of several hundred yards downward. These can
only be descended by mules; and the animal itself
seems sensible of the danger, and the caution to be used
in such descents. When they come to the edge of one
of these precipices, they stop without being checked by
the rider, and if he inadvertently attempt to spur them
on, they continue immoveable. They seem all this
time ruminating on the danger that lies before them,
and preparing themselves for the encounter. They not
only attentively view the road, but tremble and snort
at the danger. Having prepared for the descent, they
place their fore feet in a posture as if they were stopping
themselves; they then also put their hind feet together,
but a little forward, as if they were going to lie down.
In this attitude, having as it were taken a survey of the
road, they slide down with the swiftness of a meteor. At
this time all the rider has to do is to keep himself last on
the saddle without checking the reins, for the least mo¬
tion is sufficient to destroy the equilibrium of the mule,
in which case both he and his rider would perish, ihe
address of these animals in this rapid descent is truly
wonderful, for in their swiftest motion, when they seem to
have lost all government of themselves, they lollow ex-
3
ALIA. Part II
actly the different windings of the road, as if they had ^ Belkae.
previously settled in their minds the route they were to '
follow, and had taken every precaution for their safety.
On these occasions the natives place themselves along
the sides of the mountains, and holding by the roots of
trees, they animate the beasts with shouts, and encourage
them to persevere. Some mules after having been long
used in such journeys, acquire a sort ot reputation for
their safety and skill, and their value rises in proportion
to their celebrity*. * Beunci:
Mules very rarely breed among each other, or with
horses or asses, but a few instances ol this kind have
occurred. ., , ^ ,IS<5
4. E. Zebra, the Zebra.—This may be considered as Zebra.
the most beautiful animal of the horse tribe, but it is*^ 75-
that species with which we are least acquainted. It is
wild in its nature, and so swift in its motions, that it
can seldom be taken.- . .
In size the zebra commonly equals the ass, and it is
often considerably larger. Its form is much more
elegant than that of the ass •, its head and ears being
well shaped, and of a moderate size. What, however,
chiefly distinguishes this animal, is the beauty and
symmetry of its colours. The ground of the skin is
either a pure white or cream colour, sometimes with
a slight shade of huff, or a pale rusty tinge, and the.
skin is ornamented on every part with numerous stripes
of a black or blackish brown colour, disposed with the
greatest regularity, so as to produce an appearance
as if the animal were decorated with dark ribbands.
These stripes run transversely on the body and limhsi
and in a longitudinal direction down the face. Ihe
tail is moderately long, round, rather slender, marked
with small blackish bars, and terminated by a pretty
thick tuft of a blackish or brown colour.
The zebra is chiefly confined to the hotter parts ot
Africa, from Ethiopia to the Cape of Good Hope,
where there are large herds. In manners they resemble
the wild horse and ass, and are excessively swift and vi-
^ All attempts to tame this animal, so as to render it
serviceable, have been hitherto fruitless. Wild and in¬
dependent by nature, it seems ill adapted to servitude
and restraint. If, however, it were taken young,
and much care was bestowed on its education, it
might very probably be in a great measure domesticat¬
ed. A beautiful male zebra, at Exeter change, Eon-
don, which was afterwards burnt to death by the mis¬
chievous act of a monkey setting fire to the straw on-
which he lav, appeared to have entirely lost his native
wildness, and was so gentle as to sufler a child ot six
years old to sit quietly on his back, without exhibiting
the least sign of displeasure. He was familiar even with
strangers, and received those kind of caresses that
are usually given to the horse with evident satistac-.
One that was, some years ago, kept at Kew, seemed
of a savage and fierce nature j no one dared venture
to approach it, except the person who was accustomed
to feed it, and who alone could mount on its bac '.
Mr Edwards saw this animal eat a large paper 0 0-
hacco, paper and all ; and was told it would eat t es 1,
and any kind of food whatever that was given it. 1 his,
however, might proceed from habit or necessity in
its long voyage to this, country 5 for m a native sta^
ihap. VI. M A M M
jjelluae. these animals all feed, like horses and asses, on veo-e-
-v ' tables. b
In some parts about the Cape, where there are many
zebras, there is a penalty of fifty rix-dollars inflicted on
any person who shoots one of them ; and wherever any
of them happen to be caught alive, they are ordered to
be sent to the governor.
It has been found that the zebra and the ass will
breed together. For the purpose of ascertaining this,
an experiment was made in the year 1773 with a ze¬
bra that belonged to Lord Clive. No account of this
experiment appeared till Mr Nicholson published the
substance of some answers made by Mr Parker to a
set of questions proposed by Sir Joseph Banks.
^ The zebra was first covered by an Arabian horse.
For this purpose it was found necessary to bind her,
and she shewed great disgust. As she did not con¬
ceive, an English ass was procured, to which she show¬
ed a degree of aversion, scarcely if at all less than to
the horse, and was subjected to him by the same means.
The result of this trial not being more favourable than
the other, recourse was had to the extraordinary expe¬
dient of painting another ass so as to resemble the ze¬
bra. Complete success attended this deception. When
the animals were put together, the zebra at first ap¬
peared shy, but she received the embraces of the paint¬
ed ass, and conceived. The offspring was a fine large
male foal, which was just turned of six months old at
the time of inquiry, namely, December 1773. It re¬
sembled both parents; the father as to make, and the
mother as to colour 5 but the colour was not so strong,
and the stripes on the shoulders were more conspicuous
than on any other part. In answer to a question di¬
rected to that object, the relater states it as his opinion,
that it would very probably propagate its species, as it
did not appear at all to be like a mule.
In the course of the year after this information was
received, his lordship died suddenly, and the collection
of animals was disposed of. Sir Joseph Banks was then
absent from town ; and upon his return he was prevent¬
ed by this circumstance, either from purchasing the ani¬
mals, or acquiring any further information respecting
^ichol. liie foal *.
J 'n. 4to.
v ‘i- Genus 46. Hippopotamus.
151
Hopota- Tour front teeth in each jaw, the upper standing dis-
p „ tant ™ Pa*rs> lower prominent, the two middle
longest; canine teeth solitary, lower extremity large,
long curved, and obliquely truncated •, feet armed at
the margin with four hoofs.
There is only one species, viz. II. Amphibius, the
Hippopotamus, Hippopotame, or River Horse.—The
head of this animal is of an enormous size, and the
mouth extremely wide. The ears are small and point¬
ed, and very thickly lined within with short fine hairs.
The eyes and nostrils are small in proportion to the
bulk of the animal; on the lijjs are some strong hairs
scattered in patches here and there. The hair on
the body is very thin, of a whitish colour, and
scarcely discernible at first sight. There is no mane on
the neck, as some writers affirm, but the hairs on that
part are rather thicker. The skin is very thick and
strong, and of a dusky colour. The tail is about a
foot long* tapering, compressed, and naked 5 the hoofs
ALIA. 53l
are divided into four parts. The legs are short and nistorv 0i-
tlnck. In bulk it is second only to the elephant, and the Species.
by some writers, is said even to be superior to' him. 1 v  
Hie length of a male has been found to be 17 feet,
the circumference ot the body 13, the height nearly
seven, the legs nearly three, the head three and a half,
and the girth nearly nine. The mouth, when open, is
above two feet wide, and furnished with 44 teeth of
different figures. The cutting, and particularly the
canine teeth ot the lower jaw, are very long, and ex¬
ceedingly hard and strong. The substance of the ca¬
nine teeth is so white, fine, and hard, that it is pre¬
ferred to ivory for making artificial teeth. The cut¬
ting teeth, especially those of the under jaw, are very
long, cylindrical, and chamfered. The canine teeth
are also long, crooked, prismatic, and sharp, like the
tusks of the wild boar, ihe grinders are square, or
oblong, like those of man, and so large that one of
these teeth sometimes weighs three pounds. The tusks,
according to Dr Sparrman, are 27 inches long. With
such powerful arms, and such a prodigious strength of
body, the hippopotamus might render himself formi¬
dable to every animal. But he is naturally of a mild
disposition, and is formidable only when provoked. His
bulk is so great that 1 2 oxen have been found necessary
to draw ashore one that had been shot; and it is said
that the hide is a load for a camel. Though he de¬
lights in the water, and appears to live in it as easily
as on land, he has not, like the beaver, or otter, mem¬
branes between his toes. The great size of his belly
renders his specific gravity nearly equal to that of rva-
ter, and enables him to swim with ease.
'I hese animals inhabit the rivers of Africa, from the
Niger to Berg river, many miles north of the Cape of
Good Hope. They formerly abounded in the rivers
nearer the Cape, but are now almost extirpated j and to
preserve the few which are left in Berg river, the
governor absolutely prohibited the shooting of them
without particular permission. They are not found in
any of the African rivers that run into the Mediterra¬
nean, except in the Nile, and even there only in Upper
antl the fens and lakes of Ethiopia, through
which the Nile passes. From the unwieldiness of his
body and the shortness of his legs, the hippopotamus is
not able to move fast upon land, and is there extremely
timid. When pursued, he takes to the water, plunges
in, sinks to the bottom, and is seen walking there at
ease ; he cannot, however, continue there long, with¬
out rising towards the surface ; and in the day-time is
so fearful of being discovered, that when he takes in
fresh air the place is hardly perceptible, as he scarcely
ventures to put his nose out of the water. In rivers not
frequented by mankind, he is, however, less cautious,
and there puts his whole head out of the water. If
wounded, he will rise and attack boats or canoes with
great fury 5 and is said frequently to sink them by bit¬
ing large pieces out of the sides j for he is as bold in
the water as he is timid on the land. In shallow' rivers
the hippopotamus makes deep holes in the bottom for
the purpose of concealing his gi’eat bulk. When he
quits the water, he usually puts out half his body at
once, smells and looks around, but sometimes he rushes
out with great impetuosity, and tramples dowm every
thing in his wray. During the night he leaves the ri¬
vers to graze upon the land, where he eats sugar canes*
3X2 rushes.
532
History of
tile Species.
MAMMALIA.
is*
Tapir.
TS?
America-
iius.
Fig. 78.
rushes, millet, rice, &c. consuming great quantities,
anJ doing much damage in the cultivated fields. As
he is so timid on land, it is however, not difficult to
drive him off. The Egyptians (as Mr Hasselquist in¬
forms us) have a curious method of freeing themselves
in some measure from this destructive animal. They
remark the places he frequents most, and there lay a
large quantity of pease*, when the animal comes on shore
hungry and voracious, he falls to eating what is nearest
hing and, filling his belly with pease, they occasion an
insupportable thirst *, he then returns immediately into
the river, and drinks large draughts of water, which by
swelling the pease, cause his sudden death 5 for not long
after the Egyptians find him dead on the shore, blown
up as if killed wih strong poison. He also feeds on the
roots of trees, which he loosens with his great tusks *,
but he never feeds on fish. These animals sleep on the
reedy islands in the middle of the stream, and here they
bring forth their young. There is but one male to a
herd of females : these bring forth one young at a time
on the land, but they suckle them in the water.
They are generally taken in pit-falls, and the poor
people eat their flesh. Indeed the flesh of the young
animals or calves, as they are called, is esteemed a dainty
by the natives. In some parts they place in their corn
grounds boards full ot sharp irons, which these beasts
strike into their feet, and thus become an easy prey.
Sometimes they are taken in the water by striking them
with harpoons fastened to cords, and 1 o or 12 canoes
are employed in the chase. The hippopotamus was
known to the Komans. Scaurus treated the people
Avith the sight of five crocodiles and one hippopota¬
mus during his edileship, and exhibited them in a tem¬
porary lake. Augustus produced one at his triumph
over Cleopatra.
This animal is the behemoth of Job, who admirably
describes its manners, food, and haunts, l td. chap. xl.
ver* I5*
For an anatomical account ot the skeleton of the
hippopotamus by Cuvier, see An?i. de Mus. Nat. tom.
iv. p. 299.
Genus 47. Tapir. Tapir.
Front teeth in both jaws 10. Canine teeth in both
jaws single, incurvated. Grinders in both jaws five
on each side, very broad. Feet with three hoofs and
a false hoof on the fore feet.
There is only one species, viz.
T. Americanus, American Tapir, which is thus de¬
scribed by M. Bajon.
The figure of the tapir bears some general resem¬
blance to that of a hog; but he is of the height of a
small mule, having an extremely thick body and short
legs. He is covered with hair ol a longer kind than
the horse 01' ass } but not so long nor thick as that of a
hog. His mane, which is straight, is but little longer
than the rest of the hair, and reaches from the top of
the head to the shoulders ; the head is large and long,
the eyes very small and black: the ears black, and
somewhat like those of a hog. He is provided with a
trunk on the upper lip of nearly a foot long, the hioa e-
roents of which are extremely supple, and in which re¬
sides the organ of smell, as in the elephant, and which
he extends in order to grasp fruits, &c. I he two nos¬
trils part the end of the trunk. T he tail is only two
Part I]
inches long, and is nearly naked. The hair ot the bo- Bellua-
dy is of a somewhat deep brown j the limbs short and 1
thick; the feet very large, and rather rounded 5 the
fore feet have four toes, and the hind three : all the
toes are covered with a hard thick hoot or horn.
Though the head is very large, it contains but a very
small brain ; the jaws are much elongated, and furnish¬
ed, in general, with 40 teeth j but sometimes there are
more, and sometimes fewer. The cutting teeth arc
sharp-edged, and are the teeth which vary as to num¬
ber. After the cutting teeth, we find a canine tooth
on each side, both above and below, which have a good
deal of resemblance to those ot a boar j we then find a
small space or interval without teeth, and then follow
the grinders, which are very large, with very broad
surfaces.
M. Bajon imagined, that, on dissection, he discover¬
ed three stomachs within this animal *, and therefore he
considered it to be a ruminating animal ; but this was
afterwards found to be a mistake. It appeared, on dis¬
secting a tapir brought alive to Paris, that the stomach
was veiy large, and was contracted in two places, but
was still a single uniform stomach.
The female tapir is larger than the male, and has a
weaker voice. < .
The tapir was once considered as an amphibious ani¬
mal j but this opinion seems to be erroneous.
For an anatomical account of the skeleton ot the
tapir, by Cuvier, see Annates de Mus. I\at. tom. iii.
132. 160
Genus 48. Sus. Hog. Sus.
Front teeth in the upper jaw four, converging. In the
lower jaw six, projecting. Canine teeth or tusks, in
the upper jaw two, long, exserted. Snout truncated,
prominent, moveable. T eet cloven.
In their manners the whole of this tribe nearly re¬
semble each other, being in general filthy and disgust¬
ing, and very fond of wallowing in the mire, liny
feed indifferently on animal and vegetable food, but
seem to prefer the latter when they can obtain it. T hey
are particularly fond ot acorns, beech mast, and similar
fruits, and with their strong tendinous snout they dig
up the earth in search oi roots. They are exceeding y
prolific.
There are about five species, viz.
1. * S. Scrofa, Common H. Body bristled in front;
tail hairy.—2. S. Ethiopians, Ethiopian H. Wattles
beneath the eyes.—3. S. Africanus, Cape \ erd H.
Only two front teeth.—4* *~** Eabyrussa, Babyioussa, or
Horned H. The two upper tusks growing from the
upper part of the front.—5* *->* Tajassu, lacaiy. Tai
less, with a glandular orifice on the back. # 161
1. S. Scrofa, Common H.—The common hog ^Strofa,
found either in a wild or domestic state, in almost all the
temperate parts of Europe and Asia j but it is not met^ ^
with in the most northern parts of these continents. It
is also found in the upper parts of Africa . Dr Shaw re¬
marks, that it is not indigenous to the British isles j but
Mr Pennant asserts, that the wild boar was formerly a
native of this country, as appears from the laws of
Hoel dda, who permitted his grand huntsman to chase
that animal from the middle of November to the begin¬
ning of December. William the Conqueror punished,
with the loss of their eyes, any that were convicted ot
4 kilhcg
phap.
Bcllitfe
VI. M A M M
kijiing the wild hoar, the stag, or the roe-buck ; and
^ Fitz-Stephens tells us, that the vast forest that in his
time grew on the north side of London, was the retreat
of stags, fallow-deer, wild boars, and bulls.
The wild boar inhabits woods, living on various
kinds of vegetables, viz. roots, mast, acorns, &c. &c.
It also occasionally devours animal food. It is, in ge¬
neral considerably smaller than the domestic hog, and
is ol a dark brindled gray colour, sometimes blackish j
but, when only a year or tAvo old, is of a pale red or
dull yellowish biwn cast; and, when quite young, is
marked by alternate dusky and pale stripes disposed
longitudinally on each side the body. Between the
bristles, next the skin, is a finer or softer hair, of a
woolly or curling nature. The snout is someAvhat long¬
er in proportion than that of the domestic animal 5 but
the principal difference is in the superior length and
size of the tusks, Avhich are oiten several inches long, and
capable of inflicting the most severe and fatal wounds.
Ihe hunting ol the wild boar forms one of the
amusements of the great in some parts of Germany, Po¬
land, &c. and is a chase of some difficulty and danger,
not on account of the SAviftness, but the ferocity of the
animal.
Wild boars, says Buffon, which have not passed their
third year, are called by the hunters beasts of company,
because previous to this age they do not separate, but
folioAv their common parent. They never wander alone
till they have acquired sufficient strength to resist the
attacks of the Avolf. I hcse animals, Avhen they have
young, form a kind of flocks ; and it is upon this alone
that their safety depends. When attacked, the largest
and strongest front the enemy, and by pressing all round
against the weaker, force them into the centre. Do¬
mestic hogs are also obserAred to defend themselves in a
similar manner. The Avild boar is hunted Avith dogs,
or killed by surprise, during the night, Avhen the moon
shines. As he flies slowly, leaves a strong odour be¬
hind him, and defends himself against the dogs, and of¬
ten Avounds them dangerously, fine hunting dogs are un¬
necessary, and Avould have their nose spoiled, and acquire
a habit of moving slowly by hunting him. Mastiffs,
Avith very little training, are sufficient. The oldest
boars, which are known by the track of their feet,
should alone be bunted ; a young boar of three years
old is difficult to be attacked, because he runs very far
without stopping ; but the old boars do not run far, al¬
low the dogs to come near, and often stop to repel
them. During the day the boar commonly keeps in
his soil, Avhich is in the most sequestered parts of the
woods, and comes out by night in quest of food ; and
in summer, when the grain is ripe, it is easy to surprise
him among the cultivated fields, which he frequents
every night.
As the Avild boar advances in age, after the period
of three or four years, he becomes less dangerous, on
account of the growth of his tusks, Avhich turn up, or
make so large a curve, as often rather to impede than
assist his intentions of wounding with them.
According to the French newspapers for the year
i787, a Avild boar, of most extraordinary size, was
killed in the neighbourhood of Cognac in Angumois,
which had often escaped from the hunters, had received
many gun-shot wounds, and had cost the lives of seve¬
ral dogs and men each time of attacking him. When.
ALIA.
533
this animal was at length slain, several bullets were said History ot¬
to have been found between his skin and flesh. M. Son- the Species,
nini, avIio details this anecdote from the public papers, ^
observes, that if the relation had not been gi\ren by
hunters of distinguished order, and too Avell acquainted
with these animals to have made any mistake, we might
imagine that this formidable creature, which had long
committed its ravages in the park of Cognac, belonged
to a totally diflerent species. It was of enormous size,
Avith a very long head, a very sharp or pointed snout 5
and its mouth AA'as armed Avith teeth of a very singular
form. The hairs of the body Avere Avhite, those of the
head yellowish, the neck marked with a black band in
form of a cravat, and the cars large and straight 5 and
Avhat appears surprising, considering its size, it yvas of
uncommon SAviftness.
In a domestic state the soav brings forth twice a year,
and produces from xo to 20 at a litter. She goes ra¬
ther more than four months Avith young. At the time
of bringing forth she must be carefully Avatched, as she
sometimes devours her young, and it is still more necessa¬
ry to keep ofl the boar, avIio may destroy the whole litter.
There are several varieties of the hog bred in this
country ; but those in greatest request arc generally
knoAvn by the name of Berkshire pigs. These are usu¬
ally of a reddish-broAvn colour, with black spots j they
have large ears hanging over their eyes, are short¬
legged, small-boned, and very easily fattened. Mr
Culley mentions one of these that Avas killed at Congle-
ton in Cheshire, Avhich measured from the nose to the
end of the tail nine feet eight inches, Avas four feet and
a half high, and Aveighed, when killed, 86 stones 11 lbs.
avoirdupois.
The Chinese, or black breed, are hoav very common
in England. They are smaller, have shorter legs, and
their flesh is whiter and SAveeter than the common kind.
Of this sort Avere those found in New Guinea, Avhich
proved so seasonable a relief to our circumnavigators,
Avhen that country was first visited by them. There are
likeAvise great numbers of them in the Friendly and So¬
ciety islands, the Marquesas, and many other of the
lately discovered islands in the South seas. These are
fed Avith plantains, bread-fruit, and yams ; and are ex¬
ceedingly fat. They are frequently seen by the natives
in their canoes, swimming from one island to another,
and killed by them with lances and arrows.
The hog species, though very numerous, and diffused
over Europe, Asia, and Africa, did not exist in Ame¬
rica, till transported thither by the Spaniards. In
many places they have multiplied exceedingly, and be¬
come Avild. They resemble the domestic hog, but their
bodies are shorter, and their snout and skin thicker.
This animal has been compared to a miser, Avho is
useless and rapacious in his life 5 but on his death be¬
comes of public use, by the very effects of his sordid
manners. The hog, during life, does not render the
least service to mankind, except in removing that filth
which other animals reject. His more than common
brutality urges him to devour even his oavii offspring.
All other domestic quadrupeds shew some degree of re¬
spect to mankind, and even a sort of tenderness for us
in our helpless years} but this animal Avill de\rour in¬
fants, Avhenever it has opportunity.
The parts of this animal are finely adapted to its Avay
of life. As its method of feeding is by turning up the
earth
^4 M A M M
History of earth for roots of different kinds, so nature has given it
tlie Species, a more prone form than other animals} a strong brawny
v neck, eyes small, and placed high in the head, a long
snout, nose callous and tough, and a quick sense ol
smelling to trace out its food. Its intestines have a
strong resemblance to those ot the human species; a
circumstance that should mortify our pride. The ex¬
ternal form of its body is very unwieldy, yet, by the
strength of its tendons, the wild boar is enabled to fly
from the hunters with amazing agility. The back toe
on the feet of this animal prevents it from slipping
while it descends declivities, and must be ol singular use
when pursued j yet, notwithstanding its powers of mo¬
tion, it is by nature stupid, inactive, and drowsy, much
inclined to increase in fat, which is disposed in a differ¬
ent manner from other animals, and forms a regular
coat over the whole body. It is restless at a*change of
weather, and in certain high winds is so agitated as to
run violently, screaming horribly at the same time : it
is fond of wallowing in the dirt, either to cool its sur¬
feited body, or to destroy the lice, ticks, and other in¬
sects with which it is infested. Its diseases generally
arise from intemperance : measles, imposthumes, and
scrophulous complaints, are reckoned among them.
Linnaeus observes that its flesh is a wholesome food
for athletic constitutions, or those that use much exercise,
but bad for such as lead a sedentary life. It is of most
universal use, and furnishes numberless materials for
epicurism, among which brawn is a kind peculiar to
England. The flesh of the hog is an article of the first
, importance to a naval and commercial nation, foi it
takes salt better than any other kind, and consequently
is capable of being preserved longer. The lard is of
great use in medicine, being an ingredient in several
sorts of plasters, either pure, or in the form of pomatum j
and the bristles are formed into brushes of several kinds.
162 4. S. Babi/russa, the Babyroussa.—This animal near-
Sabyrussa jy resembles the common hog in size j but his body is
ll8‘S°‘ rather longer, his limbs more slender, and, instead of
bristles, he is covered with fine short, rather woolly
hair, of a deep brown or blackish colour, with only a
few bristles on the upper and hinder parts of the back.
It is principally distinguished from other species by the
very extraordinary position and form of the upper tusks.
These, instead of being situated internally on the edge
of the jaw, as in other animals, are placed without,
through the skin of the snout, turning upwards towards
the forehead. As the animal advances in age, those
tusks become so extremely long and curved, as to touch
the forehead, and then bend downwards, when they
must lose their power as offensive weapons, for which
they were probably intended in the younger animal.
These upper tusks are of a fine hard grain, and may be
used as ivory. The tusks of the lower jaw resemble those
of the other species, and are very long, sharp, and
curved ; but not nearly so large as those of the upper
jaw. The eyes are small; the ears erect and pointed }
the tail pretty long, slender, and terminated by a tuft
of long hairs.
This species is gregarious, and found in large herds
in several parts of Java, Amboyna, and other Indian
islands. It feeds entirely on vegetables, and often eats
the leaves of trees. When sleeping or resting itself in a
standing posture, it is said to hook its tusks across the
lower branches of the trees by way of support. When
ALIA. _ Part II
pursued, these animals will often plunge into a river, or Bellus.
even into the sea, and they can swim with great ease,^y—-
and to a vast distance. Their voice is said to resemble
that of the common hog; but it is sometimes a strong,
loud, growling note. It is occasionally domesticated
by the natives of the Indian islands, and its flesh is con¬
sidered as wholesome food.
This order contains four genera and 13 species.
In the class Mammalia, w'e have enumerated or
described about 537 species ; of which the following
table shews t’-e number in each genus.
Si Mi A contains
Lemur,
Galeopithecus,
Vespertilio,
Bradypus,
Myrmecophaga, about
Man is,
Dasypus, about
Khinoceros, perhaps
Elephas,
Platypus,
Trichecus, about
Phoca,
Cants, about
Fejts, about
Viverra, about
Lutra,
Ursus, about
Didelphis, about
Dasyurus,
Perameles,
Wombat,
Macrofus,
Talpa,
SOREX,
Erinaceus,
Hystrix,
Cavia,
Castor,
Mus, about
Hydromys,
Arctomys,
Sciurus,
Myoxus,
Dipus,
Lepus,
Hyrax,
Camelus,
Moschus,
Cervus,
Camelopardalis,
Antilope,
Capra,
Ovis,
Bos,
Equus,
Hippopotamus,
Tapir,
Sus,
62 species
13
1
24
3
6
3
6
3
1
1
7
23
25
48
8
9
18
6
2
1
2
7
16
5
6
7
2
44
3
8
26
7
6
12
3
7
7
12
1
S2
8
8
6
6
1
1
5
Total 537
Of these about 36 are found in Britain.
The
Khap. VI. M A M M
Explana- f he compiler of tins article is conscious that it la-
cion of the hours under many deficiencies ; that many animals,
' *,la'cs' , which ought to have been described, are merely enu-
merated j and that the accounts of several, which are
usually considered as important objects of natural
history, are much less complete than might have been
expected. For many of these defects he does not
hold himself accountable. From the very limited space
within which he was obliged to confine the article, it
was necessary, either that he should treat of every spe¬
cies in a very concise manner, so as to make the treatise
ALIA. 53$
merely a tabular sketch, or that he should content him- Explana-*
sdf with a systematic arrangement of all the mamma- lion of the
lia at present known, and enlarge only on a few of the Pas¬
more important species. He has chosen the latter al¬
ternative, which, by making the article more interest¬
ing to the generality of readers, seems best adapted to
the nature of this work j while the systematic arrange¬
ment, with the specific characters will assist the natu¬
ralist who knows where to refer for a particular account
of the individuals.
EXPLANATION of the PLATES.
Plate CCCI.
Fig. I. Simia Satijrus, Oran Otan.
I ig. 2. Simia hums, Magot or Barbary Ape.
Fig. 3. Simia Sylvanus, Pygmy.
Fig. 4. Simia Sphinx, Great Baboon.
Fig- S' Simia Bcelxebul, Alouatte, or Preacher Mon¬
key.
Fig. 6. Simia Argentata, Mico or Fair Monkey.
Plate CCCII.
Fig. 7. Lemur Tardigradus, Slow Lemur.
Fig. 8. Galeopithecus Volans, Flying Calugo.
Fig. 9. Vespertilio Auritus, Long-eared Bat.
I ig. 10. Vespertilio Vampyrus, Vampyre Bat.
Fig. 11. Bradypus Tridactylus, Three-toed Sloth.
Fig. 12. Myrmecophaga Jubata, Great Ant-Eater.
Plate CCCIII.
Fig. 13. Manis Pentadactyla, Pangolin, or. Short¬
tailed Manis.
Fig. 14. Manis Tetradactyla, Long-tailed Manis.
Fig. 15. Dasypus Sexcinctus, Six-banded Armadillo.
Fig. 16. Rhinoceros Unicornis, Single-horned Rhino¬
ceros.
Plate CCCIV.
Fig. 17. Elepkas Maximus, Elephant.
Fig. 18. Sukotyro.
Fig. 19. Platypus Anatinus, Duck-billed Platypus.
Fig. 20. Trichecus Rosmarus, Arctic Walrus.
Plate CCCV.
Fig. 21. Phoca Vitulina, Common Seal, or Sea-
calf.
Fig. 22. Canis Domesticus, Common Dog.
Var. Shepherd’s Dog.
Fig. 23. Mastiff.
Fig. 24. Foxhound.
Fig. 25. Terrier.
Fig. 26. Greyhound,
lig. 27. Irish Greyhound. .
Plate CCCVI.
Fig. 28. Canis Lupus, Wolf.
Fig. 29. Canis Hycena, Hyiena.
Fig. 30. Cams Aureus, Jackal.
Fig. 31. Canis Zerda, Fcnnec.
Fig. 3 2. Fells Leo, Lion.
Fig- 33- Felis Tigris, Tiger.
Plate CCCVII.
Fig. 34. Fells Catus, Wild Cat.
Fig- 35- Vivcrra Ichneumon, IchneumoiK
Fig. 36. Viverra Civetta, Civet Cat.
Fig. 37. Viverra Foina, Marten.
Fig. 38. Viverra Faro, Ferret.
F ig. 39. Lutra Vulgaris, Common Otter.
Plate CCCVIII.
Fig. 40. Ursus Arctos, Brown Bear.
Fig. 41. Ursus Maritimus, White or Polar Bear.
I ig. 42, Ursus Meles, Badger.
Fig- 43. Didelphis Virginiana, Virginian Opossum.
F ig- 44* Fiidelphis Dorsigera-, Merian Opossum.
Fig- 45* Dasyurus Viverrinus, ViverrineDasyurus.
Plate CCCIX.
Fig. 46. The Wombat.
Fig. 47. Macropus Major, Kanguroo.
Fig. 48. Talpa Radiata, Radiated Mole.
F ig- 49* Sorex Araneus, Common Shrew.
Fig. 50. Erinaceus Europceus, Common Hedgehog.
Fig.-51. Hystrix Cnstata, Porcupine.
Fig. 52. Castor Fiber•, Common Beaver.
Plate CCCX.
Fig- 53- Cavia Cobay a, Restless Cavy, or Guinea-
Pig.
F ig- 54- Mus Cricetus,. Hamster Rat.
Fig. 55. Hydromys Coypus, Coypou Rat.
Fig. 56. Arctomys Marmota, Alpine Marmot.
Fig. 57. Sciurus. Vulgaris, Common Squirrel.
Fig. 58. Myoxus Muscardinus, Common Dormouse.
Fig- 59- Dipus Jaculus, Common Jerboa.
Plate CCCXI.
Fig. 60. Lepus Timidus, Hare sitting.
Fig. 61. Hyrax Syriacus, Syrian Hyrax.
Fig. 62. Camelus Dromedarius, Arabian Camel or
Dromedary.
Fig. 63. Moschus Moschiferus, Tibetian Musk.
Fig. 64. Cervus Alces, Elk.
Fig, 6.5. Camelopardalis draff a, Camelopardalis or
Giraffe.
Plate
536
Explana¬
tion of the
Plates.
Plate CCCX1L
M A M M A L I A.
1'ig. Equas AsinuSy Wild Ass..
Fig. 74. Mule,
Index,
Expiana*
tion of the
Plates.
Fig. 66. Antilope Picta, Nyl-ghau.
Fio-. 67. Capra Ibex, Ibex.
Fig. 68. Ovis Argali, Argali or Wild Sheep,
Fig. 69. Ovis Aries, var. Wallachian Ram.
Fig. 70. Bos Taurus, var. European Bison.
Fig. 71. Bos Grunniens, Yak of Tartary.
Plate CCCXIII.
Fig. 72. Equns Caballus, Horse.
Plate CCCXIV.
Fig. 75. Equus Zebra, Zebra.
Fig. 76. Equus Quagga, Quagga.
Fig. 77. Hippopotamus Amp hibius, Hippopotamus, or
River Horse.
Fig. 78. Tapir Americanus, Tapir.
Fig. 79. Sus Scrofa, WTild Boar.
Fig. 80. Sus Babyrussa, Babyroussa.
A,
AldROFANDUs's writings on qua-
drupeds, N° 6
M3
p. 453. N° 143
144
44
24
28
29
30
25
56
p. 453. and N° 123
■i 24
INDEX.
Buffon's account of the beaver,
Bull dog,
Nc
117
64
C.
Antelope tribe,
Antilope tribe,
picta,
Ant-eater tribe,
Ape tribe,
tailless,
Barbaiy,
Pjgmy,
Apes,
Arctic walrus,
Arctomys tribe,
marmota,
Armadillo tribe,
Aristotle's writings on quadrupeds,
Ass,
B.
Baboon, great or mottled,
pig-tailed,
Baboons,
Babyroussa,
Badger,
Barbary ape,
Bass's account of the wombat,
Bat tribe,
long-eared,
vampyre,
Bear tribe,
common,
white,
Beaver tribe,
common,
Behemoth,
Belluce, p. 450.
Bewick's work on quadrupeds,
Bingley's Animal Biography,
Bloodhound,
Bos tribe
taurus,
grunniens,
Bradypus tribe
tridactylus,
ursinus,
Bruta,
46
5
154
31
2!
162
96
29
103
38
39
40
92
93
94
116
117
157
23
9
zi
67
p. 453. N° 149
150
151
p. 452. N° 41
t.
p. 450. 463 N° 19
Calugo tribe,
flying.
Camel tribe,
Arabian,
Camelopardalis,
Giraffa,
Camelus tribe,
dromedarius,
Canis tribe,
familiaris,
lupus,
hysena,
aureus,
vulpes,
zerda,
Capra tribe,
ibex,
Castor tribe,
fiber,
Cat tribe,
wild,
domestic,
Cavia tribe,
cobaya,
Cavy tribe,
restless,
Cervus tribe,
alces,
tarandus,
Chimpanzee,
Civet cat.
Corse, See Scot.
Coypu rat,
Cuvier's classification ol quadrupeds,
3**
37
135
136
p. 453- N° I42
ib.
p. 453-No- 'SS
136
p. 452. N° 59
60
72
73
74
75
76
p. 453- N° *45
146
P- 453* N° 116
117
77
81
ib.
p. 453. N° 114
IJ5
114
”5
P- 453-N#J39
140
141
Didelphis, obesula.
Dipus tribe,
sagitta,
Dog tribe,
domestic,
varieties of,
shepherd’s,
Siberian,
bull,
mastiff,
fox-hound,
blood-hound,
grey-hound,
terrier,
speaking,
Dormouse tribe,
common,
Dromedary,
E.
Elephant,
some remarks
Scot,
Elephas tribe,
Elk,
Equus tribe,
caballus,
asinus,
zebra,
Erinaceus tribe,
europseus,
F.
28
84
122
16
Buffon's natural iiistory of quadrupeds, 8
D.
Daman,
Dasypus, tribe,
Dasyurus,
Deer tribe,
moose,
rein,
Didelphis tribe,
virginiana,
dorsigei-a,
134
p. 452. N° 46
p. 452. N° 100
139
140
141
p. 452. N°97
98
99
Felis tribe,
leo,
tigris,
pardus,
leopardus,
catus,
Fennec,
Ferce,
Ferret,
Fitchet,
Foumart,
Fox,
Fox-hound,
p. 452. N° 102
P. 453. N° 129
130
59
6c
61
62
63
64
6$
66
6/
68
70
71
12)
128
136
51
on, by Mr Corse
p. 468—471
p. 452- N°
14c
p. 453- N° 152
153
154
155
P- 453-N°iic
in
P. 452. N0):
75
84
ih
81
7
3. N° a
81
p. 450.
G.
Galeopithecus tribe,
volans,
ib
7
6||
p. 452. N° 3
i
Gesner
Fh/ l.
Fti/. 3.
MAMMALIA.
flats; rrr/.
A.UY/.u/t Xu//'
ws&m
 ^
MAMMALIA
PLATE CCCJI.
-A.Wilson Sculpt
MAMMALIA
A. Wi/st*t, Sculpt
MAMMALIA
PLA TE CCCV.
MAMMALIA
PLA7yE CCCVI.
il?
. ' .«i
Fig .28.
Fig. zg.
Eng? l?v A Wilson EdznT
PLATE CrCVII
Fig .3 g.
mammalia.
Fig. 33.
Fig. 34.
Fig .36.
4\ng? hy A. Wilson, E3mT
1
fit/ -Iff.
MAMMALIA.
PLATE CCTrill.
Tiff. 4Z
J. J'.Ylfc'
MAMMALIA
PLATE CCCIX.
- • t ft
H^6
Eng? byul.Wilson EdinV
PLA TE CPCX.
fit}. £>9
MAMMALIA
fi}r.34.
A. TFiLron Jauty.& EJihr
MAMMALIA.
fiq. 69.
A. If Tfj'o/L Scufyi.t 'dm 7
PLATE ccrjll.
Fig 67.
Fuj. 71.
plate rrrxiu.
MAMMALIA
fry. 74-
A. /f7Arc-n J"rufyfjEdihfiury/i .
ipBfl
MAMMAMA
PLATE CCfXlY
1 a oj
Index.
Gesner's work on quadrupeds, N° 6
Giraffe, 142
Glires, p. 450, and N° 21
Goat tribe,
Grey-hound,
Guinea pig,
Irish,
H.
Hamster,
Hare tribe,
common,
Hedgehog tribe,
common,
Hippopotamus,
Hog tribe,
common,
babyroussa,
Home's account of the camel’fe stomachs,
p. 511, Note (g)
145
68
69
JI5
120
126
'll
110
in
p. 453, N° 157
N° 160
161
162
Homo, character of,
Hope's anecdote of the terrier,
of the lion,
Horse tribe,
common,
sea,
river,
Hycena, striped,
Hijdromys tribe,
coypou,
Hyrax tribe,
Hystrix tribe,
cristata,
P- 452
N° 70
78
*52
I53
56
157
73
P- 453> N° 121
122
P- 453> N° I34
P- 453> N° 112
II3
Jackal,
Ibex,
Ichneumon, Egyptian,
Jerboa tribe,
common,
Jocko,
Johnston's work on quadrupeds
Kangaroo tribe,
great,
K.
L.
74
146
83
129
130
28
6
104
105
lemur tribe, p. 452, N° 34
tardigradus, or slow-moving, 35
r %ing» 37
Leopard, 80
lepus tribe, p. 453, N° 131
timidus, 132
cuniculus, 133
UnruBus's classification of mammalia, 12
objections to, 13
answered, 14
78
lion,
lizard, scaly,
lutra tribe,
vulgaris,
j ^acauco tribe,
1 weropus tribe,
, major,
'lagot,
V°L. XII. Part II,
M.
45
p. 452, N° 90
91
34
p. 452, N° 104
29
MAMMALIA.
Mammalia, definition of N° 1
utility of the study of, 2
present knowledge of, im¬
perfect, 3
writei’s on, 4
classification of, p. 449
by Linnaeus, 12
by Pennant, 15
by Cuvier, 16
generic characters of, p. 452
Mammoth, 52
Manatis, 3 3
Manis tribe, P* 452, N° 43
Marmot tribe, 123
alpine, 124
Marten, 8 3
Mastiff, 63
Megatherium, 43
Moldwarp, J07
Mole tribe, 106
common, 107
Monkey, preacher, 33
Monkeys, 27
Moose deer, 140
Moschus tribe, p. 433, N® 137
moschiferus, N° 138
Mouse tribe, 11 g
shrew, 109
Mule, IJ?
Mas tribe, p. 433, N° 118
decumanus, 1 ip
cricetus, 120
Musk tribe, 137
tibetian, 138
Myoxus tribe, p. 433, N° 127
muscardinus, 128
Myrmecophaga tribe, p. 452, N° 44
remarks on by La Ce-
pede, p. 464
Nyl-ghau,
N.
O.
Opossum tribe,
Virginian,
Merian,
Oran otan,
Ornithorynchus paradoxus,
Otter tribe,
common,
sea,
0 vis tribe,
aries,
Ox tribe,
common,
P.
N® 144
91
98
99
28
54
90
ib.
P- 453> N° I47
N° 148
149
150
45
80
Pangolins,
Panther,
Peak's account of the mammoth, 32
Pecora, p. 430, and N° 22
Pennant's works on quadrupeds, 7
classification of, 15
Perameles tribe, 101
obesula, 102
t
Phoca tribe,
vitulina,
Platypus tribe,
duck-billed,
Pliny's Natural History,
Pole cat,
Pongo,
Porcupine tribe,
common,
Preacher monkey,
Primates,
Fyg™y,
Babbit,
Rat tribe,
Norway,
hamster,
coypou,
Rein deer.
Rhinoceros tribe,
unicornis,
bicorn is,
R.
S37
p. 452, N° 37
58
p. 452, N° 54
ib.
5
87
28
112
1J3
N° 33
p. 449, N° 18
30
J33
118
119
123
122
I4I
p. 452, N° 47
48
49
S.
Sable, 86
Saphan, 130
Sciurus tribe, p. 433, N° 125
vulgaris, 126
Scot's (J. Corse, Esq.) remarks on the
elephant, p. 468, 469, 471
Sea calf, N° 58
Seal tribe, 57
common, 38
Shaw's General Zoology, 10
Sheep tribe, 147
common, 148
Shepherd's dog, 62
Shrew tribe, 108
common, 109
Simla tribe, p, 432, N° 24
satyrus, 28
inuus, 29
sylvanus, 30
sphinx, 3 r
nemestrina, 32
beelzebul, 33
Sloth tribe, 41
three-toed, 42
ursine, p. 463
Sorex tribe, p. 453, N0 108
araneus, 109
Squirrel tribe, 125
common, 126
Sukotyro, p. 452, N° 53
Sus tribe, p. 453
T.
Talpa tribe, p. 432, N° 106
Europaea, 107
Tapir tribe, p. 433, N° 138
Americanus, 139
Terrier, 70
Tiger, ' 79
Trichecus tribe, p, 432, N° 55
rosmarus, c6
3 Y U,
u.
Vampyre bat,
Vespertilio tribe,
auritus,
vampyrus,
Viverra tribe,
ichneumon,
civetta,
foina,
zibellina,
putorius,
N° 40
P. 452, N° 38
39
40
P. 452, N° 82
83
84
85
86
87
MAM
Viverra furo,
vulgaris,
Urchin,
Ursus tribe,
arctos,
maritimus,
luscus,
meles,
M A L I A.
N° 88
89
in
P. 452, N° 92
93
94
95
96
W.
Walrus tribe,
arctic,
55
56
Weasel tribej-
common,
Wolf,
Wolverine,
Wombat,
Yak of Tartary,
Zebra,
Zerda,
Y.
Z.
Index.,
N° 82:
iU,
its
9ii
10,;
.ik
15
iJBl
I5i
7_tj
M A M
M^mea MAMMEA, Mavmm-Teee ; a /f""s of ^
|| belonging to the polyandria class , and in the nat
Mammoth. method ranking with those of which the order is dou
' ful. See Botany Index.
MAMMON, the god of riches, according to some
authors j though others deny that the word stands for
such a deity, and understand by it only rtches them¬
selves. Our Saviour says, We cannot serve God an
Mammon ; that is, be religious and worldly-minded at
the same time. Our poet Milton, by poetic license
riiakes Mammon to be one ot the fallen angels, and
gives us his character in the following lines:
Mammon, the least erected spirit that fell
From heav’n $ for ev’n in heav’n his looks and
thoughts . .
Were always downward bent; admiring more
The riches of heavVs pavement, trodden gold,
Than ought divine or holy else enjoy’d
In beatific vision : by him first
Man also, and by his suggestion taught,
Ransack’d the centre, and with impious hands
Rifled the bowels of their mother earth,
For treasures better hid. Soon had his crew
Open’d into the hill a spacious wound,
And digg’d out ribs of gold. Let none admire
That riches grow in hell ", that soil may best
Deserve the precious bane.
MAMMOTH, or Mammuth, the name of a huge
animal, now unknown, to which are said to have belong¬
ed those tusks, bones, and skeletons, of vast magnitude,
which have been frequently found in different parts of
Siberia, as well in the mountains as the valleys } like¬
wise in Russia, Germany, and North America. Many
specimens of them may be seen in the Imperial cabinet
at Petersburgh ; in the British, Dr Hunter’s, and the
late Sir Ashton Lever’s museums, and in that of the
Royal Society. A description of the mammoth is given
by Muller in the Recueil des Voyages au Nord: “ This
animal, he says, is four or five yards high, and about
30 feet long. His colour is grayish. His head is very
long, and his front very broad. On each side, precise¬
ly under the eyes, there are two horns, which he can
move and cross at pleasure. In walking he has the
power of extending and contracting his body to a great
degree.” Isbrandes Ides gives a similar account j but
mam
he is candid enough to acknowledge, that he never Mammoth,
knew any person who had seen the mammoth alive. Mamre. _
Mr Pennant, however, thinks it “ more than probable ^
that it still exists in some of those remote parts of the
vast new continent, impenetrated yet by Europeans.
The name of Mastodon has been given by Cuvier to
this fossil species. It is about the size of the elephant,
and more nearly allied to that than to any othei animal
of the present creation. It appears to have been herbivo¬
rous. The Ohio Indians have a tradition handed down
from their fathers respecting these animals, “ That in
ancient times a herd of them came to the Big-bone
Licks, and began an universal destruction of the bears,
deer, elks, buffaloes, and other animals which had been
created for the use of the Indians : that the Great Man
above, looking down and seeing this, was so enraged
that he seized his lightning, descended to the eaith,
seated himself upon a neighbouring mountain on a rock,
on which his seat and the print of his feet are still to be
seen, and hurled his bolts among them till the whole
were slaughtered, except the big bull, who, presenting
his forehead to the shafts, shook them oft as they fell j
but at length missing one, it wounded him in the side ;
whereon, springing round, he bounded over the Ohio,
the Wabash, the Illinois, and finally over the great
lakes, where he is living at this day.” See Mamma¬
lia Index. 1 „ ,
MAMRE, an Amorite, brother of Aner and Esh-
col, and friend of Abraham (Gen. xiv. 13.). It was
with these three persons, together with his own and
their domestics, that Abraham pursued and overcame
the kings after their conquest of Sodom and Gomorrah.
This Mamre, who dwelt near Hebron, communicated
his name to great part of the country round about.
Hence we read (chap. xiii. 18. xxiii. 17, &c.), that
Abraham dwelt in Mamre and in the plain ot Mamre.
But it is observed, that what we translate the plain
should be rendered the oak, of Mamre, because the word
elon signifies an oak or tree of a long duration. Sozo-
men tells us, that this tree was still extant, and famous
for pilgrimages and annual feasts, even in Constantine’s
time} that it was about six miles distant from Hebron}
that some of the cottages which Abraham built were
still standing near it *, and that there was a well like¬
wise of his digging, whereunto bo(h Jews, Christians,
and Heathens, did at certain seasons resort, either out
M A N [ ,5
Mamre, of devotion or for trade, because there was held a great
Man. mart. To these superstitions Constantine the Great put
‘v—a stop.
importance MAN. Of all the objects which the universe pre-
ofthe studysents to our observation, there is none that so powerful-
n;'man. ly calls for our attention, there is none with which it so
much concerns us to be intimately acquainted, as the
human species. If we admit, what mankind, in that
pride of heart, which is so natural to those who style
themselves the lot'ds of the creation, have assumed, that
man is the only being possessed of reason 5 there is no
created thing that can in the least stand in competition
with him. But, without examining into the validity of
this exclusive claim, without inquiring whether some of
our inferior fellow mortals may not be admitted to some
small share of this faculty j it must be allowed that,
w hether we consider him as a solitary being, possessed of
beauty and intelligence superior to the other classes of
animated nature, or in the more amiable character of
a social being, capable of the sentiments of affection,
friendship, gratitude, and benevolence, man is a most
distinguished personage \ and, to his fellow men, cer¬
tainly the most interesting object to which they can di¬
rect their attention ; that in short,
<< The proper study of mankind is man.”
A full examination of every thing relating to the hu¬
man species would include almost all that is interesting,
useful, or curious in nature. Indeed this whole work
is little more than a collection of facts and reasonings,
that either mediately or immediately relate to Man. It
may not be improper here to refer to a few of the prin¬
cipal articles alluded to, before we enter on the proper
business of this article, which is to state a few general
circumstances relating to the natural history of man,
2 considering him as the first animal in the creation,
hitline 0/ First, Man may be considered generically ; as consti-
ie study of tuting a tribe of animals differing from all others, in his
structure, functions, diseases, and in possessing the fa¬
culty of reason.
The structure of man has been detailed under Ana¬
tomy j his functions will be treated of under Physio¬
logy ; the diseases and accidents to which he is expo¬
sed, with their treatment and remedies, will form the
subjects of Medicine, Midwifery, Surgery, and
Materia Medica j and the nature and exercise of his
reasoning powers are discussed under Logic, Meta¬
physics, Language, Grammar, Oratory, Arith¬
metic, Algebra, Geometry, &c.
Secondly, Man may be considered specifically, as
differing from others of the same tribe in height, fea¬
tures, colour, disposition, and manners; resulting from
climate and other local circumstances. In a general
point of view, the varieties of the human species fall to
be noticed here; but for a pai’ticular account of the
inhabitants of different regions of the globe, we refer
the reader to the geographical articles Africa, Asia,
America, Abyssinia, Ceylon, Hindostan, New
Hull and, &c.
Thirdly, Man may be considered as a dependent and
an accountable being, in relation to his Creator, his neigh¬
bour, or himself. The religious and moral duties of
man are explained under Theology, Christianity,
Moral Philosophy, and Law j and to these may be
*ddcd, as connected with man in this third vieiv, Fo-
59 J MAN
litical Economy, Agriculture, Gardening, Ar- Man.
chitecture, Chemistry, Dynamics, Mechanics, y--—j
Hydrodynamics, and a number of other branches of
science, that teach man how to employ to the best ad¬
vantage those powers and faculties with which Heaven
lias endowed him, for his individual and common be¬
nefit.
Lastly, We may consider man with respect to the re¬
lations that subsist between him and the inferior classes
of the creation, as they minister to his necessities, sup¬
ply his wants, abridge his comforts, or oppose his pro¬
gress. This consideration naturally leads us to the ar¬
ticle Natural History, and its subdivisions, Mam¬
malia, Cetology, Lrpetology, Ophiology, Or¬
nithology, Ichthyology, Helminthology, Con-
chology, Botany, Mineralogy, Geology, and
Meteorology.
Of those writers who directly treat of man, the phi- Writers on
losopher and the moralist consider him in the abstract j the natural
\\\e. geographer describes him as he exists in communi-history of
ties 5 the historian traces the origin of society, the pro-maa’
gress of man in arts, civilization, and refinement, and
the changes that have taken place among the human
species, from the natural operation of physical causes,
or from the folly, villany, and ambition of princes and
heroes ; the biographer treats of man as an individual,
and sheivs the effects of exalted virtue, eminent abilities,
or striking vices, both on their possessor and on the
community at large. It is the business of the naturalist
to describe the external form of man, as it differs from
that of other animals 5 to consider the usual varieties of
it in different nations, and the more striking peculiari¬
ties that are occasionally found in individuals j to de¬
scribe the habits and manners of the human species; the
progress of life from infancy to death ; the duration of
life and its causes ; and the effects produced on the bo¬
dy by death.
Of the writers who have treated on some part of the
natural history of man, wre might give a most copious
list, even without including the almost innumerable ca¬
talogue of medical works. For the generality of read¬
ers, it may be sufficient to refer to Buffon’s Natural
History, or the Abridgement of it by Goldsmith ; to
Yirey’s Histoire Naturelle du Genre Humain ; Cuvier’s
Tableau Elementaire de PHistoire Naturelle des Ani+
maux ; Herder’s Outlines of the Philosophy of the His¬
tory of Man ; and the works of Daubenton, Yicq
d’Azyr, Camper, BlUmenbach, &c. &c.
We had proposed giving here a short popular view of
the structure and economy of man ; but as even this
would lead us into details for which we cannot afford
j’oom, we must refer our readers to Kerr’s Translation
of the System of Linnaeus, and Dr Hunter’s Introduc¬
tory Lectures to his course of Anatomy.
It is of more consequence to our present purpose to
mention the particular circumstances that distinguish
man from those animals to which he seems nearest al¬
lied. These distinctive marks are well described by
Blumenb&ch, in his work He Generis Humani Varietate
Nativa, and by M. Daubenton, in his introduction to
the Dictionary of Natural History in the Encyclopedic
Methodique; with the latter we shall present our readers. p ,
The only animals that bear any striking resemblance differences
to man, in point of structure, are the apes, especially between
the oran otan, and the gibbon; but according to M.man ancl
3 Y 2 Daubenton,
A N
Man.
MAN l 54° 3 ^
are two principal circumstances that look forwards, because the movement of the head is
Daubenton, there r**"—r • lo .
particularly distinguish man from these animals, the
first is the^strength of the muscles ot the legs, by whic i
the body is supported in a vertical position above them ,
the second consists in the articulation of the head with
the neck by the middle of its base.
We stand upright, bend our body, and walk, with¬
out thinking on the power by which we are supported
in these several positions. This power resides chiefly in
the muscles which constitute the principal part ot the
calf of the leg. Their exertion is felt, and their mo¬
tion is visible externally, when we stand upright and
bend our body backwards and forwards. 1 his power
is no less great when we walk even on a horizontal
plane. In ascending a height, the weight ot the body
is more sensibly felt than in descending. All these mo¬
tions are natural to man. Other animals, on the con¬
trary, when placed on their hind legs, are either inca¬
pable of performing them at all, or do it partially, with
great difficulty, and for a very short time. gibbon,
and the oran otan, can stand upright with much less
difficulty than other brutes j but the restraint they are
under in this attitude, plainly shews that it is not na¬
tural to them. The reason is, that the muscles in the
back part of the leg in the gibbon, &c. are not, as in
man, sufficiently large to form a calf, and consequent¬
ly not sufficiently strong to support the thighs and body
in a vertical line, and to preserve them in that posture.
See Mammalia, N° 28.. ,
iVl. Daubenton has discovered, that the attitudes
proper to man and to other animals, are pointed out by
the diflerent ways in which the head is articulated with
the neck. The two points by which the osseous part
of the head is connected with the first joint of the
neck, and on which every movement of the head is
made with the greatest facility, are placed at the edge
of the great hole of the occipital bone, which in man is
situated near the centre of the base ot the skull (afford¬
ing a passage for the medullary substance into the verte¬
bral canal,) as upon a pivot or point of support. Ihe face
is on a vertical line, almost parallel to that of the body
aud neck. The jaws, which are very short when com¬
pared with those of most other animals, extend very
little farther forwards than the forehead. No animal
has, like man, its hind legs as long as the body, neck,
and head, taken together, measuring from the top of
head to the os pubis.
In the frame of the human body the principal parts are
nearly the same with those of other animals j but in the
quadrupeds connection and form of" the bones there is as great a dit-
eneral. ference as in the attitudes proper to each. Were a
man to assume the natural posture of quadrupeds, and
try to walk by the help of his hands aud feet, he would
find himself in a very unnatural situation ; he could not
move his feet and hands but with the greatest difficulty
and pain *, and let him make what exertions he pleased,
he would find it impossible to attain a steady and con¬
tinued pace. The ^principal obstacles he would meet
with would arise from the structure of the pelvis, the
hands, the feet, and the head.
The plane of the great occipital hole, which in man
is almost horizontal, puts the head in a kind of equili¬
brium upon the neck when we stand erect in our na¬
tural attitude; hut when we are in the attitude of qua¬
drupeds, it prevents us from raising our head so as to
3
Man,
Difference
between
man and
m
stopt by the protuberance of the occiput, which then ap
proaches too near the vertebra; of the neck.
In most animals, the great hole of the occipital bone
is situated at the back part of the head ; the jaws aie
very long ; the occiput has no protuberance beyond the
aperture, the plane ot which is in a vertical direction,
or inclined a little forwards or backwards, so that the
head is pendent, and joined to the neck by its posteiior
part. This position of the head enables quadrupeds,
though their bodies are in a horizontal direction, to
present their muzzle forwards, and to raise it so as to
reach above them, or to touch the earth with the extre¬
mity of their jaws when they bring their neck and head
down to their feet. In the attitude of quadrupeds, man
could touch the earth only with the fore part or the top
of the head. 6
To these differences of structure, we may add, that Man could
when man is standing, his heel rests upon the earth as never be a
well as the other parts of his foot ; when he walks it is quadruped,
the first part that touches the ground ; man can stand
on one foot; these are peculiarities in structure and m
the manner of moving which are not to be found in
other animals. We may therefore conclude that man
cannot be ranked in the class of quadrupeds. We may
add, that in man the brain is much larger, and the
jaws much shorter, than in any other animal. The
brain, by its great extent, forms the protuberance of
the occipital bone, the fore head, and all that part of
the head which is above the ears. In the inferior ani¬
mals, the brain is so small, that most ot them have no
occiput, and the front is either wanting or little raised.
In animals which have large foreheads, such as the
horse, the ox, the elephant, &c. they are placed as low
as the ears, and even lower. These animals likewise
want the occiput, and the top of the head is of very
small extent. The jaws, which form the greatest por¬
tion of the muzzle, are large in proportion to the small¬
ness of the brain. rIhe length of the muzzle varies in
different animals ; in solipede animals it is very long;
it is short in the oran otan, and in man it does not
exist at all ; no beard grows on the muzzle ; this part
is wanting in every animal *. _ * Danin
Man then alone, of all the animals with which we ten.
are acquainted, can constantly and uniformly support
himself in the erect posture; and whatever the ingeni¬
ous and learned writer of Ancient Metaphysics has ad¬
vanced in favour of so strange a hypothesis, we cannot
believe that even in his earliest and rudest state of civi¬
lization man could ever have been a quadruped. W e
are aware that Kotzebue, in the entertaining work in
which he relates his exile to Siberia, speaks of an idiot
he saw on his return, that went on all fours, with as
much ease as if it were his natural attitude, but we do
not consider this single instance as affording a proof
that such would be the attitude of man in a state of na¬
ture.
“ There are (says Cuvier) several circumstances in the
anatomical structure of man, which sufficiently prove that
nature never intended him to walk on all fours. In this
situation his eyes would be directed towards the earth ;
but not being possessed of the cervical ligament that is
found in quadrupeds, he would not be able to support
his head. His inferior extremities would be too much
elevated in proportion to his arms, and his feet too
short
MAM [ 541 ] MAN
Man. s^orf; to enable him conveniently to bend them like
y—J other animals who tread only on their toes. His chest
is so large that it would impede the free motion of his
arms. He could not even climb with so much facility
as apes, because he has not, like them, the great toe se«
parated from the rest} nor could he climb like the cats,
L Tableau 011 acc°unt of the weakness of his nails
Elemcn- The body oi a well-shaped man ought to be square,
are. the muscles ought to be strongly marked, the contour of
the members boldly delineated, and the features of the
face well defined. In women, all the parts are more
rounded and softer, the features are more delicate> and
the complexion brighter. To man belong strength and
majesty : gracefulness and beauty are the portions of the
other sex. The structure essential to each will be found
in the description of the human skeleton, under the ar¬
ticle Anatomy. See also Anatomy, Animal, Sup-
^ PLEMLNT.
jfobleness Every thing in both sexes points them out as the so-
the form vereigns of the earth j even the external appearance of
U1 man declares his superiority to other creatures. His
Ian. kmty is erect 5 his attitude is that of command ; his
august countenance, which is turned towards heaven,
bears the impressions of his dignity. The image of his
soul is painted in his face 5 the excellence of his nature
pierces through the material organs, and gives a fire
and animation to the features of his countenance. His
majestic deportment, his firm and emboldened gait, an¬
nounce the nobleness of his rank. He touches the
earth only with his extremity, he views it only at a
distance, and seems to despise it. It has been justly
observed, that the countenance of man is the mirror
of his mind. In the looks of no animal are the ex-
pi essions of passions painted with such energy and
rapidity, and with such gentle gradations and shades,
as in those of man. We know, that in certain emotions
of the mind, the blood rises to the face, and produces-
blushing ^ and that in others the countenance turns
p?de. These two symptoms, the appearance of which
depends on the structure and the transparency of the re¬
ticulum, especially redness, constitute a peculiar beauty.
In our climates, the natural colour of the face of a man
m good health is white, with a livelv red suffused upon
the cnecks. I aleness of the countenance is always a
suspicious symptom. That colour which is shaded with
black is a sign of melancholy 5 and constant and univer¬
sal redness is a proof that the blood is carried with too
much impetuosity to the brain. A livid colour is a
morbid and dangerous symptom ; and that which has a
tint of yellow is a sign of jaundice or repletion of bile,
i „ The colour of the skin is frequently altered by want of
| f ’ sloep or of nourishment, or by looseness and diarrhoeaf.
Icrsityof Notwithstanding the general similitude of counte-
’ human nance in nations and families, there is a wonderful di-
urcs. versity of features. No one, however, is at a loss to
recollect the person to whom he intends to speak, pro¬
vided he has once fully seen him. One man has liveli¬
ness and gaiety painted in his countenance, and an¬
nounces beforehand, by the cheerfulness of his appear¬
ance, the character which he is to support in society.
I he tears which bedew the cheeks of another man
would excise compassion in the most unfeeling heart.
Thus the face of man is the rendezvous of the symptoms
koth of his moral and physical affections ; tranquillity,
anger, threatening, joy, smiles, laughter, malice, love, Jtan.
fnvy* jealousy, pride, contempt, disdain or indignation,( v 'l,J
irony, arrogance, tears, terror, astonishment, horror,
fear, shame or humiliation, sorrow and affliction, com¬
passion, meditation, particular convulsions, sleep, death,
&c. &c. The difference of these characters appears
to us of sufficient importance to form a principal article
in the natural history of man.
W ben the mind is at ease, all the features of the General
face are in a state of profound tranquillity. Their pro- analysis of
portion, harmony, and union, point out the serenity of ^ lea'
the thoughts. But when the soul is agitated, the hu-tUlfS‘
mau face becomes a living canvas, whereon the passions-
are represented with equal delicacy and energy ; where
every emotion of the soul is expressed by some feature,
and every action by some mark j the lively impression
of which anticipates the will, and reveals by pathetic
signs our secret agitation, and those intentions which
we are anxious to conceal. It is in the eyes that the The eyes,
soul is painted in the strongest colours, and with the
nicest shades. The different colours of the eyes are,
dark hazel, light hazel, green, blue, gray, and whitish
gray. The most common of these colours are hazel
and blue, both of which are often found in the same
eye. Eyes which are commonly called black, are
only dark hazel; they appear black in consequence of
being contrasted with the white of the eye. Where-
ever there is a tint of blue, however slight, it becomes
the prevailing colour, and outshines the hazel, with
which it is intermixed, to such a degree, that the mix¬
ture cannot be perceived without a very narrow exa¬
mination. The most beautiful eyes are those which ap^
pear black or blue. In the former there is more ex¬
pression and vivacity ; in the latter more sweetness, and
perhaps delicacy.
Next to the eyes, the parts of the face by which the-r},,.1/
physiognomy is most strongly marked, are the eyebrows, brows.'
Being of a different nature from the other parts, their
efiect is increased by contrast. They are like shade in
a picture, which gives relief to the other colours and
forms-
The forehead is one of the largest parts of the face,T} If2.
and one that contributes most to its beauty. Every body °lC
knows of how great importance the hair is in the phy¬
siognomy, and that baldness is a very great defect.
When old age begins to make its approaches, the hair
which first falls oft is that which covers the crown of
the head and the parts above the temples. We seldom
see the hair of the lower part of the temples, or of the
back of the head, completely fall off. Baldness is pe¬
culiar to men } women do not naturally lose their hair,
though it becomes white as well as that of men at the
approach of old age.
1 he nose is the most prominent feature of the face j The nose,
but as it has very little motion, and that only in the
most violent passions, it contributes less to the expres¬
sion than to the beauty of the countenance. The nose
is seldom perpendicular to the middle of the face, but
for the most part is turned toward the one side or the
other. The cause of this irregularity, which, according
to painters, is perfectly consistent with beauty, and
of which even the want would be a deformity, appears
to be frequent pressure on one side of the cartilage of
the .child’s nose against the breast of the mother when
it
M A N
I 542 ]
MAN
Man.
Mouth and
lips.
it receives suck. At the early period of life the car¬
tilages and bones have acquired very little solidity, and
are easily bent. , , ,,   .
Next to the eyes, the mouth and lips have the great¬
est motion and expression. The motions of these parts
are under the influence of the passions. The mouth,
set off by the vermilion of the lips, and the enamel ot
the teeth, marks, by the various forms it assumes, their
different characters ; and this feature receives anima-
lion from the organ of the voice, which communicates
to it more life and expression than is possessed by any
other feature.' The cheeks are uniform features, and
have no motion, and little expression, except what arises
from that involuntary redness or paleness with which
they are covered in different passions, such as shame,
anger, pride, and joy, producing redness ; and fear, ter-
row, and sorrow, producing paleness,
changes on In different passions, the whole head assumes ditter-
the features ent positions, and is aflected with different motions,
by the pas- ]ian„s forward during shame, humility, and sorrow j it
sions‘ inclines to one side in languor and compassion ; it is
elevated in pride, erect and fixed in obstinacy and selt-
conceit. In astonishment, it is thrown backwards ;
and it moves from side to side in contempt, ridicule,
anger, and indignation. In grief, joy, love, shame, and
compassion, the eyes swell and the tears flow. Ihe
effusion of tears is always accompanied with an exten¬
sion of the muscles of the face, which opens the mouth.
In sorrow, the corners of the mouth are depressed, the
under-lip rises, the eyelids fall down, the pupil of the
eye is round and Jialf concealed by the eyelid. The
other muscles of the face are relaxed, so that the di-
■stance between the eyes and the mouth is greater than
ordinary 5 and consequently the countenance appears to
be lengthened. In fear, terror, consternation, and hor¬
ror, the forehead is wrinkled, the eyebrows are raised,
the eyelids are opened as wide as possible, the upper
lid uncovers a part of the white above the pupil, which
is depressed and partly concealed by the under lid. At
the same time the mouth opens wide, the lips recede
from each other, and discover the teeth both above and
below. In contempt and derision, the upper lip is
raised to one side and exposes the teeth, while the other
side of the lip moves a little, and wears the appearance
of a smile. The nostril on the elevated side of the lip
shrivels up, and the corner of the mouth falls down.
The eye on the same side is almost shut, while the other
is open as usual; but the pupils ot both are depressed,
as when one looks down from a height. In jealousy,
envy, and malice, the eyebrows fall down and are
depressed. The upper lip is elevated on both sides,
while the corners ot the mouth are a little depressed,
and the under lip rises to join the middle of the upper.
In laughter the corners of the mouth are drawn back,
and a little elevated ; the upper parts of the cheeks
rise *, the eyes are more or less closed •, the upper lip
rises, and the under one falls down ; the mouth opens,
and in cases of immoderate laughter, the skin of the
nose wrinkles. That gentler and more gracious kind
of laughter which is called smiling, is seated wholly
in the parts of the mouth. The under lip rises-, the
angles of the mouth are drawn back, the cheeks are
puffed up, the eyelids approach one another, and a
small twinkling is observed in the eyes. It is very cx-
ir,r.ordinary, that laughter may be excited either by a
I
moral cause without the immediate action of external
objects, or by a particular irritation of the nerves with-v-
out any feeling of joy. Thus an involuntary laugh is
excited by a slight tickling of the lips, of the palm of
the hand, of the sole of the foot, of the armpits, and in
short, below the middle of the ribs. e laugh when two
dissimilar ideas, the union of which was unexpected,
are represented to the mind at the same time, and when
one or both of these ideas, or their union, includes
some absurdity which excites an emotion ot disdain
mingled with joy. In general, striking contrasts never
fail to produce laughter.
A change is produced in the features of the counte¬
nance by weeping as well as by laughing. In weeping,
the under lip is separated from the teeth 5 thetoiehead
is wrinkled ; the eyebrows are depressed } the dimple
which gives a gracefulness to laughter, forsakes the
cheek ; the eyes are unusually compressed, and bathed
in tears. In laughter, tears not unfrequently appear,
but they flow more seldom and less copiously.
The arms, hands, and every part of the body, con¬
tribute to the expression of the passions. In joy, for
instance, all the members of the body are agitated with
quick and varied motions. In languor and sorrow, the
arms hang down, and the whole body remains fixed
and immoveable. In admiration and surprise, a similar
suspension of motion is likewise observed. In love and
hope, the head and eyes are raised to heaven, as if to
solicit the wished-for good ; the body bears forward as
if to approach it; the arms are stretched out, and seem
to seiy.e before hand the desired object. On the con¬
trary, in fear, hatred, and horror, the arms seem to
push backward, and repel the object of aversion. We
turn away our head and eyes, as if to avoid the sight
of it; we start back as if to shun it *
Man.
m
jiaC
^ Bufian.
For the beauty of the human form, see Beauty and
Drawing. .
At bis birth, man is the most feeble of all animals; Ongjn ot
he cannot subsist but by the care of bis parents, for
which be has occasion for a much longer time than
other animals. Hence the natural continuance of con¬
jugal affection, and the intimate ties that bind together
the parents with each other and with their children.
As the father partakes with his companion in the care
of educating their children, man ought more than any
other animal, to live in a state of monogamy, the pro¬
priety of which is demonstrated by the nearly equal
number of male and female children that on an average
come into the world. !7
Man is formed for society, which is rendered essen-and ouo-
tially necessary to him from his natural weakness, and^
without which be would not be able to resist the wild
beasts of the forest, nor procure for himself the neces¬
saries of life : for he has no arms offensive or defensive,
such as horns, claws, scales ; nor any thing that resem¬
bles that faculty which we call instinct, which many
species of animals derive from nature herself, and by
which they construct themselves habitations, or change
their climate, according to the diversity of the seasons. I§
All gregarious animals have a certain language h} oflan-
which they can in some measure communicate theirguage am
thoughts to each other j but man enjoys in this respectalts
two remarkable prerogatives. I. The faculty of articu¬
lating sounds, which no quadruped enjoys in common
with him, and which must give to his language an m-
’ finite
MAN L 543 1 M A N
.yaa finite variety and precision. 2. An unlimited power of
v-—' generalizing his ideas, and of fixing and retaining ab¬
stract notions by means of words. On this depend me¬
mory and judgment, which latter is the foundation of
reason, or of that faculty of reflecting and combining-
ideas, which is considered as peculiar to man.
It is by means of language than man communicates
to the rest of his species the observations and discoveries
made by each individual, and this communication is
the great source of the infinite perfectibility of the hu-
- man race. The arts are the offspring of science, pro¬
duced by the combination of these observations and
discoveries, and by that address which results from the
peculiar conformation of our hands and fingers.
By means of the arts man has learned to procure for
himself subsistence, and to provide against the incle¬
mencies of the weather in every climate of the earth.
Thus, he has established himself every where ; while the
rest of the animal creation have each a determinate
space, beyond which they cannot pass without the pro¬
tection of man, who has transported with him the do¬
mestic kinds, and has been followed in spite of himself
by the parasitical tribes.
ro°ress of ^le n»tions who established themselves in the icy re¬
alization, gions of the north, not finding there enough of vege¬
table nourishment, nor pasture sufficiently abundant
for cattle, derived all their subsistence from the chase
or fishing. Obliged to devote all their time to tfie pro¬
curing of this subsistence, and multiplying but slowly,
from the destruction of the game which surrounded
them, it is not surprising that among them man has
made least progress in arts and civilization. Their arts
were confined to the construction of huts, to the prepa¬
ring of skins for their covering, and to the manufacture
of spears and arrows. The inhabitants of the northern
and eastern parts of Siberia, and the savages of North
America, are almost the only people who are in this
low state of civilization.
Other nations learned to secure for themselves in the
possession of numerous herds, certain subsistence, and to
find sufficient leisure to increase their knowledge j but
their wandering life, in search of new pastures and more
agreeable climates, kept them still within very narrow
limits with respect to civilization. They, however,
acquired more industry in the construction of their ha¬
bitations, and learned the value of property j the natu¬
ral consequences of which were riches, and an inequa¬
lity of condition. The Laplanders in the north of Eu¬
rope, the Tartars who inhabit the vast extent of coun¬
try in the interior of Asia ; the Bedouin Arabs who
occupy the sands of Arabia and the north of Africa,
the Caffres and Hottentots in the south of Africa, are
the principal wandering tribes with which we are ac¬
quainted.
Man did not multiply to any great extent, nor rise
to any great perfection in the arts and sciences, till
landed property allowed him to pay attention to agri¬
culture, by means of which the labour of one part of
the community could procure subsistence for the rest,
and leave them sufficient leisure to employ themselves
in arts less necessary than ornamental. Lastly, The
invention of money, by facilitating the transfer of com¬
modities, brought to the highest pitch industry, luxury,
and inequality of fortune, and by a necessary conse¬
quence, the vices of effeminacy, and the rage of ambi- Man-
tion. i.,—
Man living in every climate, fearing no other ani¬
mal, but having even destroyed or confined to the de¬
serts all those who could molest him, became incom¬
parably more numerous than any ether tribe of large
animals. Hence, having few other animals to combat,
he soon began to make war on his own species, and h<;
may be considered as almost the only animal that is
perpetually at war with those of the same tribe. 8a-
vuges dispute the forests in which they follow the chase ;
Nomads, the pastures where they feed their cattle j
more civilized people combat for the monopoly of com¬
merce or the prerogatives of pride and ambition.
Hence the necessity of government, to regulate nation¬
al disputes, and to reduce to certain rules the quarrels *
or individuals <20
It is chiefly the features of the countenance, and the Marks that
colour of the skin, that serve to distinguish the varieties^^st.*nSu,s*1.
of the human species. Independently of particular and
individual differences, the human race may be distin- species,
guished into five principal varieties, the distinctive cha¬
racters of which are deeply stamped, and appear to re¬
sist even the powerful influence of climate. In fact we
see, under the same parallel of latitude, and in the same
country, existing together for a number of ages, the
dark Hungarian or gypsy, and the fairest people of Eu¬
rope 5 the copper-coloured Peruvian, the brown Malay,
and the almost white Abyssinian, in the same zone that
is inhabited by the blackest people in the universe.
The inhabitants of Van Diemen’s land are black, while
the Europeans of the same degree of north latitude are
white ; and the inhabitants of the Malabar coast,
though placed beneath a sky much hotter than the in¬
habitants of Siberia, are not browner than these latter.
The Dutch who colonized the Cape of Good Hope,
have not, during two centuries, acquired the same co¬
lour with the Hottentots who people that country ; and
the Farsi remain white in the midst of the olive-colour¬
ed Hindoos.
The colouring matter seated in the mucous mem¬
brane helow the skin, is not the only distinctive cha¬
racter that marks the varieties of the human species, as
in each of them there is a peculiar form, distinguished
by general and constant marks, depending on the con¬
formation of the bones. The muzzle of the Negro ;
the very prominent cheek-bones of the Calmuck ; the
flattened skull and nose of the Caribbee Indian ; the ob¬
lique eyes of the Japanese and Chinese, do not appear
owing to art, like the lengthened ears or the tattooed
skin of the natives of the South sea islands. The fair
or red colour of the hair in Europeans : the blue or
gray eyes of the north, are almost never seen, except
in a few morbid cases, in any other varieties. The hair
of all the rest is very black, even from infancy j sleek
and thick in all the Mogul nations, the Malays, and
the Americans, both of the south and north, but woolly-
in Negroes and Hottentots j the beard which is late
and thin in all the Monguls, exists naturally through¬
out the American tribes, though, as among most other
savage people, all the Caribs eradicate it from their
youth, which has induced a supposition that all these
savage people are naturally beardless f. j- Viret
Mankind with respect to their varieties, have been
very
Man
MAN [
verf differently divided by naturalists. Linnaeus makes
See varieties, viz.. I. Americans, of copper-coloured
’ ' and remarkably erect.
MAN
Man.
complexion, choleric constitution,
t/UUlMlCA-IA/Uj     , • .
Varieties of Europeans; of fair complexion, sanguine tempeia-
rii-.in a.p sta. ’ -c . . r „ A <- • of «nnfv mm-
S^nient, a^d brawny ion... 3-
nseus.
ulexion, melancholic temperament, and rigid libre.
a Africans; of black complexion, phlegmatic tempera¬
ment, and relaxed fibre •, and, 5. Monsters; compre¬
hending, 1. Alpini; the inhabitants of the noithern
mountains : they are small in stature, active, and timid
in their disposition. 2. Patagonia ; the 1 atagomans
of South America, of vast size, and indolent in then
manners. 3. Mo nor chides; the Hottentots, having one
testicle extirpated. 4. Imbcrbes ; most of the Ameri¬
can nations, who eradicate their beards and the hair
from every part of the body except the scalp. 5. Ma-
vrocephali. 6. Plagiocephali; the Canadian Indians, who
have the fore part of their heads flattened, when young,
by compression. . . . .
nv Pmelin * The following arrangement of the varieties m the
human species, is offered by Gmelin as more con¬
venient than that of Linnaeus. 1. White, (Hoot.
Albas.) Formed by the rules of symmetrical elegance
and beauty : or at least what we consider as such.—
,iinrhnrlpQ almost all the inhabitants ol Lu-
27
This division includes almost all the inhabitants 01 iMi
rope*, those of Asia on this sidejil the Oby, the Cas¬
pian
33
By Bufibii
24
®y Virey.
By Cuvier.
26
Vhite race
.,1^.., Mount Ini a us, and the Ganges •, likewise the
natives of the north of Africa, of Greenland, and the
Esquimaux.
2. Brown : (Horn. Badius.) Of a yellowish brown
colour} has scanty hairs, flat features, and small eyes.
 This variety takes in the whole inhabitants of Asia
not included in the preceding division.
3. Black : (Horn. Niger.) Of black complexion 5
has frizzly hair, a flat nose, and thick lips.—The whole
inhabitants of Africa, excepting those of its more
northern parts.
4. Copper-coloured : {Horn. Cupret/s.) The com¬
plexion of the skin resembles the colour of copper not
burnished.—The whole inhabitants of America, except
the Greenlanders and Esquimaux.
5. Tawney : {Horn. Fuscus.) Chiefly of a dark
blackish-brown colour •, having a broad nose, and harsh
coarse straight hair.—The inhabitants of the southern
islands, and of most of the Indian islands.
Buflbn enumerates six varieties, 1. The polar or Lap-
land race ; 2. The Tartar or Mongol ; 3. The south¬
ern Asiatic ; 4. The European •, 5. The Ethiopian }
and, 6. The American. For an account of these va¬
rieties see Buffon’s Natural History by Smellie, and
Herder’s Outlines of the Philosophy of the History of
Man.
Virey the disciple of Buffon, distributes man into five
varieties, 1. The Celtic race, containing most of the
Europeans. 2. The Mongul and Lapland. 3. Malay.
4. The Negro and Hottentot •, and, 5. The Carrib.
For his description of these varieties, with portraits il¬
lustrating them, see his Histoire Naturelle clu Genre
Humain, tom. i. p. 129.
Of all the divisions which we have seen, we consider
that given by Cuvier, in his 'Tableau Flementaire cle
VHistoire Naturelle des Animaux, as the least exception¬
able ; and as it is very concise, we shall here give a
translation of it. Cuvier’s enumeration is as follow’s :
1. The white race, with oval visage, long hair, pointed
544 ]
nose *, to which belong the polished natives of Europe,
which appears to us the most comely of all the varieties,'
is also far superior to the rest in strength of genius, in
courage, and activity. The Tartars, properly so call¬
ed, from whom the Turks are descended •, the Circassi¬
ans and other people about Mount Caucasus, who are
theVairest of the human race : the Persians, the native
inhabitants of Hindostan, the Arabians, the Moors who
inhabit the north of Africa, and the Abyssinians, who
appear, as well as the Jews, to be derived from the
Arabians, belong to the same race with the Europeans.
These nations are larger and fairer in the north, their
hair is there fair, their eyes blue ; whereas in the south
they are dark, and often very brown, and their hair and
eyes are black. There are intermixtures of these co¬
lours in the more temperate regions.
2. All the north of the turn continents is peopled with Lapland
men that are ver y dark, with flat visage, black hair race,
and eyes ; with a body thick and extremely short. To
this belong the Laplanders in Europe, the Samoiedes,
Ostiacs, Tschutski in Asia, the Greenlanders and Es¬
quimaux in America. Ihe inhabitants of i inland re¬
semble these almost in every circumstance, except that
their height equals that of the European. The Hun¬
garians and several wandering tribes of Asia, have a
similar form, and similar language and manners with
the Fins.
3. The Mongul race, to which belong most ol the Mongul
people ive call Tartars, as the Mongols, the Mant-
cheoux, the Calmucs, &c. and who have extended
their conquests from China to Hindostan, and are even
advanced as far as the frontiers of Europe, is charac- /
tenz.ed by a flat forehead, a small nose, piomment
cheek-bones, black hair, very thin beard, small oblique
eves, thick lips, and a colour more or less yellow.
’ The Chinese and Japanese, and the Indians beyond
the Ganges, to whom we give the name of Malays,
appear to hold a near resemblance to the Monguls.
The islands of the South sea, and the great continent of
New Holland, are inhabited by original Malays.
Those who live nearest the equator Iiave the skin almost
as black as the Negroes. Such are, among others, the
Papons.
4. The Negroes inhabit all the coasts on the south oGW0
Africa from the river Senegal to the Red sea. Besides
the blackness of their skin, they are distinguished by
their flat nose and forehead, their long muzzle, promi¬
nent cheek bones, and frizzled hair. They are black¬
er than the inhabitants of Guinea, and have the nose
excessively long. Those of Congo are the most come¬
ly. Towards the tropic of Capricorn they become a
little paler, and take the name of Caffres. Almost all
the inhabitants of the eastern coast of Africa are ol this
subvariety. The Hottentots form another subdivision,
which is found in the most southern point, and they have
©heek-bones so prominent, that their visage appears tri¬
angular. Their colour is a brown olive.
It is supposed that the interior parts of Africa,
which are very hilly, are inhabited by a race ol white
men like Abyssinia.
5. America was peopled with men of a copper
lour, with long and coarse hair, who, according to mostiat
travellers, generally want the beard, and even the hair
on the body. Other's assure us that they eradicate
these. It is also said, that the fanciful form of their
3°
man f 545 1 M A N
Man. heads arise from the compression they undergo in in-
fancy. This race comprehends the savage nations of
America, and the remaining inhabitants of Mexico and
Peru. It is towards the southern point of this conti¬
nent that we find the tallest race of men in the uni¬
verse j but their height, which the earlier travellers re¬
presented as gigantic, scarcely exceeds six feet. These
are the people so celebrated under the name of Pata¬
gonians.
All these different varieties of men can intermix and
produce children, who hold a mean between the forms
and colours of their parents. These intermixtures can
again mix with the original races, and the produce ap¬
proaches to these races according to the degree of mix¬
ture. All these progenies are prolific as well as their
fathers and mothers.
It appears that there are sometimes born in the dif¬
ferent races of our variety, subjects of a milky white¬
ness, which is the effect of disease, and this colour is
accompanied with feebleness of body and weakness of
sight. Some travellers have helieved that these men
form entire nations, which they have called Dariens in
America, Dondos or Albinos, in Africa, and Chack-
leras in India. See Albinos.
The different colours which distinguish the varieties
of the human species, reside not in the cuticle, but in
the mucus and reticular membrane which is immedi-
Cuvier. ately below it *.
31 Blumenbach remarks, that some late writers seem
doubtful whether the numerous distinct races of men
j tinct ought to be considered as mere varieties, which have
cics. arisen from degeneration, or as so many species altoge¬
ther different. The cadse of this seems chiefly to be,
that they took too narrow a view in their researches,
selected, perhaps, two races the most different from
each other possible, and, overlooking the intermediate
races that formed the connecting links between them,
compared these two together ; or, they fixed their at¬
tention too much on man, without examining other
species of animals, and comparing their varieties and
degeneration with those of the human species. The
first fault is, rvhen one, for example, places together a
Senegal negro and an European Adonis, and at the
'Same time forgets that there is not one of the bodily
differences of these two beings, whether hair, colour,
leatures, &c. which does not gradually run into the
same thing of the other, by such a variety of shades,
that no physiologist or naturalist is able to establish a
certain boundary between these gradations, and conse¬
quently between the extremes themselves.
The second fault is, when people reason as if man
were the only organized being in nature, and consider
the varieties in his species to be strange and problema¬
tical, without reflecting that all these varieties are not
more striking or more uncommon than those with which
so many thousands of other species of organized beings
degenerate, as it were, before our eyes.
We cannot here enter into the merits of the question,
whether, considering the varieties of the human species
which we have described, all these could have originat¬
ed from one pair, as related in the Mosaic history. To
those who affect to disbelieve the Mosaic account, it
may be sufficient to reply, that to the almighty power
of the Divine Being it was not more difficult to change
and modify the descendants of one man and one wo-
Vol. XII. Part II. f
man, in order to adapt them to the different regions of rvxail.
the earth which they w'ere destined to occupy, than to -y-■—'
create at the first five or six pairs placed in different
situations, to be the progenitors of the nations that we
now see inhabiting the globe.
On the nature and causes of the different colour of This^iHus-
the skin, that characterizes the varieties of the human trated by
species, see the article Complexion. On this subject comPaiison
we shall here add a curious comparison between the hu- jn
man race and swine, by Professor Blumenbach, intend- 1 1 VUI
cd to refute the second error into which he considers
writers have fallen, in treating of the varieties of
man.
More reasons, says he, than one have induced me to
make choice of swine for this comparison ; but, in par¬
ticular, because they have a great similarity, in many
respects, to man j not, however, in the form of their en¬
trails, as people formerly believed, and therefore stu¬
died the anatomy of the human body purposely in
swine j so that even, in the 17th century, a celebrated
dispute, which arose between the physicians of Heidel¬
berg and those of Durlach, respecting the position of
the heart in man, was determined, in consequence of
Orders from government^ by inspecting a sow, to the
great triumph of the party which really was in the
wrong. Nor is it because in the time of Galen, accord¬
ing to repeated assertions, human flesh was said to have
a taste perfectly similar to that of swine j nor because
the lat, and the tanned hides of both, are very like to
each other $ but because both, in general, in regard to
the economy of their bodily structure, taken on the
whole, shew unexpectedly, on the first view, as well as
on closer examination, a very striking similitude.
Both, for example, are domestic animals ; both mt-
ntvora; both are dispersed throughout all the four
quarters of the world j and both consequently are ex¬
posed, in numerous ways, to the principal causes of de¬
generation arising from climate, mode of life, nourish-
Jnent, &c. * both, for the same reason, are subject to
many diseases rarely found among other animals than
men and swine, such as the stone in the bladder j or to
diseases exclusively peculiar to these tivo, such as the
worms found in mcasled swine.
Another reason, continues he, why I have made
choice of swine for the present Comparison is, because
the degeneration and descent from the original race are
far more certain in these animals, and can be better
traced, than in the varieties of other domestic animals*
I or no naturalist, I believe, has carried his scepticism
so far as to doubt the descent of the domestic swine from
the wild boar j which is much the more evident, as it is
well known that wild pigs, when caught, may be easily
rendered as tame and familiar as domestic swine-: and
the contrary also is the case ; for if the latter, by any ac¬
cident get into the woods, they as readily become wild
again j so that there ai’e instances of such animals being
shot for wild swine, and it has not been till they were
opened, and found castrated, that people were led to a
discovery of their origin, and how, and at what time,
they ran away. It is well ascertained, that, before the
discovery of America by the Spaniards, swine were un¬
known in that quarter of the world, and that they
were afterwards carried thither from Ettrope. All the
varieties, therefore, through which this animal has since
degenerated, belong, with the original European race,
3 Z to
Man.
MAN
t 546 ]
MAN
to one and the same species 5 and since no bodily differ¬
ence is found in the human race, either in regal d to
stature, colour, the form of the skull, &c. as Will pre¬
sently appear, which is not observed in the same pro¬
portion in the swine race, this comparison, it is to he
hoped, will silence those sceptics who have thought
proper, on account of those varieties ot the human
species, to admit more than one species. .
With regard to stature, the Patagonians, as is well
known, have afforded the greatest employment to an¬
thropologists. The romantic tales, however, ot the
old travellers, and even the more modest relations ot
English navigators, have been doubted by other tra¬
vellers, who on the same coast sought m vain tor suc.i
children of Anak. But even admitting every thing
said of the size of these Patagonians, there is not among
them nearly such an excess of stature as that observed
in many parts of America among the swine originally
carried thither from Europe ; and of these we shall
mention particularly those ot Cuba, which are moie
than double the size of the original Europeans.
The natives of Guinea, Madagascar, New Holland,
New Guinea, &c. are black 5 many American tribes
are reddish brown, and the Europeans are white. An
equal difference is observed among swine in different
countries. In Piedmont, for example, they are black.
When I passed, says our author, through that country,
during the great fair for swine at Salenge, I did not see
a single one of any other colour. In Bavaria, they are
reddish brown *, in Normandy they are all white. Hu¬
man hair is, indeed, somewhat different from swines
bristles, yet, in the present point of view, they may
be compared with each other. I air hair is soft, and ot
a silky texture black hair is coarser, and among seve¬
ral tribes, such as the Abyssinians, Negroes, and the
inhabitants of New Holland, it is woolly, and most so
among the Hottentots. In like manner, among the
white swine in Nprmandy, as I was assured by an in¬
comparable observer, Sulzer of Bonneburg, the hair on
the whole body is longer and softer than among other
swine •, and even the bristles on the back are very little
different, but lie flat, and are only longer than the hair
on the other parts of the body. They cannot, there¬
fore, be employed by the brush-makers. rI he difference
between the hair of the wild boar and the domestic
swine, particularly in regard to the softer part between
the strong bristles, is, as is well known, still greater.
The whole difference between the cranium ot a ne¬
gro and that of an European, is not in the least degree
greater than that equally striking dift’erence which
exists between the cranium of the wild boar and that
of the domestic swine. Those who have not observed
this in the animals themselves, need only to cast their
eye on the figure which Daubenton has given of both.
I shall pass over, says Blumenbach, less national va¬
rieties which may be found among swine as well as
among men, and only mention, that I have been assu¬
red by Mr Sulzer, that the peculiarity of having the
bone of the leg remarkably long, as is the case among
the Hindoos, has been remarked with regard to the
swine in Normandy. They stand very long on their
hind legs •, their back, therefore, is highest at the rump,
forming a kind of inclined plane, and the head proceeds
in the same direction, so that the snout is not far from
the ground. I shall here add, that the swine in some
4
Man.
countries have degenerated into races which in singu¬
larity far exceed every thing that has been tound
strange in bodily variety among the human race.
Swine with solid hoofs were known to the ancients, and
large herds of them are found in Hungary, Sweden, &c.
In like manner the European swine, first carried by the
Spaniards, in 1509, to the island ot Cuba, at that time
celebrated for its pearl fishery, degenerated into a mon-
strous race, with hoofs which were half a span in length.
From these facts our ingenious author concludes, that
it is absurd to allow the vast variety of swine to have
descended from one original pair, and to contend that
the varieties of men are so many distinct species. ..
No part of the natural history of man can be more Progress < i
interesting than that which describes the progressive human UR.
improvement and decay of human lite, from the craole
to the grave. This subject has been treated ot in a most
animated manner by Bufton, and we shall here gi\e an
abridgement ot this part ot his woik. _ _ 34
Nothing (says M. Buflon) exhibits such a striking Infancy,
picture of our weakness, as the condition ot an infant
immediately after birth. Incapable of employing its
organs, it requires assistance of every kind. In the first
moments of our existence, we present an image ot pain
and misery, and are more weak and helpless than the
young of any other animal. At birth, the infant passes
from one element to another when it leaves the gentle
warmth of the tranquil fluid by which it was complete¬
ly surrounded in the womb of the mother, it becomes
exposed to the impressions of the air, and instantly
feels the effects of that active element. The air acting
upon the olfactory nerves, and upon the organs ot
respiration, produces a shock something like that ot
sneezing, by which the breast is expanded, and the
air admitted into the lungs. In the mean time, the
agitation of the diaphragm presses upon the bowels, and
the excrements are thus tor the first time disch.ugod
from the intestines, and the urine from the bladder.
The air dilates the vesicles of the lungs, and after
being rarefied to a certain degree, is expelled by the
spring of the dilated fibres reacting upon this rarefied
fluid. The infant now respires, and articulates sounds
or cries. . ,
Most animals are blind for some days after birth.
Infants open their eyes to the light the moment they
come into the world $ but they are dull, fixed, and
commonly blue. The new-born child cannot distin¬
guish objects, because he is incapable of fixing his eyes
upon them. The organ of vision is yet imperfect •, the
cornea is wrinkled } and perhaps the retina is too sott
for receiving the images ot external objects, and oi
communicating the sensation of distinct vision. At t re
end of 40 days, the infant begins to hear and to smile.
About the same time it begins to look at bright ob¬
jects, and frequently to turn its eyes towards the win¬
dow, a candle, or any light. Now likewise it begins
to weep j for its former cries and groans were not ac¬
companied with tears. Smiles and tears are the eflect
of two internal sensations, both of which depend on the
action of the mind. Thus they are peculiar to the hu¬
man race, and serve to express mental pam or plea¬
sure, while the cries, motions, and other marks ot bo¬
dily pain and pleasure, are common to man and most
of the other animals. Considering the subject as meta¬
physicians, we shall find that pain and pleasure form 1
* J universal
Man
power,
MAN [
which sets all our passions in mo-
universal
tion.
The size of an infant born at the full time is com¬
monly 21 inches; and thatyhc^, which nine months
before was an imperceptible bubble, now weighs ten
or twelve pounds, and sometimes more. The head is
large in proportion to the body ; and this disproportion,
which is still greater in the first stage of the foetus, con¬
tinues during the period of infancy. The skin of a
new-born child is of a reddish colour, because it is so
fine and transparent as to allow a slight tint of the co¬
lour of the blood to shine through. The form of the
body and members is by no means perfect in a child
soon after birth ; all the parts appear to be swollen. At
the end of three days, a kind of jaundice general I v
comes on, and at the same time milk is to be found in
the breasts ot the infant, which may be squeezed out
by the fingers. The swelling decreases as the child
grows up.
The liquor contained in the amnios leaves a viscid
whitish matter upon the body of the child. In this
country we have the precaution to wash the new-born
infant only with warm water; but it is the custom with
whole nations inhabiting the coldest climates, to plunge
their infants into cold water as soon as they are born,
without their receiving the smallest injury. It is even
said that the Laplanders leave their children in the
snow till the cold has almost stopped their respiration,
and then plunge them into a warm bath. Among these
people, the children are also washed thrice a day dur¬
ing the first year ot their life. The inhabitants of north¬
ern countries are persuaded that the cold bath tends
to make men stronger and more robust, and on that
account accustom their children to the use of it from
their infancy. The truth is, that we are totally igno¬
rant of the power of habit, or how far it can make
our bodies capable of suffering, of acquiring, or of lo¬
sing.
The child is not allowed to suck as soon as it is
born ; but time is given for discharging the liquor and
slime from the stomach, and the meconium or excrement,
which is of a black colour, from the intestines. As
these substances might sour the milk, a little diluted
wine mixed with sugar is first given to the infant, and
the breast is not presented to it before 10 or 12 hours
have elapsed.
The young of quadrupeds can of themselves find the
way to the teat of the mother : it is not so with man.
I he mother, in order to suckle her child, must raise it
to her breasts; and, at this feeble period of life, the
infant can express its wants onlv by cries.
New-born children have need of frequent nourish¬
ment. During the day, the breast ought to be given
them every two hours, and during the night as often
as they awake. At first they sleep almost continually;
and they seem never to awake but when pressed by
hanger and pain. Sleep is useful and refreshing to
them ; and it is sometimes considered as necessary to em¬
ploy narcotic doses, proportioned to the age and consti¬
tution of the child, tor the purpose of procuring them
repose. The common way of appeasing the cries of
children is by rocking them in a cradle ; but this
•agitation must be very gentle, otherwise a great risk is
ran of confusing the infant’s brain, and of producing a
total derangement. It is necessary to their being in
547 ] MAN
good health, that their sleep be long and natural. It
is possible, however, that they may sleep too much,
and thereby endanger their constitution. In that case,
it would be proper to take them out of the cradle, and
awaken them by a gentle motion, or by presenting
some bright object to their eyes. At this age we re¬
ceive the first impressions from the senses, which, with¬
out doubt, are more important during the rest of life
than is generally imagined. Great care ought to be
taken to place the cradle in such a manner that the
child shall be directly opposite to the light, for the
eyes are always directed towards that part of the room
where the light is strongest ; and if the cradle be pla¬
ced sideways, one of them, by turning towards the
light, will acquire greater strength than the other, and
the child will squint. For the first two months, no
other food should be given to the child but the milk
ot the nurse ; and when it is of a weak and delicate con¬
stitution, this nourishment alone should be continued
during the third or fourth month. A child, however
robust and healthy, may be exposed to great danger
and inconvenience, if any other aliment is administered
before the end of the first month. In Holland, Italy,
Turkey, and the whole Levant, the food of children
limited to the milk of the nurse for a whole year.
Man,
is
The savages of Canada give their children suck for
four, five, six, and sometimes even seven years. In
this country, as nurses generally have not a sufficient
quantity ot milk to satisfy the appetite of their chil¬
dren, they commonly supply the want of it by panada,
or other light preparations.
The teeth usually begin to appear about the age of Dentition,
seven months. The cutting of these, although a natu¬
ral operation, does not follow the common laws of na¬
ture, which acts continually on the human body with¬
out occasioning the smallest pain, or even producing
any sensation. Here a violent and painful effort is
made, accompanied with cries and tears. Children at
first lose their sprightliness and gaiety; they become
sad, restless, and fretful. The gums are red, and swel¬
led ; but they afterwards become white, when the
pressure of the teeth is so great as to stop the circula¬
tion of the blood. Children apply their fingers to
their mouth, that they may remove the irritation which
they feel there. Some relief is given, by putting into
their hands a bit of ivory or coral, or of some other
hard and smooth body, with which they rub the gums
at the affected part. This pressure, being opposed to
that of the teeth, calms the pain for a moment, con¬
tributes to make the membrane of the gum thinner,
and facilitates its rupture. Nature here acts in opposi¬
tion to herself; and an incision of the gum must some¬
times take place, to allow a passage to the tooth. For
the period of dentition, number of teeth, &c. see Ana¬
tomy, N° 27.
3*
When children are allowed to cry too long, and too Diseases of
often, ruptures are sometimes occasioned by the efforts *niancy*
they make. These may easily be cured by the speedy
application of bandages; but if this remedy has been
too long delayed, the disease may continue through
life. Children are very much subject to worms. Some
of the bad effects occasioned by these animals might, ac¬
cording to Btiffon, be prevented by giving them a little
wine now and then, for fermented liquors have a ten¬
dency to prevent their generation.
3 ^ 2 Though
MAN
[ 543 ]
MAN
Man.
37 .
Mortality
of infants.
HTlmiirvli flip hoilv is very delicate in the state of in-
' fancy, it is then less sensible of cold than at any other
uerild of life. The internal heat appears to be great¬
er The pulse in children is much quicker than in
adults, from which we are certainly entitled to infer,
that the internal heat is greater in the same propor-
1 Till three years of age, the life of a child is very
precarious. In the second or third following years it
Man.
35
Speech.
Bvjore
39
Adoles¬
cence and
puberty.
becomes more certain, and at six or seven years ef age
a child has a better chance of living that at any o er
neriod of life. From the bills of mortality published
at London, it appears, that of a certain ™mber ^
children born at the same time, one half of tlu3m ^
the three first years; according to which, one-halt
the human race would be cut off before they are three
years of age. But the mortality among children is.
not everywhere so great as in London. M. Dupre du
Saint-Mcwr, from a great number of observations made
in France, has shewn that half of the children born at
the same time are not extinct till seven or eight years
have elapsed. .
Among the causes which have occasioned so great a
mortality among children, and even among adults, the
smallpox may be ranked as the chief. But uckily the
means of alleviating the effects of this terrible scourge
are now universally known by inoculation, and stil
more by the introduction of the cowpox.
Children begin learning to speak about the age ot
12 or 15 months. In all languages, and among every
people, the first syllables they utter are ba, ba, ma, ma,
pa, pa, taba, abada ; nor ought this to excite any sur¬
prise, when we consider that these syllables are the
sounds most natural to man, because they consist of
that vowel, and those consonants, the pronunciation of
which require the smallest exertion in the organs ot
speech. Some children at two years of age articulate
distinctly, and repeat whatever is said to them } but
most children do not speak till the age of two years and
a half, or three years, and otten later.
The life of man and of other animals is measured
only from the moment of birth ; they enjoy existence,
however, previous to that period, and begin to live in
the state of a foetus. This state is described and ex¬
plained under the article Anatomy, N° 113. The
period of infancy, which extends from the moment ol
birth to about 12 years of age, has already been con¬
sidered.
The period of infancy is followed by that of ado¬
lescence. This begins, together with puberty, at the
age of 12 or 14, and commonly ends in girls at 15, and
in boys at 18, but sometimes not till 21, 23, and 25
years of age. According to its etymology (being de¬
rived from the Latin adolescentia), it is completed
when the body has attained its full height. Thus, pu¬
berty becomes adolescence, and precedes youth. This
is the spring of life j this is the season of pleasures, of
loves, and of graces } but this smiling season is of short
duration. Hitherto nature seems to have had nothing
in view but the preservation and increase of her work j
she has made no provision for the infant except what is
necessary for life and growth. It has enjoyed a kind
of vegetable existence which was shut up within itself,
and which it was incapable of communicating. In this
first stage of life, reason is still asleep j but the prin¬
ciples of life soon multiply, and man has not only what
is necessary to his own existence, but what enables him
to give existence to others. This redundancy of life
can no longer be confined, but endeavouis to expand
and diffuse itsell *. . .
Thus far we have followed Buffon in lus animated
sketch of the progress of human life •, but here we must
leave him for a while, as we consider the picture he
has given of the approach of puberty and its corre¬
sponding circumstances to be less calculated to serve the
purposes of scientific information, than to gratify idle
and vicious curiosity, and rouse those passions which
seldom require much excitement. The subjects of the
procreation of the human species, of pregnancy and
parturition, are strictly medical, and are treated of in
sufficient detail under their proper heads in this work.
Perhaps we shall be accused, by some of the philoso*
phists of the present age, of being too fastidious in
omitting so important and interesting a part of the na¬
tural history ol man j but we had rather incur the im¬
putation of negligence, than introduce into an article
that is intended for general readers any thing that may
offend the nicest delicacy.
Soon after the age of puberty the body of man at¬
tains its full stature. Some young people cease to
grow after 15 or 16 •, while others continue to increase
in height till 20, or even 23. During this interval
they are usually very slender, but by degrees the limbs
swell, and assume their proper shape} and before the
age of 30, the body has generally attained its greatest
perfection with regard to strength, consistence, and
symmetry. Adolescence is considered as terminating
at the age of 20 or 25, and at this period (according
to the usual division of man’s life into ages), youth be¬
gins. This continues till the age of 30 °r 35* 40
The stature of man varies considerably in different stature
climates, and under different circumstances. Authors man.
are by no means agreed as to what should be considered
the medium height of the human body. Butlon states-
it at from five feet or five feet and an inch, to five feet
four inches, making the medium height about five feet
two inches. Haller, on the contrary, reckons the true
medium height of men in the temperate climates of
Europe to be about five feet five or six inches. In
general, women are several inches shorter than men. It
has been remarked by Haller, that in mountainous
countries, such as Switzerland, the inhabitants of the
plains are commonly much taller than those of the
higher situations. It is difficult to ascertain with preci¬
sion the actual limits of the human stature ; but we may
remark that in surveying the inhabited parts of the
earth, we find more remarkable differences in the sta¬
ture of different individuals of the same nation, than m
the general height of different nations. In the same
climate, among the same people, and often even in the
same family, we find some individuals that are far above
the medium standard, and others as far below it. Ihe
former we call giants, and the latter dwarfs. See Giant
and Dwarf (a).
(a) In addition to the relations of gigantic men given under Giant, we shall here present our reader^wiffi
MAN [ 549 ] MAN
yan The body having acquired its full height during the
——v——/ period of adolescence, and its full dimensions in youth,
41 remains for some yeax*s in the same state before it be-
Manhood- gjng decay. This is the period of manhood, which
extends from the age of 30 or 35 to that of 40 or 45
years. During this stage the powers of the body con¬
tinue in full vigour, and the principal change which
takes place in the human figure arises from the forma¬
tion of fat indifferent parts. Excessive fatness disfigures
the body, and becomes a very cumbersome and incon¬
venient load.
n Physiologists give the name of old age to that period
gge. of life which commences immediately after the age of
manhood and ends at death, and they distinguish green
old age from the age of decrepitude. But in our opi¬
nion such an extensive signification of the word ought
not to be admitted. We are not old men at the age
of 40 or 45, and though the body then gives signs of
decay, it has not yet arrived at the period of old age.
M. Daubenton observes, that it would be more proper
to call it the declining age, because nature then becomes
retrograde, the fatness and good plight of the body
diminish, and certain parts of it do not perform their
functions with equal vigour.
The age of decline is from 40 or 45, to 60 or 65 years
of age. At this time of life, the diminution of the fat
is the cause of those wrinkles which begin to appear in
the face and some other parts of the body. The skin,
not being supported by the same quantity of fat, and
being incapable, for want of elasticity, of contracting,
sinks down and forms folds. In the decline of life, are-
markable change takes place also in vision. In the vigour
of our days, the crystalline lens, being thicker and more
diaphanous than the humours of the eye, enables us to
read letters of a very small character at the distance of
eight or ten inches. But when the age of decline comes
on, the quantity of the humours of the eye diminishes,
they lose their clearness, and the transparent cornea be- Man.
comes less convex. To remedy this inconvenience, we v——y—
place what we wish to read at a greater distance from
the eye 5 but vision is thereby very little improved, be¬
cause the image of the object becomes smaller and more
obscure. Another mark of the decline of life is a weak¬
ness of the stomach, and indigestion, in most people
who do not take sufficient exercise in proportion to the
quantity and quality of their food. 43
At 60, 63, or 65 years of age, the signs of decline Old age.
become more and more visible, and indicate old age.
This period commonly extends to the age of 70, some¬
times to 75, but seldom to 80. When the body is ex¬
tenuated and bent by old age, man then becomes crazy.
Craziness, therefore, is nothing but an infirm old age.
The eyes and stomach then become weaker and weaker j
leanness increases the number of the wrinkles, the beard
and the hair become white 5 the stx-ength and the me¬
mory begin to fail.
After 70, or at most 80 years of age, the life of man
is nothing but labour and sorrow j such was the lan¬
guage of David near 3000 years ago. Some men of
strong constitutions, and in good health, enjoy old age
for a long time without decrepitude ; but such instances
are not very common. The infirmities of decrepitude
continually increase, and at length death concludes the
whole. This fatal term is uncertain. The only con¬
clusions which we can form conceiming the duration of
life, must be derived from observations made on a gx-eat
number of men who were born at the same time, and
who died at different ages.
The signs of decrepitude form a striking picture of
weakness, and announce the approaching dissolution of
the body. The memory fails, the fibres beesme hard, the
nerves blunted j deafness and blindness take place j the
senses of smell, of touch, and of taste, are destroyed 5
the appetite fails ; the necessity of eating, and more
frequently
Blair’s account of O’Brien, the Irish giant, who exhibited himself at London and Edinburgh a few years ago,
and died very lately. He pretended to be nearly nine feet high. We insert this account the more readily, as
it exactly agrees with what we ourselves observed when O’Brien was in Edinburgh.
“ I visited this Irishman (says Mr Blair), on the 5th of May 1804, at N° 11. Haymarket. He was of a very
extraordinary stature, but not well formed. As he would not suffer a minute examination to be made of his per¬
son, it is impossible to give any other than a short description of him. He declined the proposal of walking
across the room, and I believe was afraid of discovering his extreme imbecility. He had the general aspect of a
weak and unreflecting person, with an uncommonly low forehead ; for as near as I could ascertain, the space
above his eye-brows, in a perpendicular line to the top of his head, did not exceed two inches. He told me his
age was 38 years, and that most of his ancestors, by his mother’s side, were very large pei’sons. The dispropor¬
tionate size of his hands struck me with surprise, and in this he seemed to make his principal boast. He refused
to allow a cast to be made of his hand, and said it had been done many years ago 5 but as I have seen that cast
at Mr Bacon’s, I am convinced the size is much too small to represent his present state of growth. All his joints
xvere large, and perhaps rickety •, his legs appeared swollen, mishapen, and I thought dropsical; however, he did
not like my touching them. The feet were clumsy, and concealed as much as possible by high shoes. His limbs
were not very stout, especially his arms, and I judged that he had scarcely got the use of them ; for, in order to
lift up his hand, he seemed obliged to swing the whole arm, as if he had no power of raising it by the action of
the deltoid muscle. He certainly had a greater redundancy of bone than of muscle, and gave me the impression
of a huge, overgrown, sickly boy ; his voice being rather feeble as well as his bodily energies, and his age ap¬
pearing under that which he affirmed. Indeed I find he gave a difl’erent account of himself to different visitors.
The state of his pulse agreed with the general appearance of his person, viz. feeble, languid, and slow in its mo¬
tions. With regard to his actual height, I felt anxious to detect the fallacy he held out of his being nine feet!
Upon extending my arm to the utmost, I reached his eye-brow with my little finger : allowing his height to
have been two inches and one-fourth above this, it could not he more in the whole then seven feet ten inches j sa
that I am persuaded the common opinion, founded on the giant’s own tale, is greatly exaggerated,” Philosophical
Magazine, vol. xviii. p. 356.
M A N
[ 55° 3
MAN
frequently that of drinking, are alone felt j after the
teeth fall out, mastication is imperfectly performed,
and digestion is very bad ; the lips fall inwards j the
edges of the jaws can no longer approach each other ;
the muscles of the lower jaw become so weak, that they
are unable to raise and support it. The body sinks
down ; the spine is bent outward, and the vertebrae
grow together at the interior part; the body becomes
extremely lean ; the strength fails j the decrepid wretch
is unable to support himself j he is obliged to remain
on a scat, or stretched in his bed; the bladder becomes
paralytic; the intestines lose their spring j the circula¬
tion of the blood becomes slower ; the strokes of the
pulse no longer amount to the number of 80 in a minute
as in the vigour of life, but are reduced to 24 and
sometimes fewer ; respiration is slower; the body loses
its heat ; the circulation of the blood ceases j death
follows *, and the dream of life is at an end.
Nothing can be more humiliating to the pride and
vanity of man than a comparison of the state to which
his body is reduced by death, with that which it exhi¬
bits in the prime and vigour of youth. Let us contem¬
plate a female in the prime of youth and beauty. That
elegant voluptuous form, that graceful flexibility of
motion, that gentle warmth, those cheeks crimsoned
with the roses of delight, those brilliant eyes darting
rays of love, or sparkling with the fire of genius $ that
countenance enlivened by sallies of wit, or animated
bv the glow of passion, appear, united, to form a most
fascinating being. A moment is sufficient to destroy
the illusion. Sense and motion cease without any ap¬
parent cause } the body loses its heat; the muscles be¬
come flat, and the angular prominences of the bones
appear j the lustre of the eye is gone } the cheeks *nd
lips are livid. These, however, are but preludes of
changes still more horrible. The flesh becomes suc¬
cessively blue, green, and black. It attracts humidity,
and while one portion evaporates in infectious emana¬
tions, another dissolves into a putrid sanies, which is Man.
also dissipated. In a word, after a few short days there
remains only a small number of earthy and saline
principles. The other elements are dispersed in
air, and in water, to enter again into new combina¬
tions *. * Cuirkr'i
Man has no right to complain of the shortness of j ,
life. Throughout the whole of living beings, there
are few who unite in a greater degree all the internal
causes which tend to prolong its different periods. The
term of gestation is very considerable 5 the rudiments of
the teeth are very late in unfolding j his growth is
slow, and is not completed before about 20 years have
elapsed.—The age of puberty, also, is much later in
man than in any other animal. In short, the parts of
his body being composed of a softer and more flexible
substance, are not so soon hardened as those of inferior
animals. Man, therefore, seems to receive at his birth
the seeds of a long life ; if he reaches not the distant
period which nature seemed to promise him, it must be
owing to accidental causes foreign to himself. Instead
of saying that he has finished his life, we ought rather
to say that he has not completed it. ^
The natural and total duration of life is in some Duration
measure proportioned to the period of growth. A tree of human
or an animal which soon acquires its full size, decays hte.
much sooner than another which continues to grow for
a longer time. If it is true that the life of animals is
eight times longer than the period of their growth, we
might conclude that the boundaries of human life may
be extended to a century and a half.
On the subject of longevity, and the general cir¬
cumstances on which it depends, we have already
treated under the article Longevity, and have there
given a list of a great number of persons who have
been celebrated for the length of their lives. To this
list we shall add a few more names in the note be¬
low (b) j but on the general subject of longevity, we
(b) William Lecomte, a shepherd, died suddenly in 1776* in the county of Caux in Normandy, at the age
of no. Cramers, physician to the emperor, saw at Temesivar two brothers, the one aged no, and the other
112, both of whom were fathers at that age. St Paul the hermit was 113 at his death. The Sicur Iswan-
Horwaths, knight of the order of St Louis, died at Saar-Albe in Lorrain in I775j aged almost in. He was a
great hunter. lie undertook a long journey a short time before his death, and performed it on horseback, llo-
sinc Iwiwarouska died at Minsk in Lithuania at the age of 113. Fockjel Jonas died in the year 1775, aged 113.
Marsk Jonas died at Vilejac in Hungary, aged 119. John Niethen ol Bakler in Zealand lived to the age ot
120. Fdeonora Spicer died in 1773, in Virginia, aged 121. John Argus was born in the village of Lastua in
Turkey, and died in 1779, at the age of 123, having six sons and three daughters, by whom he had posterity to
the fifth generation. They amounted to the number of 160 souls, and all lived in the same village. His father
died at the age of 120. In December 1777, there lived in Devonshire a farmer named John Brookey, who was
134 years of age, and had been fifteen times married. The Philosophical Transactions mention an Englishman
called Eccleston, who lived to the age of 143. Another Englishman, named Effingham, died in 1757 at the age
of 144. Niels Jukens of Hamerset in Denmark died in 1764, aged 146. Christian Jacob Drakemberg died in
1770 at Archusen, in the 146th year of his age. This old man of the north was born at Stavangar in Norway
in 1624, and at the age of 130 married a widow of 60. In Norway some men have lived to the age of 15°.
dobn Bovin, who was born at Szatlova-Carantz-Batcher, in the bannat of Temeswar, lived to the age of 172, and
his wife to "that of 164, having been married to him for 147 years. When Bovin died, their youngest son was
99 years ot age. Peter Zorten a peasant, and a countryman of John Bovin, died in 1724, at the age of 185.
His youngest son was then 97 years of age. The history and whole length pictures of John Bovin, Henry Jen¬
kins, and Peter Zorten, are to be seen in the library of S. A. B. Prince Charles at Brussels; and engravings ot
Bovin and Zorten, with a short account of them, are given in Sir John Sinclair’s “ Code of Health and Longe¬
vity.” Professor Hanovius at Dantzic, mentions in his nomenclature an old man who died at the age of 184;
and another, then alive, had attained the extraordinary age of 186. For other instances, see Sir J. Sinclair’s
work above mentioned.
MAN
Man.
’ 46
ortrait of
man
n-med for
mgevity.
shall add nothing to what has been said under that
head, except the portrait of a man destined for lon¬
gevity, drawn by the celebrated Hufeland.
He has a proper and well proportioned stature, with¬
out being too tall. He is rather of the middle size,
and somewhat thick set. His complexion is not too
florid; at any rate, too much ruddiness in youth is sel¬
dom a sign of longevity. His hair approaches rather
to the fair than the black 5 his skin is strong, but not
rough. His head is not too big ; he has large veins
at the extremities, and his shoulders are rather round
than flat. His neck is not too long ; his belly does
not project, and his hands are large, but not too deep¬
ly cleft. His foot is rather thick than long, and his
legs are firm and round. He has also a broad arched
chest, a strong voice, and the faculty of retaining his
breath for a long time without difficulty. In general,
there is a complete harmony in all his parts. His
senses are good, but not too delicate 5 his pulse is clear
and regular. His stomach is excellent, his appetite
good, and digestion easy. He eats slowly, and has not
too much thirst, which is always a sign of a rapid con¬
sumption. He is serene, active, susceptible of joy,
love, and hope, but insensible to the impressions of ha¬
tred, anger, and avax-ice. His passions never become
too violent. If he gives way to anger, he experiences
an unusual flow of warmth, a kind of gentle fever,
without any overflowing of the gall. He is fond of
employment, particularly cairn meditation, and agree¬
able speculations ; is an optimist j a friend to natural
affections, and domestic felicity j has no thirst after
iufelandhonours or riches, but is satisfied with his lot *.
^Life^ lias given a table of the probabilities
the duration of life, of which the following is an
abridgement. Of 23,994 children born at the same
time, there will probably die,
C 55i ]
MAN
^996.
7998
997
15>996
17.994
19.995
2,»595
22.395
V-
, 47
“pitu-
la.
In one year
Remaining y or
In eight years
Remaining or 11,997
In 38 years
Remaining y or 7998.
In 50 years
Remaining y or 5998,
In 61 years
Remaining ^ or 3999.
In 70 years
Remaining ^ or 2399.
In 80 years
Remaining yy or 599,
In 90 years
Remaining yyg- or 79.
In 100 years
Remaining or 2.
It thus appears, that a very small number of men
indeed pass through all the periods ef life, and arrive
at the goal marked out by nature. Innumerable causes
accelerate our dissolution. I he life of man consists in
the activity and exercise of his organs, which groiv up
and acquire strength during Infancy, adolescence, and
youth. No sooner has the body attained its utmost
perfection, than, it begins to decline. Its decay is at
first imperceptible, but in progress of time the mem¬
branes become cartilaginous, and, the cartilages acquire
23j9i4
23,992
the consistence of bone; the hones become more solid, and
all the fibres are hardened. Almost all the fat wastes
away 5 the skin becomes withered and scaly j wrinkles
are gradually formed j the hair grows white } the teeth
fall out j the face loses its shape •, the body is bent,
and the colour and consistence of the crystalline hu¬
mour become more perceptible. The first traces of
this decay begin to be perceived at the age of 40, and
sometimes sooner ; this is the age of decline. They in¬
crease by slow degrees till 60, which is the period of
old age. They increase more rapidly till the age of
70 or 75. At this period craziness begins, and conti¬
nues always to increase. Next succeeds decrepitude,
when the memory is gone, the use of the senses lost,,
the strength totally annihilated, the organs worn out,
and the functions of the body almost destroyed. Little
now remains to be lost, and before the age of 90 or
100, death terminates at once decrepitude and life.
The body then dies by little and little its motion
gradually diminishes ; life is extinguished by successive
gradations, and death is only the last term in the suc^
cession. W hen the motion of the heart, which conti¬
nues longest, ceases, man has then breathed his last 3 he
has passed from the state of life to the state of death 3
and as at his birth a breath opened to him the career
of life, so with a breath he finishes his course.
This natural cause of death is common to all ani¬
mals, and even to vegetables. AVe may observe that
the centre of an oak first perishes and falls into dust,
because these parts having become harder and more
compact, can receive no further nourishment. Tho
causes of our dissolution, therefore, are as necessary as
death is inevitable 3 and it is no more in our power to
retard this fatal term than to alter the established laws
of the universe. In whatever manner death happens,
the time thereof is unknown. It is considered, how¬
ever, as at all times terrible, and the very thoughts o£
it fill the mind with fear and trouble. It is, notwith¬
standing our duty frequently to direct our thoughts tu
that event, which must inevitably happen, and by a
life of virtue and innocence to prepare against those
consequences which we so much dread.
As in women the bones, the cartilages, the muscles^
and every other part of the body, are softer and less
solid than those of men, they must require more time
in hardening to that degree which occasions death.
Women of course ought to live longer, than men. This
reasoning is confirmed by experience 3 for by consult-:
ing the bills of mortality, it appears, that,after women,
have passed a certain age, they live much longer than
men who have arrived at the same age. In like man¬
ner, it is found by experience, that in women the age
ol youth is shorter and happier than in men, but that
the period ol old age is longer, and attended with more
trouble.
It is not our business here to consider those.circum-*
stances which are calculated to preserve health and
prolong life. Many of. these are mentioned in tho
medical articles 3 and those who wish to make this sub*
ject their particular study, have now ample materials
provided for them, in Sir John. Sinclair’s “ Code of
Health and Longevity.”
Isle of MaN) an island in the Irish sea, lying
about seven leagues north from Anglesey, about the
same distance west from Lancashire, nearly the liko
distance
Man:
Man.
M A N [ 55
distance south-east from GalWy, and nine leagues
east from Ireland. Its form is long and narrow, stretch-
trom xreiaim. -—o ^
mg, from the north-east of Ayre pointy to^the Calt^ot
SriiS faso'otwe^ at leit 30 English nu.es
Its breadth in some places is more than nine mi es, i
most places eight, and in some not above hve •, and it
contains about 160 square miles. .. r
The first author w ho mentions this isiand is L/^esai ,
for there can be as little doubt, that, by the Mona
of which he speaks in his Commentaries, placing it m
the midst between Britain and Ireland, we are to un¬
derstand Man 5 as that the Mona of Tacitus, which
"he acquaints us had a fordable strait between it and the
continent, can be applied only to Anglesey. _ rliny
has set down both islands-, Mona, by which he intends
Anglesey, and Monabia, which is Man. In 1 tolemy
we find Monaceda, or Monaida, that is, the farther or
more remote Mon. Orosius styles it Menavia; tells
us, that it was not extremely fertile and that this, as
well as Ireland, was then possessed by the Scots. Be-
da, who distinguishes clearly two Menavian islands,
names this the northern Memvia, bestowing the epithet
of southern upon Anglesey. In some copies of Nen¬
nius, this isle is denominated Euboma; in others, Me¬
navia; but both are explained to mean Man. Alured
of Beverley also speaks of it as one of the Menavian
islands. The Britons, in their own language, called
it Manaw, more properly Main au, i. e. “ a
island,” which seems to be Latinized in the word Me¬
navia. All which clearly proves, that this small isle
was early inhabited, and as well known to the rest of
the world as either Britain or Ireland
In the close of the first, century, the Druids, who
were the priests, prophets, and philosophers of the
old Britons, were finally expelled by Julius Agricola
from the southern Mona j and we are told, that they
then took shelter in the northern. This island they
found well planted with firs } so that they had, in
some measure, what they delighted in most, the shelter
of trees j but, however, not the shelter of those trees
in which they most delighted, viz. the oaks: and there¬
fore these they introduced. No histories tell us this 5
but we learn it from more certain authority, great
woods of fir having been discovered interred in the
bowels of the earth, and here and there small groves
of oaks : but as these trees are never met with inter¬
mixed, so it is plain they never grew together 5 and as
the former are by far the most numerous, we may pre¬
sume them the natural produce of the country, and
that the latter were planted and preserved by the
Druids. They gave the people, with whom they
lived, and over whom they ruled, a gentle govern¬
ment, wise laws, but withal a very superstitious re¬
ligion. It is also very likely that they hindered
them, as much as they could, from having any corre¬
spondence with their neighbours which is the reason
that though the island is mentioned by so many
writers, not one of them, before Orosius, says a word
about the inhabitants. A little before this time, that
is, in the beginning of the fifth century, the ^cots had
transported themselves thither, it is said, from Ireland.
The tradition of the natives of Man (for they have a
traditionary history) begins at this period. They
style this first discoverer Mannan Mac Lear; and
they say that he was a magician, who kept this coun-
2 ] - MAN
try covered with mists, so that the inhabitants o. other
places could never find it. But the ancient chronicles —
of Ireland inform us, that the true name of this ad¬
venturer was Orbsenius, the son ol Alladius, a prince
in their island j and that he was surnamed Mannanan,
from his having-first entered the island ol Man, and
Mac Lir, i. e. “ the offspring of the sea,” from his
great skill in navigation. He promoted commerce ;
and is said to have given a good reception to St Pa¬
trick, by whom the natives were converted to Christi¬
anity.
The princes who ruled after him seem to have been
of the same line with the kings ol Scotland, with
which country they had a great intercourse, assist¬
ing its monarchs in their wars, and having the edu¬
cation of their princes confided to them in time of
peace. .
In the beginning of the seventh century, Ldwin
king of Northumberland invaded the Menavian islands,
ravaged Man, and kept it lor some time, when, Beda
assures us, there were in it about 300 families j which
was less than a third part of the people in Anglesey,
though Man wants but a third ol the size ol that
island. . , . . „
The second line of their princes they derive from
Orri, who, they say, was the son of the king ol Nor¬
way j and that there were 12 princes of this house
who governed Man. The old constitution, settled by
the Druids, while they swayed the sceptre, was per¬
fectly restored j the country was well cultivated and
well peopled j their subjects were equally versed in the
exercise of arms and in the knowledge of the arts of
peace : in a word, they had a considerable naval force,
an extensive commerce, and were a great nation, though
inhabiting only a little isle. Guttred the son of Orri
built the castle of Russyn, A. D. 960, which is a
strong place, a large palace, and has subsisted now
above 800 years. Macao was the ninth of these
kings, and maintained an unsuccessful struggle against
Edgar, who reduced all the little sovereigns of the dif¬
ferent parts of Britain to own him for their lord $ and
who, upon the submission of Macao, made him his high-
admiral, by which title {archipirata, in the Latin of
those times) he subscribes that monarch’s charter t©
the abbey of Glastonbury.
After the death of Edward the Confessor, when
Harold, who possessed the crown of England, had de¬
feated the Norwegians at the battle of Stamford,
there was amongst the fugitives one Goddard Crow-
nan, the son of Harold the Black, of Iceland, who
took shelter in the isle of Man. Ihis isle was then
governed by another Goddard, who was a descendant
from Macao, and he gave him a very kind and friendly
reception. Goddard Crownan, during the short stay
he made in the island, perceived that his namesake
was universally hated by his subjects j which insphed
him with hopes that he might expel the king, and
become master of the island. This he at last accom¬
plished, after having defeated and killed I ingal the
son of Goddard, who had succeeded his father. Up¬
on this he assigned the north part of the island to
the natives, and gave the south to his own people
becoming, in virtue of his conquest, the founder of
their third race of princes. However he might ac¬
quire his kingdom, he governed it with spirit and
u prudence,
Man
MAN [ 553 ] MAN
!\Ian. prudence, made war with success in Ireland j gained
—v——several victories over the Scots in the Isles ; and, ma¬
king a tour through his new-obtained dominions, de¬
ceased in the island of Islay. He left behind him
three sons. A civil war breaking out between the
two eldest, and both of them deceasing in a few years,
Magnus king of Norway coming with a powerful
fleet, possessed himself of Man and the Isles, and held
them as long as he lived ; but, being slain in Ireland,
the people invited home Olave, the youngest son of
Goddard Crownan, who had fled to the court of
England, and been very honourably treated by Henry
the Second. There were in the whole nine princes
of this race, who were all of them feudatories to the
kings of England ; and often resorted to their court,
were very kindly received, and had pensions bestowed
upon them. Henry III. in particular, charged Olave,
king of Man, with the defence of the coasts of Eng¬
land and Ireland; and granted him annually for that
service 40 marks, 100 measures of wheat, and five
pieces of wine. Upon the demise of Magnus the
last king of this isle, without heirs male, Alexander III.
king of Scots, who had conquered the other isles,
seized likewise upon this j which, as parcel of that
kingdom, came into the hands of Edward I. who di¬
rected William Huntercumbe, guardian or warden of
that isle for him, to restore it to John Baliol, who
had done homage to him for the kingdom of Scot¬
land.
But it seems there was still remaining a lady named
Austrica, who claimed this sovereignty, as cousin and
nearest of kin to the deceased Magnus. This claimant
being able to obtain nothing from John Baliol, ap¬
plied herself next to King Edward, as the superior
lord. He, upon this application, by his writ which
is yet extant, commanded both parties, in order to
determine their right, to appear in the king’s bench.
The progress of this suit does not appear j but we
know farther, that this lady, by a deed of gift, con¬
veyed her claim to Sir Simon de Montacute; and,
after many disputes, invasions by the Scots, and other
accidents, the title was examined in parliament, in the
seventh of Edward III. and solemnly adjudged to
William de Montacute j to whom, by letters-patent,
dated the same year, that monarch released all claim
whatsoever.
In the succeeding reign, William Montacute, earl
of Salisbury, sold it to Sir William Scroop, afterwards
earl of AViltshire; and, upon his losing his head, it
was granted by Henry IV. to Henry Percy, earl of
Northumberland; who, being attainted, had, by the
grace of that king, all his lands restored, except the
isle of Man, which the same monarch granted to Sir
John Stanley, to be held by him of the king, his
heirs and successors, by homage, and a cast of falcons
to be presented at every coronation. Thus it was
possessed by this noble family, who were created earls
of Derby, till the reign of Queen Elizabeth ; when,
upon the demise of Earl Ferdinand, who left three
daughters, it was, as Lord Coke tells us, adjudged to
these ladies, and from them purchased by William earl
of Derby, the brother of Ferdinand, from whom it
was claimed by descent, and adjudged to the duke of
Athol.
This island, from its situation directly in the mouth
Vol. XII. Part II. f
of the channel, is very beneficial to Britain, by lessen¬
ing the force of the tides, which would otherwise
break with far greater violence than they do at present.
It is frequently exposed to very high winds ; and
at other times to mists, which, however, are not at all
unwholesome. The soil towards the north is dry and
sandy, of consequence unfertile, but not unimprovable j
the mountains, which may include near two-thirds
of the island, are bleak and barren 5 yet afford excel¬
lent peat, and contain several kinds of metals. They
maintain also a kind ot small swuie, called purrs^
which are esteemed excellent pork. In the valleys
there is as good pasture, hay, and corn, as in any of
the northern counties j and the southern part of the
island is as fine soil as can be wished. They have
marl and limestone sufficient to render even their
poorest lands fertile j excellent slate, ragstone, black
marble, and some other kinds for building. They
have vegetables of all sorts, and in the utmost perfec¬
tion 5 potatoes in immense quantities; and, where
proper pains have been taken, they have tolerable
fruit. Jhey have also hemp, flax, large crops of oats
and barley, and some wheat. Hogs, sheep, goats,
black cattle, and horses, they have in plenty 5 and
though small in size, yet if the country was thoroughly
and skilfully cultivated, they might improve the breed
of all animals, as experience has shown. They have
rabbits and hares very fat ?nd fine ; tame and wild
fowl in great plenty j and in their high mountains
they have one airy of eagles, and two of excellent
hawks. Their rivulets furnish them with salmon,
trout, eels, and other kinds of fresh-water fish j on
their coasts are caught cod, turbot, ling, holibut, all
sorts of shell-fish (oysters only are scarce, but large
and good), and herrings, of which they made ancient¬
ly a great profit, though this fishery is of late much
declined.
rl he inhabitants of Man, though far from being
unmixed, were perhaps, till within the course of the
18th century, more so than any other under the do¬
minion of the crown of Great Britain $ to which they
are very proud of being subjects, though, like the in¬
habitants of Jersey and Guernsey, they have a constitu¬
tion of their own, and a peculiarity of manners natu¬
rally resulting from a long enjoyment of it.—The
Manks tongue is the only one spoken by the common
people. It is the Old British, mingled with Norse,
or the Norwegian language, and the modern language.
The clergy preach and read the common prayer in it.
In ancient times they were distinguished by their stature,
courage, and great skill in maritime affairs. They
are at this day a brisk, lively, hardy, industrious, and
well-meaning people. Their frugality defends them
from want: and though there are few that abound,
there are as few in distress; and those that are, meet
with a cheerful unconstrained relief. On the other
hand, they are choleric, loquacious, and as the law
till lately was cheap, and unencumbered with solicitors
and attorneys, not a little litigious. The revenue, in
the earl of Derby’s time, amounted to about 2500I.
a-year ; from which, deducting his civil list, which
was about 700I. the clear income amounted to 1800I.
At the same time time, the number of his subjects was
computed at 20,000.—The sovereign of Man, though
he has long ago waved the title of king, was still in-
4 A vested
MAN
r
Atari.
554 j MAN
-- r t tl]e for elegance of form or delicacy of features, llicprar. Wna
vested with regal rights and prerog ■ • tice of her domestic duties, and the regulation of lier 1)
1 distinct iurisdiction of this little smor i p ^li;^ domestic all airs, constitute the employment of theManks ^ tarnish
and if not so relined as the dames of more polish- v
SrSafcf the’rreS of public
iustice and for the revenue (it affording a commo¬
dious asylum for debtors, outlaws, and s™gglers^ au¬
thority was given to the treasury, by stat. Geo. 1.
c 28^0 purchase the interest of the then proprietors
for the use of the crown: which purchase was at
length completed in the year 1765, and confirmed jy
stat. 5 Geo. III. c. 26. and 39. *, whereby the whole
island and all its dependencies (except the landed
property of the Athol family), their manorial rights
ami emoluments, and the patronage of the bishopric
and other ecclesiastical benefices, are unalienably vested
in the crown. „ , . . , * • • t ,1
The most general division of this island is into north
and south ; and it contains 17 parishes, of which hye
are market towns, the rest villages. _ Its division with
reward to its civil government, is into six sheadings,
every one having its proper coroner, who is in the na¬
ture of a sheriff, is intrusted with the peace ot his di¬
strict, secures criminals, brings them to justice, &c.
The lord chief justice Coke says, “ their ^ laws were
such as scarce to be found anywhere else.” In July
1786, a copper coinage for the use ot the island was
issued from the Tower of London.— I here is a ndge
of mountains runs almost the length of the isle, from
whence they have abundance of good water Irom the
rivulets and springs*, and Snafield, the highest, rises
about 580 yards. The air is sharp and cold in winter,
the frosts short, and the snow, especially near the sea,
lies not long on the ground. The prevailing rocks are
clay slate, which occupies the highest parts of the
island, and lower down grey-wacke, with old red
sandstone and limestone, ivith some mines of lead, cop¬
per, and iron. The trade of this island was very great be¬
fore the year 1726 j but the late Lord Derby farming
out his customs to foreigners, the insolence of these
farmers drew on them the resentment of the government
of England, who, by an act of parliament, deprived the
inhabitants of an open trade with this kingdom. This
naturally introduced a clandestine commerce, which
they carried on with England and Ireland with prodi¬
gious success, and an immense quantity of foreign goods
was run into both kingdoms, till the government in 1765
thought proper to put an entire stop to it, by pur¬
chasing the island of the duke of Athol, as already
mentioned, and permitting a free trade with England.
On the little isle of Peele, on the west side of Man, is a
town of the same name, with a fortified castle. Be¬
fore the south promontory of Man, is a little island call¬
ed the Caff of Man: it is about three miles in circuit,
and separated from Man by a channel about two fur¬
longs broad. At one time of the year it abounds with
puffins, and also with a species of ducks and drakes, by
the English called barnacles^ and by the Scots dukes
and solan geese.
The principal manufactures are coarse hats, cotton
goods, and linen cloth. About 500 boats are employed in
the herring fishery *, and previous to. the late war, the
salmon fishery was in a very flourishing condition, but
has now declined. Great quantities of cattle, sheep,
pork, butter, and eggs, are shipped to England. The
imports are manufactured goods, coal, &c.
The women in the isle of Man are not remarkable
wife , .
ed nations, she is perhaps as happy.
Landed property is very much divided in the island,
there being scarcely six men who have estates above
500I. a year. .
The internal scenery of the isle of Man is far from
being beautiful, of which the duel cause is the want
of wood; and the rivers are so small as to add little
to the richness ot the views, the M^anks are fond
of dancing, and dance well. 1 wo balls in the year
are oiven at Castletown ; one on the king’s birth day,
the other on the queen’s, and there are Irequent pri¬
vate dances. At Ramsay, during the winter of 1801,
a society of ladies and gentlemen was formed, which
met three evenings in the week for the purpose of read¬
ing Shakespeare ; and such a number of copies were
procmed, that each character of the drama was support¬
ed by a separate individual.
The inhabitants of this isle (estimated at 30,000 by
Mr Colquhoun) are of the church of England j and
the bishop is styled Bis/iop of Sodor and Man. He
has no vote in the British house of peers. This bishop-
rick was first erected by Pope Gregory IV. and for its
diocese had this isle and all the Hebrides or Western
islands of Scotland ; but which were called Sodoroe by
the Danes, who went to them by the north, from
the Swedish Sodor, Sail or Oar islands, from which the
title of the bishop of Sodor is supposed to originate.
The bishop’s seat was at Rushin, or Castletown, in the
isle of Man, and in Latin is entitled Sodorensis. But
when this island became dependent upon the kingdom
of England, the Western islands withdrew themselves
from the obedience of their bishop, and had a bishop
of their own, whom they entitled also Sodorensis^ but
commonly Bishop of the Isles. 1 he patronage ot
the bishopric was given, together with the island, to
the Stanleys by King Edward IV. and came by an
heir-female to the family of Athol j and, on a vacancy
thereof, they nominated their designed bishop to the
king, who dismissed him to the archbishop of A ork for
consecration.—By an act of parliament, the 33-d of
King Henry VIII. this bishopric is declared in the pro*
vince of York.
MAH-of-war Bird. See Pelicanus, Ornithology
Index.
MANAGE. See Manege.
MANASSEH, in Scripture history, the eldest son of
Joseph, and grandson of the patriarch Jacob (Gen. xli.
50. 51.) was born in the year of the world 2290, before
Jesus Christ 1714.
The tribe descended from him came out of Egypt,
in number 32,200 men fit for battle, upwards ot 20
years old, under the conduct of Gamaliel son of Pe-
dahzur (Numb. ii. 20. 21.). This tribe was divided
at their entrance into the land of Promise. One half
had its portion bevond the river Jordan, and the other
half on this side the river. The half tribe of Manasseh
which settled beyond the river possessed the country
of Bashan, from the river Jabbok to Mount Libanus,
(Numb. xxii. 33. 34. &.c.) j and the other halt tribe of
Manasseh on this side Jordan, obtained tor its inheri¬
tance the country between the tribe of Ephraim to the
south
fir
ter.
MAN [5
Manasseh south of the tribe of Issachar to the north, having the
|| river Jordan to the east and the Mediterranean sea to
Marches - tjie west5 (Josh. xvix.).
j MaNasseh, the ijtli king of Judah, being the son
and successor of Hezekiah. His acts are recorded in
2 Kings, xx. xxi. and 2 Chr. xxxiii.
MANATI. See Trichecus, Mammalia Index.
MANCA, was a square piece of gold coin, com¬
monly valued at 30 pence ; and mancusa was as much
as a mark of silver, having its name from mami cvsa,
being coined with the hand: {;Leg. Canut.) But the
manca and mancusa were not always of that value ; for
sometimes the former was valued at six shillings, and
the latter, as used by the English Saxons, was equal
in value to our half crown. Manca sex solidis cestimetur,
(Leg. H. I. c. 69.). Thorn in his chronicle, tells us,
that mancusa est pondus duoram solidorum et sex daia-
riorum; and with him agrees Hu Cange, who says,
that 20 inanece make 50 shillings. Manca and mancusa
are promiscuously used in the old books for the same
money.
MANCHA, a territory of Spain in the province of
New Castile, lying between the river Guadiana and
Andalusia. It is a mountainous country -7 and it was
here that the famous Don Quixote wTas supposed to per¬
form his exploits.
MANCHESTER, a town of Lancashire in Eng¬
land, situated in W. Long. 2. 42. N. Lat. 53. 27.
Mr Whitaker conjectures, that the station was first
occupied by the Britons about 500 years B. C. but
that it did not receive any thing like the form of a town
till 450 years after, or 50 years B. C. when the Britons
of Cheshire made an irruption into the territories of
their southern neighbours, and of consequence alarm¬
ed the Sestuntii, or inhabitants of Lancashire, so much,
that they began to build fortresses, in order to defend
their country. Its British name was Mancenion, that
is, “ a place of tentsit was changed, however, in¬
to Mancunium by the Romans, who conquered it un¬
der Agricola in the memorable year of the Christian
mra 79. It appears also to have been called Mandue-
suedum, Manducsscdum, Manucium, and Mancestre ;
from which last it seems most evident that the present
name has been derived. It is distant from London 182
miles, and from Edinburgh 2145 standing near the con¬
flux of the Irk and the Irwell, about thi’ee miles from
the Mersey.
'risac- Manchester was accounted a large and populous
; unt was town even 50 years ago j but since that time it is
|awn up supposed to have increased in more than triple pro-
JUt ^i^-portion, both in respect to buildings and inhabitants.
The houses amount to a number not far short of 12,000 $
and perhaps it may not be an overrate to reckon seven
persons to each, when it is considered, that, of the houses
occupied by working people of various descriptions, many
have two, three, and sometimes more, families in each.
For though many hundred houses have been built in
the course of a few late years, yet are they constantly
engaged as soon as possible ; the avidity for building in¬
creasing with every new accession of inhabitants, and
rents rising to a degree scarcely known in other places.
The progress of this 6tx.0p.x1nx may be partly estimated
by the price of building, land, and materials : a guinea
per square yard, chief rent, having been refused for
some centra) plots j and bricks selling at 24s. per 1000,
55 3 MAN
which about four years since were not more than half Manchee-
the price. Such, however, has been the happy concur- ter.
rence of ingenuity and industry, and such the astonish- v—v—-
ing improvements daily making in its numerous manu¬
factures, together with the encouragement these afford
to skilful artists in various branches, that streets must
extend in proportion : yet population appears to have in¬
creased more rapidly than buildings j hence competitions
naturally arise, and hence a temporajy advance of rents.
The manufactures of this town and neighbourhood,
from humble domestic beginnings about two centuries
ago, have now, after progressive improvements, ac¬
quired such celebrity, both in the scale of ornament
and utility, as to spread in ten thousand forms and co¬
lours, not only in these kingdoms, but over all Eu¬
rope, and even into the distant continents j being at
once most precious mines of well-earned private wealth,
and important contributors to the necessary public trea¬
sure ot the state. Its post-office alone may afford an
evidence of its extensive commerce. The population
of the town may be further calculated from the great
number of cotton factories within the boundaries of
the town, wherein it is thought that 20,000 men, wo¬
men, and children, are employed in the mere branches
of preparing warp and weft. If to these be added
the many hands applied to weaving, &c. &c. &c. be¬
side all the more general mechanics, as well as house¬
holders, domestic servants, &c. Manchester may be
ranked as the most populous market-town in Great
Britain. The marriages in Manchester and Salford,
from January 1791 to January 1792, were 1302, the
christenings 2960, and the burials 2286. In 1801 the
population of Manchester, including Salford, exceeded
84,000, and in 1811 it had increased to 98,573. The
number of inhabited houses at the latter period, was
17,245. The streets are spacious and airy, great part
of the old buildings being removed, and the new streets
allowed a convenient breadth. The tow n is lighted every
night by 2700 lamps, a number of which are lighted
with gas.
The college was founded in 1422 by Thomas IT?st,
Lord Delaware} and consisted of a warden, eight fel¬
lows, four clerks, and six choristers. About the same
time the present collegiate church was built (timber
only having been used for the former church). This
church is a fine structure of what is termed the Gothic
system, and is much enriched with sculpture. The
collegiate body consists of a warden, four fellows, two
chaplains, two clerks (one of whom by a very late
regulation, is to be at least bachelor of arts and in
priest’s orders), four choristers, and four singing men.
Besides the collegiate church, thei’e are also the fol¬
lowing. St Anne’s, a handsome church begun in 1709
and finished in 1723 j it is in the gift of the bishop ot
Chester. St Mary’s, built by the clergy of the collegi¬
ate church, and consecrated upwards of 30 years ago, is
a neat and indeed an elegant edifice ; as is St John’s,
which was built about 20 years since by the late Ed¬
ward Byrom, Esq. The next presentation thereof is,
by act of parliament, vested in his heirs, afterwards de¬
volving to the warden and fellows of the collegiate
church. St Paul’s church was erected upwards of 12
years ago, and is a handsome spacious building, chief-,
jy brick j to which has been added, within the last two
years, a lofty and substantial stone tow£r- St James’s
4 A 2 church
M A
church has been
is a large well-lighted building of brick and stone,
with a small stone steeple. St Michael’s is also of brick
and stone, with a square tower. It was built by the
late Rev. Humphrey Owen (one of the chaplains of
the collegiate church, and rector of St Mary’s), in
whose heirs the presentation is vested for a term of 60
years, and thenceforward in the warden and fellows ol
the college. To these may be added, St Thomas’s,
Ardwick Green, and Trinity church, Salford : for
though the Trwell intervenes between Manchester and
Salford, and each is governed by its respective con¬
stables ; yet, being connected by three bridges, by
mutual friendship, and by the common pursuit of uni¬
versally useful manufactures and commerce, the two
places are generally considered under the name of Man-
Chestery as the borough of Southwark is not improperly
deemed a part of the metropolis. In Salford there is
likewise a Methodist chapel nearly finished. A new
church is also about to be built and dedicated to St Ste¬
phen.—In Manchester a new church is lately finished,
and called St George^s; but divine service has not yet
been performed therein. St Peter’s church, at the end
of Mosley-street, was begun about three years since :
when finished, it will be a strong and elegant stone
structure with a high spire ; at present the body only
is completed, and lighted, in a manner not very com¬
mon, by six semicircular windows. The foundation of
another church, to be called St Clement's., has also been
laid, within the present year I792> *n Stephenson’s
square lately planned *, and also one called the New Je-
rusalcm Church, nearly finished. Besides the 14 churches
above enumerated, there are, a Catholic chapel, a
large Methodist chapel, a chapel for the people called
Quakers, and 5 chapels for dissenters of other denomi¬
nations.
Cheetham’s Hospital, commonly called the Col¬
lege, because it was originally the place of residence of
the warden and fellows, is deserving of particular
notice. Humphrey Cheetham of Clayton near Man¬
chester, Esq. having been remarkably successful in
trade in the middle of the last century, bought the
college, and liberally endowed it for the maintenance
and education of 40 poor boys, admissible between the
age of 6 and 10 years. By an improvement of the
funds of the charity, the number of boys was in¬
creased to 60 ; and continued such till the Easter
meeting of the feoffees in 1780, when another aug¬
mentation took place, and the number has since been
constantly 80. The townships, pointed out by the
founder for objects of his charity, are the following,
together with the respective numbers admitted from
each : Manchester, original number 14, now 28 j
Salford 6, now I2-, Droylsden 3, now Crump-
sail 2, now 4 j Bolton-le-moors 10, now 20 •, Turtoa
5, now 10. So that 89 persons are now annually pro¬
vided for by this liberal benefactor *, including for the
hospital a governor, one man and five women servants,
a school-master; and, on the library establishment, a
librarian. (See an authentic letter in the Gent. Mag.
lor June 1792, p. 521.). The boys of this hospital
are comfortably provided for till the age of 14, when
they are further clothed, and with a premium placed
apprentices to useful tirades ; and, in order to incite
3. '
MAN
early habits of industry, to make them good servants, Manclies-
and at length good masters, it has been suggested to ter,
furnish some kind of easy employment for a small part
of their time not engaged at school. The Libra¬
ry, which occupies an extensive gallery of the same
building, owes its foundation and increasing impor¬
tance to the same benevolent source. The annual
value of the fund originally bequeathed for the pur¬
chase of books and for a librarian’s salary was 116I. ;
but by recent improvements of the estate, the income
is more than thrice that sum. Ihe books at this time
amount to 10,000 volumes, of which a catalogue hand¬
somely printed in 2 volumes 8vo has been published by
the present librarian, the Rev. John Radclifte, A. M.
At stated hours on all days, except Sundays and
other holidays, the studious may have free access to
read, in the library, any book it contains; and in order
to render it comfortable during the cold season of the
year, several stoves are kept heated at the reading
hours. This college and a large inclosed area are
situated upon a high perpendicular rock, bounded by
the Irk close to its confluence with the Irwell; and is
thought by Mr Whitaker to be included, as well as
the collegiate church, within the boundaries of the an¬
cient Roman prsetorium ; the whole of which site to¬
wards the Irwell, as on the side of the Irk, is considex--
ably elevated above the water and the opposite land
of Salford. The free-school, higher up on the same
side of the Irk, almost joining to the college, is support¬
ed by the rents of three mills ; one of which is for
grinding malt, another for corn, and the third is em¬
ployed as a snuff mill. These rents are now increased
to 700I. per annum, from which salaries are paid to
three masters and two assistants. The scholars educa¬
ted here have certain exhibitions allowed at the uni¬
versity ; and such of them as are entered at Brazen-
nose college Oxford have a chance of obtaining some
valuable exhibitions arising from lands in Manchester
bequeathed by Mr Hulme. The deserved reputation of
this school is a powerful recommendation of its scholars
entering at the universities. The Academy is a large
and commodious building, raised by the subscriptions
of several respectable dissenters, and placed under the
cax-e of able tutors. Here youth above 14 years of age
are admitted, and insti’ucted in the various branches of
liberal knowledge, preparatory to trade or the profes¬
sions. The Literaxy and Philosophical Society of Man¬
chester was instituted in the beginning of the year
1781, and is xvell known by its Memoirs, of which se¬
veral volumes 8vo, containing several excellent papers
' on various literary and scientific subjects, have been
published ; these have been translated into the Ger¬
man language. A society was established here in
November 1789, under the name of the Lancashire
Humane Society, for the encouragement of all who
may attempt the recovery of persons apparently drown¬
ed. The Infirmary, Dispensary, Lunatic Asylum,
and public Baths, are all situated on one large aii’y
plot of land, in the most elevated and agreeable part
of the town ; a pleasant grass-plot and gravel-walk
extending the whole length of the buildings ; a ca¬
nal intervening between them and the public street,
next to which it is guarded by iron palisades. The
Lying-in hospital is situated iu Salford, at the end of
the
N [ 556 1
finished within the last ten years : it
MAN [ 557 ] MAN
(Handies- biitlge. A new Work-house is nearly completed j
ter. and for such a purpose a happier spot could not he found
—-y—-1 in any town than that whereon it is erected, being on
an equal eminence with the college on the opposite
side of the Irk, and promising the greatest possible
comforts to such as may be necessitated to become
its inhabitants. The Exchange, a fine and spacious
building, was erected in 1808 by subscription. The
Theatre is a neat building, wherein the boxes are
placed in a semicircle opposite to the stage. The Gen¬
tlemen’s Concert-room is an elegant building, capacious
enough to accommodate 1230 persons. The concerts
are supported by annual subscriptions : but strangers
and military gentlemen have free admission to the pri¬
vate concerts 5 as also to the public concerts, with a
subscriber’s ticket. The new Assembly-rooms are large
and commodious. A Circus is almost finished. Here
are two Market places, the old and the new j which
are well supplied with every thing in season, though at
high rates. There are several charity-schools belong¬
ing to different churches and chapels, where children
are furnished with clothes and taught to read. The
Sunday-schools are numerous, and afford instruction to
upwards of 5000 children. A Lancasterian school was
founded in 1809, and two schools on the principles of
Dr Bell in 1812.
Over the Irwell are three bridges, uniting the town
■with Salford : the old bridge is very high at the
Manchester end, whence it slopes into Salford. The
middle bridge, four feet wide, raised upon timber
and flagged, is only for the accommodation of foot-
passengers, who from the Manchester side must de¬
scend to it by nearly forty steps. The lower bridge
is a handsome stone building of two arches j this
bridge affords a level road for two or three car¬
riages abreast. It was undertaken and finished by the
private subscription of a few gentlemen } and a small
toll is taken for all passing, which toll is now annually
let by auction, and pays the proprietors remarkably
well.—From Manchester there are likewise the same
number of bridges over the Irk ; only one, however,
is adapted for the passage of carriages. The Irwell,
having at a great expence been rendered navigable for
vessels of 20 or 30 tons burden, there is a constant com¬
munication between Liverpool, Manchester, and the in¬
termediate places on the Irwell and Mersey, to the
great advantage of the proprietors of the country at
large. This navigation, and more especially the duke
of Bridgewater’s canal, opening a passage from Man¬
chester to the Mersey at 30 miles distance, have, to¬
gether, greatly contributed to the present highly flou¬
rishing state of the town. Advantages still greater,
because more widely diffusive, may result from the
intended union of the Humber and the Mersey by
means of canals. Indeed, every mile of canal would
benefit many miles of land ; and such would be the re¬
ciprocity of interest, that it would undoubtedly extend
and be felt far beyond the visible measurement of the
navigation.”
The News Room and Library in Manchester is an
elegant building, ai d an ornament to the town ; and
as it comprehends in it a news room, circulating libra¬
ry, and reading room, must be productive of general
utility. The proposal of this institution met with
much opposition at first} but it was finally carried by Manches-
the unwearied exertions of a Mr Robinson, a man whose ter
character was universally loved and admired. 11.
We must not omit to notice the new penitentiary
house, called the Neiv Bailey, for separate confinement <
of various criminals. Over the entrance is a large
session room, with adjoining rooms for the magistrates,
council, jurors, &c. Beyond this, in the centre of a
very large area inclosed by very high walls, stands the
Prison, an extensive building, forming a cross three
stories high j and the four wards of each story may in
an instant be seen by any person in its centre. This
prison is kept surprisingly neat and healthy j and such
as can work at any trade, and are not confined for crimes
of the greatest magnitude, are employed in a variety of
branches j so that one may be seen beating and cleans¬
ing cotton, another carding it, another roving, and a
fourth spinning. In the next place may be observed a
man or a woman busy at the loom ; and in another, one
or more engaged in cutting and raising the velvet pile.
Hence industry is not suffered to slumber in the soli¬
tary cell, nor to quit it under the acquired impressions
of that torpor which formerly accompanied the emanci¬
pated prisoner from his dungeon j rendering him, per¬
haps, totally unfit for the duties of honest society, though
well qualified, in all probability, to hord with gamblers,
and be then, if not before, initiated into their pernicious
mysteries.—At Kersal-moor, three miles distant, horse¬
races are annually permitted. The banks of the rivers
and various brooks about the town afford excellent si¬
tuations for the numerous dye-houses employed for a
multitude of fabrics. Among other things the manu¬
facture and finishing of hats is carried on to an extent
of great importance.—The general market is here on
Saturdays. Tuesday’s market is chiefly for transact¬
ing business between the traders and manufacturers of
the town and circumjacent country. The fairs are op
Whit-Monday, October 1st, and November 17th.
Manchester is a manor with courts leet and baron.
It sends no members to parliament, but gives title to
a duke. The annual fall of rain is here about 42
inches j though from January 1791 to January 1792
it was 44 inches. The sun’s greatest heat in 1791 was
76°, July 17.
MANCHINEEL. See Hippomane, Botany
Index.
MANCIPATIO, was a term made use of in the
Roman, law, and may be thus explained j every father
had such a regal authority over his son, that before the
son could be released from his subjection and made
free, he must be three times over sold and bought, his
natural father being the vender. The vendee was
called pater fiduciarius. After this fictitious bargain,
the pater fiduciarius sold him again to the natural father,
who could then, but not till then, manumit or make
him free. The imaginary sale was called mancipatio ;
and the act of giving liberty or setting him free after
this was cnWed. emancipatio.
Mancipatio also signifies the selling or alienating of
certain lands by the balance, or money paid by weight,
and five witnesses. This mode of alienation took place
only amongst Roman citizens, and that only in respect
to certain estates situated in Italy, which were called
mancipia.
MANCIPLE,
MAN L
Manciple MANCIPLE (mameps), a clerk of the kitchen, or
II caterer. An officer in the inner temple was anciently
Mandarins. so cauet[} wh0 is now the steward there j of whom
^ 'r~mJ Chaucer, the ancient English poet, some time a stu¬
dent of that house, thus writes :
A manciple there was within the temple,
Of which all caterers might take ensample.
This officer still remains in colleges in the universi¬
ties. „
M AN CUN IU M, in Ancient Geography, a town ot
the Brigantes in Britain. Now Manchester in Lan¬
cashire. See Manchester.
MANCUS (formed of manu cusits), in antiquity,
an Anglo-Saxon gold coin, equal in value to 2^ solidi,
or 30 pence; and in weight to 55 Troy grains. The
first account of this coin that occurs in the history of
our country, is about the close ot the 8th century,
in an embassy of Cenwulf king of Mercia to Leo III.
requesting the restoration of the jurisdiction of the see
of'Canterbury : this embassy was enforced by a present
of 120 mancuses. Ethelwolf also sent yearly to Rome
300 mancuses: and these coins are said to have con¬
tinued in some form or other till towards the conclu¬
sion of the Saxon government. The heriots of the
nobility are chiefly estimated by this standard in Ca¬
nute’s laws. It came originally from Italy, where it
was called ducat: and is supposed to have been the same
with the drachma or miliarensis current in the Byzan¬
tine empire.
MANDAMUS, in Law, a writ that issues out of
the court of king’s bench, sent to a corporation, com¬
manding them to admit or restore a person to his
office. This writ also lies where justices of the peace
refuse to admit a person to take the oaths in order to
qualify himself for enjoying any post or office •, or
where a bishop or archdeacon refuses to grant a probate
of a will, to admit an executor to prove it, or to swear a
a church-warden, &c.
MANDANES, an Indian prince and philosopher,
who for the renown of his wisdom was invited by the
ambassadors of Alexander the Great to the banquet of
the son of Jupiter. A reward was promised him if he
obeyed, but he was threatened with punishment in case
of a refusal. Unmoved by promises and threatenings,
the philosopher dismissed them with observing, that
though Alexander ruled over a great part of the uni¬
verse, he was not the son of Jupiter} and that he gave
himself no trouble about the presents of a man who
possessed not wherewithal to content himself. “ I de¬
spise his threats (added he) : if I live, India is sufficient
for my subsistence} and to me death has no terrors, for
it will only be an exchange of old age and infirmity for
.the happiness of a better life.”
MANDARINS, a name given to the magistrates
and governors of provinces in China, who are chosen
out of the most learned men, and whose government is
always at a great distance from the place of their birth.
Mandarin is also a name given by the Chinese to the
learned language of the country for besides the lan¬
guage peculiar to every province, there is one common
to all the learned in the empire, which is in China
what Latin is in Europe : this is called the mandarin
tongue, or the language of the court.
558 ] MAN
MANDATE, in Law, a judicial commandment to Mar,da!
do something. See the article Mandamus. ^ ||
Mandate, in the canon law, a rescript of the pope Mandin
commanding an ordinary collator to put the person * v
therein named in possession of the first vacant benefice
in his collation.
MANDATUM, was a fee or retainer given by the
Romans to the procuratores and advocati. The manda-
tum was a necessary condition, without which they had
not the liberty of pleading. Thus the legal eloquence
of Rome, like that of our own country, could not be
■unlocked without a golden key.
MANDERSCHEIT, a town of Germany in the
circle of the Lower Rhine, and in the electorate of
Triers, capital of a county of the same name, between
the diocese of Triers and the duchy of Juliers. E.
Long. 6. 32. N. Lat. 50. 20.
MANDEVILLE, Sir John, a physician, celebrat¬
ed on account of his travels, was born at St Alban’s,
about the beginning of the 14th century. He had a
liberal education, and applied himself to the study of
physic; but being at length seized with an invincible
desire of seeing distant parts of the globe, he left Eng¬
land in 1332, and did not return till 34 years after.
His friends, who had long supposed him dead, did not
know him when he appeared. He had travelled
through almost all the east, and made himself master of
a great variety of languages. He particularly visited
Scythia, Armenia the Greater and Less, Egypt, Ara¬
bia, Syria, Media, Mesopotamia, Persia, Chaldea,
Greece, Dalmatia, &c. His rambling disposition did
not suffer him to rest; for he left his own country a se-
■cond time, and died at Liege in the Netherlands in
1372. He wrote An Itinerary, or an Account ol his
Travels, in English, French, and Latin.
MandevillE, Bernard de, an eminent writer in
the 18th century, was born in Holland, where he stu¬
died physic, and took the degree of doctor in that fa¬
culty. He afterwards came over into England, and
in 1714 published a poem, entitled “The Grumbling
Hive, or Knaves turned Honestupon which he af¬
terwards wrote remarks, and published the whole at
London, 1723, in Svo, under the title of “ The
Fable of the Bees, or private Vices made public Be¬
nefits with an Essay on Charity and Charity-schools,
and a Search into the Nature ot Society.” Ihis book
was presented by the jury of Middlesex in July the
same year, and severely animadverted upon in “ A
Letter to the Right Honourable Lord C.” printed in
the London Journal of Saturday July 27. ^ur
author published a Vindication. His book was attack¬
ed bv several writers. He published other pieces, and
died in 1724.
MAN DING, a large state in the interior of Africa,
situated in N. Lat. 12. 40. and W. Long. 6. 40. The
government, according to Mr. Park, seems to be a kind
of republic, or rather an oligarchy. Many species of
edible roots are found here j but the sugar cane, coflee,
and the cocoa tree, appear to be unknown to the inha¬
bitants. The Mandingoes are reputed a very gentle
race of people, cheerful in their dispositions, inquisitive,
credulous, simple, and fond of flattery. The men, in
general, ai*e about the middle size, well-shaped, strong,
and capable of enduring great labour j the women are
MAN [5
Handing, gooil-naturtd, sprightly, and agreeable. Both sexes
' dress in cotton cloth of their own manufacture, and
both seem irresistibly inclined to commit depredations
on the property of unprotected strangers 5 yet, strange
as it may appear, they will contribute to the personal
safety of the very people whom they are bent upon
plundering.
Parental and filial affection is very strong between
the mother and her child, but not so between the father
and his children, which must originate from that di¬
vided love which never fails to be an attendant on po¬
lygamy. The care of the mother extends to the culti¬
vation of the mind 5 and one of the first lessons iu which
they instruct their offspring, is the practice of truth.
To suckle their children three years is an ordinary oc¬
currence, during which time the husband devotes all
his attention to his other wives. When a young man in¬
tends to marry a young girl, he first addresses the pa¬
rents, as her consent is not deemed necessary. If the
parents are agreeable, she must either accept of the
hand of her lover, or continue unmarried all her life
long. The Mandingoes practise circumcision both on
males and females, which is a very painful operation,
but not performed by them from any religious motive,
for they have a superstitious notion that it contributes
to render the married state prolific. Mr Park assures
us, that the belief of one God, and a future state of
rewards and punishments, is universal among them, hut
that the management of all sublunary concerns is com¬
mitted to certain subordinate or tutelary agents, whose
wrath they deprecate by every mean in their power.
These people seldom arrive at old age, being gray¬
headed and covered with wrinkles about 40, and few
reach the age of 60, although their diseases are few,
being confined almost to fevers, fluxes, elephantiasis,
and a leprosy of the worst kind, together with the
Guinea worm. Their feelings, on the death of a rela¬
tion, are manifested by loud and dismal bowlings ; and
the body is interred, when rolled up in white cotton
with a mat above it, on the day of its decease. The
men cultivate the ground, and the women manufacture
cotton cloth, viz. the spinning and dyeing of it, for it
is wove by the men in looms of about four inches broad.
Here also there are manufactories of leather and iron.
They tan and dress leather with great expedition, and
are said to be acquainted with the smelting of gold,
which they convert into a great variety of ornaments,
executed with much taste and ingenuity.
Their notions of geography are rather puerile, as
they conceive the earth to be an extended plane, the
termination of which no eye has as yet discovered, it
being, according to them, overhung with clouds and
darkness. They suppose the sea to be a large river of
salt water, on the farther shore of which is situated a
country called Tobaubodoo, or the land of the white
people j at a distance from which they describe another
country, which they believe to be inhabited by canni¬
bals of a gigantic size, called Kuomi.
As to their ideas of property, they consider the lands
in native woods to belong to government. When any
individual of free condition has the means of cultivating
more land than he actually possesses, he applies to the
chief man of the district, who allows him an extension
of territory, ®n condition of forfeiture, if the lands are
I
59 I M A N
not brought into cultivation by a given period. The Mauling
condition being fulfilled, the soil becomes vested in |]
the possessor, and in all probability descends to his Manctho.
heirs. "i"''
MANDRAGORA. See Atropa, Botany Index.
MANDRAKE. See Atropa and Musa, Botany
Index.
MANDREL, a kind of wooden pulley, making a
member of the turner’s lathe. Of these there are se¬
veral kinds j as Flat Mandrels, which have three or
more little pegs or points near the verge, and are used
for turning flat hoards on. Pin Mandrels, which have
a long wooden shank to fit into a round hole made in
the work to be turned. Hollow Mandrels, which are
hollow of themselves, and used for turning hollow work.
Screw Mandrels, for turning screws, &e.
MANE, the hair hanging down from a horse’s neck 5
which should be long, thin, and fine : and if frizzled,
so much the better.
MANEGE, or Manage, the exercise of riding the
great horse •, or the ground set apart for that purpose ;
which is sometimes covered, for continuing the exercise
in bad weather; and sometimes open, in order to give
more liberty and freedom both to the horseman and
horse. See Horsemanship.
The word is borrowed from the French manage, and
that from the Italian maneggio; or, as some will have
it, a nianu agendo, “ acting with the hand.”
MANES, a poetical term, signifying the shades or
souls of the deceased. The heathens used a variety
of ceremonies and sacrifices to appease the manes of
those who were deprived of burial. See Lemures and
Lemuria.
Dri Maxes, were the same with inferi, or the infer¬
nal gods, who tormented men ; and to these the hea¬
thens offered sacrifices to assuage their indignation.
The heathen theology is a little obscure with regard
to these gods manes. Some hold, that they were the
souls of the dead j others, that they were the genii of
men *, which last opinion suits best with the etymology
of the word.
The heathen^, it is pretty evident, used the word
manes in several senses ; so that it sometimes signified
the ghosts of the departed, and sometimes the infernal
or subterraneous deities, and in general all divinities
that presided over tombs.
The invocation of the manes of the dead seems to
have been very frequent among the Thessalians j but
it was expressly prohibited by the Romans. See
Lares.
Manes, the founder of the Manichean system. See
Manichees.
MANETHO, an ancient Egyptian historian, who
pretended to take all his accounts from the sacred in~
scriptions on the pillars of Hermes Trismegistus. He
was high priest of Heliopolis in the time of Ptolemy
Philadelphus, at whose request he wrote his histoiy in
Greek 5 beginning from their gods, and continu¬
ing it down to near the time of Darius Codoman-
nus who was conquered by Alexander the Great. His
history of Egypt is a celebrated work, that is often
quoted by Josephus and other ancient authors. Ju¬
lius Africanus gave an abridgement of it in his Chro¬
nology. Manetho’s work is however lost j and there
only
man
Manetho only remain some fragments extracted from
|| Africanus, which are to be found m Eusebius s Glno-
Mangeart. jjica.
 ' MANFREDONIA, a port town of Naples, on
the gulf of Venice, which arose on the rums of the an-
cientSipontam; (see the article Sipontum). It re-
ceived its name from its founder Manfred ; who trans¬
planted hither the few inhabitants that remained at
Sipontum, and attracted other settlers to it by various
privileges and exemptions. In order to found it under
the most favourable auspices, he called together all the
famous professors of astrology (a science in which both
he and his father placed great confidence), and caused
them to calculate the happiest hour and minute for lay¬
ing the first stone. He himself drew the plans, traced
the walls and streets, superintended the works, and by
his presence and largesses animated the workmen to fi¬
nish them in a very short space of time. The port was
secured from storms by a pier 5 the ramparts were built
of the most solid materials ; and in the great tower was
placed a bell of so considerable a volume as to be heard
over all the plain of Capitanata, in order to alarm the
■country m case of an invasion. Charles of Anjou at
terwards removed the bell to Barri, and offered it at
the shrine of St Nicholas, as a thanksgiving for the re¬
covery of one of his children. In spite of all the pre¬
cautions taken by Manfred to secure a brilliant destiny
to his new city, neither his pains, nor the horoscopes of
his wizards, have been able to render it opulent or
powerful. At present, Mr Swinburne informs us, it
scarce musters 6000 inhabitants, though most of the
corn exported from the province is shipped off' here, and
a direct trade carried on with Venice and Greece, for
which reason there is a lazaretto established 5 but from
some late instances we may gather, that if the kingdom
of Naples has for many years past remained free from
the plague, it is more owing to good luck, and the
very trifling communication with Turkey, than to the
vigilance or incorruptibility of the officers of this port.
In 1620, the Turks landed and pillaged Manfredo-
nia. All sorts of vegetables abound here, for flavour
and succulency infinitely superior to those raised by
continual waterings in the cineritious soil ol Naples.
Lettuce in particular is delicious, and fish plentiful and
cheap. E. Long. 15. 56. N. Lat. 41. 42.
MANGANESE, or Magnesia Nigra, a metal¬
lic substance, the oxide of which has been long known
by the name of glass-makers soap, from its property of
rendering glass colourless. See Chemistry and Mi¬
neralogy Index.
MANGE, in dogs. See Farriery Index.
Mange. See Farriery, N° 333.
MANGEART, Dom Thomas, a Benedictine of
the congregation of St Vanne and St Hidulphe, whose
knowledge was an ornament to his order. It gained
him also the titles of antiquarian, librarian, and coun¬
sellor to Charles duke of Lorrain. He was prepar¬
ing a very considerable work when he died, A. D.
1763, before he had put his last hand to his book,
which was published by Abbe Jacquin. This produc¬
tion appeared in 1763, in folio, with this title: In¬
troduction a la science des Medailles, pour servir a la con-
noissance des Dieux, de la Religion, des Sciences, des
Arts, et de tout pe qui appartient a PHistoire ancienne,
avec les preuves tirSes des Medailles. The elementary
[ 560 J M, A N
Julius treatises on the numismatic science were not sufficiently Mannar:
extensive, and the particular dissertations were Ly far
too tedious and prolix. TLhis learned Benedictine has
collected into a single volume all the principles contain¬
ed in the former, and all the ideas of any consequence
which are to be found scattered through the latter.
His work may serve as a supplement to Montlaucon’s
Antiquity explained. I rom Mangeart we likewise hav e
a volume of sermons j and a treatise on Purgatory;
Nancy, 1739, 2 vols. i2mo.
MANGEL-wurzel. See Beta, Botany Index;
and Agriculture Index.
MANGER, is a raised trough under the rack in the
stall, made for receiving the grain or corn that a horse
Manger, a small apartment, extending athwart the
lower deck of a ship of war, immediately within the
hause-holes, and fenced on the after part by a partition,
which separates it from the other part of the deck be¬
hind it. This partition serves as a lence to interrupt
the passage of the water, which occasionally gushes in
at the hause-holes, or falls from the wet cable whilst
it is heaved in by the capstern. Ihe water, thus pre¬
vented from running aft, is immediately returned into
the sea by several small channels, called scuppers, cut
through the ship’s side within the manger. The man¬
ger is therefore particularly useful in giving a con¬
trary direction to the water that enters at the hause-
holes, which would otherwise run aft in great streams
upon the lower deck, and render it extremely wet
and uncomfortable, particularly in tempestuous wea¬
ther, to the men who mess and sleep in different parts
thereof. . .
MANGET, John-James, an eminent physician,
born at Geneva in 1652. The elector of Brandenburg
made him his first physician in 1699 j in which post he
continued till his death, which happened at Geneva in
1742. He wrote many works; the most known of
which are, 1. A collection of several Pharmacopoeias,
in folio. 2. Bibliotheca Pharmaccutico-mcdica. 3. Bib¬
liotheca Anatomica. 4. Bibliotheca Chemica. 5. Bib¬
liotheca Chirurgica. 6. A Bibliotheca oi all the authors
who have written on medicine, in 4 v°ls folio. All
these works are in Latin. Daniel le Clerc, the. au¬
thor of a History of Physic, assisted him in writing
them.
MANGIFERA, the Mango-tree ; a genus of
plants belonging to the pentandria class ; and in the
natural method ranking with those of which the order
is doubtful. See Botany Index.
MANGLE, a machine for smoothing linen. See
Mechanics Index.
MANGOSTAN, or Mangosteen. See Garci-
nia, Botany Index.
MANGROVE. See Rhizophora, Botany Index.
MANHEIM, a town of Germany, in the Lower
Palatinate, with a very strong citadel, and a palace,
where the elector Palatine often resides. It is seated
at the confluence of the rivers Neckar and Rhine, in
E. Long. 8. 33. N. Lat. 49. 25. It surrendered to
the French in September 1795 i hut it was retaken by
the Austrians in September following.
MANHOOD, that stage of life which succeeds pu¬
berty or adolescence. See Man.
MANIA, or Madness. See Medicine Index.
MANICHEES,
MAN
[
5
toichees. MANICHEES, or Manicheans (Mam'ciuei), a
—sect of ancient heretics, who asserted two principles j
so called from their author Manes or Manichceus, a
Persian by nation, and educated among the Magi, be¬
ing himself one of that number before he embraced
Christianity.
This heresy had its first rise about the year 277, and
spread itself principally in Arabia, Egypt, and Africa.
St Epiphanius, who treats of it at large, observes that
the true name of this heresiarch was Cubricus ; and
that he changed it for Manes, which in the Persian or
Babylonish language signifies vessel. A rich widow,
whose servant he had been, dying without issue, left him
store of wealth ; after which he assumed the title of the
apostle or envoy of Jesus Christ.
Manes was not contented with the quality of apostle
of Jesus Christ, but he also assumed that of the Para¬
clete, whom Christ had promised to send : which Au¬
gustine explains, by saying that Manes endeavoured to
persuade men, that the Holy Ghost did personally
dwell in him writh full authority. He left several dis¬
ciples, and among others, Addas, Thomas, and Her¬
nias. These he sent in his lifetime into several provin¬
ces to preach his doctrine. Manes, having undertaken
to cure the king of Persia’s son, and not succeeding^
was put in prison upon the young prince’s death, whence
he made his escape} but he was apprehended soon af¬
ter, and flayed alive.
However, the oriental writers, cited by D’Herbelot
and Hyde, tell us, that Manes, after having been pro¬
tected in a singular manner by Hormizdas, who suc¬
ceeded Sapor ih the Persian throne, but who was not
able to defend him, at length, against the united ha¬
tred of the Christians, the Magi, the Jews, and the
Pagans, was shut up in a strong castle, to serve him as
a refuge against thase who persecuted him on account
of his doctrine. They add, that after the death of
Hormizdas, \ aranes I. his successor, first protected
Manes, but afterwards gave him up to the fury of the
Magi, whose resentment against him was due to his
having adopted the Sadducean principles, as some say ;
while others attribute it to his having mingled the te¬
nets of the Magi with the doctrines of Christianity.
However, it is certain that the Manitheans cefebrated
the day of their master’s death. It has been a subject
of much controversy whether Manes was an impostor.
The learned Dr Lardner has examined the arguments
on both sides 5 and though he does not choose to deny
that he was an impostor, he does not discern evident
proofs ol it. He acknowledges, that he was an arro¬
gant philosopher and a great schemist} but Whether he
was an impostor, he cannot certainly say. He was
inuch too fond of philosophical notions, which he en¬
deavoured to bring into religion, for which he is to be
blamed : nevertheless^ he observes, that every bold dog-
matizer is not an impostor.
The doctrine of Maiies was a motley mixture of the
tenets of Christianity with the ancient philosophy of
the Persians, in which he had been instructed during
bis youth. He combined these two systems, and ap¬
plied and accommodated to Jesus Christ the characters
and actions which the Persians attributed to the god
Mithras.
He established two principles, viz. a good and an
evil one; the first a most pure and subtle matter,
VOL. XII. Part II. f
6t ] MAN
which he called lipht, did nothing but good 5 and the Mahiclice*.
second, a gross and corrupt substance, which he called 1— •
darkness, nothing but evil. This philosophy is very
ancient 5 and Plutarch treats of it at large in his Isis
and Osiris.
Manes borrowed many things from the ancient
Gnostics j on which account many authors consider the
Manicheans as a branch of the Gnostics.
In truth, the Manichean doctrine Was a system of
philosophy rather than of religion. They made use
of amulets, in imitation of the Basilidians j and are
said to have made profession of astronomy and astro¬
logy. They denied that Jesus Christ, who was only
God, assumed a true human body, and maintained it
was only imaginary j and therefore, they denied his
incarnation, death, &c. They pretended that the law
of Moses did not come from God, or the good princi¬
ple, but frOiti the evil one; and that for this reason it
was abrogated. They rejected almost all the sacred
books in which Christians look for the sublime truths
of their holy religion. They affirmed, that the Old
Testament was not the Work of God, but of the prince
of darkness, who was substituted by the Jews in the
place of the true God. They abstained entirely from
eating the flesh of any animal j following herein the
doctrine of the ancient Pythagoreans j they also con¬
demned marriage. The rest of their errors may be
Seen in St Epiphanius and St Augustine j which last,
having been ol their sect, may be presumed to have
been thoroughly acquainted with them.
Though the Manichees professed to receive the books
Of the New Testament, yet in effect they only took so
much of them as suited with their own opinions. They
first formed to themselves a certain idea or scheme of
Christianity j and to this adjusted the writings of the
apostles, pretending that whatever was inconsistent
with this had been foisted into the New Testament by
later Writers, who were half JeWs. On the other
hand, they made fables and apocryphal books pass for
apostolical writings 5 and even are suspected to have,
forged several others, the better to maintain their er¬
rors. St Epiphanius gives a catalogue of several pieces
published by Manes, and adds extracts out of some of
them. These are the Mysteries, Chapters, Gospel, and
Treasury.
The rule of life ami manners which Manes prescrib¬
ed to his followers was most extravagantly rigorous
and severe. However, he divided his disciples into
two classes j one of which comprehended the perfect
Christians, under the name of the elect; and the other
the imperfect and feeble, under the title of auditors or
hearers. The elect Were obliged to a rigorous and en¬
tire abstinence from flesh, eggs, milk, fish, w'ine, all
intoxicating drink, Wedlock, and all amorous gratifica¬
tions j and to live in a state of the severest penury, nou¬
rishing their emaciated bodies with bread, herbs, pulse,
and melons, and depriving themselves of all the com¬
forts that arise from the moderate indulgence of natural
passions, and also from a variety of innocent and agree¬
able pursuits. The auditors Wete allowed to possess
bouses, land, and wealth, to feed on flesh, to ehter in¬
to the bonds of conjugal tenderness} but this liberty
was granted them with many limitations, and under the
strictest conditions of moderation and temperance. The
general assembly of the Manicheans wras headed by a
4 B president,
MAN
>T-.niehMS in’esident, ivlm represented Jesus Christ.
^ ‘ |1 joined to him 12 rulers or masters, who we^e deS,gneJ
Manilla. Jto ^present the 12 apostles, and these were followed by
 ' 72 bishops, the images of the 72 disciples of our Lord.
These bishops had presbyters or deacons under them,
and all the members of these religious orders were cho¬
sen out of the class of the elect. Their worship was
simple and plain *, and consisted of prayers, reading the
scriptures, and hearing public discourses, at which both
the auditors and elect were allowed to be present. Ihey
also observed the Christian appointment of baptism and
the eucharist. They kept the Lord’s day, observing
it as a fast; and they likewise kept Easter and Pente-
Towards the 4th century, the Manicheans concealed
themselves under various names, which they successive¬
ly adopted, and changed in proportion as they were
discovered by them. Thus they assumed the names oi
Encratites, Apotactics, Saccophori, Hydroparastates,
Solitaries, and several others, under which they lay
concealed for a certain time, but could not however
long escape the vigilance of their enemies. About the
close of the 6th century, this sect gained a very consi¬
derable influence, particularly among the Persians.
Toward the middle of the 12th century, the sect ot
Manichees took a new face, on occasion of one Con¬
stantine, an Armenian, and an adherer to it j who took
upon him to suppress the reading ol all other books be-
sides the Evangelists and the epistles of St Paul, which
he explained in such a manner as to make them contain
a new system of Manicheism. He entirely discarded
all the writings of his predecessors j rejecting the chi¬
meras of the Valentinians, and their 30 teons *, the la-
ble of Manes, with regard to the origin of rain, and
other dreams •, but still retained the impurities of Basi-
lides. In this manner he reformed Manicheism, inso¬
much that his followers made no scruple of anathema¬
tizing Scythian, Buddas, called also Addas and Tere¬
binth, the contemporaries and disciples, as some say,
and, according to others, the predecessors and masters
of Manes, and even Manes himself; Constantine being
now their great apostle. After he had seduced an
infinite number of people, he was at last stoned by or¬
der of the emperor.
This sect prevailed in Bosnia and the adjacent pro¬
vinces about the close of the 15th century •, propagated
their doctrines with confidence, and held their religious
assemblies with impunity.
MANICORDON, or Manichord, a musical in¬
strument in form of a spinet 5 the strings of which, like
those of the clarichord, are covered with little pieces of
(•loth, to deaden as well as to soften their sound, whence
it is also called the dumb spinet.
MANIFESTO ; a public declaration made by a
prince in writing, showing his intentions to begin a
war or other enterprise, with the motives that induce
him to it, and the reasons on which he founds his rights
and pretensions.
MANIHOT, or Manioc. See Jatrofha, Bota¬
ny Index.
MANILLA, Luconia, or Luxon, the name of the
largest of the Philippine islands in the East Indies, sub¬
ject to Spain. It had the name of Lu%on from a cus¬
tom that prevailed among the natives of beating or
bruising their rice in wooden mortars, before they ei-
4
[ 562 ] MAN
There were ther boiled or baked it *, luxon in their language sig¬
nifying “ a mortar.” _ , 1 • 1
As to situation, it is remarkably happy, lying be¬
tween the eastern and western continents, and having
China on the north, at the distance of about 60
leagues ; the islands of Japan on the north-east, at the
Mai
distance of about 250 leagues from the nearest ot them 5
the ocean on the east; the other islands on the south ;
and on the west Malacca, Patana, Siam, Cambodia,
Cochin-China, and other provinces of India, the near¬
est at the distance of 300 leagues.
The middle of this island is in latitude 15 north;
the east point in 130 38', and the most northern point
in 190. The shape of it is said to resemble that ot an
arm bent.; the whole length being about 160 Spanish
leagues, the greatest breadth between 30 and 40, and
the circumference about 350. As to the longitude the
charts differ, some making the middle of the island to
lie 1130 east from London, and others 106 . I he
climate is hot and moist. One thing is held very extra¬
ordinary, that in stormy weather there is much light¬
ning and rain, and that thunder is seldom heard till this
is over. During the months oi June, July, August,
and part of September, the west and south winds blow,
which they call vendavales, bringing such rains and
storms, that the fields are all overflowed, and they are
forced to have little boats to go from one place to an¬
other. From October till the middle of December,
the north wind prevails ; and from that time till May,
the east and south east; which winds are there called
breezes. Thus there are two seasons in those seas, by
the Portuguese called monzeens; whence our word
monsoons, that is, the breezes half the year, with a se¬
rene dry air; and the vendavales the other half, wet
and stormy. It is further to be observed, that in this
climate no vermin breed upon Europeans, though they
wear dirty shirts, whereas it is otherwise with the In¬
dians. the days here being always of an equal length,
and the weather never cold, neither their clothes, nor
the hour of dining, supping, doing business, studying,
or praying, are ever changed; nor is cloth worn, but
only against the rain.
The air here being, as has been observed, very hot
and moist, is not wholesome, but is worse for young
men that come from Europe than tor the old. As
for the natives, "without using many precautions, they
live very commonly to fourscore or 100. I he soil is
so rich, that rice grows even on the tops of the moun¬
tains without being watered ; and this makes it so plen¬
tiful, that the Indians value gold so little as not to
pick it up, though it lies almost everywhere under their
feet* . r..
Among the disadvantages of the island, besides tie-
quent and terrible earthquakes, here are several bun1'
ing mountains. The face of the island, however, is far
from being disfigured by them, or by the consequences
of their explosions.
The mountaineers, called Tingiani, have no particu¬
lar place of abode, but always live under the shelter ot
trees, which serve them instead of houses, and furnish
them with food ; and when the fruit is eaten up, they
remove where there is a fresh sort.
Here are 40 different sorts of palm-trees, the most
excellent cocoas, wild cinnamon, wild nutmegs, an
some say wild cloves also 3 ebony 3 sandal wood 3 ^ ®
MAN [ 563 ] MAN
Manilla best cassia, and in such plenty, that they feed their
—Y—J hogs with its fruit $ all kinds of cattle, and prodigious
quantities of gold, amber, and ambergris.
There are several sorts of people in this island besides
the Spaniards, as the Tagalians or Tagaleze, the Pin-
tadoes or painted negroes, the Ilayas or Tinglianos,
and the Negrellos. The Tagalians, who are thought
to be Malayans by descent, are a modest, tractable,
and well-disposed people. The Pintadoes, or painted
negroes, are tall, straight, strong, active, and of an ex¬
cellent disposition. The Tinglianos, whom some sup¬
pose to be descended from the Japanese, are very brave,
yet very courteous and kvmane. They live entirely
on the gifts of nature j and never sleep under any other
shade than that of the trees or a cave. The Negrellos,
who are held to be the aborigines of the island, are bar¬
barous and brutal to the last degree. When they kill
a Spaniard, they make a cup of his skull and drink out
of it.
This island is divided into several provinces, con¬
taining divers towns, the chief of which are Manilla,
Caceres, New Segovia, Bondo, Passacao, Ibalon, Bu-
law, Sersocon, or Bagatao, Lampon, Fernandina, Bo-
linao, Playahonda, Cavite, Mindora, Caleleya, and Ba¬
layan.
Manilla, the capital of an island of the same name
in the East Indies, on the south-east side of the island,
where a large river falls into the sea, and forms a noble
bay 30 leagues in compass, to which the Spaniards
have given the name of Bahia, because the river runs
out of the great lake Bahi, which lies at the distance
of six leagues behind it. In compass it is two miles,
in length one-third of a mile 5 the shape irregular, be¬
ing narrow at both ends, and wide in the middle. On
the south it is washed by the sea, and on the north and
east by the river j being also strongly fortified with
walls, bastions, forts, and batteries.—Manilla contains
about 30,000 souls, who are a very motely race, distin¬
guished by several strange names, and produced by the
conjunction of Spaniards, Chinese, Malabars, Blacks,
and others inhabiting the city and islands depending
on it. Without the walls are large suburbs, particu- .
larly that inhabited by the Chinese merchants, called
Sangleys. In proportion to the size of the place, the
number of churches and religious houses is very great.
Only small vessels can come up to Manilla; but three
leagues south of it is the town and port of Cavite, de¬
fended by the castle of St Philip, and capable of re¬
ceiving the largest ships. Here stands the arsenal
where the galleons are built, for which there are from
300 to 600 or 800 men constantly employed, who are
relieved every month, and while upon duty are main¬
tained at the king’s expence. By an earthquake which
happened here in 1645, a Part °f the city of
Manilla was destroyed, and no less than 3000 people
perished in the ruins.
Spain having entered into engagements with France,
in consequence of the family-compact of the house of
Bourbon, it was found expedient by Britain to declare
war also against Spain. Whereupon a force was sent
out from our East India settlements particularly Ma¬
dras, for the conquest of the Philippine islands, under
General Draper and Admiral Cornish : who, after a
siege of 12 days, took Manilla on the 6th of October
1762 by storm ; but to save so fine a city from destvuc- Manillu
tion, agreed to accept a ransom, amounting to a million MamW.
sterling, a part of which, it is said, was never paid.
The Spanish viceroy resides in this city, and lives like
a sovereign prince. The government is said to be one
of the best in the gift of the king of Spain. When the
city was taken, as above, the archbishop, who is a kind
of pope in this part of the world, was also viceroy,
l ive large ships, loaded with the riches of the East, as
diamonds from Golconda, cinnamon from Ceylon, pep¬
per irom Sumatra and Java, cloves and nutmegs from
the Moluccas and Banda islands, camphire from Bor¬
neo, benjamin and ivory from Cambodia, silks, tea, and
china-ware from China, &c. sail yearly from hence to
Acapulco in Mexico, and return freighted with silver,
making 400 per cent, profit.
The city of Manilla is governed by two alcaides: the
rest of the cities and great towns have each an alcaide $
and in every village there is a corregidore. Appeals
from their sentences are made to the royal court at
Manilla, in which there are four judges, and a fiscal
or attorney-general j each of these judges has a salary
of 3300 pieces of eight per annum. The viceroy is
president; and in that quality has an income of 4000
pieces of eight, but he has no vote ; yet if the judges
are equally divided, the president names a doctor of
the civil law, who, in virtue of his appointment, has
a decisive vote. The attorney-general, in right of
his office, is protector of the Chinese, in consideration
of which he receives 600 pieces of eight every year.
As for the Indians that are in subjection, they pay tri¬
bute in the following proportions: Young men from
18, and from thence, if they continue single, to the
age of 60, pay five rials of plate by way of capita¬
tion ; as single women likewise do from 24 to 50 :
married men pay ten rials. It is computed that there
are within the compass of this government 250,000
Indians subject to his Catholic majesty, of whom two-
fifths hold immediately from the king, and the rest
from lords or proprietors, who pay two rials each for
maintenance of the forces, and the like sum for the
parish-priest. The royal revenue is computed at about
half a million of pieces of eight, exclusive of casualties.
In regard to the military establishment, the garrison of
Manilla consists of about 800 or 1000 men, and there
are about 3000 more in the Philippines. The viceroy
is by his office captain-general, with a salary of about
4000 pieces of eight.
MANILIUS, Marcus, a Latin poet, whose poem
had the ill luck to lie buried in some German libraries,
and was not heard of in the world, until Poggius, about
two centuries ago, published him from some old ma¬
nuscripts he found there. There is no account to be
found of him but what can be drawn from his poem,
which is called Astrononiicon i and contains a system of
the ancient astronomy and astrology, together with the
philosophy of the Stoics. It consists of five books ;
though there was a sixth, which has not been recover¬
ed. From the style, and no mention of the author
being found in ancient writers, it is probable he died
young. It is collected, however, that he was a Roman
of illustrious extraction, and lived under the reign of
Augustus, whom he invokes, though not by name,
yet by circumstances and character that suit no other
4 2 emperor.
MAN
MAN [ 564 ]. , , f k ,
The best editions ofManilius are, that of belonging to the order of bruta.
   ■ T Index.
See Mammalia MamY
Manis.
Manillas ^^^^"'jfiooTand that of Bentley at Lon-
,(1011 111 1738. . . .
MANILLE, in commerce, a large brass ring in the
form of a bracelet, either plain or engraven, flat or
^Manilles are the principal commodities which the
Europeans carry to the coast of Africa, and exchange
with the natives for slaves. These people wear them
as ornaments on the small of the leg, and on the thick
part of the arm above the elbow, 'i he great men wear
manilles of gold and silver; but these are made m the
country by the natives themselves.
MANIOC, or Manihot. See Jatropha, Bo¬
tany Index.
MANIPULUS, Manipule, among the Komans,
was a little body of infantry, which in the time of Ro¬
mulus consisted of IOO men } and in the time of the
consuls,, and first Ccesars, of 200.
The word properly signifies “ a handful $ and, ac¬
cording to some authors, was first given to the hand¬
ful of "hay which they bore at the end of a pole, to
distinguish themselves by, before the custom was in¬
troduced of bearing an eagle for their ensign •, and
hence also the phrase, a handful of men. But yege"
tius, Modestus, and Varro, give other etymologies of
the word : the last derives it from mantis, a little body
©f men following the same standard. According to
the former, this corps was called manipulus, because
they fought hand in hand or all together : Contuberm-
vm autem manipulus vocabatur ab co, quod conjunctis
manibus pariier dimieabant.
Each manipule had two centurions, or captains,
called manipularii, to command it; one whereof was
lieutenant to the other. Each cohort was divided
into three manipules, and each manipule into two cen¬
turies. .
Aldus Gellius quotes an old author, one Cincius,
who lived in the time of Hannibal (whose prisoner he
was), and who, writing on the art of war, observes,
that then each legion consisted of 60 centuries, of 30
manipules, and of ten cohorts. And again, ^ arro
and Yegetius mention it as the least division in the
army, only consisting of the tenth part of a century}
and Spartian adds, that it contained no more than ten
men. This shows that the manipulus was not always
the same thing.
Manipulus is also an ecclesiastical ornament, worn
by the priests, deacons, and subdeacons in the Romish
church. It consists of a little fillet in form of a stole,
three or four inches broad, and made of the same stufl
with the chasuble ; signifying and representing an
handkerchief which the priests in the primitive church
wore oir the arm to wipe off the tears they were con¬
tinually shedding for the sins of the people. There still
remains a mark of this usage in a prayer rehearsed by
those who wear it; Merear, Damme, portare mantpu-
Ittm fetus et dolorts.—The Greeks and Maronites wear
two manipules, one on each arm.
Manipulus, among physicians, is used to signify a
handful of herbs or leaves, or so much as a man can
grasp in his hand at once; which quantity is frequent¬
ly denoted by the abbreviature, M, or m.
MANIS, the Scaly Lizard, a genus of quadrupeds
MANLEY, Mrs, the celebrated writer of the
Pltalantis, was the daughter of Sir Roger Manley, the ^
reputed author of the first volume of the Turkish Spy.
She lost her parents very early; and after having been
deluded into a false marriage by her guardian, who was
her cousin, and afterwards deserted her, She was pa¬
tronized by the duchess of Cleveland, mistress of
Charles II. But the duchess, being a woman of a
very fickle temper, grew tired of Mrs Manley in six
months time j and discharged her upon a pretence,
whether groundless or not 'is uncertain, that she in¬
trigued with her son. After this she wrote her first
tragedy, called Royal Mischief, which was acted with
great applause in 1696 j and her apartment being fre¬
quented by men of wit and gaiety, she soon engaged
in amours, and was taken into keeping. Her pen now
grew as licentious as her conduct j for, in her retired
hours, she wrote four volumes, called Memoirs of the
New Atalantis} in which she was not only very free
in her wanton tales of love adventures, but satirized
the characters of many distinguished personages, espe¬
cially those who had a principal concern in the Revo¬
lution. A prosecution was commenced against her for
this work *, but whether those in power were ashamed
to bring a woman to trial lor a few amorous trifles,
or whether the laws could not reach her disguised sa¬
tire, she was dischargedand a total change of tho
ministry ensuing, Mrs Manley lived in high reputation
and gaiety, amusing herself with the conversation of
wits, and writing plays, poems, and letters. She died
Mann*.
in 1724.
MANLIUS Capitolinus, the renowned Roman
consul and general, who saved the capitol when it was
attacked by the Gauls in the night: he was alarmed
by the cries of geese, which were ever after held sa¬
cred. But being afterwards accused of aspiring at the
sovereignty, he was thrown from the larpeian rock.
See Gaul and Rome.
Manlius Torquatus, a celebrated consul and Ro¬
man captain 5 had great ivit, but a difficulty in expres¬
sing himself, which induced Manlius Imperiosus, his
father, to keep him almost by force in the country.
Pompey, tribune of the people, enraged at this in¬
stance of severity, formed a design of accusing Mam-
lius the father before the judges j but'lorquatus be¬
ing informed of it, went to that tribune, and, with a
poniard in his hand, made him swear, that he would
not proceed in that accusation against him to whom he
owed his life. At length Torquatus was made mili¬
tary tribune, and killed a soldier of the Gauls in single
combat, from whom he took a gold chain that he
wore about his neck. From this action he obtained
the name of Torquatus. He was consul in the war
against the Latins j when he ordered his own son t®
be beheaded for fighting contrary to his orders, though
he had gained the victory. He conquered the enemies
of the republic, and was several times made consul j
but at last refused the consulship, saying, I hat it was
no more possible for him to bear with the vices of the
people, than h was for the people to bear with his se¬
verity.
MANNA, in the Materia Medico, the juice of cer¬
tain
M AN L 565 ] MAN
uV lanna. tain trees of the ash kind, either naturally concreted on
—\r—' the plants, or exsiccated and purified by art. See Ma-
teriA Medica Index.
Manna, is also a Scripture term, signifying a mira¬
culous kind of food which fell from heaven for the sup¬
port of the Israelites in their passage through the wil¬
derness, being in form of coriander seeds, its colour like
that of bdellium, and its taste like honey.
The Scripture gives to manna the name of the bread
of heaven, and Xhtfood of angels. Psalm Ixxviii. 25.
whether it would insinuate to us, that the angels sent
and prepared this food, or that angels themselves, if
they had need of any food, could not have any that
was more agreeable than manna was. The author of
the Book of Wisdom says, xvi. 20, 21. that manna so
accommodated itself to every one’s taste, that every
one found it pleasing to him $ and that it included every
thing that was agreeable to the palate and fit for good
nourishment j which expressions some have taken in
the literal sense, though others understand them figu¬
ratively.
The critics are divided about the original of the
Word manna. Some think that man is put instead of
the Hebrew rvord malt, which signifies “ What is
this ?” and that the Hebrews, then first seeing that
new food which God had sent them, cried to one ano¬
ther, man-hu, instead of mah-hu, “What is this?”
Others maintain, that the Hebrews very well knew
before what manna was j and that, seeing it in great
abundance about their camp, they said one to another,
Man-hu, “ This is manna.” Mr Saumaise and some
other moderns are of this last opinion. They imagine,
that the manna which God sent the Israelites was no¬
thing else but that fat and thick dew which still falls
in Arabia, which presently condensed, and served for
food to the people ; that this is the same thing as the
wild honey, mentioned Matth. iii. 4. wherewith John
the Baptist was fed 5 and that the miracle of Moses
did not consist in the production of any new substance,
but in the exact and uniform manner in which the
manna was dispensed by Px-ovidence for the mainte¬
nance of such a gi-eat multitude.
On the conti-ary, the Hebrews and Oiuentals believe,
that the fall of the manna was wholly miraculous. The
Arabians call it the sugar plums of the Almighty; and
the Jews are so jealous of this miracle, that they pro¬
nounce a curse against all such as presume to deny the
interposition of a miraculous power;
Our translation, and some others, make Moses fall
into a plain contradiction in relating this story of the
manna, which they render thus : “ And when the
children of Israel saw it, they said one to another, It
is manna j for they wist not what it was.” Exo¬
dus xvi. 15. Whereas the Septuagint and several au¬
thors both ancient and modern have translated the
text according to the original, “ Tlxe Israelites see¬
ing this, said one to another, What is this P for they
knew not what it was.” For we must observe, that
the word by which they asked, what is this? was in
their language man, which signifies likewise meat, rea¬
dy provided 5 and therefore it was always afterwards
called man or manna.
Whether this manna had those extraordinary qua¬
lities in it or not, which some imagine, it must be al¬
lowed to be truly miraculous, upon the following ac¬
counts. I. That it fell but six days in the week, jvfam-
2. That it fell in such a prodigious quantity, as sus¬
tained almost three millions of souls. 3. That there Manners,
fell a double quantity eveiy Friday, to serve them for v——v——
the next day, which was their Sabbath. 4. That
what w'as gathei'ed on the first five days stunk and
hied worms if kept above one day: but that which
was gathered on Friday kept sweet for two days.
And, lastly, That it continued falling while the Is¬
raelites abode in the wilderness, but ceased as soon as
they came out of it and had got corn to eat in the land
of Canaan.
MANNA-Trce, is a species of the ash, and a native
of Calabria in Italy. See Fraxinus, Botany Index,
and Materia Medica Index.
MANNER, in painting, a habitude that a man ac¬
quires in the three principal parts of painting, the ma¬
nagement of coloui-s, lights, and shadows 5 which is ei¬
ther good or bad according as the painter has practised
more or less after the truth, with judgment and study.
But the best painter is he who has no manner at all.
The good or bad choice he makes is called goute.
MANNERS, the plural noun, has various signifi¬
cations *, as the general way of life, the morals, or the
habits, of any person or people ; also ceremonious be¬
haviour, or studied civility. See the next article.
Good Manners, according to Swift, is the art of
making those people easy with whom we converse.
Whoever makes the fewest persons uneasy, is the
best bi’ed in the company.
As the best law is founded upon reason, so arc the
best manners. And as some lawyers have introduced
unreasonable things into common law; so likewise
many teachers have introduced absurd things into com¬
mon good manners.
One principal point of this art is to suit our beha¬
viour to the three several degrees of men j our supe-
riors, our equals, and those below us.
For instance, to press either of the two former to eat
or drink is a breach of manners j but a tradesman or a
farmer must be thus treated, or else it will be difficult
to persuade them that they are welcome.
Pride, ill natui'e, and want of sense, are the three
great soui-ces of ill manners j without some one of these
defects, no man will behave himself ill for want of ex-
pexience ; or of what, in the language of fools, is called
knowing the world.
“ I defy (proceeds our author), any one to assign
an incident wherein reason ■will not direct us what we
are to say or to do in company, if we are not misled by
pride or ill nature. Therefore, I insist that good sense
is the principal foundation of good manners $ but be¬
cause the former is a gift which very few among man¬
kind are possessed of, therefore all the civilized nations
of the world have agreed upon fixing some rules for
common behaviour, best suited to their general cus¬
toms, or fancies, as a kind of ax-tificial good sense to
supply the defects of reason. Without which the gen¬
tlemanly part of dunces would be perpetually at cuffs,
as they seldom fail when they happen to be drunk, or
engaged in squabbles about women or play. And,
God he thanked, there hardly happeneth a duel in a
yeax-, which may not be imputed to one of those thi^ee
motives. Upon which account, I should be exceed¬
ingly sorry to find the legislature make any new laws
against
M A N
[ 566 ]
MAN
VMm against Uie practice.of duelling*, because the methods
easv, and many, for a wise man to avoid a .marrel
with honour, or engage in it with innocence. And I
can discover no political evil, in suftermg bullies, sharp-
ers and rakes, to rid the world ol each other by a me¬
thod of their own, where the law hath not been able
to find an expedient.
“ As the common forms of good manners were in¬
tended for regulating the conduct of those who have
weak understandings ; so they have been corrupted by
'the persons for whose use they were contrived, t or
these people have fallen into a needless and endless way
of multiplying ceremonies, which have been extremely
troublesome to those who practise them, and insup¬
portable to every body else ; insomuch that wise men
are often more uneasy at the over civility of these re¬
finers, than they could possibly be in the conversations
of peasants or mechanics.
“ The impertinences of this ceremonial behaviour,
are nowhere better seen than at those tables, where
ladies preside who value themselves upon account of
their good breeding; where a man must reckon upon
passing an hour without doing any one thing he hath a
mind to, unless he will be so hardy as to break through
all the settled decorum of the family. She determines
what he loveth best, and how much he shall eat; and
if the master of the house happeneth to be of the same
disposition, he proceedeth in the same tyrannical man¬
ner to prescribe in the drinking part: at the same time
you are under the necessity of answering a thousand
apologies for your entertainment. And although a
good deal of this humour is pretty well worn off among
many people of the best fashion, yet too much of it
still remaineth, especially in the country ; where an ho¬
nest gentleman assured me, that having been kept four
days against his will at a friend’s house, with all the
circumstances of hiding his boots, locking up the stable,
and other contrivances of the like nature, he could not
remember, from the moment he came into the house
to the moment he left it, any one thing wherein his
inclination was not directly contradicted; as if the
whole family had entered into a combination to tor¬
ment him.
“ But, besides all this, it would be endless to re¬
count the many foolish and ridiculous accidents I have
observed among these unfortunate proselytes to cere¬
mony. I have seen a duchess fairly knocked down by
the precipitancy of an officious coxcomb running to
save her the trouble of opening the door. I remember,
upon a birth-day at court, a great lady was rendered
utterly disconsolate, by a dish of sauce let fall by a page
directly upon her head-dress and brocade, while she
gave a sudden turn to her elbow upon some point of
ceremony with the person who sat next her. Monsieur
Buys, the Dutch envoy, whose politics and manners
were much of a size, brought a son with him about 13
years old to a great table at court. The boy and his
father, whatever they put on their plates, they first of¬
fered round in order, to every person in the company ;
so that we could not get a minute’s quiet during the
whole dinner. At last their two plates happened to
encounter, and with so much violence, that, being
china, they broke in twenty pieces, and stained half
the company with Wet sweatmeats and cream.
“ There is a pedantry in manners as in all arts and
sciences, and sometimes in trades. Pedantry is pro- Manner,
perly the overrating any kind of knowledge we pre-  v—■
tend to. And if that kind of knowledge be a trifle in
itself, the pedantry is the greater. For which reason
I look upon fiddlers, dancing-masters, heralds, masters
of the ceremony, &c. to be greater pedants than Lip-
sius, or the elder Scaliger. With these kinds of pe¬
dants the court, while 1 knew it, was always plentifully
stocked : I mean from the gentleman-usher (at least)
inclusive, downward to the gentleman-porter ; who are,
generally speaking, the most insignificant race of peo¬
ple that this island can afford, and with the smallest
tincture of good manners, which is the only trade they
profess. For being wholly illiterate, conversing chief¬
ly with each other, they reduce the whole system of
breeding within the forms and circles of their several
offices : and as they are below the notice of ministers,
they live and die in court under all revolutions, with
great obsequiousness to those who are in any degree of
credit or favour, and with rudeness and insolence to
every body else. From whence I have long concluded,
that good manners are not a plant of the court growth :
for if they were, those people who have understand¬
ings directly of a level for such acquirements, and who
have served such long apprenticeships to nothing else,
would certainly have picked them up. For as to the
great officers Avho attend the prince’s person or coun¬
cils, or preside in his family, they are a transient body,
who have no better a title to good manners than their
neighbours, nor will probably have recourse to gentle-
men-ushers for instruction. So that I know little to
be learned at court on this head, except in the material
circumstance of dress ; wherein the authority of the
maids of honour must indeed be allowed to be almost
equal to that of a favourite actress.
I remember a passage my Lord Bolingbroke told
me : That going to receive Prince Eugene of Savoy at
his landing, in order to conduct him immediately to
the queen, the prince said he was much concerned that
he could not see her majesty that night; for Monsieur
Hoffman (who was then by) had assured his highness,
that he could not be admitted into her presence with
a tied-up periwig; that his equipage w'as not arrived ;
and that he had endeavoured in vain to borrow a long
one among all his valets and pages. My lord turned
the matter to a jest, and brought the prince to her ma¬
jesty : for which he was highly censured by the whole
tribe of gentlemen ushers ; among whom Monsieur
Hoffman, an old dull resident of the emperor’s, had
picked up this material point of ceremony ; and which,
I believe, was the best lesson he had learned in 25 years
residence.
“ I make a difference between goad manners and
good breeding; although, in order to vary my expres¬
sion, I am sometimes forced to confound them. By
the first, I only understand the art of remembering,
ami applying, certain settled forms of general behavi¬
our. But good breeding is of a much larger extent:
for besides an uncommon degree ol literature sufficient
to qualify a gentleman for reading a play, or a politi¬
cal pamphlet, it taketh in a great compass of know¬
ledge ; no less than that of dancing, fighting, gaming,
making the circle of Italy, riding the great horse, and
speaking French ; not to mention some other second-
ary or subaltern accomplishments, which are more ea¬
sily
Idanners,
i/Iannory.
Harley
rl of Ox
:?d, lord
di trea-
rer to
:een
me.
MAN [567
sily acquired. So that the difference between good
breeding and good manners lieth in this, That the for-
/ mer cannot be attained to by the best understandings
without study and labour $ whereas a tolerable degree
of reason will instruct us in every part of good manners
without other assistance.
“ I can think of nothing more useful upon this sub¬
ject, than to point out some particulars wherein the very
essentials of good manners are concerned, the neglect
or perverting of which doth very much disturb the good
commerce of the world, by introducing a traffic of a
mutual uneasiness in most companies.
“ First, A necessary part of good manners is a punc¬
tual observance of time at our own dwellings or those
of others, or at third places j whether upon matters of
civility, business, or diversion ; which rule, though it
be a plain dictate of common reason, yet the greatest mi¬
nister * I ever knew, was the greatest trespasser against
it; by which all his business doubled upon him, and
placed him in a continual arrear. Upon which I often
used to rally him as deficient in point of good manners.
I have known more than one ambassadoi', and secretary
of state, with a very moderate portion of intellectuals,
execute their offices with great success and applause,
by the mere force of exactness and regularity. If you
duly observe time for the service of another, it doubles
the obligation ; if upon your own account, it would be
manifest folly, as -well as ingratitude, to neglect it *, if
both are concerned, to make your equal or inferior at¬
tend on you to his own disadvantage, is pride and in¬
justice;
“ Ignorance of forms cannot properly be styled ill
manners: because forms are subject to frequent changes j
and consequently, being not founded upon reason, are
beneath a wise man’s regard. Besides, they vary in
every country 5 and after a short period of time vary
frequently in the same : so that a man who travelleth
must needs be at first a stranger to them in every court
through which he passeth } and, perhaps, at his return,
as much a stranger in his own ; and, after all, they are
easier to he x'emembered or forgotten than faces or
names.
“ Indeed, among the many impertinencies that su¬
perficial young men bring with them from abroad, this
bigotry of forms is one of the principal, and more pre¬
dominant than the rest : who look upon them not only
as if they were matters capable of admitting of choice,
but even as points of importance ; and therefore are
zealous upon all occasions to introduce and propagate
the new forms and fashions they have brought back
with them : so that, usually speaking, the worst bred
person in the company is a young traveller just arrived
from abroad.”
MANNORY, Lewis, advocate of the parliament
of Paris, where he was born in 1696, and died in
1777. From him we have 18 vols. i2mo. of Pleadings
and Memoirs. A great number of singular cases occur
in this collection : and the author has the talent of
rendering them more striking by the agreeable manner
in which they are stated. He was Travenol’s counsel
in his process against Voltaire, and was very satirical
against that poet. The latter took revenge by describ¬
ing him as a mercenary babbler, who sold his pen and
his abuse to the highest bidder. Whatever may be the
case, Mannory would certainly have been more esteem-
] MAN
ed, both as an advocate and as a writer, if he had paid Mannory
more attention to his style, and had been less prolix j |]
il he had thought more deeply, and been more sparing Manome-
of his pleasantry in cases where nothing was required ter- .
but knowledge and sound reasoning. He published *
also a translation into French of Father Paree’s funeral
Oration on Louis XIV. and very judicious Observa¬
tions on the Semiramis of Voltaire.
MANOEUVRE, in a military sense, consists solely
in distributing equal motion to every part of a body of
troops, to enable the whole to form, or change their
position, in the most expeditious and best method, to
answer the purposes required of a battalion, brigade,
or line of cavalry, artillery, or infantry. It has al¬
ways been lamented, that men have been brought on
service without being informed of the uses of the dif¬
ferent manceuvres they have been practising j and
having no ideas of any thing but the uniformity of the
parade, instantly fall into disorder and confusion when
they lose the step, or see a deviation from the straight
lines they have been accustomed to at exercise. It is
a pity to see so much attention given to show, and so
little to instruct the troops in what may be of use to
them in real service. No manoeuvre should be executed
in presence of the enemy, unless protected by some di¬
vision of the troops.
MANOMETER, or Manoscope, an instrument
to show or measure the alterations in the rarity or
density of the air. The manometer differs from the
barometer in this, That the latter only serves to mea¬
sure the weight of the atmosphere, or of the column
of air over it; but the former, the density of the air
in which it is found ; which density depends not only
on the weight of the atmosphere, but also on the
action of heat and cold, &c. Authors, however, gs-
nerally confound the two together j and Mr Boyle
himself gives us a very good manometer of his contriv¬
ance, under the name of a statical barometer, consisting
of a bubble of thin glass, about the size of an orange,
which, being counterpoised when the air was in a mean
state of density, by means of a nice pair of scales, sunk
w hen the atmosphere became lighter, and rose as it grew
heavier.
Other kinds of manometers were made use of by Co¬
lonel Roy, in his attempts to correct the errors of the
barometer. “ They were (says he) of various lengths,
from four to upwards of eight feet: they consisted of
straight tubes, whose bores were commonly from TVth
to -gSj-th of an inch in diameter. The capacity of the
tube was carefully measured, by making a column of
quicksilver, about three or four inches in length, move
along it from one end to the other. These spaces w'ere
severally marked with a fine edged file, on the tubes $
and transferred from them to long slips of pasteboard,
for the subsequent construction of the scales respective¬
ly belonging to each. The bulb, attached to one end
of the manometer at the glass-house, was of the form
of a pear, whose point being occasionally opened,
dry or moist air could be readily admitted, and the
bulb sealed again, without any sensible alteration in its
capacity.
“ The air was confined by means of a column of
quicksilver, long or short, and with the bulb down¬
ward or upwards, according to the nature of the pro¬
posed experiment. Here it roust be observed, that,
from
M A N
[ 568 J
M A NT
fiom the adhesion of the quicksilver to the tube, the
instrument will not act truly, except it be in a vertical
position 5 and even then it is necessary to give it a
small degree of motion, to bring the. quicksilver into
its true place ; where it will remain in equilibno, be-
tween the exterior pressure'of the atmosphere on one
side, and the interior elastic force ol the confined air on
the other.
“ Pounded ice and water were used to fix a freez¬
ing point on the tube j and by means of salt and ice,
the air was farther condensed, generally four, and
sometimes five or six degrees below zero. The ther¬
mometer and manometer were then placed in a tin
vessel among water, which was brought into violent
ebullition j where, having remained a sufficient time,
and motion being given to the manometer, a boiling
point was marked thereon. After this the fire was re¬
moved, and the gradual descents of the piece of quick¬
silver, corresponding to every 20 degrees of tempera¬
ture in the thermometer, were successively marked
on a deal rod applied to the manometer. It is to
be observed, that both instruments, while in the wa¬
ter, were in circumstances perfectly similar j that is
to say, the ball and bulb were at the bottom of the
vessel.
“ In order to be certain that no air had escaped by
the side of the quicksilver during the operation, the
manometer was frequently placed a second time in melt¬
ing ice. If the barometer had not altered between the
beginning and end of the experiment, the quicksilver
always became stationary at or near the first mark. If
any sudden change had taken place in the weight of
the atmosphere during that interval, the same was no¬
ted j and allowance made for it in afterwards proportion¬
ing the spaces.
“ Long tubes, with bores truly cylindrical, or of any
uniform figure, are;scarcely ever met with. Such how¬
ever as were used in these experiments, generally ta¬
pered in a pretty regular manner from one end to the
other. When the bulb was downwards, and the tube
narrowed that way, the column "of quicksilver confi¬
ning the air lengthened in the lower half of the scale,
and augmented the pressure above the mean. In the
upper half, the column being shortened, the pressure
was diminished below the mean. In this case, the ob¬
served spaces both ways from the centre were diminish¬
ed in the inverse ratio of the heights of the barometer
at each space, compared with its mean height. If the
bore widened towards the bulb when downwards, the
observed spaces, each way from the centre, were aug¬
mented in the same inverse ratio *, but in the experi¬
ments on air less dense than the atmosphere, the bulb
being upwards, the same equation was applied with con¬
trary signs : and if any extraordinary irregularity took
place in the tube, the corresponding spaces were pro¬
portioned both ways from that point, whether high ir
low, that answered to the mean.
“ The observed and equated manometrical spaces
being thus laid down on the pasteboard containing
the measures of the tube j the 2l2° of the thermo¬
meter, in exact proportion to the sections of the bore,
were constructed alongside of them : hence the co¬
incidences with each other were easily seen ; and the
number ^of thermometrical degrees answering to each
~ 2
Munothe
ter,
Manor.
manometrical space readily transferred into a table pre¬
pared for the purpose*.”
Manometer, for the air pump. This is a small.
glass tube about two or three inches high, hermetically*
sealed at one end, and open at the other, being divided Trans.
regularly into inches and lines. It is used for ascertain-Ixvii. 689
ing the rarefaction of the air produced by working an
air pimp. The tube previously filled with mercury, is
placed in the receiver of an air pump. As the piston
is worked, the mercury gradually sinks in the tube, and
the expansion is estimated by its height for the small¬
er the height at which the mercury in the tube stands
above the mercury in the bason, the greater is the ex¬
pansion.
MANOlt, Manerium {a mancndo, because the
usual residence of the owner), seems to have been a
district of ground held by lords or great personages ;
who kept in their own hands so much land as was
necessary for the use of their families, which were Blachst.
called tcrrce dominicales, or demesne lands ; being oc-Commfft-*
copied by the lord, as dominus manerii, and his ser¬
vants. The other, or tenemental lands, they distri¬
buted among their tenants j which, from the diflerent
modes of tenure, were called and distinguished by
Awo different names.—First, book-land, or charter land,
which was held by deed under certain rents and free
services, and in effect differed nothing from free socage
lands: and from hence have arisen most of the free¬
hold tenants who hold of particular manors, and owtc
suit and service to the same. rIhe other species was
called folk-land, which was held by no assurance in
writing,’ but distributed among the common folk, or
people, at the pleasure of the lord, and resumed at his
discretion j being indeed land held in villenage. bee
' VILLENAGE.
The residue of the manor, being uncultivated, was
termed the lord's waste, and served for public roads,
and for -common of pasture to the lord and his te¬
nants. Manors were formerly called baronies, as they
still are lordships; and each lord or baron was em¬
powered to hold a domestic court, called the court ba-
ron, for redressing misdemesnors and nusances within
the manor, and for settling disputes ot property among
the tenants. This court is in inseparable ingredient
of eveiy manor j and if the number ot suitors should
so fail, as not to leave sufficient to make a jury or ho¬
mage, that is, two tenants at the least, the manor itseli
-is lost.
In the early times of our legal constitution, the
king’s greater barons, who had a large extent ol terri¬
tory held under the crown, granted out frequently
smaller manors to inferior persons to be. held ol them¬
selves j which do therefore now continue to be held
under a superior lord, who is called in such cases the
lord paramount over all these manors j and his seignory
is frequently termed an honour, not a manor ; especial¬
ly if it hath belonged to an ancient leodal baron, or
hath been at any time in the hands of the crown. In
imitation whereof, these inferior lords began to carve
out and grant to others still more minute estates to be
held as of themselves, and were so proceeding down¬
wards in infinitum, till the superior lords observed,
that, by this method of subinfeudation, they lost all
their feodal profits of wardships, marriages, and es¬
cheats,
M A N
Manor cheats, which fell into the hands of these mesne or
Manifold lords, who were the immediate superiors of
the terre tenant, or him who occupied the land j and
also that the mesne lords themselves were so impover¬
ished thereby, that they were disabled from perform¬
ing their services to their own superiors. This occa¬
sioned, first, that provision in the 33d chapter of jjiagjia
eliarta, 9 Hen. III. (which is not to be found in the
first chapter granted by that prince, nor in the great
charter of King John), that no man should either
give or sell his land without reserving sufficient to
answer the demands of his lord ; and, afterwards,
the statute of Westm. 3. or qvia cmptores, 18 Edw. I.
c. 1. which directs, that, upon all sales, or feoffinents
of land, the feoflee shall hold the same, not of his im¬
mediate feoflbr, but of the chief lord of the fee, of
whom such feoffer himself held it. But these provisions
not extending to the king’s own tenants in capite, the
like law concerning them is declared by the statutes
of prcerogativa rcgis, 17 Edward II. c. 6. and cf
34 Edw. III. c. 15. by which last all subinfeudations,
previous to the reign of King Edward I. were con¬
firmed ; but all subsequent to that period were left open
to the king’s prerogative. And from hence it is clear,
that all manors existing at this day, must have existed
as early as King Edward the First: for it is essential
to a manor, that there be tenants who hold of the lord }
and, by the operation of these statutes, no tenant in
capite since the accession of that prince, and no tenant
of a common lord since the statute of quia emptores,
could create any new tenant to hold of himself. See
VlLLENAGE.
MANS, a town of France, formerly capital of the
county of Maine, with a bishop’s see, and 17,000 inha¬
bitants. Its wax and stuffs are famous. It is seated
on a high hill near the river Sarte, in E. Loner, o. 17.
N. Lat. 48. b /
MANSE, Mansus, Mama, or Mansum; in an¬
cient law-books, denotes a house, or habitation, either
with or without land. See House and Mansion.
The word is formed a manendo, “ abiding as being
the place of dwelling or residence.
Capital Manse, {Mansum Ccrpitale), denotes the
manor-house, or lord’s court. See Manor.
Mansus Preshyteri, is a parsonage or vicarage
house for the incumbent to reside in. This was ori¬
ginally, and still remains, an essential part of the en¬
dowment of a parish church, together with the glebe
and tythes. It is sometimes called Preshytcrium. See
Presbytery.
MANSFELD, a city of Germany, and capital of
a county of the same name, in the circle of Upper
Saxony. E. Long. 11. 41. N. Lat. 51. 38.
Mansfeld, Peter Ernest, Count of, was descend¬
ed from one of the most illustrious families in Ger¬
many, and which has produced the greatest num¬
ber of distinguished characters. In 1552, he was ta-
*en prisoner at Ivry, where he commanded ; and he
Jvas afterwards of great service to the Catholics at the
battle of Montcontour. In consequence of his great
talents, he was employed in affairs of the utmost de-
icacy and importance. Being made governor of
Luxemburg, he maintained tranquillity in that pro¬
vince, while the rest of the Low Countries was a prey
to the horrors of civil war. In testimony of their
Vol. XII. Part II. ' +
M A N
gratitude, the States caused the following inscription Mansfeld.
to be placed on the gate of the hotel de ville : In Bel- —v—
gib omnia dum vastat civile helium, Mansfeld us hello ct
pace jidus, hanc pi'ovinciam in fide coritinct servatquc
ill<xsam,eum summopopuliconsensu et hilarijucunditatc.
He was afterwards appointed to the command of the Low
Countries j and died at Luxemburg, March 21. 1604,
at the age of 87, with the title of Prince of the Holy
Empire. His mausoleum, in bronze, which is to be
seen in the chapel bearing his name, and adjoining to
the church of the Recollects at Luxemburg, is an ad¬
mirable work. Four highly finished weepers, with
which this monument was ornamented, were carried
off by Louis XIV. when he took this city in 1684.
To a love of war, Mansfeld united a taste for the
sciences ; and he was a lover and encourager of the
arts : he possessed a great and elevated mind ; but, like
many heroes ancient and modern, he was greedy of
gain and lavish of blood. Abbe Schannat has written
the history of the count of Mansfeld in Latin j print¬
ed at Luxemburg, 1707. Charles prince of Mans¬
feld, his lawful son, signalized himself in the wars of
Flanders and Hungary; and died without issue in
I595> after having beaten the Turks who attempted
to relieve the city of Gran (Strigonia), which he was
besieging.
Mansfeld, Ernest de, the illegitimate son of
Peter Ernest by a lady of Malines, was educated at
Brussels, in the principles of the Roman Catholic re¬
ligion, by his godfather Ernest archduke of Austria.
He was employed in the service of the king of Spain
in the Low Countries, and in that of the emperor in
Hungary, together with his brother Charles, count of
Mansfeld. He was legitimated on account of his
bravery by the emperor Rodolphus II. j but his fa¬
ther’s posts and possessions in the Spanish Netherlands
having been refused him, contrary to promises which
he had received, he, in 1610, joined the party of the
Protestant princes. Being now become one of the
most dangerous enemies of the house of Austria, who
called him the Attila of Christianity, he set himself, in
1618, at the head of the rebels in Bohemia, and got
possession of Pilsen in 1619. Though his troops
were defeated in several battles, he was able to pene¬
trate into the palatinate. He there took several places,
ravaged Alsace, made himself master of Haguenau,
and defeated the Bavarians. At length he was to¬
tally defeated by Walstein, at the battle of Dassou,
which happened in the month of April 1626. He
gave over his remaining troops to the duke of Wei¬
mar, and intended to pass into •the Venetian states j
but fell sick in a village betwreen Zaro and Spalatro,
and there expired, A. D. 1626, aged 46. The pro¬
curator Nani thus describes him: “ He W’as bold, in¬
trepid in danger, and the most skilful negotiator of
the age in which he lived. He possessed a natural elo¬
quence, and well knew how to insinuate himself into
the hearts of those whom he wished to gain. Fie was
greedy of others wealth, and prodigal of his own 
He was full of vast projects and great hopes, and yet
possessed neither lands nor money at his death.” lie
did not wish to die in his bed j but dressed himself in
his finest robes, put on his sword, sat up, leaning up¬
on two domestics, and in this position, highly be¬
coming a warrior, breathed his last. But of all thfe
4 ^ actions
t 569 J
Mansfeld
II
Man¬
slaughter.
MAN [
actions of this great captain anti singular man,
following is without doubt the most extraordinary :
Having got the most certain information that Cazel,
.in whom of all his officers he placed the greatest con¬
fidence, had communicated his plans to the Austrian
chief, he showed neither passion nor resentment at his
treachery, but gave him 300 rix-dollars, and sent him
to Count Buquoy, with a letter expressed in these words:
“ Cazel being attached to you and not to me, I send him
to you, that you may have the benefit of his services.”
The opinions of men were divided about this action,
and it was as much censured as applauded. Be this
as it may, Ernest is deservedly esteemed one of the
greatest generals of his age. There never was a leader
more patient, more indefatigable, more inured to toil
and hardship, to watchings, to colds and to hunger.
He raised armies, and ravaged the enemy’s territories
with an incredible celerity. The Hollanders said oi
him, that he was bonus in auxilio, cams in pretio ; that
is, that he rendered great services to those who em¬
ployed him, but that he made them pay well for it.
MANSFIELD, a town of Nottinghamshire, in
England, seated in the forest of Sherwood, 140 miles
from London. It was anciently a royal demesne. It
has a market on Thursdays, and two fairs. By an an¬
cient custom of this manor, the heirs were declared of
age as soon as born. It is a well-built town, and has
a0great trade in malt. Its market is well stocked with
corn, cattle, &c. Here is a charity school for 36
boys. The population in 1811 was 6816.
MANSIO, a term often mentioned iu itineraries,
denoting inns on the public roads to lodge in, at
the distance of eighteen miles from each other}
(Lactantius). Also, in the lower ages, it came to
denote “ an encampment for one night,” (Lampri-
dius).
Maksio, or Mansius, was sometimes also used m
the same sense with hide; that is, for as much land as
one plough could till in a year. See Hide.
MANSION, Mansio, a dwelling house, or habi¬
tation, especially in the country. See Manse.
Mansion is more particularly used for the lord’s
chief dwelling house within his fee ; otherwise called
the capital messuage or manse, or chief manor-place.
See Manor.
MANSLAUGHTER, the unlawful killing of
another, without malice either express or implied :
'Which may be cither voluntary, upon a sudden heat 5
or involuntary, but in the commission of some unlaw¬
ful act. These were called, in the Gothic consti¬
tutions, homicidia vulgaria; quce aut casu, aut etidm
sponte committuntur, sed in subiianeo quodam ira-
cundice calore et impetu. And hence it follows, that
in manslaughter there can be no accessories before
the fact \ because it must be done without premedita¬
tion.
1. As to the first, or voluntary branch: If upon a
sudden quarrel two persons fight, and one of them kills
the other, this is manslaughter: and so it is, if they
upon such an occasion go out and fight in a field} for
this is one continued act of passion ; and the law pays
that regard to human frailty, as not to put a hasty
and deliberate act upon the same footing with regard
to guilt. So also if a man be greatly provoked, as by
pulling his nose, or other great indignity, and imme-
J M A N
the diately kills the aggressor j though this is not excus- Man-
able se defendendo, since there is no absolute necessity skughtei
ior doing it to preserve himselfyet neithei is it mur- "
der, for there is no previous malice 5 but it is man¬
slaughter. But in this, and in every other case of ho¬
micide upon provocation *, if there be a sufficient
cooling-time for passion to subside and reason to inter¬
pose, and the person so provoked afterwards kills the
other, this is deliberate revenge, and not heat of blood j
and accordingly amounts to murder. So if a man
takes another in the act of adultery with his wife, and
kills him directly upon the spot; though this was al¬
lowed by the law of Solon, as likewise by the Roman
civil law (if the adulterer was found in the husband’s
own house), and also among the ancient Goths-, yet
in England it is not absolutely ranked in the class of
justifiable homicide, as in case of a forcible rape, but
it is manslaughter. It is, however, the lowest degree
of it 5 and therefore in such a case the court directed
the burning in the hand to be gently inflicted, because
there could not be a greater provocation. Manslaugh¬
ter, therefore, on a sudden provocation, differs fiom ex¬
cusable homicide se defendendo in this : That in the one
case there is apparent necessity, for self-preservation,
to kill the aggressor ; in. the other no necessity at all,
being only a sudden act of revenge.
2. The second branch, or involuntary manslaughter,
differs also from homicide excusable by misadventure,
in this : That misadventure always happens in conse¬
quence of a lawful act, but this species of manslaugh¬
ter in consequence of an unlawful one. As if two
persons play at sword and buckler, unless by the king’s
command, and one of them kills the other 5 this is
manslaughter, because the original act was unlawful j
but it is not murder, for the. one had no intent to do
the other any. personal mischief. So where a person
does an act, lawful in itself, but in an unlawful man¬
ner, and without due caution and circumspectionas
when a workman flings down a stone or piece of tim¬
ber into the street, and kills a man j this may be ei¬
ther misadventure, manslaughter, or murder accord¬
ing to the circumstances under which the original act
was done. If it were in a country village, where few
passengers are, and he calls out to all people to ha\c
a care, it is misadventure only \ but if it were in Lon¬
don, or other populous towns, where people are con¬
tinually passing, it is manslaughter, though he gives
loud warning ; and murder, if he knows of their pas¬
sing and gives no warning at all, for then it is malice
against all mankind. And, in general, when an in
voluntary killing happens in consequence of an unlaw¬
ful act, it will be either murder or manslaughter ac¬
cording to the nature of the act which occasioned it.
If it be in prosecution of a felonious intent, or in its
consequences naturally tending to bloodshed, it wi
be murder ”, but if no more was intended than a mere
civil trespass, it will only amount to manslaughter
3. As to the punishment of this degree of homi¬
cide : The crime of manslaughter amounts to
but within the benefit of clergy; and the offender
shall be burnt in the hand, and forfeit all his goods
and chattels. , ..
But there is one species of manslaughter^ which is
punished as murder, the benefit of clergy being taken
away from it by statute j namely, the offence of mor*
MAN [ 5?i 1 MAN
Man- tally stabbing another, though done upon sudden pro-
i aughter vocation. See Stabbing.
11 MANTA, in Ichthyology; a flat fish mentioned by
0 Ulloa and others, as exceedingly hurtful to the pearl-
fishers, and which seems to be the same with that which
Pliny has described under the name of nubes or nebula :
Ipsiferunt (Urinatores) et nubem yuan dam crassescere
super capita, planorutn piscium similem, prementem eos,
arcentemque a reciprocando, et ob stilos prceacutos liners
annexes habere sese ; quia nisiperfosste ita, non resedant
cahginis et pavons, ut arbitror, opere. Nubem enim sive
nebulam (cvjus nomine id malum appellunt') inter anima-
lia hand ullam reperit quisquam. (Plin. Hist. lib. ix.
cap. 46.). The account given of this cloud by those
divers is much the same with that which the divers in
the American seas give of the manta j and the name of
the cloud is perfectly applicable to it, as it really seems
to be a cloud to those who are in the water below it:
the swimmers likewise carry long knives, or sharp
sticks, for the purpose of dispersing this animal. It
it is not improbable, that this fish has made its way
into those seas from those of the old world, in the same
manner as some others appear to have done. The
strength of this fish is so great, that it will not only
strangle a man whom it embraces or winds itself about,
but it has even been seen to take the cable of an an ¬
chor and move it from the place where it had been
cast. It has been called manta, because, when it lies
stretched upon the sea, as it frequently does, it seems
like a fleece of wool floating upon the water.
MANTE, a considerable town of France, capital
of the Mantois, seated on the river Seine, in E. Long.
I, 45. N. Lat. 48. 58.
MANTE GAR, or Man-Tiger, as it is sometimes
written, is the tufted ape, a species of simia. See
Mammalia Index.
MANTEGNA, Andrew, was born in a village
near Padua in 145G anfi at first employed in keeping
sheep. It was observed, that instead of watching over
fijs flock, he amused himself with drawing ; and he was
placed with a painter who, being delighted with his
ease and taste in work, and with his gentle and agree¬
able conduct in society, adopted him for his son, and
made him his heir. At the age of 17, Mantegna was
employed to paint the altar ol St Sophia in Padua,
and the four evangelists. James Bellini, who admired
bis talents, gave him his daughter in marriage. Man¬
tegna painted, for the duke of Mantua, the Triumph
of Ceesar, which is the chief d’oeuvre of this painter,
and has been engraved in claro-obscuro, in nine plates,
f rom respect to his extraordinary merit, the duke made
him knight of his order. The invention of engraving
prints with the graver is commonly ascribed to Man¬
tegna, who died at Mantua in 1517.
MANTELETS, in the art of war, a kind ftf
moveable parapets, made of planks about three inches
thick, nailed one over another, to the height of almost
six feet, generally cased with tin, and set upon little
wheels, so that in a siege they may be driven before
the pioneers, and serve as blinds to shelter them from
the enemy’s small shot.
MAN ITCIIORA, a name given by the Roman
authors to a fierce and terrible creature, which they
describe from the Greeks, who call it sometimes also
'nantichora, martichora, and martiirra. We have form¬
ed the name man-tiger on the sound of the Roman
name, though expressing a very different sense j and
our authors of the histories of animals, figure to us un¬
der this name a terrible creature, partly from the ac¬
counts of Pliny exaggerated, and partly from their
own imagination, with three rows of teeth, and with
such a shape as no animal ever possessed. See Man-
tegar.
MANTINEA, in Ancient Geography, a town situ¬
ated in the south of Arcadia, on the confines of Laco¬
nia (Ptolemy) $ called afterwards Antigonea, in honour
of King Antigonus. It is memorable for a battle
fought in its neighbourhood between the Thebans and
Spartans, in which fell the celebrated commander Epa-
minondas. See Thebes.
MANTIS, a genus of insects belonging to the order
of hemiptera. See Entomology Index.
MANTLE, or Mantle Tree, in Architecture, the
lower part of the chimney, or that piece of timber
which is laid across the jambs, and sustains the com¬
partments of the chimney-piece.
Mantle, or Mantling, in Heraldry, that appearance
of folding of cloth, flourishing, or drapery, which in
any achievement is drawn about a coat of arms. See
Heraldry, sect. v.
MANTO, in poetic history, the daughter of
Tiresias, and like her father strongly inspired with
prophecy. She was in so great esteem, that when the
Argives pillaged Thebes, they thought they could
not acquit their vow to Apollo, of consecrating to him
the most precious thing in their plunder, without
offering him this young woman. She was therefore
sent to the temple of Delphi. But this did not engage
her in any vow of continency ; or, if it did, she observed
it very ill : for she bore a son called Amphilochus to
Alcmeon, who had been generalissimo of the army
which took Thebes ; and a daughter to the same,
named Tisiphone. These children were the fruits of an
amour carried on during the madness which had seized
Alcmeon, after he had put his mother to death. Virgil
transports her into Italy, not for the sake of securing
her virginity, but to produce a son of her who built
Mantua.
MANTUA, anciently a town of the Transpadana
in Italy, situated on the Mincio, a river running from
the Lacus Benacus. It is said to have been founded
about 300 years before Rome by Bianor or Ocnus,
the son of Manto *, and was the ancient capital of
Etruria. When Crernona, which had followed the in¬
terest of Brutus, was given to the soldiers of Octavius,
Mantua also, which was in the neighbourhood, shared
the common calamity, and many of the inhabitants
were tyrannically deprived of their possessions. Virgil,
who was among them, and a native of the town, ap¬
plied for redress to Augustus, and obtained it by means
of his poetical talents.
It is still called Mantua, and is the capital of the
duchy of that name. It is now a large place, having
eight gates and about 16,000 inhabitants. The streets
are broad and straight, and the houses well built. It
is very strong by situation as well as by art; lying in
the middle of a lake, or rather morass, formed by the
river Mincio. There is no access to the city but by
two causeways which cross this morass, and which are
strongly fortified ; so that the city is loojced upon to
Manti
cliora
MAN [ 57
be one of the most considerable fortresses of Europe,
and the allies in 1745, though their army was m the
duchy, durst not undertake the siege. It was greatlv
noted for its silk manufactures, which are now much
decayed. The air in the summer time is very un¬
wholesome. The celebrated poet Virgil was born at a
village near this city. It was besieged by the Irench
for above six months, in 1796, and surrendered to them
on February 2. 1797. On the recommencement, of the
war, it was attacked by the Austrian and Russian army,
to which it surrendered on the 30th ot July, I 799>
ter a short siege. It again fell into the hands ol the
French after the battle of Marengo, and formed a part
of the kingdom of Italy, till it was restored to Austria
in 1814 with the rest of Lombardy. E. Long. 10. 46.
N. Lat. 45. 8. _ r 1 1 •
Mantua, the duchy of, a country 01 Italy, lying
along the river Po, which divides it into two parts. It
is bounded on the north by the Veronese •, on the south
by the duchies of Reggio, Modena, and Miramlola ;
on the east by the Ferrarese 5 and on the west by the
Cremonese. It is about 50 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth *, is fruitful in corn, pastures, flax, and
excellent wine. Charles IV. the last duke of Mantua,
being a vassal of the empire, took part with the F rench
in the dispute relating to the succession ol Spain } tor
which reason he was put under the ban of the em¬
pire, and died at Venice in 1708. He having no heirs,
the emperor kept the Mantuan in his own hands, and
the duke of Savoy had Montserrat $ which were con¬
firmed to them by subsequent treaties. After the
death of the emperor in 1740, his eldest daughter,
the empress queen, kept possession of the Mantuan ;
and the governor of the Milanese had the administra¬
tion of affairs. The Mantuan comprehends the du¬
chies of Mantua, Guastalla, and Sabioneta j the prin¬
cipalities ol Castiglione, Solforino, and Bosolo j like¬
wise the county of Novellara. The principal rivers are
the Po, the Oglio, and the Mincio ; and the principal
town is Mantua.
MANUAL, a word signifying any thing performed
by the hand.
Manual (manualis) in Laiv, signifies what is em¬
ployed or used by the hand, and whereof a present
profit may be made} as such a thing in the manual
occupation of one, is where it is actually used or em¬
ployed by him.
Manual Vs the name of a service book used in the
church of Rome, containing the rites, directions to the
priests, and prayers used in the administration of bap¬
tism and other sacraments •, the form of blessing holy
water, and the whole service used in processions.
Manual Exercise, in the army, consists in the ob¬
servance of certain words of command appointed for
this purpose. When a regiment is drawn up, or parad¬
ed for exercise, the men are placed three deep, either
by companies, or divided into platoons, with the gre¬
nadiers on the right. When soldiers are drawn up for
exercise, the ranks and files should be exactly even; and
each soldier should be instructed to carry his arms well,
to keep his firelock steady and even upon his shoulder,
with the right hand hanging down, and the whole body
without constraint. The distances between the files
must be equal, and the ranks eight feet distant from
each other. E,very motion should be performed with
2 ] M A N
life, and the greatest exactness observed in all firings, Mammi;
wheelings, and marching} and therefore a regiment ' v—
should never be under arms longer than two hours.
The following is an abstract of the words of com¬
mand at the manual exercise, with their explanations.
1. Poize 7/our firelock: i. e. Seize the firelock with your
ri’oht hand, and turn the lock outwards, keeping the
firelock perpendicular} then bring up the firelock with
a quick motion from the shoulder, and seize it with
the left hand, just above the lock, so that the fingers
may He upon‘'the stock, with the elbows down, and
the thumb upon the stock } the firelock must not be
held too far from the body, and the left hand must he
of an equal height with the eyes. 2. Cock ymir fire-
lock: i. e. TuriAhe barrel opposite to your face, and
place your thumb upon the cock, raising your elbow
square at this motion •, then cock your firelock, by
drawing your elbow down, placing your right thumb
on the breech-pin, and the fingers under the guaru.
3. Pi'esent : i. e. Step back about six inches ta the
rear with the right foot, bringing the left toe to the
front } at the same time the butt-end of the firelock
must be brought to an equal height with the shoulder,
placing the left hand on the swell, and the fore finger
of the right hand before the trigger, sinking the
muzzle a little. 4- Fire: *• e* Pul1 the trigg.er1 br!.sk"
ly, and immediately after, bringing up the^ right foot
to the inside of the left, come to the pi iming posi¬
tion, with the lock opposite to the right breast, the
muzzle to the height of the hat, keeping it firm and
steady , and at the same time seize the cock with the
fore finger and thumb of the right hand, the back ot
the hand being turned up. 5. Half-cock your firelock :
i. e. Half-bend the cock briskly with a draw-back of
the right elbow, bringing it close to the butt of the
firelock. 6. Handle your cartridge: i. e. Bring your
right hand with a short round to your pouch, slap¬
ping it hard } seize the cartridge, and bring it with a
quick motion to your mouth } bite the top well off,
and bring the hand as low as the chin, with the elbow
down. 7. Prime: i. e. Shake the powder into the
pan, placing the three last fingers behind the rammer,
with the elbow up. 8. Shut your pan: 1. e. Shut
your pan briskly, drawing your right arm at t us
motion towards your body, holding the caitu ge as
in your hand as before •, then turn the piece nimbly
round to the loading position, with the lock to the
front, and the muzzle to the height of the chin, bn‘,g"
ing the right hand behind the muzzle, with both feet
kept fast in this motion. 9. Charge with cartridge.
i. e. Turn up your hand, and put the cartridge into the
muzzle, shaking the powder into the band , p ace
your hand, closed, with a quick and strong motion,
upon the rammer. 1 o. Draw your rammer: 1. e. Hraw
the rammer with a quick motion half out, seizing it a
the muzzle back-handed} draw it quite out, turn it,
and enter it into the muzzle. li. Raw down your
charge: i. e. Ram the cartridge well down in the bar¬
rel, instantly recovering and seizing the rammer back-
handed at the centre, turning it, and entering it as
far as the lower pipe, placing at the same time the
edge of the hand on the butt end of the rammer, with
fingers extended. 12. Return your rammer . i. e. e
turn the rammer, bringing up the piece with the lelt
hand to the shoulder, seizing it with the rightJ™
M A N
wider the cock, keeping the left hand fast at the swell,
turning the body square to the front. 13. Shoulder
your firelock: i. e. Quit the left hand, and place it
strong upon the butt •, quit the right hand, and throw
it down the right side. 14. Rest your firelock: i. e.
Seize the firelock with the right hand, turning the
lock outwards •, raise the firelock from the shoulder,
and place your left hand with a quick motion above
the lock, holding the piece right up and down in both
hands before you, and your left hand even with your
eyes •, step briskly back with your right foot, placing
it a hand’s breadth distance from your left heel, and
at the same time bring down your firelock as quick
as possible to the rest, sinking it as far down before
your left hand as your right hand will permit without
constraint y your left hand being at the feather spring,
and your right, with fingers extended, held under the
guard, taking care to draw in the muzzle well towards
your body, and to dress in a line with the butt-end.
15. Order your firelock : i. e. Place your firelock nimb¬
ly with your left hand against your right shoulder j
quit the firelock with the right hand, sinking it at
the same time with your left; seize it at the muzzle,
which must fie of an equal height with your chin, and
hold it close against your right side *, lift up your right
foot, and place it by your left 5 at the same time throw
back your left hand by your left side, and with your
right bring down the butt-end strong upon the ground,
placing it even with the toe of your right foot y the
thumb of your right hand lying along the barrel, and
the muzzle kept at a little distance from your body.
16. Ground your firelock: i. e. Half face to the right
upon your heels, and at the same time turn the fire¬
lock, so that, the lock may point to the rear, and the
flat of the butt-end lie against the inside of your foot y
at the same time slipping the right foot behind the
butt of the firelock, the right toe pointing to the
right, and the left to the front: step directly forward
with your left foot, about as far as the swell of the
firelock, and lay it upon the ground, your left hand
hanging down by your left leg, and your right kept
fast, with the butt end against it; raise vourself up
again nimbly, bringing back your left foot to its for¬
mer position, keeping your body faced to the right ;
lace again to the left upon your heels, and come to
your proper front, letting your hands hang down
without motion. 17. Take up your firelock: i. e. Face
to the right upon both heels y sink your body down,
and come to the position described in the second mo¬
tion of grounding ; raise yourself and firelock, bringing
it close to your right side y come to your proper front^
seizing your firelock at the muzzle, as in explana¬
tion 15. 18. Rest ijourfirelock: i. e. Bring your right
hand as far as the swell; raise the firelock high up in
a perpendicular line from the ground with your right
hand, and seize it with your left above the spring, the
cock being at the height of the waist-belt ; step back
with your right foot, placing it behind year left heel,
and come to the rest. 19. Shoulder your firelock: i. e.
Lift up your right foot, and place it by your left; bring
the firelock at the same time to your left shoulder, and
seize the butt-end with the left hand, keeping it in the
same position as above described ; throw your right
hand briskly back. 20. Secure your firelock: i. e. Bring
the right hand briskly up, and place it under the cock,
I 573 ]
M A N
keeping the firelock steady in the same position ; quit Muuual
the butt with the left hand, and seize the firelock with
it at the swell, bringing the elbow close down upon
the lock ; the right hand being kept fast in this mo¬
tion, and the piece still upright; quit the right hand,
and bring it down your right side, bringing the fire¬
lock nimbly down to the secure ; the left hand in a
line with the waist-belt. 21. Shoulder your firelock :
1. e. Bring the firelock up to a perpendicular line, seiz¬
ing it with the right hand under the cock : quit the
left hand, and place it.strong upon the butt, quit the
right hand, and bring it smartly down the right side.
'll. Fix your bayonet : i. e. First and second motions.,
as in the two first of the secure ; quit the right hand,
and bring the firelock smartly down to the left side
with the left hand, as far as it will admit without con¬
straint, seizing the bayonet at the same time with the
right hand, and fixing it, placing that hand just be¬
low the brass, with the piece kept close to the hollow
of the shoulder. 23. Shoulder your firelock: i. e. Quit
the right hand, and bring up the firelock with the left;
seize it again under the cock with your right, as in the
second motion of the secure ; quit the left hand, and
place it strong upon the butt; quit the right hand,
and bring it down the right side. 24. Present your
arms: 1. e. as explained in the three motions of the 14th
word of command. 25. To the right face : i. e. Bring
up the firelock with a quick motion high before you,
till your left hand comes even with your eyes, both
the fingers of that hand extended along the stock, just
above the feather-spring, the right foot to be brought
close up to the left heel in this motion y face to the
right, taking care in facing to hold the firelock right
up and down, and steady in your hands ; step back
with your right foot, and come down to your present,
as in the foregoing explanation. 26. To the right
face: 1. e. as in the foregoing explanation, facing to
the right. 27. 'lo the right about face: i. e. as in the
25th explanation, only coming to ‘the right about in¬
stead of to the right. 28. To the lift face: i. e. Bring
the right foot briskly to the hollow of your left, with
the firelock in the same position as in the first motion
§\ facing to the right: face to the left j come down to
the present, as before. 29. To the left face: i. e. as
in the. foregoing explanation. 30. To 'the left about
fiwe: 1. e. as before, coming to the left-about instead,
of to the left. 31. Shoulder your firelock: i. e. as in
the two motions of the 19th explanation. 32. Chaigc
your bayonets: i. e. as in the first explanation : bring
the swell of the firelock down strong upon the palm
of the hand, grasping the piece at the small, behind the
lock, and as high as the waist-belt; the firelock upon
a level with the barrel upwards. 33. Shoulder your
firelock: 1. e. Bring up the firelock to the shoulder,
place the left hand upon the butt, bringing the feet
square to the front ; quit the right hand, and throw
it down the right side. 34. Advance your arms : i. e.
first and second motions, as in the first explanation ;
bring the firelock down the right side, with the right
hand as low as it will admit without constraint, slip-
pmg up the left hand at the same time to the swell
the guard between the thumb and forefinger of the
right hand, the three last fingers under the cock, with
the barrel to the rear; quit the left hand, 35. Shoul¬
der ijouv firelock : i. e. Bring up the left hand, and seize
it
MAN
[ 57+ 1
MAN
it at tlie swell; come smartly up to the poise ; shotil-
der. 36. Prime and load: i. e. Come smartly to the
recover : by springing the firelock straight up with the
left hand, turning the barrel inwards to the proper
Jieight of the recover : at the same time that the leit
hand springs the firelock, the right hand is raised brisk¬
ly from the right side, and seizes the firelock across the
breast: as it rises below the cock, the left hand comes
with a quick motion from the butt, and seizes the
firelock strong above the lock, the little finger of the
left hand at the spring of the lock, the left hand at an
equal height with the face, the butt close to the bo¬
dy, but not pressed, the firelock perpendicular oppo¬
site the left side of the face : bring the firelock down
With a brisk motion to the priming position, the left
hand holding the firelock, as in priming ; the thumb
of the right hand placed against the face of the steel,
the fingers clenched, and the elbow a little turned out,
that the wrist may be clear of the cock : open the pan,
by throwing up the steel with a strong motion of the
right arm, tflrning the elbow in, and keeping the fire-
Jill/ 1*4/     ' »
lock steady in the left hand j handle your cartudge,
prime, shut your pan, cast about, load, draw 1am-
mers, ram down the cartridge, return the rammers,
shoulder. N. B. The motion of recover, and coming
down to the priming position nnd opening pans, are to
be done in the usual time. The motions of handling
cartridge to shutting the pans, are to be done as quick
as possible : when the pans are shut, a small pause
is to be made, and then cast about together *, then
the loading motions are to be done as quick as
possible *, but before the rammer is returned, another
small pause is to be made, counting 1, 2, between each
motion, till the firelock is Shouldered.—-.Froraf raiik
make ready: i. e. Spring the firelock briskly to the
recover, keeping the left foot fast in this motion : as
soon as’the firelock is at the recover, without any stop,
sink the body briskly without stooping forward, with a
quick motion down upon the right knee j the butt-
etid of the firelock at the same time falls upon the
ground, the front part of the butt being in a line with
the heel of the left foot. As soon as the butt comes to
the ground, the firelock is to be cocked, immediate¬
ly' seizing the cock and steel in the right hand ^ the
firelock to be held firm in the left hand, about the
middle of that part of the firelock between the lock
and the swell of the stock *, the point of the left thumb
to be close to the swell, pointing upwards. As the
body is sinking, the right knee is to be thrown as far
back as the left leg may be right up and down ; the
right foot to be thrown a little to the right j the. body
to be kept straight *, the head up, looking to the right
alono- the rank, the same as if shouldered *, the firelock
to be upright, and the butt about four inches to the
right of the ^inside of the left foot. Present : i. e.
Bring the firelock briskly down to the present, by ex¬
tending the left arm to the full length with a strong
motion 5 at the same time spring up the butt by the
cock with the right hand, and raise the butt so high
upon the right shoulder, that you may not be obliged Madtial.
to stoop too much with the head ; the right cheek to be
close to the butt, and the left eye shut, and look
along the barrel with the right eye from the breech-
pin to the muzzle *, keep the left elbow doyvn in an
easy position, and stand as steady as possible ; the thumb
of the right hand to remain in the position as descri¬
bed in the third explanation of the manual. Fire: i. e.
Pull the trigger as directed in the manual ; and as*
soon as the piece is fired, give yourself a strong
spring upon your left leg, raising your body brisk¬
ly, and straight up, keeping your left foot fast, and
bringing the right heel to the inside of the left j at
the same time the firelock is to be brought up to
the priming position, and half-cocked immediately : a
short pause is to be made ; then handle cartridge, and
go on with the loading motions described in the expla¬
nation of prime and had.—Centre rank make ready :
i. e. Spring the firelock briskly to the recover j so
soon ns the left hand seizes the firelock above the lock,
the right elbow is to be nimbly raised a little, placing
the thumb of that hand upon the cock j the fingers
open by the plate of the lock, and as quick as possible
force the piece to the cock, by dropping the elbow,
and forcing down the cock with the thumb, stepping
at the same time a moderate pace to the right, keeping
the left foot fast *, as the firelock is cocked, the thumb
is to fall below the cock, the right hand seizing the
firelock close under the cock, firmly, the fore finger
not to be before the trigger the piece to be held in
this position perpendicular, opposite the left side of the
face, the butt close to the left breast, but not pressed 5
the body to be straight, and as full to the front as pos¬
sible : the head kept up, looking to the right of the
rank, that the body and the firelock may not stoop for¬
ward, nor lean much out of the rank. Present: i. e.
Spring the firelock from the body to the arm’s length
with a quick motion, pressing down the muzzle with
the left hand, and springing up the butt with the right
hand, as in the foregoing explanation of the front rank.
Fire : As in explanation 4, in the manual, with this
difference, that the left foot is to be brought up to the
right, at the same time that the firelock is brought
down to the priming position. The loading motions
as in the explanations of priming and loading j and at
the last motion of shouldering, tU spring to the left
again, and cover the file-leaders.—2?(W rank, make
ready: i.e. Recover the firelock, and cock as before di¬
rected for the centre rank j as the firelock is recovered
and cocked, step briskly straight to the right, with the
right foot, a full pace} bring the left heel about six
inches before the right footthe body straight, and as
square to the front as possible, as in the explanation of
the centre rank. Present: As in explanation present,
before. Fire .* As in explanation of the centre rank '
and as the firelock is coming down to the priming posi¬
tion, the left is to be brought back to the right j and
at the last motion of shouldering, to spring to the left
acain, and cover the file-leader (a).
G ’ There
jlmia
llajuir
skin.
*r
(a) The manual exercise now described is not precisely the same that it is at present (1807). The difference
indeed is not great *, but depending partly on the peculiar vigws of commanding officers, it is so subject to change
that it would be useless to detail it in its present form.
MAN
[ 575 ]
MAO
Manual
There are some peculiar words of command at the
manual exercise of the grenadiers, when apart from the
battalion j and also for the cavalry and artillery.
M ANUDUCT OK, a name given to an ancient
officer in the church } who, from the middle of the
choir, where he was placed, gave the signal for the
choristers to sing, and marked the measure, beat time,
and regulated the music. The Greeks called him ?7ie-
sachoros, because seated in the middle of the choir:
but in the Latin church he Avas called manuductor;
from menus and duco, “ I lead 5” because he led and
guided the choir by the motions and gesture of the
hand.
MANUFACTURE, a commodity produced from
raw or natural materials, either by the work of the
hand or by machinery.
MANUFACTURER, one who works up a natural
product into an artificial commodity.
MANUMISSION, an act whereby a slave or vil¬
lain is set at liberty, or let out of bondage. The
word comes from the Latin fnanus, “ hand and
mitt ere, “ to send j” quia serves mittebatur extra ma-
num seu potestatem domini sui. Some authors define
manumission an act by which a lord enfranchises his
tenants, who till that time had been his vassals, and in
a state of slavery inconsistent with the sanctity of the
Christian faith.
Among the Romans, the manumission of slaves was
performed three several ways. 1. When, with his
master’s consent, a slave had his name entered in the
census or public register of the citizens. 2. When
the slave was led before the praetor, and that magi¬
strate laid his wand called vindicta on his head.
3. W1 icn the master gave the slave his freedom by his
testament. Servius Tullius is said to have set on foot
the first manner ; and P. Valerius Publicola the se¬
cond. A particular account is given of the third in
the Institutes of Justinian. It was not necessary that
the praetor should be on his tribunal to perform the
ceremony of manumission : he did it anywhere indif¬
ferently,. in his house, in the street, in going to bathe,
&c. He laid the rod on the slave’s head, pronouncing
these words, Dico eum liberum esse more Quiritum,
I declare him a freeman, after the manner of the Ro¬
mans.” This done, ho gave the rod to the lictor,
who struck the slave with it on the head, and after¬
wards with his hand on his face and back ; and the
notary or scribe entered the name of the new freed-
man in the register, with the reasons of his manumission.
The slave had likewise his head shaved, and a cap
given him by his master as a token of freedom. Ter-
tnllian adds, that he had then also a third name given
him : if this were so, three names were not a token of
nobility, but of freedom. The emperor Constantine
ordei’ed the manumissions at Rome to be performed in
the churches.
Of manumission there have also been various forms
in England. In the time of the Conqueror, villains
were manumitted, by the master’s delivering them by
the right hand to the viscount, in full court, showing
them the door, giving them a lance and a sword, and
proclaiming them free. Others were manumitted by
charter. There was also an implicit manumission : as
when the lord made an obligation for payment of
3
Maouua.
money to the bondman at a certain day, or sued him Mannmis-
where he might enter without suit, and the like. sion
MANURE, any thing used for fattening and im¬
proving land. See Agriculture Index. ,
MANUSCRIPT, a book or paper written with the
handi by which it stands opposed to a printed book or
paper. A manuscript is usually denoted by the two
letters MS. and in the plural by MSS. What makes
public libraries valuable, is the number of ancient
manuscripts reposited in them •, see Alexandria^,
Cambridge, Clermont, Cottonian, Harleian,
Vatican, &c.
MANUTIUS, Aldus, the first of those celebrated
Venetian printers who were as illustrious for their
learning as for uncommon skill in their profession.
He was born at Bassano in Italy about the middle of
the 15th century 5 and hence is sometimes called Jias-
sianusj though generally better known by the name of
Aldus. He was the first who printed Greek neatly
and correctly j and acquired so much reputation by it,
that whatever was finely printed was proverbially said
to have come from the press of Aldus.” We have a
kind of Greek grammar of his , with notes upon Ho¬
mer, Horace, &c. He died at Venice, where he ex¬
ercised his profession, in 1516.
Manutius, Pdulus, son of the former, was brought
up to his father’s profession. He was more learned
than he j and he acquired, by continual reading
of Tully, such a purity in writing Latin, as even Sca-
liger allows a Roman could not exceed. Pope Pius
IV. placed him at the head of the apostolical press,
and gave him the charge of the Vatican library.
His Epistles are infinitely laboured, and very cor¬
rect ; but, as may be said of most of the Ciceroni-
ans, they contain scarcely any thing but mere words.
This constant reading of Tully, however, together
Avith his profound knowledge of antiquity, qualified
him-, extremely Avell for an editor of Tully j Avhose
Avorks he accordingly published, with Commentaries
on them, in 4 vols. folio, at Venice in 1523. He
died. in 1574.
Manutius, Aldus, the It ounger, the son of Pau-
lus, and the grandson of Aldus, was esteemed one of
the greatest geniuses and most learned men of his time.
Clement VIII. gave him the direction of the Vatican
printing house : but probably the profits of that place
Avere Aery small, since Manutius Avas obliged, for his
subsistence, to accept of a professor of rhetoric’s chair,
and to sell the excellent library that Avas in his family,
Avhich his father, his uncle, and his great uncle, had
collected Avith extraordinary care, and which it is said
contained 80,000 volumes. He died at Rome in 1597,
Avithout any other recompense than the praises due to
his merit. ' He Avrote, 1. Commentaries on Cicero.
2. A Treatise on Orthography. 3. Three books oi
Epistles} and other works in Latin and Italian, Avhich
are esteemed.
MAON, in Ancient Geography, a town of the tribe
of Judah, to the south east, towards the Dead Sea. It
gave name to the wilderness of Maon, 1 Sam. xxii.
MAOUNA, one of the Navigator’s islands in the
south Pacific ocean. Here M. de la Perouse, comman¬
der of the French ships the Boussole and Astrolabe,
met Avith his first fatal accident in 1787 j M. de
Langle,
MAR
[ 576 ] MAR
Langle, eajitain of the Astrolabe, with 11 officers and
sailors, were massacred by the natives. W. Long. 169.
S. Lat. 14. 19.
MAP, a plane figure, representing the surface of
the earth, or a part thereof, according to the laws of
perspective. See Geography Index.
MAPLE. See Acer, Botany Index.
Maple-Si/gar. See Sugar, Chemistry Index..
MAPPA, in the public games of the Roman cir¬
cus, was a napkin hung out at the praetor’s or other
great magistrate’s seat, as a signal for the race or other
diversions to begin. The mappa was received by the
mapparius, or person who held it, from the consul,
praetor, or other great officer. Notice was anciently
given by sound of trumpet *, but Nero is said to have
introduced the mappa, by throwing his napkin out of
the window to satisfy the people, who grew noisy at the
delay of the sports while he was at dinner.
MAPPARIUS, in Roman antiquity, the officer
Avho gave the signal to the gladiators to begin fight-
ing.
MARACANDA, in Ancient Geography, capital of
the Sogdiana. Now thought to be Samarcand, a city
of Usbec Tartary in Asia, the country and royal resi-
'dence of Tamerlane. Sse Samarcand.
MARACAYBO, a province of South America,
surrounding the lake of the same name, bounded on the
north by the Caribbean sea, and containing 100,000
inhabitants. See Caraccas, Supplement.
Maracaybo, a town of South America, capital of
a province, and seated near a lake of the same name.
It carries on a great trade in skins and chocolate, and
they have likewise very fine tobacco. The population
is estimated at 8400. It was taken by the French
bucaniers in 1666 and 1678. W. Long. 70. ;6. N.
Lat. 10. 10.
Maracaybo, a lake in South America, 150 miles
long and 90 broad, which communicates with the North
sea. It is well defended by strong forts j which, how¬
ever, did not hinder Sir Henry Morgan, a bucanier,
from plundering several towns on the coast. See Car-
raccas, Supplement.
MARAGNAN, a province of Brazil in South A-
merica, which comprehends a fertile populous island,
112 miles in circumference. The French settled here
in 1612, and built a small town ; but they were driven
from it by the Portuguese, who have possessed it ever
since. The climate is pleasant, and the soil fertile. W.
Long. 54. 35. S. Lat. 2. o.
MARALDI, James-Philip, a learned mathema¬
tician and astronomer, of the Academy of Sciences at
Paris, was horn in 1665. He was the son of Francis
Maraldi and Angela Catharine Cassini, the sister of the
famous astronomer of that name. His uncle sent him
to France in 1687, where he acquired great reputa¬
tion on account of his learning and observations.
He made a catalogue of the fixed stars, which is
more particular and exact than Bayer’s j and has
given a great number of curious and interesting ob¬
servations in the memoirs of the academy. He died in
1729.
MARANA, John Paul, an ingenious writer of
the 17th century, was of a distinguished family, and
x>orn at Genoa •, where he received an education suit-
I
able to his birth, and made great progress in the A'larami
study of polite literature and the sciences, Having [|
been engaged in the conspiracy of Raphael della aratk
Terra, to deliver up Genoa to thfc duke of Savoy,
he was in 1670, when 28 years of age, imprisoned
in the tower of that city, and remained there four
years. Being at length set at liberty, he was or¬
dered to write the history of that conspiracy j but,
when finished, it was seized and prevented from being
published. When the republic of Genoa was at va¬
riance with the court of France, Marana, who had
always an inclination for that court, was afiaid of
being imprisoned a second time} and retired to Mo¬
naco, where he again wrote the histor-y of the con¬
spiracy in Italian ; and, in 1682, went to Lyons to .
get it printed. From Lyons he went to Paris, where
his merit soon acquired him powerful protectors. He
spent the rest of his life in a happy and tranquil
mediocrity, devoted to study and the society of men
of learning; and died in 1693. His history of the
conspiracy contains many curious and interesting anec¬
dotes. He also wrote several other works; the most
known of which is the Turkish Spy, in six volumes
i2mo, which wras in 1742 augmented to seven. Of
this ingenious work we have an excellent English
translation.
MARANO, a town of Friuli in Italy, with a
strong citadel ; seated in a marsh at the bottom of
the gulf of Venice. It contains about 1000 inhabi¬
tants.
MARANS, a rich town of France, in the territory
of Aunis and diocese of Rochelle, seated among salt
marshes, near the river Sevre, three miles from the sea.
It carries on a very great trade in corn ; and is seated
in W. Long. o. 54. N. Lat. 46. 18.
MARANTA, Indian Arrow root, a genus of
plants belonging to the monandria class ; and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the eighth order Scitami-
nece. See Botany Index.
MARASMUS, among physicians, denotes an a-
trophy or consumption in its last and most deplorable
stage.
MARATHON, in Ancient Geography, one of the
demi or hamlets of Attica ; about 10 miles to the north¬
east of Athens, towards Boeotia, near the sea. It still
retains its ancient name (Hr Chandler informs us)
but is very inconsiderable, consisting only of a few
houses and gardens. The plain of Marathon, famous
for Miltiades’s victory over the Persians, by which
the liberties of Athens and other cities of Greece were
saved, is long and narrow, but consisting chiefly of
level ground, and therefore admitting the operations
of cavalry, which formed the main strength of the
barbarian army, and with which the Greeks were very
poorly provided. Here the Persians, under the com¬
mand of Hatis, pitched their camp, by the advice of
Hippias, the banished king of Athens, whose solicita¬
tions and intrigues had promoted the expedition, and
whose perfect knowledge of the country, and inti¬
mate acquaintance with the affairs of Greece, ren¬
dered his opinion on all occasions respectable. The
Persian army is said to have consisted of 100,000
infantry, and 10,000 horse.—Athens was in the ut¬
most consternation and dismay. She had, upon the
MAR
Marathon, first appearance of the Persian fleet, sent to implore
^ V" assistance from the other nations of Greece : but some
had submitted to Darius, and others trembled at the
very name of the Modes and Persians. The Lacede¬
monians alone promised troops; but various obstacles
did not allow them immediately to form a junction
with those of Athens. This city therefore could only
rely on its own strength ; and happily at this moment
there appeared three men destined to give new energy
to the state. These were Miltiades, Aristides, and
Themistocles ; whose example and harangues kindled
the flame ot the noblest heroism in the minds of the
Athenians. Levies were immediately made. Each
of the ten tribes furnished 1000 foot soldiers with a
commander at their head, lo complete this number
it was necessary to enrol the slaves (a). No sooner
Were the troops assembled than they marched out of
the city into the plain ot Marathon, where the inhabi¬
tants of Plataea in Boeotia sent them a reinforcement
of iooo infantrv.
Scarcely were the two armies in sight of each other,
before Miltiades proposed to attack the enemy. Aris¬
tides and several of the commanders warmly supported
this measure : but the rest, terrified at the excessive
disproportion of the armies, were desirous of waiting
for the succours from Lacedaimon. Opinions being
divided, they had recourse to that of the polemarch,
or chief of the militia, who was consulted on such oc¬
casions, to put an end to the equality of suffrages.
Miltiades addressed himself to him, with the ardour of
a man deeply impressed with the importance of pre¬
sent circumstances: “ Athens (said be to him) is on
the point of experiencing the greatest of vicissitudes.
Ready to become the first power of Greece, or the
theatre of the tyranny and fury of Hippias, from you
alone, Callimachus, she now awaits her destiny. ' If
we suffer the ardour of the troops to cool, they will
shamefully bow beneath the Persian yoke ; but if we
lead them on to battle, the gods and victory will fa¬
vour us. A word from your mouth must now preci¬
pitate your country into slavery or preserve her liber¬
ty.” Callimachus gave his suffrage, and the battle
was resolved. To ensure success, Aristides, and the
other generals after his example, yielded to Miltiades
the honour of the command which belonged to them
in rotation : but, to secure them from every hazard,
he preferred waiting for the day which of right placed
him at tne head of the army.
"W hen that day arrived, Miltiades drew up his troops
at the foot of a mountain, on a spot of ground scat¬
tered over with trees to impede the Persian cavalry.
The Plataeans w'ere placed on the left wing 5 Calli¬
machus commanded the right j Aristides and Themi¬
stocles were in the centre of the battle, and Mil¬
tiades everywhere. An interval of nearly a mile se¬
parated the Grecian army from that of the Persians.
At the first signal the Greeks advanced over this space
running. The Persians, astonished at a mode of at¬
tack so novel to both nations, for a moment remained
Vol. XII. Part II.
[ 577 3
MAR
motionless; but to the impetuous fury of the enemy ftfaratlivn
they soon opposed a more sedate and not less formida- y——
ble fury. After an obstinate conflict of some hours,
victory began to declare herself in the two wings of
the Grecian army. The right dispersed the enemy
in the plain, while the left drove them back on a mo¬
rass that had the appearance of a meadow, in which
they stuck fast and were lost. Both these bodies of
troops now flew to the succour of Aristides and The¬
mistocles, ready to give way before the flower of the
Persian troops placed by Datis in the centre of his
battle. From this moment the rout became general.
The Persians, repulsed on all sides, found their only
asylum in the fleet which had approached the shore.
The conquerors pursued them with fire and sword, and
took, burnt, or sunk the greater part of their vessels:
the rest escaped by dint of rowing.
The Persian army lost about 6400 men : that of the
Athenians 192. Miltiades was wounded } Hippias was
left dead on the field, as were Stesileus and Callima¬
chus, two of the Athenian generals. Scarcely was the
battle over, when a soldier, worn out with fatigue,
forms the project of carrying the first news of so signal
a success to the magistrates of Athens, and without
quitting his arms, he runs, flies, arrives, announces the
victory, and falls dead at their feet.
This battle wras fought on the 6th of Boedromion,
in the third year of the 72d Olympiad (or 29th Sep¬
tember anno 490 B. C.). The next day 2000 Spar¬
tans arrived. In three days and nights they had march¬
ed 1200 stadia. Though informed of the defeat of
the Persians, they continued their march to Marathon,
nor did they enviously shun to behold those fields where
a rival nation had signalized itself by so heroic an ac¬
tion : they there beheld the tents of the Persians still
standing, the plain strewed over with dead, and covered
with costly spoils : they there found Aristides, who with
his tribe v’as guarding the prisoners and booty j and
did not retire until they had bestowed just applauses on
the victors.
The Athenians neglected nothing to eternize the
memory of those who fell in the battle. It had been
usual to inter the citizens wTho perished in war at the
public expence, in the Ceramicus without the city ;
but the death of these was deemed uncommonly meri¬
torious. They were buried, and a barrow was made
for them, where their bravery had been manifested.
Their names were engraven on half columns erected
on the plain of Marathon. These monuments, not
excepting those of the generals Callimachus and Ste¬
sileus, were in a style of the greatest simplicity. In
the intervals between them were erected trophies bear¬
ing the arms of the Persians. An artist of eminence
had painted all the circumstances of the battle in one
of the most frequented porticoes of the city : Miltiades
was there represented at the head of the generals, and
in the act of exhorting the troops to fight for their
country.
Pausanias examined the field of battle about 600
+ 4 D years
(a) Travels oj Anacharsis ; authority, Pavsan. i. 79. But Dr Gillies seems to think that the armed slaves
were not included in the 10,000 *, but amounted of themselves to a greater number, and which formed the centre
of the battle.
MAR
[
Marathon years after this event. His account of it is as follows:
\\ “ The barrow of the Athenians is in the plain, and
Maratti. on are pillars containing the names of the dead un-
' v ' der those of the tribes to which they belonged j and
there is another for the Plataeans and slaves j and
a distinct monument of Miltiades the commander, who
survived this exploit. There may be perceived nightly
the neighing of horses and the clashing of arms. No
person has derived any good from waiting on purpose
to behold the spectres j but their anger does not fall
on any one who happens to see them without design.
The Marathonians worship those who were slain in the
battle, styling them heroes.—K trophy also of white
marble has been erected. The Athenians say the
Medes were buried, religion requiring that the corpse
of a man be covered with earth j though I was not able
to find any place of sepulture, for there is no barrow or
other sign visible; but they threw them promiscuously
into a pit.—Above the lake are the marble mangers of
the horses of Artapberaes, w'ith marks of a tent on the
rocks.”
Many centuries have elapsed since the age of Pausa-
nias ; but the principal barrow, it is likely that ot the
gallant Athenians, still towers above the level of the
plain. It is of light fine earth, and has a bush or two
growing on it. Dr Chandler informs us, that he en¬
joyed a pleasant and satisfactory view from the summit j
and looked, but in vain, for the pillars on which the
names were recorded, lamenting that such memorials
should ever be removed. Marathon has since been vi¬
sited by Dr Clarke, who has given an interesting ac¬
count of the topography of the field of battle in the 4to
vol. of his Travels.
MAR ATT A. See Marhattas.
MARATTI, Carlo, a celebrated painter, was
born at Camorano, near Ancona, in 1625. He came
a poor boy to Rome, when only 11 years old ; and
at 12 recommended himself so effectually to Andrea
Sacchi, by his drawings after Raphael in the Vatican,
that he took him into his school, where he continued
25 years till his master’s death. His graceful and
beautiful ideas occasioned his being generally employ¬
ed in painting madonas and female saints. No man
ever performed in a better style, or with a greater
elegance. From the finest statues and pictures, he
made himself master of the most perfect forms, and the
most charming airs of heads, which he sketched with
equal ease and grace. He has produced a noble va¬
riety of draperies, more artfully managed, more richly
ornamented, and with greater propriety, than even the
best of the moderns. He was inimitable in adorning
the heads, in the disposal of the hair, and the elegance
of his hands and feet, which are equal to those of Ra¬
phael and he particularly excelled in gracefulness. In
his younger days lie etched a few prints, as well of his
own invention as after others, with equal spirit and
correctness. It would be endless to recount the cele¬
brated paintings done by this great man. Yet he exe¬
cuted nothing slightly, often changed his designs, and
almost always for the better, whence his pictures were
long in hand. By the example of his master, he made
several admirable portraits of popes, cardinals, and
other people of distinction, from whom he received the
highest testimonies of esteem, as he likewise did from
almost all the monarchs and princes of Europe. Inno-
578 ] MAR
cent XI. appointed him keeper of the paintings in his
chapel and the Vatican. Maratti erected two noble
monuments for Raphael and A. Caracci, at his own ex¬
pence, in the Pantheon. How ivell he maintained the
dignity of his profession, appears by his answer to a
Roman'prince, who complaining of the excessi\e juice
of his pictures, he told him there was a vast debt due
from the world to the famous artists his predecessors,
and that he, as their rightful successor, was come to
claim those arrears. His abilities in painting were ac¬
companied with many virtues, and particulaily with an
extensive charity. rlhis great painter died at Rome in
1713, in the 88th year of his age.
MARAUDING, in a military sense, means a party
of soldiers, who, without any order, go into the^ neigh¬
bouring houses and villages, when the army is eithei 111
camp or garrison, to plunder and destioy, &c. iVla-
rauders are a disgrace to the camp, to the military^pro*
fession, and deserve no better quarter from their officers
than they give to poor peasants, &c.
MARAVEDI, a little Spanish copper coin, worth
somewhat more than a French denier, or half a farthing
English. , ...
The Spaniards always count by maravedis, both nt
commerce and in their finances, though the coin itseli
is no longer current among them. Sixty-three marave¬
dis are equivalent to a rial of silver j so that the piaster^
or piece of eight rials, contains 5(->4 i nnd the pistole oi
four pieces ot eight, 2016 maravedis.
This smallness of the coin produces vast numbers in
the Spanish accounts and calculations j insomuch that a
stranger correspondent would think himselt indebted se-*
veral millions lor a commodity that cost but a few
pounds.
In the laws of Spain, we meet with several kinds
of maravedis j Alphonsine maravedis, white maravedis,
maravedis of good money, maravedis Combrenos, black
maravedis, and old maravedis. When we find marave¬
dis alone, and without any addition, it is to be under¬
stood of those mentioned above. The rest are dillerent
in value, fineness of metal, time, &c. Mariana asserts-,
that this coin is older than the Moors; that it came
from the Goths; that it was anciently equal to a third
part of the rial, and consequently of 12 times the value
of the present maravedi. Under Alphonsus XL the ma-
ravedi was 17 times, under Henry II. ten times, under
Henry HI. five times, and under John II. two times and
a half, the value of the present maravedi.
MARBELLA, a town of Grenada in Spain, situat¬
ed at the mouth of the Rio Verde, 30 miles north-east
of Gibraltar, and 28 south-west of Malaga. W . Long.
4. 59. N. Lat. 36. 31.
MARBLE, a calcareous stone, of which there are
many beautiful varieties. rlhe word comes from the
French marbre, and from the Latin marmor, of the
Greek fcx^ftxi^uv, to “ shine or glitter.” See Minera¬
logy Index.
Elastic Marble, an extraordinary species of fossil
which has surprised all the naturalists who have seen
it. There are several tables of it preserved in the
house of Prince Borghese at Rome, and shown to the
curious. F. Jacquier, a celebrated mathematician, has
given a description in the Literary Gazette of I ans,
but the naturalists cannot be contented with it. if
permission was given to make the requisite experi-
r b ments*
Maratti
H
M arble.
MAH f 579 ] M A II
ments, tliis curious phenomenon might he better illu-
 1 strated. There are five or six tables of that marble ;
their length is about two feet and a half, the breadth
about ten inches, and the thickness a little less than
three. They were dug up, as the Abbe Fortis was
told, in the feod of Mondragone j the grain is of Car-
rarese marble, or perhaps of the finest Greek. They
seem to have suffered some attack of fire j though the
first degree of pulverization observable in the angles,
can, perhaps, scarcely be called that of imperfect cal¬
cination. They are very dry, do not yield to exter¬
nal impression, resound to the hammer, like other con¬
generous marble, and are perhaps susceptible of a po¬
lish. Being set on end, they bend oscillating back¬
ward and forward 5 when laid horizontally, and raised
at one end, they form a curve, beginning towards the
middle $ if placed on a table, and a piece of wood or
any thing else is laid under them, they make a salient
curve, and touch the table with both ends. Notwith¬
standing this flexibility, they are liable to be broken
if indiscreetly handled } and therefore one table only,
and that not the best, is shown to the curious. For¬
merly they were altogether in the prince’s apartment
en the ground floor.
Colouring of Marble. This is a nice art; and in
order to succeed in it, the pieces of marble on which
the experiments are tried, must be well polised, and
free from the least spot or vein. The harder the mar¬
ble is, the better will it bear the heat necessary in the
operation j therefore alabaster and the common soft
white marble are very improper for performing these
operations upon.
Heat is always necessary for opening the pores of
marble, so as to render it fit to receive the colours ;
but the marble must never be made x-ed hot 5 for then
the texture of it is injured, and the colours are burnt,
and lose their beauty. Too small a degree of heat is
as bad as one too great 5 for, in this case, though the
marble receives the colour, it will not be fixed in it*
nor strike deep enough. Some colours will strike even
cold ; but they are never so well sunk in as when a
just degree of heat is used. The proper degi-ee is that
which, without making the marble red, will make the
liquor boil upon its surface. The menstrmims used to
strike in the colours must be vai'ied according to the
nature of the colour to be used. A lixivium made
with horses or dogs urine, with four parts of quicklime
and one of potashes, is excellent for sortie colours ;
common ley of wood-ashes is very good for others ; for
some, spirit of wine is best; and lastly* for others, oily
iiquoi’S, or common white wine.
The colours which have been found to succeed best
with the peculiar menstruums, are these : Stone-blue
dissolved in six times the quantity of spirit of wine, or
ot the urinous lixivium, and that colour which the
painters call litmus, dissolved in common ley of wood-
ashes. An extract of saffron, and that colour made of
buckthorn berries, and called by painters sap-green,
both succeed well when dissolved in urine and quick¬
lime $ and tolerably well when dissolved in spirit of
wine. Vermilion, and a very fine powder of cochi-
xxeal, also succeed very well in the same liquors. Dra¬
gon’s blood succeeds in spirit of wine, as does also a
tincture of logwood in the same spirit, Alkanet-root
gives a fine colour: but the only menstruum to be used
for it is oil of turpentine j for neither spirit of wine* Marble*
nor any lixivium, will do with it. There is another \ 
kind of sanguis draconis, commonly called dragon's blood
in tears), which, mixed with urine* gives a very elegant
colour.
Besides these mixtures of colours and menstruums,
there are other colours which must be laid on dry and
unmixed. These are, dragon’s blood of the purest kind,
for a xed $ gamboge, for a yellow 5 green wax, for a
green ; common brimstone, pitch, and turpentine, for
a brown colour. The marble for these experiments
must be made considerably hot, and then the Colours
are to be rubbed on dry in the lump. Some of these
colours, when once given, x-emain immutable, ethers
are easily changed or destroyed. Thus, the red colour
given by dragon’s blood, or by a decoction of log¬
wood, will be wholly taken away by oil of tartar, and
the polish of the marble not hurt by it.
A fine gold colour is given in the following man¬
ner : Take crude sal ammoniac, vitriol, and verdi¬
gris, of each equal quantities. White vitriol suc¬
ceeds best : and all must be thoroughly mixed in fine
powder.
The staining of marble to all the degrees of red 01
yellow, by solutions of dragon’s blood or gamboge*
may be done by reducing these gums to powder, and
grinding them v/ith the spirit of wine in a glass mor¬
tar. But, for smaller attempts, no method is so good
as the mixing a little of either of those powders with
spii-it of wine in a silver spoon, and holding it over
burning charcoal. By this means a fine tincture will
be extracted ; and with a pencil dipt in this, the
finest tx-aces may be made on the marble while cold ;
which* on the heating of it afterwai’ds, either on sand,
or in a bakei-’s oven, will all sink very deep, and re¬
main pei-fectly distinct on the stone. It is very easy
to make the ground colour of the marble red or yel¬
low by this means, and leave white veins in it. This
is to be done by covei’ing the places where the white¬
ness is to remain with some white paint, or even with
two or three doubles only of paper ; either of which
will prevent the colour from penetrating. All the de¬
grees of red are to be given to marble by this gum
alone j a slight tincture of it, without the assistance of
heat to the marble, gives only a pale flesh colour : but
the stronger tinctures give it yet deeper ; to this the
assistance of heat adds greatly ; and finally, the addi¬
tion of a little pitch to the tinctui-e, gives it a tendency
to blackness, or any degree of deep red that may be
desired
A blue colour may be given also to marble by dis¬
solving turnsole in lixivium, in lime and urine, or in
the volatile spirit of urine ; but this has always a ten¬
dency to purple, whether made by the one or the
other of these ways. A better blue, and used in an
easier manner, is furnished by the Canaiy turnsole,
a substance well known among the dyers. This needs
only to be dissolved in water, and drawn on the place
with a pencil : it penetrates very deeply into the
marble * and the colour may be increased, by drawing
the pencil wetted afresh several times over the same
lines. This colour is subject to spread and diffuse it¬
self irregularly : but it may be kept in regular bounds,
by circumscribing its lines with beds of wax, or any
such substance. It is also to be observed, that this
4 D 2 - colour
MAH ' [ 580 ] MAH
,, ,, colour should always be laid ou cold, and no heat
11 o-iven even afterwards to the marble j and one gieat
Marbles, advantage of this colour is, that it is therefore easily
 "v 1 added to marbles already stained with other colours,
is a very beautiful tinge, and lasts a long time.
MARBLED, something veined or clouded, re¬
sembling marble. See Marbling.
Marbled China-ware, a name given by many to
a species of porcelain or china-ware, which seems to be
full of cemented flaws. It is called by the Chinese,
who are very fond of it, tsou tchi. It is generally
plain white, sometimes blue, and has exactly the ap¬
pearance of a piece of china which had been first bro¬
ken, and then had all the pieces cemented in their pla¬
ces again, and covered with the original varnish. The
manner of preparing it is easy, and might be imitated
with us. Instead of the common varnish of the chi¬
na-ware, which is made of what they call oil of stone
and oil of fern mixed together, they cover this with a
simple thing made only of a sort of coarse agates, cal¬
cined to a wdiite powder, and separated from the gros¬
ser parts by means of water, after long grinding in
mortars. When the powder has been thus prepared,
it is left moist, or in form of a sort of cream, with
the last water that is suft’ered to remain in it, and this
is used as the varnish. Our crystal would serve full as
well as those coarse agates, and the method ol prepa¬
ration is perfectly easy. The occasion of the singular
appearance of this sort of porcelain is, that the varnish
never spreads evenly, but runs into ridges and veins.
These often run naturally into a sort ol mosaic work,
which can scarce be taken for the effect ot chance.
If the marbled china be desired blue, they first give
it a general coat of this colour, by dipping the vessel
into a blue varnish", and when this is thoroughly dry,
they add another coat of this agate oil.
Artificial Marbles. The stucco, of which statues,
busts, basso-relievos, and other ornaments of architec¬
ture are made, ought to be marble pulverized, mixed
in a certain proportion with plaster j the whole well
sifted, worked up with water, and used like common
plaster. See Stucco.
There is also a kind of artificial marble made of the
flaky selcnites, or a transparent stone resembling plaster;
which becomes very hard, receives a tolerable polish,
and may deceive a good eye. This kind of selenite re¬
sembles Muscovy talc.
There is another sort of artificial marble formed by
corrosive tinctures, which, penetrating into white mar¬
ble to the depth of a line or more, imitate the various
colours of other dearer marbles.
There is also a preparation of brimstone in imitation
of marble.
To do this, you must provide yourself with a flat
and smooth piece of marble : on this make a border
or wall, to encompass either a square or oval table,
which may be done either with wax or clay. Then
having several sorts of colours, as white lead, vermi¬
lion, lake, orpiment, masticot, smalt, Prussian blue,
&c.; melt on a slow fire some brimstone in several
glazed pipkins ; put one particular sort of colour into
each, and stir it well together ; then having before
oiled the marble all over within the wall, with one co¬
lour quickly drop spots upon it of larger and less size ;
after this, take another colour and do as before, and
4
so on till the stone is covered with spots of all the co- Maibles, !
lours you design to use. When this is done, you are Marbling, i
next to consider what colour the mass or ground ofvT—
your table is to be ; if of a gray colour, then take fine
sifted ashes, and mix it up with melted brimstone ; or
if red, with English red ochre ; if white, with white
lead ; if black, with lamp or ivory black. Your brim¬
stone for the ground must be pretty hot, that the co¬
lour dropt on the stone may unite and incorporate with
it. When the ground is poured even all over, you
are next, if judged necessary, to put a thin wainscoat
board upon it: this must be done while the bi'imstone
is hot, making also the board hot, which ought to be
thoroughly dry, in order to cause the brimstone to stick
the better to it. When the whole is cold, take it up,
and polish it with a cloth and oil, and it will look very
beautiful.
Arundel Marbles, marbles, with a chronicle of the
city of Athens, inscribed on them (as was supposed)
many years before our Saviour’s birth ; presented to
the university of Oxford by Thomas earl of Arundel,
whence the name. See Abundelian Marbles.
Playing Marbles, are mostly imported from Hol¬
land ; where it is said they are made by breaking the
stone alabaster, or other substance, into pieces or chips,
of a suitable size ; these are put into an iron mill
which turns by water: there are several partitions with
rasps within, cut float-wise, not with teeth, which
turn constantly round with great swiftness ; the fric¬
tion against the rasps makes them round, and as they
are formed, they fall out of different holes, into which
size or chance throw's them. They are brought from
Nuremberg to Rotterdam, down the Rhine, and from
thence dispersed over Europe.
MARBLING, the method of preparing and co¬
louring the marbled paper.
There are several kinds of marbled paper; but the
principal difference of them lies in the forms in which
the colours are laid on the ground : some being dis¬
posed in whirls or circumvolutions; some in jagged
lengths; and others only in spots of a roundish or
oval figure. The general manner of managing each
kind is, nevertheless, the same; being the dipping
the paper, in a solution of gum-tragacanth, or, as it
is commonly called, gum-dragon; over which the co¬
lours, previously prepared with ox-gall and spirit ol
wine, are first spread.
The peculiar apparatus necessary for this purpose,
is a trough for containing the gum-tragacanth and
the colours ; a comb for disposing them in the figure
usually chosen ; and a burnishing stone for polishing
the paper. The trough may be of any kind of wrood ;
and must be somewhat larger than the sheets of paper,
for marbling which it is to be employed ; but the
sides of it need only rise about two inches above the
bottom ; for by making it thus shallow, the less
quantity of the solution of the gum will serve to fill it.
The comb may be also of wood, and five inches in
length ; but should have brass teeth, which may be
about two inches long, and placed at about a quarter
of an inch distance from each other. The burnishing
stone may be of jasper or agate ; but as those stones
are very dear when of sufficient largeness, marble or
glass may be used, provided their surface be polished
to a greater degree of smoothness.
These
MAR
These implements being prepared,
the
—' gum-tragacanth must he made, by putting a sufficient
proportion of the gum, which should be white and
clear from all foulness, into clean water, and letting it
remain there a day or two, frequently breaking the
lumps, and stirring it till the whole shall appear dis¬
solved and equally mixed with the water. The con¬
sistence of the solution should be nearly that of strong
gum-water used in miniature painting ; and if it ap¬
pear thicker, water must be added 5 or if thinner, more
of the gum. When the solution is thus brought to a
due state, it must be passed through a linen cloth j and
being then put into the trough, it will be ready to re¬
ceive the colours.
Ihe colours employed for red are carmine, lake,
rose-pink, and vermilion 5 but the two last are too hard
and glaring, unless they be mixed with rose-pink or
Jake, to bring them to a softer cast; and with respect
to the carmine and lake, they are too dear for common
purposes. For yellow, Dutch pink and yellow ochre
may be employed :—for blue, Prussian blue and verdi-
ter may be used :—for green, verdigris, a mixture of
Dutch pink and Prussian blue or verditer, in different
proportions :—for orange, the orange lake, or a mix¬
ture of vermilion, or red lead, with Dutch pink :—for
purple, rose pink and Prussian blue.
These several colours should be ground with spirit
of wine till they be of a proper fineness j and then, at
the time of using them, a little fish-gall, or in default
of it the gall of a beast, should be added, by grinding
them over again with it. The proper proportion of the
gall must be found by trying them : for there must he
just so much as will suffer the spots of colour, when
sprinkled on the solution of the gum-tragacanth, to
join together, without intermixing or running into each
other.
W hen every thing is thus prepared, the solution of
the gum-tragacanth must be poured into the trough 5
and the colours, being in a separate pot, with a pencil
appropriated to each, must be sprinkled on the surface
of the solution, by shaking the pencil, charged with
its proper colour, over it j and this must be done with
the several kinds of colour desired, till the surface be
wholly covered.
When the marbling is proposed to be in spots of a
simple form, nothing more is necessary ; but where
the whirls or snail-shell figures are wanted, they must
be made by means of a quill ; which must be put
among the spots to turn them about, till the effect be
produced. The jagged lengths must be made by
means of the comb above described, which must be
passed through the colours from one end of the trough
to the other •, and will give them that appearance : but
il they be desired to be pointed both ways, the comb
must be again passed through the trough in a contrary
direction j or if some of the whirls or snail-shell figures
be required to be added, they may be yet made by
the means before directed.
The paper should be previously prepared for receiv¬
ing the colours, by dipping it over-night in water;
and laying the sheets on each other with a weight
over them. The whole being thus ready, the paper
must be held by two corners, and laid in the most
gentle and even manner on the solution covered with
[ 581 ]
solution of the colours
MAR
; and there softly pressed with the hand, Marbling
that it may bear everywhere on the solution. After ||
which it must be raised and taken off with the same M^wcdlus.^
care, and then hung to dry across a proper cord, * ' v
suspended near at hand for that purpose ; and in that
state it must continue till it be perfectly dry. It
then remains only to give the paper a proper polish :
in order to which, it is first rubbed with a little soap ;
and then must be thoroughly smoothed by the glass
polishers, such as are used for linen, and called the
calendar glasses. After which it should be again rubbed
by a burnisher of jasper or agate ; or, in default of
them, of glass ground to the highest polish ; for on the
perfect polish of the paper depends in a great measure
its beauty and value.
Gold or silver powders may be used, where desired,
along with the colour; and require only the same
treatment as them, except that they must be first tem¬
pered with gum-water.
Marbling of books or paper is performed thus:
Dissolve four ounces of gum arabic into two quarts of
fair water; then provide several colours mixed with
water in pots or shells ; and, with pencils peculiar to
each colour, sprinkle them by way of intermixture up¬
on the gum-water, which must be put into a trough or
some broad vessel; then with a stick curl them, or
draw them out in streak®, to as much variety as may be
done. Having done this, hold your book or books close
together, and only dip the edges in, on the top of the
water and colours, very lightly ; which done, take them
ofl, and the plain impression of the colours in mixture
will be upon the leaves ; doing as well the ends as the
front of the book in the like manner.
Marbling a book on the covers is performed by
forming clouds with aquafortis or spirit of vitriol
mixed with ink, and afterwards glazing the cover§.
See Hook Binding.
MARC Antonio. See Raimondi.
MARCASITE, an old term in mineralogy, given
indifferently to ores, pyrites, and to semimetals. But
more lately confined to pyrites, and to such pyrites as
are regularly formed. See Pyrites, Mineralogy
Index.
MARCELLIANISM, the doct rines and opinions
of the Marcellians, a sect of ancient heretics, towards
the close of the second century, so called from Mar-
cellus of Ancyra, their leader, who was accused of
reviving the errors of Sabellius. Some, however, are
of opinion that Marcellos was orthodox, and that
they were his enemies the Arians, who fathered their
errors upon him. St Epiphanius observes, that there
was a great deal of dispute with regard to the real te¬
nets of Marcellus; but that, as to his followers, it is
evident they did not own the three hypostases : for
Marcellus considered the Son and Holy Ghost as two
emanations from the divine nature, which, after per¬
forming their respective offices, were to return again
into the substance of the Father ; and this opinion is
altogether incompatible with the belief of three distinct
persons in the Godhead.
MARCELLINUS, Ammianus. See Ammianus.
MARCELLUS, Marcus Claudius, a famous
Roman general, who, after the first Punic war, had the
management of an expedition against the Gauls. Here
he
/■
MAR
[ 582 ]
M A R
Maf-eTtus lie obtained the spolia opima, by killing with his own
11 hand Viridomarus the king of the enemy. Such suc-
March. cess rendered him popular, and soon after he was in-
^ ^ ' trusted to oppose Hannibal in Italy. He was the first
Roman who obtained some advantage over this cele¬
brated Carthaginian, and showed his countrymen that
Hannibal was not invincible* The troubles which
were raised in Sicily by the Carthaginians at the death
of Hieronymus, alarmed the Romans •, and Marcell us,
in his third consulship, was sent with a powerful force
against Syracuse. He attacked it by sea and land $
but his operations proved long ineffectual, and the in¬
vention and industry of Archimedes were able to
baffle all the efforts, and to destroy all the great and
stupendous machines and military engines of the Ro¬
mans, during three successive years. The perseverance
of Marcellas at last obtained the victory. After this
conquest, Marcellas was called upon by bis country a
second time to oppose Hannibal. In this campaign he
behaved with greater vigour than before-, the greatest
part of the towns of die Samnites, which had re¬
volted, were recovered by force of arms, and 3000
of the soldiers of Hannibal made prisoners. Some
time after, in an engagement with the Carthaginian
general, Marcellus had the disadvantage : but on the
morrow a more successful skirmish vindicated his mi¬
litary character and the honour of the Roman sol¬
diers. Marcellus, however, was not sufficiently vigi¬
lant against the snares of his adversary. He impru¬
dently separated himself from his camp, and was killed
in an ambuscade in the 6Dth year of his age, in his 5th
consulship, A. U. C. 544. His body'Was honoured
by the conqueror with a .magnificent funeral, and his
ashes were conveyed in a silver urn to his son. Mar-
cellus claims our commendation for his private as well
as public virtues •, and the humanity of a general will
ever be remembered, who, at the surrender of Syra¬
cuse, wept on the thought that many were going to
be exposed to the avarice and rapaciousness of an in¬
censed soldiery, which the policy of Rome and the laws
of war rendered inevitable.
MARCGRAVE, or Margrave, a kind of dig¬
nity in Germany, answering to our marquis(see
Marquis). The word is derived from the German
Marche, or Marche, which signifies “ a frontierand
Graffe, “ count, governor j” Marcgraves being origi¬
nally governors of cities lying on the frontiers of a
country or state.
MARCH, {Mai'tius), the third month of the year,
according to the common way of computing. See
Month and Year.
Among the Romans, March was the first month ;
and in some ecclesiastical computations, that otder is
still preserved j as particularly reckoning the number
of years from the incarnation of our Saviour 5 that is,
from the 2 ^th of March.
It was Romulus who divided the year into months j
to the first of which he gave the name of his suppos¬
ed father Mars. Ovid, however, observes, that the
people of Italy had the month of March before Ro¬
mulus’s time but that they placed it very differently,
some making it the third, some the fourth, some the
fifth, and others the tenth month of the year.
In this month it was that the Romans sacrificed to
■Anna Perenna that they began their comitia ) that
-2
they adjudged the public farms and leases 5 that the lyiarcfi .
mistresses served the slaves and servants at table, as the y—.
masters did in the Saturnalia \ and that the vestals re¬
newed the sacred fire.
The month of March was always under the protec¬
tion of Minerva, and always consisted of 31 days.—•
The ancients held it an unhappy month for marriage,
as well as the month of May.
March, in the military art, is the moving of a
body of men from one place to another. Nothing is
laid down particularly concerning the marches of the
Jewish armies *, only this much we may collect, that
they made use of trumpets, to the different sounds of
which they prepared themselves by packing up their
baggage, putting themselves in readiness, and attend¬
ing at the standards, to wait the signal for marching.
We are told that the army of the Israelites marched in
general no more than one league in a day and a half;
but this appears to hold good only of their progress
through difficult roads : For Follard says they might,
in an open country, march four leagues in a day or
more. The Rabbins suppose that the Israelites march¬
ed in the same order they were placed in their camp.
The Greeks, let the posture of their affairs be what
it would, never marched against their enemies till fa¬
vourable omens encouraged the enterprise. An eclipse
of the moon, or -any untoward accident, or the in¬
tervening of what they esteemed an uiilucky day, en¬
tirely prevented their march. But of all the Greeks
the Lacedaemonians were the most nice and scru¬
pulous. The heavenly bodies directed all their mo¬
tions ; and it was an invariable maxim with them
never to march before the full moOn. rlhe Greeks
are particularly remarked by Homer for marching
in good order and profound silence; whereas the Bar¬
barian forces were all noise, clamour, and confusion. It
is needless to say any thing concerning the marches of
the Roman armies, more than that they were perform¬
ed with the greatest order and despatch, insomuch that
their unexpected presence frequently damped the spirits
of their enemies. The Roman soldiers were inured to
the military pace, that is, to walk 20 miles in five
hours, though at die same time they carried burdens of
60 pounds weight.
Of all the mechanical parts of war, in modern
times, none is more essential than that of marching.
It may be justly called the key which leads to all su¬
blime motions and manoeuvres of an army; for they
depend entirely on this point. A man can be attack¬
ed in four different ways ; in the front, on both flanks,
and in the rear: hut he can defend himself, and an-
nov the enemy, only when placed with his face to¬
wards him. Hence it follows, that the general ob¬
ject of marching is reduced to three points only ; to
march forwards, and on both sides, because it is im¬
possible to do it for any time backwards, and by that
means face the enemy wherever lie presents himself —
The different steps to be made itse of are three : slow,
fast, and oblique. The first is proper in advancing,
when at a considerable distance from the enemy, and
when the ground is unequal, that the line may not be
broke, and a regular fire kept up without intermission.
The second is chiefly necessary when you want to an¬
ticipate the enemy in occupying some post, in passing
a defile, and, above all, in attacking an intrenchment,
to
March,
liarchand
MAR L 5 8
to avoid being a long while exposed to the fire of the
]
M A R
artillery and small arms, &c. The third step is of in-
“J finite consequence, both in the infantry and cavalry j
columns may be opened and formed into lines, and
vfce versa, lines into columns, by this kind of step, in
a lesser space, and consequently in less time, than by
any other method whatsoever. In coming out of a de-
file, you may instantly form the line without present¬
ing the flank to the enemy. The line may be formed,
though ever so near to the enemy, with safety ; because
you face him, and can with ease and safety protect and
cover the motion of the troops, while they are coming
out of the defiles, and forming. The same thing
may be equally executed, when a column is to be
formed in order to advance or retreat-, which is a
point of infinite consequence, and should be established
as an axiom.
The order of march of the troops must be so dis¬
posed, that each should arrive at their rendezvous, if
possible, on the same day. The quarter-master-general
or his deputy, with an able engineer, should suffici¬
ently reconnoitre the country, to obtain a perfect
knowledge of it and the enemy, before he forms his
routes.
Before a march, the army generally receives several
days bread. Ihe quarter-masters, camp-colour-men,
and pioneers, parade according to orders, and march
immediately after, commanded by the quarter-master-
general or his deputy. rlhey are to clear the roads,
level the ways, make preparation for the march of
the army, &c. The general, for instance, beats at two,
the assembly at three, and the army to march in 20 mi¬
nutes after. Upon beating the general, the village,
and general officer’s guards, quarter and rear guards,
join their respective corps ; and the army pack up
their baggage. Upon beating the assembly, the tents
are to be struck, and sent with the baggage to the
place appointed, &c.
1 he companies draw up in their several streets, and
the rolls are called. At the time appointed, the drum¬
mers are to beat a march, and fifers play at the head of
the line, upon which the companies march out from
then several streets, form battalions, as they advance to
the head of the line, and then halt.
The several battalions will be formed into columns
by the adjutant-general, and the order of march, &c.
be given to the general officers who lead the columns.
Hie cavalry generally march by regiments or squa¬
drons.. 1 he heavy artillery always keeps the great
loads in the centre of the columns, escorted by a strong
party of infantry and cavalry. The field pieces march
with the columns.
Each soldier generally marches with 36 rounds of
powder and ball, and two good flintsone of which is
to be fixed in the cock of his firelock. The routes
must be formed so that no columns cross one another
on the march.
MARCHAND, Professor, was from his youth
brought up at Paris in the profession of a bookseller, and
in the knowledge of books. He kept a regular corre¬
spondence with several learned men, among whom was
Bernard the continuator of the Nouvelles de la Repu-
bhque des Lettres, and furnished this writer with the li¬
terary anecdotes of France. Marchand, having em¬
braced the Protestant religion, went to join Bernard
in Holland, where he might be at liberty to profess
his religious opinions. He continued the trade of
bookseller for some time ; but afterwards quitted it,
that he might dedicate himself wdiolly to the pursuits
of literature. The history of France, together with
a knowledge of books and authors, was always his fa¬
vourite study. In the latter he was so eminently di¬
stinguished, that he was consulted from all parts of
Europe. He was also one of the principal authors of
the Journal Litteraire, one of the best periodical works
which have appeared in Holland ; and he furnished ex¬
cellent extracts for the other journals. This valuable
and learned man died at an advanced age, the 14th of
June 1756? and left the little fortune which he had to
a society instituted at the Hague, for the education
and instruction of a certain number of poor people.
His library, which was excellently chosen for literary
history, together with his manuscripts, was left by his
will to the university of Leyden. From him we have,
I. The History of Printing, a new edition of which has
been promised by one of his friends. This work,
which is full of notes and critical discussions, appeared
in 1740 at the Hague, in 4to. There is such a pro¬
digious display of erudition, and remarks and quota¬
tions are heaped together in such confusion, that when
you get to the end of the chaos, you know not wrhat
conclusion to form concerning the points which have
been discussed. Abbe Mercier, abbot of Saint Leger
de Soissons, gave in 1775, 410, a supplement to this
history, which is equally curious and accurate. 2. An
Historical Dictionary, or Memoirs Critical and Lite¬
rary, printed at the Hague in 1738, in two small vo¬
lumes, folio. In this work we meet with historical
singularities, literary anecdotes, and a discussion of
points of bibliography ; but too great minuteness pre¬
vails in it, the style is deficient in point of purity, and
the author is too much carried away by the heat and
eagerness of his character. More erudition could not
well be collected; especially upon subjects which, at
least to the generality of readers, are so uninteresting;
3. A new edition of Bayle’s Dictionary, and Letters of
the Cymbalum mundi, &c.
MARCHANTIA, a genus of the natural order of
algae, belonging to the cryptogamia class of plants.
See Botany Index.
MARCHE, before the revolution, a province of
France, bounded on the north by Berry, on the east
by Auvergne, on the west by Angoumois, and on the
south by Limosin; about 55 miles in length, and 25 in
breadth, and fertile in corn and wine.
MARCHENA, a handsome, ancient, and consi¬
derable town of Spain, in Andalusia, ivith the title of
a duchy, and a suburb as large as the town, seated in
the middle of a plain, particularly fertile in olives,
though very destitute of w-ater. W; Long. 5. 20.
N. Lat. 37. 20.
MARCHERS, or Lords-Marchers, were those
noblemen that lived on the marches of Wales or Scot¬
land ; who, in times past, according to Camden, had
their laws, and potestatem vitce, &c. like petty kings,
which are abolished by the stat. 27 Hen. Vllf. c. 26.
and 1 Edw. VI. c. 10. In old records the lords
marchers of Wales were styled Marchianes de Marckia
Wat!ice. See 1 et 2 P. et M. c. 15.
MARCHES (marchia), from the German march.
Marchaud
II
Marches.
M A K
[ 5^4 3
MAR
Blarclies i. e. limes, or from the French marque, viz. signum
II (being the notorious distinction between two countries
Marcianus- 0l. territories), are the limits between England and
Wales, or between England and Scotland, which last
are divided into west and middle marches, 4 Hen. V.
c. 7. 22 Ed. IV. c. 8. 24 Hen. VIII. c. 9. And there
was formerly a court called the court of the marches of
Wales, where pleas of debt or damages, not above the
value of 50 pounds, were tried and determined ; and
if the council of the marches held plea for debts above
that sum, &c. a prohibition might be awarded. Hill.
14 Car. I. Cro. Car. 38.
MARCHET, or Marchetta, a pecuniary fine
anciently paid by the tenant to his lord, for the mar¬
riage of one of the tenant’s daughters. This custom
obtained, with some difference, throughout all England
and Wales, as also in Scotland ; and it still continues
to obtain in some places. According to the custom of
the manor of Dinover in Caermarthenshire, every
tenant at the marriage of his daughter pays ten shil¬
lings to the lord •, which, in the British language, is
called gwabr-merched, i. e. maid's fee.
In Scotland, and the north parts of England, the
custom was, for the lord to lie the first night with the
bride of his tenant ; but this usage was abrogated by
'King Malcolm III. at the instance of his queen j and,
instead thereof, a mark was paid by the bridegroom to
the lord : whence it was called merchetta mulieris. See
Borough English.
MARCI ANA Silva, in Ancient Geography, a forest
situated between the Rauraci and the Danube, before
it comes to be navigable j a part of the Hercynia.
Now Schwartzwald, or Black Forest, in the south-west
of Suabia, near the rise of the Danube and Neckar.
MARCIANUS, a native of Thrace, born of an
obscure family, After he had for some time served in
the army as a common soldier, he was made private se¬
cretary to one of the oflicers of Theodosius. His win¬
ning address and uncommon talents raised him to high¬
er stations ; and on the death of Theodosius II. A. D.
450, he was invested with the imperial purple in the
east. The subjects of the Roman empire had reason
to be satisfied with their choice. Marcianus showed
himself active and resolute j and when Attila, the
barbarous king of the Huns, asked of the emperor
the annual tribute, which the indolence and cowardice
of his predecessors had regularly paid, the successor of
Theodosius firmly said, that he kept his gold for his
friends, but that iron was the metal which he had pre¬
pared for his enemies. In the midst of universal po¬
pularity, Marcianus died, after a reign of six years, in
the 69th year of his age, as he was making warlike
preparations against the barbarians that had invaded
Africa. His death was long lamented •, and indeed
his merit was great, since his reign has been distin¬
guished by the appellation of the Golden Age. Mar¬
cianus married Pulcheria the sister of his predecessor.
It is said, that in the years of his obscurity he found
a man who had been murdered, and that he had the
humanity to give him a private burial •, for which cir¬
cumstance he was accused of the homicide, and impri¬
soned. He was condemned to lose his life •, and the sen¬
tence would have been executed, had not the real mur¬
derer been discovered, and convinced the world of the
-Another emperor of the Martian;
innocence of Marcianus.
east, A. D. 479, &c. , ,
MARCIONITES, or Marcionists, Marcionistee,
a very ancient and popular sect of heretics, who, in the
time of St Epiphanius, were spread over Italy, Egypt,
Palestine, Syria, Arabia, Persia, and other countries :
they were thus denominated from their author Marcion.
Marcion was of Pontus, the son of a bishop, and at first
made profession of the monastical life ; but he was ex:
communicated by his own father, who would never ad¬
mit him again into the communion of the church, not
even on his repentance. On this he abandoned his own
country, and retired to Rome, where he began to broach
his doctrines.
He laid down two principles, the one good, the
other evil: between these he imagined an interme¬
diate kind of deity of a mixed nature, who vras the
creator of this inferior world, and the god and legis¬
lator of the Jewish nation : the other nations, who wor¬
shipped a variety of gods, were supposed to be under
the empire of the evil principle. These two conflicting
powers exercise oppressions upon rational and immort.i.
souls; and therefore the supreme God, to deliver them
from bondage, sent to the Jews a being more like unto
himself, even his son Jesus Christ, clothed with a cer¬
tain shadowy resemblance of a body, this celestial
messenger was attacked by the prince of darkness, and
by the god of the Jews, but without effect. Those
who follow the directions of this celestial conductor,
mortify the bodv by tastings and austerities, and ic-
nounce the precepts of the god ot the Jews and of the
prince of darkness, shall after death ascend to the man¬
sions of felicity and perfection. Jhe rule ot manners
which Marcion prescribed to his followers was exces¬
sively austere, containing an express prohibition of
wedlock, wine, flesh, and all the external comforts of
life. _ .
Marcion denied the real birth, incarnation, and pas¬
sion of Jesus Christ, and held them to be all apparent
only. He denied the resurrection of the body ; and al¬
lowed none to be baptized but those who preserved then
continence j but these, he granted, might be baptized
three times. In many things he followed the senti¬
ments of the heretic Cerdon, and rejected the law and
the prophets. He pretended the gospel had been cor¬
rupted by false prophets, and allowed none of the evan¬
gelists but St Luke, whom also he altered in many
places, as well as the epistles ol St Raul, a great many
things in which he threw out. In his own copy ol St
Luke he threw out the two first chapters entire.
MARCITES, Marcitve, a sect of heretics m the
second century, who also called themselves the perfect!,
and made profession ol doing every thing with a great
deal of liberty and without any fear. rlhis doctrine
they borrowed Irom Simon Magus, who however was
not their chief j for they were called Marcites Irom
one Marcus, who conferred the priesthood, and the ad¬
ministration of the sacraments, on women.
MARCO Polo, Paolo, or Paido. See Paulo.
MARCOMANNI, an ancient people of Germany,
who seem to have taken their name from their situa¬
tion on the limits or marches, to the east of the High¬
er Rhine, and the north of the Danube. Cluverius
allots to them the duchy of Wurtemburg, a part ot
the
M A R
Marco, the palatinate between the Rhine anil the Necker, the
manni Brisgau, and a part of Suabia, lying between the
Marets sPr*nSs t*ie Danuhe and the river Bregentz: they
. afterwards removed to the country of the Boii, whom
they expelled and forced to withdraw more to the east,
occupying what is now called Bohemia. (Strabo, Vel¬
leius).
MARCOSIANS, or Colobarsians, an ancient
sect in the church, making a branch of the VaLENTI-
NIANS.
St Irenseus speaks at large of the leader of this sect,
Marcus, who it seems was reputed a great magician.
The Marcosians had many apocryphal books which they
held for canonical, and out of which they picked several
idle fables touching the infancy of Jesus Christ. Many
of these fables are still in use and credit among the
Greek monks.
MARCULUS, among the Romans, a knocker or
instrument of iron to knock at doors with.
MARCUS Aurelius Antoninus. See Antoninus.
MARDIKERS, or Topasses, a mixed breed of
Dutch, Portuguese, Indians, and other nations, incor¬
porated with the Dutch at Batavia, in the East Indies.
MARE, the female of the horse kind. See Equus,
Mammalia Index, and Horse.
MARENGO, a village of Italy which has risen to
distinction in consequence of a bloody battle between
the Austrians and French, which was fought on the 14th
June 1800, in which the French say, 15,000 of the for¬
mer were killed, wounded, and made prisoners.—Ma¬
rengo lies 3 miles S. E. of Alessandria, in the king¬
dom of Sardinia.
MAREOTIS, a lake in Egypt near Alexandria.
Its neighbourhood was famous for wine j though ac¬
cording to some the Mareoticum vinum is the produce
of Epirus, or of a certain part of Libya, called also
Mareotis, near Egypt.
MARETS, Jean de, a Parisian, one of the finest
geniuses of the 17th century, became at last a visionary
and a fanatic. He was a great favourite of Cardinal
Richelieu, who was greatly delighted with his facetious
conversation. He was a member of the French academy
from its first erection. He wrote several dramatic pieces,
which were well received. He attempted an epic poem j
but after spending several years about it, dropped the
design to write books of devotion. He likewise wrote
romances, which are not very rigid for their morality.
He wras a declared enemy of the Jansenists. His visions
are well described by the Messieurs de Port Royal.
He promised the king of France, by the explication of
prophecies, the honour of overthrowing the Mahome¬
tan empire, and every species of what he wras pleased
to denominate heresy, bringing the whole world to the
profession of the true faith. This he said Louis XIV.
was to accomplish at the head of 144,000 elect. Ex¬
travagant and absurd as these declarations were, he
was, notwithstanding, admired and patronised by some
of the bishops 5 and though a layman, he was permit¬
ted to vent his reveries in religious houses, and assume
the direction of devotees of both sexes. He main¬
tained his credit with the great to the very last, and
died in 1676, at the age of 81. In his last years he
wrote something against Boileau’s Satires.
Marets, Samuel de, one of the most celebrated
rlivines of the reformed church, was born in Picardy,
Vol. XII. Part II. t
M A K
in 1599. In 1620, he was settled in the church of Marets,
Laon $ but, in 1624, accepted a call to that of Sedan, Margaret,
to succeed James Cappel in the office of pastor and pro-
fessor of divinity. Having soon after obtained leave of
absence from his flock, he visited Holland, where he
was admitted to the degree of doctor of divinity at
Leyden, in 1625. from Holland he took a voyage to
England, and after a short stay in that country he re¬
turned to Sedan, where he commenced his labours in
the divinity chair. These he continued for about
seven years with reputation to himself, but not without
being sometimes involved in troubles, which he bore
with a commendable resolution.
In 1631 he was made chaplain to the army of the
duke de Bouillon in Holland ; but that nobleman hav¬
ing married a Roman Catholic lady, M. de Marets, ad¬
vised him to adhere steadily to the Protestant faith, on
which account he incurred the displeasure of the duchess.
Thus circumstanced, he received in 1636, an invitation
to become pastor to the church of Boisleduc, with which
he complied, and in the following year he was appointed
professor of the schola illustris of the same cky. The
duties of this office he discharged with such diligence
and success, that in 1640, the curators of the university
of I raneker sent him the offer of a professorship, which
he declined; but two years after he accepted a similar
offer from the university of Groningen, to which his
services were devoted for upwards of thirty years. In
1652 he was made sole minister of the Walloon church
at Groningen, where till that time he had gratuitously
preached once every Sunday to assist the pastor. In¬
fluenced by the fame of his extraordinary merits, the
magistrates of Berne in 1661 offered him the chair of
professor of divinity at Lausanne, with considerable e-
moluments, but he declined this offer ; and his death
•happened before he took possession of a similar charge
at Leyden, of which he had accepted. His System of
Divinity was found to be so methodical, that it was
made use of at other academies; and at the end of it
may be found a chronological table of all his works.
Their number is prodigious ; and their variety shows the
extent of his genius. He was moreover engaged in
many disputes and controversies, and died in 1673.
MARGARET, St, a celebrated virgin, who, as
is supposed, received the crown of martyrdom at An¬
tioch in the year 275 : the manner of her death is
not known. The ancient martyrologists make no men¬
tion of her name, and she did not become famous till
the I ith century. There is no more foundation for
what is said concerning her relics and girdles than
for the stories which are told of her life. A festival,
however, is still held in honour of her memory on the
2oth of July : See BailleVs Lives of the Saints, for that
day. “ Her actions (says this authority) have been so
falsified and altered, in the opinion even of Meta-
phrastus, that the Romish church have not thought
proper to insert any of them into their breviary.” The
Orientals pay reverence to her by the name of Saint
Pelagia or Saint Marina, and the western church by
that of Saint Gemma or Saint Margaret.
Margaret, the daughter and heiress of Florent
count of Holland, who is famous on account of a story 1
repeated by a hundred compilers even of the 18th
century. Having refused charity to a woman whom
she at the same time accused of adultery, she was, as
4 E .a
f 585 J
MAR [ 586
a punishment from God, brought to bed (A. D. 1276),
of .365 children, partly boys and partly girls- Ihe
boys, it is added, were all named John, and the girl
Elizabeth. Jhis story is represented in a large paint¬
ing in a village not far from the Hague j and by the
side of the painting are seen two large basons of brass,
on which it is pretended the 365 children were pre¬
sented to be baptized. But if a picture is a sufhcient
authority for the truth of any thing, it is impossible
to tell how many fables would be fully attested. It has
been remarked, that the most ancient annals are altc-
o-ether silent concerning this fact; and that it is rela¬
ted only by modern writers, who besides do not agree
with one another concerning either the date of time,
or the life of the countess, or the number of the chil¬
dren $ and, in short, that Nassau, who was at that time
bishop of Utrecht, was called John, and not Gut, as
the chronicles declare. Several learned men have en¬
deavoured to trace the cause which could have given
to a relation so extraordinary. M. Struik. fixed
]
M A R
rise w ..    --  
upon the epitaphs of the mother and son, which appear¬
ed to him worthy of some attention and, in conformi¬
ty to the dates which they bear, he supposed that the
countess was brought to bed on Good Friday 1276,
which was the 26th of March. Now, as the year then
began on the 25th of the same month, there were only
two days of the year elapsed when the countess was
brought to bed, which circumstance caused it to be said
that she had brought into the world as many children
as there were days in the ijear. In fact only two chil¬
dren are mentioned in history, John and Elizabeth.
The fable thus explained is only a common event,
wherein there is nothing of the marvellous, but in con¬
sequence of a double meaning in the expression. Later
writers, who have not examined this circumstance, have
ascribed 365 children to the countess. Journal des
Sfavans, February, 175^> on ^ie General History of
the United Provinces.
Margaret, Countess of Richmond and Derby, the
learned and pious mother of Henry VII. was born at
Betshoe in Bedfordshire, in 1441 *, and was the sole
heiress of John Beaufort duke of Somerset, grandson
to John of Gaunt. Her mother was the heiress of
Lord Beauchamp of Powick. Whilst yet very young,
the great duke of Suffolk, minister to Henry VI. or
rather to Queen Margaret, sought her in marriage to
his son •, and she was at the same time solicited by the
king for his half brother Edmund earl of Richmond.
To the latter she gave her hand. Henry VII. was the
sole fruit of this marriage, his father dying when he
was but 15 weeks old. Her second husband was Sir
Henry Stafford, knight, second son to the duke of
Buckingham •, by whom she had no issue. Soon after
his death, which happened in the year 1482, she
sought consolation in a third husband, Thomas Lord
Stanley, who, in the first year of her son’s reign,
was created earl of Derby. He died in the year 1504,
without issue, being then high constable of England.
She survived her lord not quite five years, dying at
Westminster in June 1509, in the 69th year of her
age. She was buried in Henry VII.’s chapel *, on
the south side of which was erected to her memory
an altar-tomb of black marble, with her statue of
brass.
From her funeral sermon preached by her confessor Margaret, 1
Bishop Fisher, who, says Ballard, knew the very secrets Margaritu I
of her soul, we learn, “ that she possessed almost ally—
things that were commendable in a woman, either in
mind or body.” She understood the French language
perfectly, and had some knowledge of the Latin. She
was devout even to austerity, in humility romantic,
profuse in the encouragement of learning, and singu¬
larly chaste ; but this last virtue became conspicuous
only towards the latter end of a third marriage. “ In
her last husband’s days (says Baker), she obtained a
licence of him to live chaste, whereupon she took upon
her the vow of celibacy.” “ A boon (says Mr Wal¬
pole), as seldom requested, I believe of a third hus¬
band, as it probably would be easily granted.” Her
life, from the turbulence of the times, and vicissitudes
of her son’s fortune, must necessarily have been subject
to infinite disquiet, which however she is said to have
supported with singular fortitude. She wrote, 1. The
Mirroure of Golde for the sinful soul, translated from
a French translation of a hook called Speculum aureum
pecratorum. Emprynted at London, in Flete-strete,
at the signe of St George, by Richard Pynson, quarto,
with cuts on vellum. 2. Translation of the fourth book
of Dr Gersen’s Treatise of the Imitation and following
the blessed Life of our most merciful Saviour Christ.
Printed at the end of Dr William Atkinson’s English
translation of the three first books, 1504. 3. A letter
to the king : in Howard’s collection. 4. By her son’s
order and authority, she also made the orders for great*
estates of ladies and noble women, for their precedence,
and wearing of barbes at funerals, over the chin and
under the same.
Margaret, the daughter of Woldomar III. king*
of Denmark, styled the Semiramis of the Notdh ; she
succeeded her father in the throne of Denmark, her
husband in that of Norway and the crown of Sweden
was given her as a recompense for delivering the
Swedes from the tyranny oi Albert their king. Thus
possessed of the three kingdoms, she formed the grand
political design of a perpetual union, which she ac¬
complished, pro tempore only, by the famous treaty
styled the union of Calmar. She died in 1412, aged
59-
Margaret of Anjou, daughter of Rene d’Anjou,
king of Naples, and wife of Henry VI. king of Eng¬
land : an ambitious, enterprising, courageous woman.
Intrepid in the field, she signalized herself by heading ,
her troops in several battles against the house of A ork",
and if she had not been the authoress ol her husband’s
misfortunes, by putting to death the duke of Glouces¬
ter his uncle, her name would have been immortalized
for the fortitude, activity, and policy, with which she
supported the rights of her husband and son, till the fa¬
tal defeat at Tewksbury j which put an end to all her
enterprises, the king being taken prisoner, and Prince
Edward their only son basely murdered by Richard
duke of York. Margaret was ransomed by her father,
and died in Anjou in 1482. See ENGLAND, N° 201
—226.
Margaret, Duchess of Newcastle. See Caven¬
dish. „ # •
MARGARITA, or Pearl-island, an island of
South America, the middle of which is situated in W.
Long-
MAR
Margarita Long. 64. 2. N. Lat. 11. 30. It was discovered by
|| Columbus, and is about 35 leagues in compass. The
Marhattas. s()jj -g yery fertjje [n ma[ze anj fruits, and abounds in
pasture and verdant groves j yet is totally destitute of
fresh water, which the inhabitants are obliged to bring
from the continent. When the Spaniards first landed
here, they found the natives busy in fishing for oysters.
Columbus ordered some of the savages aboard his ship,
who were so far from being terrified, that they very
soon became familiar with the Spaniards. The latter
at first imagined that the oysters served them for food ;
but on opening the shells, they found they contained
valuable pearls. Upon this discovery they immediate¬
ly landed, and found the natives ready to part with
their pearls for the merest trifles. In process of time
the Spaniards built a castle, called Monpadre, and em¬
ployed prodigious numbers of Guinea and Angola ne¬
groes in the pearl fishery; cruelly forcing them to tear
up the oysters from the rocks to which they stuck, du¬
ring which time many of them were destroyed by the
sharks and other voracious fishes. The present popu¬
lation is about 14,000 j of whom 5500 are whites, 2000
Indians, and 6500 slaves and free persons of colour.
It has for some time been in the hands of the party
who are endeavouring to overturn the Spanish authority
in Caraccas.
Margarita, the Pearl, in Natural History. See
Pearl and Mya.
MARGARITINI, are glass ornaments, made at
\ enice, of small glass tubes of different colours, which
are blown at Murano, and which the women of the
lower class wear about their arms and necks. The
largest sort are used for making rosaries. This work
is performed with great dispatch, the artisan taking a
whole handful of these tubes at once, and breaking
them off one after another with an iron tool. These
short cylinders are mixed with a kind of ashes, and put
over the fire in an iron pan and when the two ends
begin to melt, by stirring them about with an iron
wire, they are brought to a round figure; but care is
taken not to leave them too long over the fire, lest the
hole through which they are to be strung should be en¬
tirely closed by the melting of the glass. There are
several streets at Francesco de Vigna entirely inha¬
bited by people whose sole occupation is to make and
string these margaritini.
MARGATE, a sea-port town of Kent, on the
north side of the isle of Thanet, near the North Fore¬
land. It is noted for shipping vast quantities of corn
(most, if not all, the product of that island) for Lon¬
don and has a salt-water bath at the post-house,
which has performed great cures in nervous and para¬
lytic cases, and numbness of the limbs. It lies in St
John’s parish, which is a member of the port of Dover,
at the distance of 14 miles, 12 from Canterbury, and
72 from London. It has become one of the principal
watering places for the idle, the opulent, and the inva¬
lid, where they meet with every requisite accommoda¬
tion j and the adjacent country abounds with most ex¬
tensive pjospects and pleasant rides. The population
in 1811 was 6126. E. Long. 1. 30. N. Lat. 51. 24.
MARHATTAS, Merhattahs, Marattas, or
Mahrattas 5 a people of India, and by far tbe most
considerable of all the Hindoo powers. Tbe Marhafe*
MAR
tas boast a very high antiquity *, they profess the reli-Maihattas.
gion of Brama j speak a dialect of the Sanscrit lan- v—\  
guage, in which they have introduced all the techni¬
cal terms of Mogul administration ; use a character
of their own in writing, though not very different
from some of the other tribes around them ; and are
divided into four casts or classes of people, with the
various subdivisions of professional distinction found
oyer the rest of Hindostan ; but with this remarkable
difference, that among the ISIarhattas every individual
may, as in fact he occasionally does, follow the life of
a soldier.
As a nation inhabiting immemorially the country
properly denominated Marhat or Merhat, and com
prehending the greater part of the Paishwa’s present
dominions in the Decan, they were completely subjuga¬
ted, and afterwards for many centuries depressed, first
by the, Patans, then by the Mogul conquerors of Del¬
hi. At length, towards the end of Alemgeer’s reign,
they united, rebelled, and under the famous Sewajee or
Seeva-jee, a leader of their own tribe, laid the founda¬
tions of their present vast empire, which has risen gra¬
dually on the ruins of the Mohamedan power, as relat¬
ed under the article Hindostan.
Seeva-jee was succeeded by his son Rajah Sahou, who
considerably extended the Marhatta dominions. When
Rajah Sahou grew old and infirm, and the fatigues of
government began to press heavy upon him, he appoint¬
ed Bissonat Balajee, a Brahman born at Gokum, and
leader of about 25,000 horse, to the office of Paishwa
or vicegerent.
Rajah Sahou died without issue, but left nephews
by his brother. The courage and wisdom of Balajee
had gained him, during the latter years of the old
rajah, the affection and esteem of all the nation. But,
under an appearance of modesty and self-denial, his
prevailing passion was ambition; and the sentiments
of gratitude and loyalty were absorbed in the desire
to command. He made use of the influence he had
acquired under his benefactor so firmly to establish his
own power, that he not only retained the high office
of Paishwa during his life, but transmitted it to his
posterity. The Marhattas, gradually forgetting a
prince they knew nothing of, became accustomed to
obey bis vicegerent only : yet a certain respect for the
royal race, or the dread of the consequences of vio¬
lating the strong prejudice which the nation still re¬
tains in favour of the family of its founder, have serv¬
ed perhaps to preserve it; and the descendants of
Rajah Sahou’s nephews yet exist, but are kept in cap¬
tivity in the palace at Sattarah. The eldest is styled
Ram Rajah, or sovereign ; his name is on the seal and
coin ot tbe Marhatta state j but his person is unknown,
except to those who immediately surround him. He
resides in his splendid prison, encompassed with the
appendages of eastern grandeur, but debarred of all
power, and kept totally ignorant of business. The
seat of government was transferrred from the ancient
royal residence of Sattarah to Poonah; and the usur¬
per, as well as his successors, seem still to have acted
under the supposed authority of the deposed prince,
by their assuming no other title or character than that
of Paishwa or prime minister. From this change, the
empire of the Ram Rajah has been distinguished only
4 E 2 by
[ 587 ]
l
MAR [
M.rk.LUs.ky the appellation of the or othembe
v~—v ) the Government of Poonah, from the name cl its pie
^Bissonal Balajee was succeeded as Paishwa by his
eldest son Balajee Row (called also Nana ba/icb, or Na-
nah Row), who left three sons, the eldest of whom, Ba-
laiee Pundit, sometimes called Nanah Pundit, succeeu-
ed him. The two others were Rogobah or Ragonat
Row, and Shamsheer Row.
Balajee Pundit left two sons ; Mahadava Row, who
was Paishwa twelve years ; and Narrain Row, who suc¬
ceeded him. „
During the latter part ol the life of Mahadava liow,
his uncle Rogobah was confined to the palace at 1 oo-
nah, for reasons with which we are not acquainted.
Mahadava Row died without issue} and upon the ac¬
cession of Narrain his brother, a youth of about 19
years of age, Rogobah in vain applied to be released
from his confinement. Ife is therefore suspected of
having entered into a conspiracy with two officers in
his nephew’s service, Somair Jing and b usuph Gardie,
in order to procure that by force which he could not
obtain by entreaty. The correspondence between the
conspirators was carried on with so much secrecy, that
the court had not the least intimation or suspicion of
their design, till every avenue leading to the palace
had been secured, and the whole building surrounded
by the troops under the command of those two offi¬
cers. It is said, that on the first alarm, Narrain Row,
suspecting his uncle, ran to his apartment, threw him¬
self at his feet, and implored his protection : “ You
are my uncle (said he), spare the blood of your own
family, and take possession of a government which I
am willing to resign to you.”
Somair and Yusuph entered the room whilst the
young Paishwa was in this suppliant posture. Rogo¬
bah, with apparent surprise and anger, ordered them
to withdraw •, but as they either knew him not to be
sincere, or thought they had proceeded too far to re¬
treat, they stabbed Narrain with their poniards whilst
he clung to his uncle’s knees.
The office of Paishwa being now vacant, the chiefs
of the nation then at Poonah were assembled, and Ro¬
gobah being the only survivor of the family of Bisso-
nat Balajee, to whose memory the Marhattas in those
paits are enthusiastically attached, he was named to
fill it. Being naturally of a warlike temper, he re¬
solved to undertake some foreign expedition } for be¬
sides gratifying his passion for the field, he probably
hoped, by the splendour of his exploits, to draw off the
attention of the public from inquiring into the late ca¬
tastrophe.
A pretence for war was not difficult to be found.
He renewed the claim of his nation to the chout, and
marched his army towards Hydrabad, the capital of
the Nizam. The vigour of his measures procured him
an accommodation of bis demand ; and he was proceed¬
ing to enforce a similar one upon the Carnatic, when
he received intelligence which obliged him to return
hastily to Poonah.
Although the Marhatta chiefs had acknowledged
Rogobah as Paishwa, yet they and the people in ge¬
neral were much dissatisfied with his conduct. The
murderers of Narrain Row had not only escaped pu-
588 ] M A R
nishment, but, as was reported, had been rewarded. Marlmita;
The crime was unexampled, and the perpetrators were v—-
beheld with uncommon horror and detestation, i he
Paishwa had hitherto so fully possessed the love of the
people, that, till then, guards were considered as un¬
necessary about the person of a man whose character
rendered him inviolable. Every one therefore had
free access to his palace, and he relied with confidence
for his safety upon the affections of those who approach¬
ed him.
These reflections operated powerfully upon the minds
of the Marhattas 5 but perhaps no violent consequences
would have ensued, had it not been discovered, soon
after the departure of Rogobah from Poonah, that the
widow' of Narram Row, Ganga Baee, was pregnant.
This determined their wavering resolutions. Frequent
consultations w'ere held among the principal men then
in the capital •, and it was finally resolved to abjure the
allegiance they had sworn to Rogobah, and declare the
child, yet unborn, to be the legal successor of the late
paishwa.
A council of regency was immediately appointed to
govern the country until the child should become of
age ; and it was agreed to reserve their deliberations,
in case it should prove a female or die, till the event
should render them necessary. They who principally
conducted these measures, and whose names will on
that account be remembered, were Sackharam Babou
and Balajee Pundit, called also Nanah Pher Nevees^
from his having been long the principal secretary of
the Marhatta state. Nine other Marhatta leaders ap-
px'oved of these measures, and swore to maintain them.
As the first step towards the execution of their plan,
the widow of Narrain Row was conveyed to Poorend-
her, a fort of great strength, situated on a high moun¬
tain, about 25 miles from Poonah. As soon as Rogo¬
bah received intimation of this revolution, he march¬
ed back towards the capital. But discontent had al¬
ready infected his troops j some of the chiefs retired
to their estates, and others joined the standard of the
regents. He however risked a battle with an army of
the revolters commanded by Trimbec Row, in which
the latter was slain j but though he obtained a vic¬
tory, the strength of the confederates daily increased,
while his own troops were diminished by continual de¬
sertions. He therefore found it necessary to retire to
Ugein, and to solicit the assistance of the Marhatta
chiefs Scindia and Holkar but meeting with a refu¬
sal, he went to Surat, and applied for succour to the
English.
Rogobah’s success in this application was the cause
of two wars with the Marhatta state j which, after
much waste of blood and treasure, we were obliged to
conclude by relinquishing his claim, and acknowledg¬
ing as legal paishwa the son of Narrain Row, who was
born about seven months after the death of his father.
See India and Hindostan.
The Marhatta dominions, as already observed, are
governed by a number of separate chiefs, all of whom
acknowledge the Ram Rajah as their sovereign and
all except Moodajee Boonsalah, own the paishwa as
his vicegerent. The country immediately subject to
the paishwa, including all the hereditary territories
that were left by the Rajah Sahou to the Ram Rajah,
M A K [ 589 j
FTarhattas. those^ that have been acquired and added to them of Hindostan,
—"v“' 1 since in his name, extends along the coast nearly from
Goa to Cambay; on the south it borders on the pos¬
sessions of Tippoo Saib, eastward on those of the Ni¬
zam and of the Marhatta rajah of Berar, and towards
the north on those of the Marhatta chiefs Scindia and
Holkar.
Moodajee Boonsalah, rajah of Berar, possessed, be¬
sides Berar, the greatest part of Orixa. This prince
being descended from the Hire of the Bam Rajah, eyes
the power of the paishwa, by whom a branch of his fa¬
mily is kept in ignominious confinement, with ill will 5
has often refused to support his measures; and, on
some occasions, has even seemed inclined to act against
him.
Next to Moodajee, in point of importance, must be
ranked Madajee Scindia, a bold and aspiring chief, who
possesses the greatest part of the extensive soubadary or
government of Malva, together with part of the pro¬
vince of Candeish. The remainder is under the domi¬
nion of Holkar. Both he and Scindia pretend to be
descended from the ancient kings of Malva. Scindia
resides chiefly at Ugein, near the city of Mundu, once
the capital of these kings ; and Holkar at Indoor, a
town little more than 30 miles west of it. The domi¬
nions of these, and of some chiefs of less consequence,
extend as far as the river Jumna.
The measures pursued by the Marhattas for some
years left little room to doubt that they aspired at the
sovereignty of all Hindostan, or at least at the expul¬
sion of the Mohamedan princes : And in this last de-
AnHisto-sign they appear to have succeeded*, and to have
<cal and gained a great accession of territory, through the arms
liewTfthe^cInt^a’ 1,0111 ^ tlie caPtui'e of the cities of Agra
kcan. -Delhi, with their territorial dependencies, and the
consequent captivity of the unfortunate monarch who
ruled there as the last imperial representative of the
great Mogul race of Timur. “ The whole of the do¬
minion thus newly established is of vast extent, stretch¬
ing near 1 200 miles along the frontiers of Tippoo and
the Nizam in a north-east direction, from Goa on the
Malabar coast to Balasore in Orissa adjoining to Ben¬
gal j and from thence north-westerly 1000 miles more,
touching the confines of the British and allied states,
on the borders of the Ganges and Jumna, to the ter¬
ritory of the Seiks at Paniput, rendered famous in
1761 for the last memorable defeat sustained by the
Marhattas in their ambitious contest for empire with
the united declining power of the Mohamedans. From
this place in a southerly course, with great encroach¬
ment on the old eastern boundary of the Rajepoot
country of Ajmere, it runs about 260 miles to the
little Hindoo principality of Kotta, and thence south¬
westerly 540 miles further to the extreme point of
the soubah of Gujerat at Duarka, including the whole
of that fertile province 5 from whence, along the sea-
coasts of Cambay and Malabar ty Goa, the distance
may be reckoned 800 miles. Thus the overgrown
empire of the Marhattas may be said to extend east
19 degrees of longitude, near the parallel of 22 de¬
grees north latitude, from the mouths of the Indus
to those of the Ganges; and about 13 degrees of la¬
titude north, from the Kistnah to Paniput; compre¬
hending at least an area of 400,000 square geogra¬
phical miles, being considerably more than a third part
M A R
including the Decan, and equal perhaps Marbattas
in dimensions to all the British and allied states in ||
India, with those of Golconda and Mysore, taken to- ^ariboae.^
Such was the state of affairs in India so far as the
Marhattas were concerned a few years ago. By con¬
sulting the history of India, the reader will observe,
that the power and dominion of these enterprising chiefs
have been since greatly abridged by the successful pro¬
gress of the British arms. See India.
MARIA, or Sancta Maria, an island of the In¬
dian ocean, lying about five miles east from Madagas¬
car. It is about 27 miles long and five broad; well
ivatered, and surrounded by rocks. The air is ex¬
tremely moist, for it rains almost every day. It is in¬
habited by 500 or 600 negroes, but seldom visited by
ships.
Maria, St, a considerable town of South America,
in the audience of Panama, built by the Spaniards after
they had discovered the gold mines near it, and soon
after taken by the English. It is seated at the bottom
of the gulf of St Michael, at the mouth of a river of
the same name ; which is navigable, and the largest
that falls into the gulf. The Spaniards come here
every year in the dry season, which continues three
months, to gather the gold dust out of the sands of the
neighbouring streams ; and carry away great quantities*
W. Long. 148. 30. N. Lat. 7. o.
Maria, St, a handsome and considerable town of
Spain, in Andalusia, with a small castle. It was taken
by the English and Dutch in 1702, for the archduke
of Austria. It is seated on the Guadaleta, at the mouth
of which is a tower and a close battery. W. Long..
5. 33. N. Lat. 36. 35.
MARIAN islands. See Ladkone Islands.
MARIANA, John, a learned Spanish historian,
born at Talavera in the diocese of Toledo. He entered
among the Jesuits in 1554, at 17 years of age ; and be¬
came one of the most learned men of his time. He
was a great divine, a good humanist, and profoundly
versed in ecclesiastical as well as profane history. He
taught at Rome, in Sicily, at Paris, and in Spain ; and
died at Toledo in 1624. His principal works are,
I. An excellent history of Spain in 30 books : which
he himself translated from the Latin into Spanish, with¬
out servilely following his own Latin edition. 2. Scho¬
lia, or short notes on the Bible. 3. A treatise on the
changes the specie has undergone in Spain ; for which
he was thrown into prison by the duke of Lerma, the
Spanish minister. 4. A famous treatise De rege et re-
gis institutione, which made much noise, and was con¬
demned by the parliament of Paris to be burnt by the
hands of the common hangman, for his asserting in that
work, that it is lawful to murder tyrants. 5. A work
on the faults of the government of the society of Jesuits,
which has been translated into Spanish, Latin, Italian,
French, &c.
MARIANUS scotus, an Irish monk, was related
to the venerable Bede, and wrote a chronicle which
is esteemed. He died in the abbey of Fuld in 1086,
aged 58.
MARIBONE, or St Mary le Bone, or rather
Borne, from the neighbouring brook, a parish of Mid¬
dlesex, on the north-west side of London. The manor
appears to have belonged anciently to the bishop of
London.
Marine.
MAR [ 59° T
Maribone Lonaon. The houses in this parish are very numerous, nations.
" comprising several extensive streets and squares, which
are every year increasing. The Paddington road from
' Islington passes through this parish, which gives it
communication with the eastern part of London with¬
out passing through the streets. Here were three con¬
duits erected about the year 1238, for supplying the
city of London with water*, but anno 1703, when it
was plentifully served by the New River, the citizens
let them out at 700I. a-year for 43 years. There
were two for receiving its water at the north-east cor¬
ner of the bridge on the river Tyburn, and over them
stood the lord’s mayor’s banqueting house, to which (the
1 a * j i 1 1 > t o I n 1 it OV*Wi
use of coaches being not then known) his lordship and
the aldermen use to ride on horseback, as their ladies
did in waggons. This banqueting house, after being
many years neglected, was taken down in 1737* am^
the cisterns arched over.
MARIDUNUM, in Ancient Geography, a town of
the Deraetae in Britain. Now Caer Mardin, or Caer-
marthcn, the capital of Caermarthenshire.
MARIETTA, a town in the United States of Ame¬
rica, situated in the state of Ohio, at the junction of the
Ohio river with the Muskingum. The town and town¬
ship contained 1463 inhabitants in 1810. Sea-rig¬
ged vessels are built here, though it is 2000 miles
inland.
MARIGALANTE, an island of North America,
and one of the least of the Caribbees, lies in N. Lat.
16. 32. and W. Long. 61. 5. from London, at the di¬
stance of four leagues from Guadaloupe, to the south.
The soil, produce, and climate, are pretty much the
same as the other Caribbees. Columbus discovered it
in his second American voyage in 1483, and called it
by the name of his ship Maria Galanta, or Gallant
Mary. It is about six leagues long, and between
three and four broad. Viewed at a distance from on
board a ship, it appears like a floating island, because,
as it is for the most part flat, the trees seem to swim *,
but a nearer prospect shows it to be intersected by
some rising grounds, which give a fine variety to the
landscape. The French settled here in 1648. It was
taken by the British in 1759, but afterwards restored
at the peace in 1763. It was taken again in 1808,
and restored to France by the peace of Paris in 1814.
—This island was thought, on its first discovery, to
want water *, but a charming running stream has in
time been discovered, no less convenient than refresh¬
ing and wholesome, on the banks of which are some
wealthy planters, and excellent plantations of sugar.
A little village in a small bay is the capital of the
island, and here the commandant resides. The whole
island is very capable of improvement *, the soil being
almost equally good, and the land rising nowhere too
high. The coast affords many little bays, and safe
anchorage and shelter to ships.
MARINE, a general name for the navy of a king*
dom or state j as also the whole economy of naval affairs ;
or whatever respects the building, rigging, arming,
equipping, navigating, and fighting ships. It compre¬
hends also the government of naval armaments, and
the state of all the persons employed therein, whether
civil or military.
The history of the marine affairs of any one state is
a very comprehensive subject, much more that of all
MAR
Those who would be informed of the mari¬
time affairs of Great Britain, -and the figure it has
made at sea in all ages, may find abundance of curious
matter in Selden’s Mare Clan sum; and from his time to
ours, we may trace a series of facts in Lediard’s and
Burchet’s Naval History } but above all in the Lives
of the Admirals, by the accurate and judicious Dr
Campbell.
MARINES, or Marine Forces, a body of soldiers
raised lor the sea service, and trained to fight either in
a naval engagement or in an action ashore.
The great service of this useful corps was manifested
frequently in the course of the war before last, particu-
Marifte,
Marines..
larly at the siege of Belleisle, where they acquired a
great character, although lately raised and hardly exer¬
cised in military discipline. At sea they are incorpo¬
rated with the ship’s crew, of which they make a part,
and many of them learn in a short time to be excellent
seamen, to which their officers are ordered by the ad¬
miralty to encourage them, although no sea officer is
to order them to go aloft against their inclination. In
a sea fight their small arms are of very great advantage
in scouring the decks of the enemy; and when they
have been long enough at sea to stand firm when the
ship rocks, they must be infinitely preferable to seamen
if the enemy attempts to board, by raising a battalion
with their fixed bayonets to oppose him.
The sole direction of the corps of marines is vested
in the lords commissioners ot the admiralty; and in
the admiralty is a distinct apartment for this purpose.
The secretary to the admiralty is likewise secretary to
the marines, for which he has a salary of 300I. a-year;
and he has under him several clerks for the manage¬
ment of this department.
The marine forces of Great Britain in the time of
peace are stationed in three divisions *, one of which is
quartered at Chatham, one at Portsmouth, and anothci
at Plymouth. By a late regulation, they are ordered
to do duty at the several dock-yards of those ports, to
prevent embezzlement of the king’s stores, for which
a captain’s guard mounts every day *, which certainly
requires great vigilance, as so many abuses of this kind
have been committed, that many ot the inhabitants,
who have been long used to an infamous traffic of this
kind, expect these conveyances at certain periods as
their due, and of course reserit this regulation in the
highest degree as an infringement of their liberties as
British subjects.
The marine corps are under the command of then
own field officers, who discipline them, and regulate
their different duties. His late majesty in 1760 form¬
ed a new'establishment of marine officers, entitled, the
general, lieutenant-general, and three colonels of marines
(one for each division), to be taken from officers in the
royal navy. The two first are always enjoyed by flag
officers, the last by post captains only. This establish¬
ment was formed to reward such officers who distin-
gfiished themselves in the service of their country.
Marine Discipline, is the training up soldiers for sea
service, in such exercise as the various positions of the
firelock and body, and teaching them every manoeuvre
that can be performed on board ships of war at sea. £ ee
Exercise. .
Marine Chair, a machine invented by Mr Irwin
for viewing the satellites of Jupiter at sea, and 01
0 course
MAR
Marino.
Marine course determining the longitude by their eclipses. An
account ot it is given i^ the Journal JLstrangcr for
March 1^60. An account of its accuracy was pub¬
lished in the year following by M. de 1’Isle astronomer
in the Imperial academy of Petersburgh : but notwith¬
standing the encomiums bestowed upon it by this gen¬
tleman, it hath never come into general use ; and there¬
fore we may conclude, that it is much inferior to the
inventions of Air Harrison for the same purpose. See
Harrison and Longitude.
Marine Surveyor, is the name of a machine con¬
trived by Air H. de Sanmarez for measuring the way
of a ship in the sea. I Ins machine is in the form of
the letter Y, and is made of iron, or any other metal.
At each end ot the lines which constitute the angle or
upper part of that letter, are two pallets, not much
unlike the figure of the log ; one of which falls in the
same proportion as the other rises. The falling or
pendent pallet meeting a resistance from the water, as
the ship moves, has by that means a circular motion
under water, which is taster or slower according as the
vessel moves. This motion is communicated to a dial
within the ship, by means of a rope fastened to the
tail of the Y, and carried to the dial. The motion
being thus communicated to the dial, which has a bell
in it, it strikes exactly the number of geometrical
paces, miles, or leagues, which the ship has run.
Thus the ship’s distance is ascertained 5 and the forces
of tides and currents may also be discovered by
this instrument; which, however, has been very little
used.
Marine Acid, an old name given to muriatic acid,
which see in Chemistry Index.
AIARINEK, the same with a sailor or seaman. See
these articles.
Method of preserving the health of Mariners. See
Seamen.
Mariner's Compass. See Compass.
St AIATUNO, a small town and republic of Italy,
situated in E. Long. 13. 44. N. Lat. 44. 21. This
small republic consists only of a mountain, and a few
hillocks, that lie scattered about the bottom of it. The
number of the inhabitants is about 5000. The moun¬
tain yields good wine, but they have no other than rain
or snow' water. The founder of the republic was a
Dalmatian, and a mason, who upwards of 1300 years
ago turned hermit, and retired to this mountain. Here
his devotion and austerity, and, in consequence of that,
his reputation for sanctity, were such, that the prin¬
ces of the country made him a present of the moun¬
tain ; on which many, out of veneration for the saint,
soon after took up their abode. Thus was the founda¬
tion laid of the town and republic, which still bears
the name of the saint. The town stands on the top of
the mountain, and there is only one way by which it
can be come at. In the whole territory are only three
castles, three convents, and five churches. The largest
of the churches is dedicated to the saint, and contains
bis ashes and his statue. He is looked upon as the
gieatest saint, next to the blessed Virgin j and to speak
disrespectfully of him is accounted blasphemy, and pu¬
nished as such. The republic is under the protection
of the pope. All that are capable of bearing arms are
exercised, and ready at a minute’s call. In the ordi¬
nary course of government, the administration is in the
3 *
C 591 ]
M A R
hands of the council of 60, which, notwithstanding its
name, consists only of 40 ; one-half of the members of
wdiich are oi the noble families, and the other of the
plebeian: on extraordinary occasions, however, the,
arengo, in which every house has its representative, is
called together. The two principal officers are the ca-
pitaneos, who are chosen every half year j and next to
them is the commissary, who judges in civil and criminal
matters, and is joined in commission with the capitane-
os ; both he and the physician must be foreigners, and
both have their salaries out of the public stock. When
any person, after due summons, neglects to assist at the
the council according to their statute book, he is to be
fined in about a penny English > and when an ambas¬
sador is to be sent to any foreign state, he is to be al¬
lowed about is. a-day.
Marino, John Baptist, a celebrated Italian poet,
born at Naples in 1569. His father, who was an
able civilian, obliged him to study the law; at which
being disgusted, he left his parents, and retired to the
house of the Sieur Alanzi, who was a friend to all per¬
sons of wit. He at length became secretary to Alat-
thew of Capua, great admiral of the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and contracted a friendship with Tasso. A short
time after, he went to Rome, and entered into the ser¬
vice of Cardinal Aldobrandini, nephew to Pope Cle¬
ment VIII. who took him with him to Savoy. Ala-
rino was in great favour with the court of Turin j but
afterwards created himself many enemies there, the
most furious of whom was the poet Gaspard Alurtola,
who, attempting to shoot him writh a pistol, wounded
one of the duke of Savoy’s favourites. Alarino being
obliged to leave Turin, went to Paris at the desire of
Queen Alary de Aledicis, and published there his poem
on Adonis. He afterwards went to Rome, where he
was made prince of the academy of the humoristi;
fiom thence to Naples, where he died while he rvas
preparing to return home. He had a very lively ima¬
gination, but little judgment j and, giving way to the
points and conceits then in vogue, his authority, far'
from correcting the false taste of the Italians, served
rather to keep it farther from reformation. His works,
which are numerous, have been often printed.
AIARINUS, an engraver, who flourished about the
year 1630, and resided principally at Autw'erp. His
plates, Air Strutt observes, are executed in a very sin¬
gular style, with the graver only : The strokes are very
fine and delicate, and crossed over each other in a lo¬
zenge-like form, which he filled up with thin long dots.
His prints, though generally very neat, want the style
of the master in the determination of the folds of the
draperies and the outline of the human figure j
the extremities oi which are heavy, and not marked
with precision. Fine impressions from his best plates
are, however, much sought after by collectors j those
especially after Rubens and Jordaens are held in high 1
estimation.
AIARIONIS, in Ancient Geography, a town of
Germany: now Hamburg, a famous trading city on
the Elbe, in Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Holstein.
Another Alarionis (Ptolemy), thought to be Wismar,
a town of Lower Saxony, in the duchy of Alecklen-
burgh.
AIARJORAAI, See Origanum, Botany Index.
MARITAGIUAI. In the feudal customs, marita-
ginm
Marino
11
Marita-
giuni.
MAR
[ 592 1
M A , R
Marita- gium (a3 contradistinguisbed from matrimonhm,)^.
fies the power which the lord or guardian in chivalry
-had of disposing of his infant ward in matrimony, t or
‘while the infant was in ward, the guardian had the
power of tendering him or her a suitable match with¬
out disparagement or inequality : which it the mlants
■refused, they forfeited the value ot the marriage, uo-
lorem maritagii,to their guardian 5 that is, so much as
a jury would assess, or any one would bonajide give to
the guardian for such an alliance : and if the infants
married themselves without the guardian’s consent,
they forfeited double the value, duplicem valorem ma-
ritagii. . , j j
MARITIME, something relating to, or bounded
ty the sea. Thus a maritime province or country is
one bounded by the sea j and a maritime kingdom is
one that makes a considerable iigute, or that is very
powerful at sea. Hence, by maritime powers among
the European states, are understood Great Britain and
formerly Holland.
Maritime State, in British policy, one of the three
general divisions of the laity: (See Laity). Hits
state is nearly connected with the military though
much more agreeable to the principles ol our free
constitution. The royal navy of England hath ever
been its greatest defence and ornament •, it is its an¬
cient and natural strength •, the floating bulwark of
the island j an army from which, however strong and
powerful, no danger can ever be apprehended to li¬
berty j and accordingly it has been assiduously culti¬
vated from earliest ages. To so much perfection was
cur naval reputation arrived in the 12th century, that
the code of maritime laws, which are called the lau>s
of Oleron, and are received by all nations in Europe
as the ground and substruction of all their marine
constitutions, Was confessedly compiled by our king
Richard I. at the isle of Oleron on the coast of I ranee,
then part of the possessions of the crown of England.
And yet so vastly inferior were our ancestors in this
point to the present age, that even in the maritime reign
of Queen Elizabeth, Sir Edward Coke thinks it mat¬
ter of boast, that the royal navy of England then con¬
sisted of three and thirty ships. The present condition
of our marine is in great measure owing to the salu¬
tary provisions of the statutes called the navigation
acts; whereby the constant increase of English ship¬
ping and seamen was not only encouraged, but ren¬
dered unavoidably necessary. By the statute 5 Rich¬
ard II. c. 3. in order to augment the navy of Eng¬
land, then greatly diminished, it was ordained, that
none of the king’s liege people should ship any mer¬
chandise out of or into the realm, but only in ships of
the king’s ligeance, on pain of forfeiture. In the
next year, by statute 6 Rich. II. c. 8. this wise provi¬
sion was enervated, by only obliging the merchants to
give English ships (if able and sufficient) the pre¬
ference. But the most beneficial statute for the trade
and commerce of these kingdoms is that navigation
act, the rudiments of which were first framed in 1650,
with a narrow partial view j being intended to mortify
our own sugar islands, which were disaflected to the
parliament, and still held out for Charles II. by stop¬
ping the gainful trade which they then carried on
with the Dutch, and at the same time to clip the
wings of those cur opulent and aspiring neighhours.
5
This prohibited all ships of foreign nations from tra- Maritiaii
ding with any English plantations, without license
from the council of state. In 1651, the prohibition
was extended also to the mother country: and no
goods were suffered to be imported into England, or
any of its dependencies, in any other than English
bottoms •, or in -the ships of that European nation of
which the merchandise imported was the genuine
growth or manufacture. At the Restoration, the
former provisions were continued, by stat. 12 Car. II.
c. 18. with this very material improvement, that the
master and three-fourths of the mariners shall also be
English subjects.
Many laws have been made for the supply of the
royal navy with seamen •, for their regulation when on
board *, and to confer privileges and rewards on them
during and after their service.
1. For their supply. The principal, but the most
odious, though often necessary method for this pur¬
pose, is by impressing see Impressing. But there
are other ways that tend to the increase of seamen,
and manning the royal navy. Parishes may bind out
poor boys apprentices to the masters of merchantmen,
who shall be protected from impressing for the first
three years j and if they are impressed afterwards, the
masters shall be allowed their wages : great advantages
in point of wages are given to volunteer seamen, in or¬
der to induce them to enter into his majesty’s service :
and every foreign seamen, who, during a war, shall
serve two vears in any man of war, merchantmen, or
privateer, is naturalized ipso facto. About the middle
of King William’s reign, a scheme was set on foot tor
a register of seamen to the number of 30,000, for a
constant and regular supply of the king’s fleet •, with
great privileges to the registered men j and, on the
other hand, heavy penalties in case of their non-appear¬
ance when called'' for j but this registry, being judged
to be rather a badge of slavery, was abolished by stat.
9 Ann. c. 21. _ .
2. The method of ordering seamen in the royal
fleet, and keeping up a regular discipline there, is di¬
rected by certain express rules, articles, and orders,
first enacted by the authority ot parliament soon after
the Restoration j but since new modelled and altered,
after the peace of Aix-la-Chapelle, to remedy some
defects which were of fatal consequences in conducting
the preceding war. In these articles of the navy al¬
most every possible offence is set down, and the pu¬
nishment thereof annexed: in which respect the sea¬
men have much the advantage over their brethren in
the land service ; whose articles of war are not enact¬
ed by parliament, but framed from time to time at the
pleasure of the crown. Yet Irom whence this distinc¬
tion arose, and why the executive power, which is li¬
mited so properly with regard to the navy, should be
so extensive with regard to the army, it is hard to
assign a reason : unless it proceeded from the perpetual
establishment of the navy, which rendered a permanent
law for their regulation expedient, and the temporaiy
duration of the army, which subsisted only from year
to year, and might therefore with less danger be sub¬
jected to discretionary government. But, whatever
was a pprehended at the first formation of the mutiny
act, the regular renewal of our standing force at the
entrance of every year has made this distinction n le»
} ] i or,
F f M A [ 593
Maritime, i1 or, it trom experience past, ive may judge of future
Marius, events, the army is now lastingly ingrafted into the
British constitution; with this singularly fortunate cir¬
cumstance, that any branch of the legislature may an¬
nually put an end to its legal existence, by refusing to
concur in its continuance.
3. The privileges conferred on sailors, are pretty
much the same with those conferred on soldiers, with
regard to relief, when maimed, or wounded, or su¬
perannuated, either by county-rates, or the royal hos¬
pital at Greenwich ; with regard also to the exercise
of trades, and the power of making nuncupative testa¬
ments ; and farther, no seaman on board his majesty’s
ships can be arrested for any debt, unless the same be
sworn to amount at least to twenty pounds ; though, by
the annual mutiny acts, a soldier may be arrested for a
debt which extends to half that value, but not to a less
amount.
MARIUS, the famous Roman general, and seven
times consul, who sullied his great military reputation
by savage barbarities. He was born at Arpinum, of
obscure and illiterate parents. He forsook the meaner
occupations ot the country for the camp ; and signa¬
lized himself under Scipio, at the siege of Numantia.
The Roman general saw the courage and intrepidity
of young Marius, and foretold the era of his future
greatness. By his seditions and intrigues at Rome,
while he exercised the inferior offices of the state, be
rendered himself known; and his marriage with Julia,
who was of the family of the Caesars, contributed in
some manner to raise him to consequence. He passed
into Africa as lieutenant to the consul Metellus against
Jugurtha; and alter he had there ingratiated himself
with the soldiers, and raised enemies to his friend and
benefactor, he returned to Rome and canvassed For
the consulship. The extravagant promises he made to
the people, and his malevolent insinuations about the
conduct of Metellus, proved successful. He was elect¬
ed and appointed to finish the war against Jugurtha.
He showed himself capable in every degree to succeed
to Metellus. Jugurtha was defeated, and afterwards
betrayed into the hands of the Romans by the perfi¬
dy of Bocchus. No sooner was Jugurtha conquered,
than new honours and fresh trophies awaited Marius.
The provinces of Rome were suddenly invaded by an
rmy of 300,000 barbarians, and Marius was the on¬
ly man whose activity and boldness could resist so
powerful an enemy. He was elected consul, and sent
against the Teutones. The war was prolonged, and
Marius was a third and fourth time invested with the
consulship. At last two engagements were fought,
and not less than 200,000 of the barbarian forces of
the Ambrones and Teutones were slain in the field of
battle, and 90,000 made prisoners. The following
year, A. U. C. 651, was also marked by a total over¬
throw of the Cimbri, another horde of barbarians; in
which 140,000 were slaughtered by the Romans, and
60,000 taken prisoners. After such honourable vic¬
tories, Marius with his colleague Catullus entered
Rome in triumph ; and for his eminent services he re¬
ceived the appellation of the third founder of Bo?ne.
He was elected consul a sixth time ; and as his intre¬
pidity had delivered his country from its foreign ene¬
mies, he sought employment at home, and his restless
ambition began to raise seditions, and to oppose the
Vol. XII. Part II.
MAR
power of Sylla. This was the foundation of a ci¬
vil war. Sylla refused to deliver up the command of
his forces, with which he was empowered to prose¬
cute the Mithridatic war ; and he resolved to oppose
in person the authors of a demand which he considered
as arbitrary and improper. He advanced to Rome,
and Manus was obliged to save his life by flight.
Ihe unfavourable winds prevented him from seeking
a safer retreat in Africa, and he was left on the coast
ol Campania, where the emissaries of his enemy soon
discovered him in a marsh, where he had plunged
himself in the mud, and left only his mouth above
the surface for respiration. He was violently drag¬
ged to the neighbouring town of Minturn* ; and the
magistrates, all devoted to the interest of Sylla, pas¬
sed sentence ot immediate death on their magnani¬
mous prisoner. A Gaul was commanded to cut oft'
his head in the dungeon ; but the stem countenance of
Marius disarmed the courage of the executioner: and
when he heard the exclamation of Tune, homo, audes
occiderc Catum Alanum V the dagger dropped from his
hand. Such an uncommon adventure moved the com¬
passion of the inhabitants of Minturnae. They released
Marius from prison ; and favoured his escape to AfrU
ca, where he joined his son Marius, who had been
arming the princes of that country in his cause. Ma¬
rius landed near the walls of Carthage, and he receiv¬
ed no small consolation at the sight of the venerable
ruins of a once powerful city, which like himself had
been exposed to calamity, and felt the cruel vicissitude
ot fortune. rJ his place of his retreat was soon known ;
ami the governor of Africa, to conciliate the favour of
Sylla, compelled Marius to fly to a neighbouring island,
lie soon after learned that Cinna had embraced his
cause at Rome, when the Roman senate had stripped
him of his consular dignity, and bestowed it upon one
of his enemies. This intelligence animated Marius ;
he set sail to assist his friend only at the head of 1000
men. His army, however, was soon increased, and
he entered Rome like a conqueror. His enemies were
inhumanly sacrificed to his fury; Rome was filled
with blood ; and he, who once had been called the fa¬
ther of his country, marched through the streets of
the city, attended by a number of assassins, who im¬
mediately slaughtered all those whose salutations were
not answered by their leader. Such were the signals
lor bloodshed. When Marius and Cinna had suffici¬
ently gratified their resentment, they made themselves
consuls ; but Marius, already worn out with old age
and infirmities, died sixteen days after he had been
honoured with the consular dignity for the seventh
time, A. U. C. 666. Such was the end of Marius,
who rendered himself conspicuous by his victories and
by his cruelty. As he was brought up in poverty and
among peasants, it will not appear wonderful that he
always betrayed rusticity in his behaviour, and despised
in others those polished manners and that studied ad¬
dress, which education had denied him. He hated the
conversation of the learned only because he was illite¬
rate ; and if he appeared an example of sobriety and
temperance, he owed these advantages to the years of
obscurity which he passed at Arpinum. His counte¬
nance was stern, his voice firm and imperious, and his
disposition untractable. He was in the 70th year of
his age when he died; and Rome seemed to rejoice at
f 4 F the
Marius.
MAR
[ 594 ]
MAR
the fall of a man whose ambition had proved so fatal
0 many of her eitmns. His only qualthcat.ons were
those ol a great general; and w.th these he rendered
himself the most illustrious and powerful of the Unmans,
because lie was the only one whose ferocity seemed ca-
nable to oppose the barbarians ot the north..
1 Marius, C, the son of the great Marius, was as
cruel as his father, and shared his good and his adverse
fortune. He made himself consul in the 25th year ot
his age, and. murdered all the senators who opposed h.s
ambitious views. He was defeated by Sylla, and fled
to Prseneste, where he killed himself.
Marius, M. Aurelius^ a native ot Haul 5 who,
from the mean employment of a blacksmith, became
one of the generals of Gallienus, and at last caused
himself to he saluted emperor. Three days after this
elevation, a man who had shared his poverty without
partaking of his more prosperous fortune, publicly as¬
sassinated him, and he was killed by a sword which he
himself had made in the time of his obscurity. Ma¬
rius has been often celebrated for his great strength ,
and it is confidently reported, that he could stop, with
one of his fingers only, the wheel of a chariot in its
most rapid course. . t r 1 1
Marius, Maximm, a Latin writer, who published
an account of the Roman emperors from Irajan to
Alexander, now lost. His compositions were enter¬
taining, and executed with great exactness and fideli¬
ty. Some have accused him of inattention, and com¬
plain that his writings abounded with many tabulous
and insignificant stories.
MARIVAUX, Peter Carlet de, a French
writer in the dramatic way and in romance, was born ot
•a good family at Paris in 1688. A fine understanding,
well improved by education, distinguished him early.
His first object was the theatre, where he met with
the highest success in comic productions •, and these,
with the merit of his other works, procured him a place
in the French academy. The great characteristic ot
both his comedies and romance was, to convey an use¬
ful moral under the veil of wit and sentiment: My
only object (says he) is to make men more, just and
more humane and he was as amiable in his life and
conversation as he was in his writings. He died at 1 ai is
in aged yy. His works consist of, 1. Pieces dc
Theatre, 4vols. i2nio. 2. Hotncre travesti, 1 2mo.j which
is not supposed to have done much honour to his taste.
3. Le Spectateur Francois, 2 vols. 121110.. 4. I-e P/n-
losophe Indegent, i2mo. 5* ^larianne, 2 vois.
l2moj one of the best romances in the French lan¬
guage. 6. L? Paysan Parvenu, 12mo. 7. Pharsamon ;
inferior to the former.
MARK, St, was by birth a Jew, and descended ot
the tribe of Levi. He was converted by some of the
apostles, probably by St Peter 5 to whom he was a con¬
stant companion in all his travels, supplying the place
of an amanuensis and interpreter. He was by St Pe¬
ter sent into Egypt, fixing his chief residence at A-
lexandria, and the places thereabout; where he was
so successful in his ministry, that he converted multi¬
tudes both of men and women. He afterwards remov¬
ed westwards, towards the parts of Libya, going
through the countries of Marmorica, Pentapolis, and
others thereabouts-, where, notwithstanding the bar¬
barity and idolatry of the inhabitants, he planted the n
„ospel. Upon his return to Alexandria, he ordered'—
the affairs of that church, and there suffered martyr¬
dom in the following manner. About Easter, at the
time the solemnities ot Serapis were celebrated, the
idolatrous people, being excited to vindicate the ho¬
nour of their deity, broke in upon ot Mark, while lie
was performing divine service, and binding him with
cords, dragged him. through the streets, and thrust him
into prison, where in the night he had the connort of
a divine vision. Next day the enraged multitude used
him in the same manner, till, his spirits failing, he ex¬
pired under their hands. Some add, that they burnt
his body, and that the Christians decently interred his
bones and ashes near the place where he used to preach.
This happened in the year of Christ 68. Some wri¬
ters assert, that the remains of St Mark were after¬
wards, with great pomp, translated from Alexandria to
Venice. However, he is the tutelar saint and patron
of that republic, and has a very rich and stately church
erected to his memory. This apostle is author of one
of the four gospels inscribed with his name. See the
following article. _
St Mark’s Gospel, a canonical book of the New ies-
tacr.ent, being one of the four gospels.
St Mark wrote his gospel at Rome, where lie ac¬
companied St Peter in the year ot Chi 1st 44- lei-
tullian and others pretend, that St Mark was no more
than an amanuensis to St Peter, who dictated this gos¬
pel to him; others affirm, that he wrote it after St
Peter’s death. Nor are the learned less divided as to
the language it was written in ; some affirming that it
was composed in Greek, others in Latin. Several of
the ancient heretics received only the gospel of St Maik.
others, among the Catholics, rejected the 12 last \erses
of this gospel. The gospel of St Maik is piopeily an
abridgement of that ot St Matthew.
St Mark the Evangelist's Day, a festival of the
Christian church, observed April 25.
Canons of St Mark, a congregation of regular ca¬
nons founded at Mantua, by Albert Spinola, a priest,
towards the end of the 12th century. Spinola made
a rule for them, which was approved, corrected, and
confirmed by several succeeding popes. About the
year 1450 they were reformed, and followed only the
rule of St Augustine. This congregation having flou¬
rished for the space of 4C0 years, declined by little and
little, and is now become extinct.
Knights of St Mark, an order of knighthood m
the republic of Venice, under the protection of St.
Mark the evangelist. The arms of the order arc,
gules, a lion winged or; with this device, Pax TIRI
Marce Evangelista. This order is never confer
red but on those who have done signal service to the
commonwealth.
Mark, or Marc, in commerce, denotes a weight used
in several states of Europe, and for several commodities,
especially gold and silver. In T ranee, the mark is di¬
vided into eight ounces, 64 drachms, 192 deniers or
penny-weights, 160 esterlins, 300 mails, 640 fehns, or
4608 grains. In Holland, the mark weight is also
called 'Troy-iveight, and is equal to that of Trance.
When gold and silver are sold by the mark, it is divid¬
ed into 2? carats.
Vf A m vr
M A 1\
Mark
II
Marlbo¬
rough.
Mark is also used among ns tor a money of account,
and in some other countries for a coin. See AIoN£Y-
Table.
1 he English mark is two-thirds of a pound sterling,
or 13s. gd. j and the Scotch mark is of equal value in
Scots money of account, viz. 13yd.
MARKET, a public place in a city or town, in
which live cattle, provisions, or other goods, are set
to sale j and also a privilege, either by grant or pre¬
scription, by which a town is enabled to keep a
market.
Cou/1 of the Clerk of the Market, is incident to
every fair and market in the kingdom, to punish mis¬
demeanors therein ; and a court of pie pouilre is to de¬
termine all disputes relating to private or civil pro¬
perty. The object of this jurisdiction (see stat. 17
Car. II. cap. 10. 22 Car. II. cap. 8. 23 Car. II. cap.
12). is principally the cognizance of weights and mea¬
sures to try whether they be according to the true
standard thereof or not; which standard was anciently
committed to the custody of the bishop, who appoint¬
ed some clerk under him to inspect the abuse of them
more narrowly j and hence this officer, though now
usually a layman, is called the clerk of the market.—
If they be not according to the standard, then, be¬
side the punishment of the party by fine, the weights
and measures themselves ought to be burnt. This
is the lowest court of criminal jurisdiction in.the king¬
dom.
MARKLAND, Jeremiah, one of the most learn¬
ed scholars and acute critics of the age, was born in
1692, and received his education in Christ’s hospital.
He became fix*st publicly known by his Epistola Critica,
addressed to Bishop Hare. In this he gave many
proofs ol extensive erudition and critical sagacity. He
afterwards published an edition of Statius, and some
plays of Euripides; and assisted Dr Taylor in his
editions of Lysias and Demosthenes, by the notes which
he communicated to him. He has also very happily
elucidated some passages in the New Testament, which
may be found in Mr Boyer’s edition of it ; and was
author of a very valuable volume of remarks on the
epistles of Cicero to Brutus, and of an excellent little
treatise under the title of Questio Grammatica. He
died in 1775, at Milton near Dorking in Surry ; and
was a man not more valued for his universal reading,
than beloved for the excellency of his heart and pri¬
mitive simplicity of his manners.
MARLBOROUGH, a town of Wiltshire in Eng¬
land, situated near the source of the Kennet, at the
foot of a chalky hill, 75 miles from London. It has
its name from the chalky soil, which was formerly
called marl. It was a Romish station. In the year
1627 a parliament was held in the castle here, which
made those laws called Marlborough statutes. There
are still some small remains of its walls and ditch.
The town, which is an ancient borough by prescrip¬
tion, sends two members to parliament. It contained,
in 1811, 2579 inhabitants; and is governed by a
mayor, two justices, twelve aldermen, &c. It con¬
sists chiefly of one broad street, with piazzas all along
one side of it, two parish churches, and several com¬
modious inns, it being the grand thoroughfare from
London to Bath and Bristol. To the south are some
relicks of a priory, particularly the Gatehouse; and
[ 595 ]
M A R
the site of a Roman Castrum, the foundations of which
have been discovered there, with Roman coins. The
ditchis still in some parts 20 feet wide; and towards
the river, without the garden walls, one angle of the
castrum is very visible with the rampart and ditch en¬
tire. The mount at the west end of the town, which
was the keep or main guard of the castle, is converted
into a pretty spiral walk ; at the top of which is an oc¬
tagon summer house. This town has often suflered
by fire, particularly in 1690, whereupon the parlia¬
ment passed an act to prevent its houses from being
thatched.
Marlborough, Duke of. See Churchill.
MARLBOROUGH-Fort, an English factory on the west
coast of the island of Sumatra in Asia; seated three
miles west of the town of Bencoolen. E. Long. 101.
12. S. Lat. 4. 21.
MARLE, a mixture of calcareous with siliceous and
argillaceous earth, very much used in agriculture as a
manure. See Agriculture and Mineralogy In-
dex.
MARLINE, in sea affairs, arc tarred white skains,
or long wreaths or lines of untwisted hemp, dipped in
pitch or tar, with which cables or other ropes are
wu-apped round, to prevent their fretting or rubbing in
the blocks or pulleys through which they pass. The
same serves in artillery upon ropes used for rigging
gins, usually put up in small parcels called skains.
MARLOE, Christopher, an English dramatic
author, wras a student in the university of Cambridge ;
but afterwards turning player, he trode the same stage
with the inimitable Shakespeare. He was accounted
an excellent poet even by Ben Johnson himself. He
wrote six tragedies, one of which called Lust’s Domi¬
nion, or the Lascivious Queen, has been altered by Mrs
Behn, and acted under the title of Abdelazar, or the
Moor’s Revenge. Some time before his death, he had
made a considerable progress in an excellent poem en¬
titled Hero and Leander: which w'as afterwards finish¬
ed by George Chapman, who is said to have fallen
short of the spirit and invention discovered by Marloe.
Mr Anthony Wood represents him as a freethinker,
in the worst sense of the word; and gives the followimr
account of his death. Falling deeply in love with a
low girl, and having for his rival a fellow in liverv,
Marloe, imagining that his mistress granted him fa¬
vours, was fired with jealousy, and rushed upon him
in order to stab him with his dagger: but the foot¬
man avoided the stroke, and, seizing his wrist, stabbed
him with his own weapon; of which wound he died,
in the year 1593.
MARLOW , a town of Buckinghamshire, in Eng¬
land, 31 miles from London, lies under the Chiltern
hills, in a marly soil. It is a pretty large borough,
though not incorporated, with a bridge over the
Thames, not far from its conflux with Wrycomb, and
has a handsome church and town-hall. It first sent
members to parliament in the reign of Edward 11.
Bone lace is its chief manufacture. The Thames
brings goods hither from the neighbouring towns, espe¬
cially great quantities of meal and malt from High
Wycomb, and beech from several parts of the county,
which abounds with this wood more than any in Eng¬
land. In the neighbourhood are frequent horse races;
and here are several corn and paper-mills, particularly
4 E 2 on
Marl bo-
rougli
II
Marlow.
MAR
[ 596 1
MAR
Marlow,
Marly.
on the river Loddon,
Wycomb. There are
between this town and High
vcu.no.    besides, the Temple-mills for
making thimbles, and another for pressing oil from rape
and flax seeds. The population in 1811 was 2799.
At Great Marlow there is an institution supported
})V government for the education of young men destined
for the army. The pupils are entirely under military
discipline, and are instructed by able professors in the
various branches of education connected with mili¬
tary tactics. ... r-n
MARLY, a palace belonging to the king 01 i ranee,
between Versailles and St Germain *, seated in a valley,
near a village and forest of the same name. It is
noted for its fine gardens and water-works, there be¬
ing a curious machine on the river Seine, which not
only supplies them with water, but also those ot ’Ver¬
sailles. It is 10 miles north-west of Paris. L. Long.
2. II. N. Lat. 48. 52. . . .
Marly, Machine at. When Lewis the Great had
fixed upon a favourite situation in the forest ot Marly,
where he intended to erect a splendid castle, he found
that it wanted nothing either in point of beauty or con¬
venience but a fountain of water } and he immediately
determined to supply by the assistance of art what na¬
ture had denied it. An ingenious and self-taught car¬
penter from Liege, named Mannequin, undertook to
conduct from the Seine a copious supply of water, and
for this purpose contrived and erected the celebiated
and complicated machine which we are now to describe.
The machinery is driven by 14 undershot water
wheels of 36 feet diameter, reckoning from the ends ot
the floatboards, disposed in three rows. In the first row
there are seven wheels, in the second six, and in the
third only one. By these wheels the water is raised
through pumps into the first reservoir about 160 feet
above the level of the river, then to a second reservoir
346 feet high, and from this to the summit of a tower
about 533 feet above the Seine.
The two extremities of the axle of each wheel extend
beyond the gudgeons on which they rest, and are bent
into a crank so as to form a lever two feet long. I he
crank which is tow'ards the mountain drives the water
of the river into the first reservoir, and the other crank
gives motion to the balances.
An engine of eight pumps is wrought by one of the
cranks of each of the six wheels in the first row.
These engines consist of a balance, at each end of which
bangs a square piece of wood that supports and directs
four pistons. This balance is moved by a beam in the
form of a T, the horizontal part of which is connected
at one end with the balance by the intervention of a
vertical regulator or beam, and at the other with the
crank of the wheel by means of a horizontal iron rod.
One of the cranks of each of the sir tuheels of the
first row, (excepting that which is next the mountain),
and two of the cranks of the 14th wheel, or that in
the last row, give motion to the pumps in the river,
and carry the water into the first reservoir. This mo¬
tion is communicated from the cranks by means of an
iron rod which is fixed to the lower end of a vertical
balance. A horizontal regulator or beam is fixed to
each end of this balance, and to these regulators are
fastened chains which follow the declivity of the moun¬
tain till they reach the superior reservoirs. When the
wheel is revolving, therefore, one of these chains will
be dragged towards the river, and the other towards
the mountain. In order to produce this alternate mo¬
tion, the chains are supported and kept at equal distances
by a number of vertical balances, placed along' the
mountain at every three toises, and moving upon a cen¬
tre supported by a frame lying between the two chains
and equidistant from them. When these chains reach
the first reservoir they are fixed to vertical regulators,
which carry frames, to which are adapted the pistons ot
the sucking pumps. These regulators therefore will
be drawn one after another by their corresponding
chains •, and when one regulator is drawn by its chain,
the piston of the pumps which it carries will be raised,
and the water will follow them : At the same time the
pistons of the other regulator are descending to form a
vacuum} and these in their turn ascend with their load
of water when the others are in the act of descending.
In the pumps formerly mentioned which work in the
river, an effect is produced upon the pistons both when
they ascend and descend, because they are moved by
stiff iron rods •, but in the present case the pistons de¬
scend merely by their own weight, as the motion is
transmitted only by a chain. By these pumps the u li¬
ter is conveyed to the upper reservoir by two conduit
pipes of eight inches, and three others of six inches dia-
meter. .
The sixth wheel of the first row, which is the first
towards the dam, moves a long chain which ivoiks the
pumps ot one of the wells of the upper reservoir. T. he
seventh wheel gives motion to a chain which goes to
the first cistern.
By means similar to these already described, the six
wheels of the second row move by each ot their cranks
a chain that goes to the second reservoir, and eight of
these chains work 16 pumps behind it, to bring back
into the reservoir the water which is lost out oi the six
pipes that go to the tower. rIliese chains go over one
of the first cisterns, and five ot them at the same time
give motion to the pistons ot thirty pumps, whilst the
other chains go on straight to the great reservoir.
These 30 pumps convey their water through two pipes
of 8 inches diameter into the upper reservoir. I he
five chains, after ivorking these 30 pumps, give motion
to the pistons of 82 pumps in the second reservoir which
raise the water from it to the tower.
The basis of the toiver which receives the water raised
from the river is 610 fathoms distant from it} and the
water runs from this bason along an aqueduct ot 36 arches
by its own weight. From this aqueduct the water is dis¬
tributed into great reservoirs, from which it is conveyed
to the gardens and shrubberies around the castle.
The quantity of water raised by this machine amounts
at a mean rate to 30,000 or 40,000 gallons per hour ;
though in favourable circumstances it raises more than
60,000 gallons per hour. But while the Seine either
overflows its banks, or is frozen, or when the water is
very low, the machine is scarcely capable ol performing
any work.
The yearly expence of the machine at Marly includ¬
ing the salaries of the superintendants and the expcnces
of repairs, amounts to about 330CL sterling, or 9I. pel
day, which makes the expence of 90 gallons ot water
one farthing. But if we take into the account the
interest
MAR [ 597 I MAR
Marly interest of 333,000!. the original expence of the ma¬
ll chine, 90 gallons will cost three halfpence, or 15 gal-
Marobu- ]ons one farthing.
^ 1 Notwithstanding the magnificence of this great ma¬
chine, and the ingenuity which is displayed in its con¬
struction, every person who examines it with care, will
perceive innumerable defects, whether he examines it
as a whole, or attends to the parts of which it is com¬
posed. In several positions the moving forces act with
great obliquity, and therefore occasion an immense
waste of power 5 and in order to give an alternate mo¬
tion to a number of chains of balances extending to a
distance of 3804 feet, more than nine-tenths of the im¬
pelling power are destroyed.
By a few changes upon the construction of the ma¬
chine, the water might have been raised from the
river to the tower without any intermediate reservoirs.
This appears from two experiments made upon the ma¬
chine in 1738 all(l 1775. In 1738 M. Camus attempt¬
ed to raise the water to the tower at once. He was
able, however, only to bring it to the bottom of the
tower which was considerably higher than the second
reservoir. By this experiment the machine was so
much strained that several parts required chains to se¬
cure it. In 1775 the water was elevated to the second
reservoir at one jet at different times, but from the age
and infirmity of the pipes several of them burst during
the experiment. Hence it is obvious that if the pipes
had been made stronger, the first reservoir and the ma¬
chinery connected with it might have been dispensed
with ; and it is very probable that if the machine had
been constructed with more judgment, the water might
have been conducted at once from the river to the
tower.
MARMALADE, a confection of plums, apricots,
quinces, &c. boiled up to a consistence with sugar. In
Scotland, it is made of Seville oranges and sugar only.
MARMANDE, a town of France, in the depart¬
ment of Lot and Garonne, containing about 4000 in¬
habitants. It carries on a great trade in corn and
wine, and is seated on the river Garonne, in E. Long,
o. 15. N. Lat. 44. 30.
MARMONTEL, a French writer. See Supple¬
ment.
MARMORA, the name of four islands of Asia, in
the sea of the same name. The largest is about 30
miles in circumference ; and the soil of them all pro¬
duces corn, wine, and fruits. The sea of Marmora
is a large gulf, which communicates both with the
Archipelago and the Black sea by that of Constan¬
tinople, being 120 miles in length and 50 in breadth ;
and all ships must pass through it that sail to Constan¬
tinople from the Mediterranean. It was anciently the
Propontis.
MARMORICA, a country of Africa anciently in¬
habited by the Libyans. It was bounded on the east
by Egypt, on the west by Cyrenaica, on the south by
Sahara, or the desert of Libya Interior, and on the
north by the Mediterranean ; and was reckoned a part
of Egypt.
MARNE, the name of two departments in France,
and also of a river which has its origin in one of them.
MAROBUDUN, in Ancient Geography, the royal
residence of Marobudus, king of the Marcomanni. Now
thought to be Prague, the capital of Bohemia.
4,
MAROLLES, Michel de, born in 1600, was Marollcs
the son of Claude de Marolles, whom French memoirs |i
make a military hero. Michel, however, was of a ^aron^te5-j
different composition. He entered early into the ec- '
clesiastical state, and by the interest of his father ob¬
tained two abbeys. He w'as formed with an extreme
ardour for study, which never abated all his life long ;
for, from 1619 when he published a translation of Lu¬
can, to 1681, the year ol his death, he was constant¬
ly employed in writing and printing. He attached
himseli unfortunately to the translating of ancient La¬
tin writers : but, being devoid of all classical taste and
spirit, they sunk miserably under his hands, the poets
especially. He was certainly, however, a man of great
learning, and discovered all his life a love for the arts.
He was one of the first who paid any attention to prints j
and collected about loc.ooo, which make at this day
one of the ornaments of the French king’s cabinet. He
composed memoirs of his own life, which were publish¬
ed by the abbe Goujet, 1755, in 3 vols.
MARONTIES, in ecclesiastical history, a sect of
eastern Christians, who follow the Syrian rite, and are
subject to the pope; their principal habitation being on
Mount Libanus.
Mosheim informs us, that the doctrine of the Mo¬
nothelites, condemned and exploded by the council of
Constantinople, found a place of refuge among the
Mardaites, a people who inhabited the mounts Liba¬
nus and Antilibanus, and who, about the . conclusion
of the seventh century, were called Maronites, after
Maro their first bishop j a name which they still retain.
None (he says) of the ancient writers give any certain
account of the first person who instructed these moun¬
taineers in the doctrine of the Monothelites: it is pro¬
bable, however, from several circumstances, that it
was John Maro, whose name they had adopted j and
that this ecclesiastic received the name of Maro from
his having lived in the character of a monk in the fa¬
mous convent of 8t Maro, upon the borders of the
Orontes, before his settlement among the Mardaites
of Mount Libanus. One thing is certain, from the
testimony of Tyrius and other unexceptionable wit¬
nesses, as also from the most authentic records, viz.
that the Maronites retained the opinions of the Mo¬
nothelites until the 12th century, when, abandoning •
and renouncing the doctrine of one wall in Christ,
they were readmitted in the year 1182 to the com¬
munion of the Roman church. The most learned of
the modern Maronites have left no method unemploy¬
ed to defend their church against this accusation 5 they
have laboured to prove, by a variety of testimonies,
that their ancestors always persevered in the Catholic*
faith, in their attachment to the Roman pontiff, with¬
out ever adopting the doctrine of the Monophysites,
or Monothelites. But all their efforts are insufficient
to prove the truth of these assertions to such as have
any acquaintance with the history of the church and
the records of ancient times ; for to all such the testi¬
monies they allege will appear absolutely fictitious and
destitute of authority.
Faustus Nairon, a Maronite settled at Rome, has
published an apology for Maro and the rest of his
nation. His tenet is, that they really took their name
from the Maro who lived about the year 400, and
of whom mention is made in Chrysostom, Theodoret,
anti
Mafonites,
Maroon.
MAR
and the Menologium of the Greeks,
the disciples of this Maro spread themselves through¬
out all Syria; that they built several monasteries, and
among others, one that bore the name of their leader j
that all the Syrians rvho were not tainted with heresy
took refuge among them and that for this reason the
heretics of those times called them Maronites.
Mosheim observes, that the subjection of the Ma¬
ronites to the spiritual jurisdiction.of the Homan pon¬
tiff was agreed to with this express condition, that
neither the popes nor their emissaries should pretend
to change or abolish any thing that related to the an¬
cient rites, moral precepts, or religious opinions, of
this people, so that in reality there is nothing to be
found among the Maronites that savours of popery, if
we except their attachment to the Roman pontiff, who
is obliged to pay very dear for their friendship. 1' or,
as the Maronites live in the utmost distress of poverty,
under the tyrannical yoke of the Mahometans, the
bishop of Rome is under the necessity of furnishing
them with such subsidies as may appease their oppres¬
sors, procure a subsistence for their bishop and clergy,
provide all tilings requisite for the support of their
churches, and the uninterrupted exercise of public
worship, and contribute in general to lessen their mi¬
sery. It is certain that there are Maronites in Syria
"who still behold the church of Rome-with the greatest
aversion and abhorrence ; nay, what is still more re¬
markable, great numbers of that nation residing in
Italy, even under the eye of the pontiff, opposed his
authority during the last century, and threw the court
of Rome into great perplexity. - One body of these
nonconforming Maronites retired into the valleys of
Piedmont, where they joined the Waldenses-; another,
above 600 in number, with a bishop and several eccle¬
siastics at their head, fled into Corsica, and implored
the protection of the republic of Genoa against the vio¬
lence of the inquisitors.
The Maronites have a patriarch, who resides in the
monastery of Cannubin, on Mount Libanus, and as¬
sumes the title of patriai’ch off Antioch, and the name
of Peter, as if he seemed desirous of being considered
as the successor of that apostle. ! He is^elected by the
clergy and the people, according to the ancient cu¬
stom j but, since their reunion with the- church of
Rome, he is obliged to have a bull of confirmation
from the pope. He keeps a perpetual celibacy, as
well as the rest of the bishops his suffragans ; as to the
rest of the ecclesiastics, they are allowed to marry be¬
fore ordination , and yet the monastic life is in great
esteem among them. Their monks are of the order of
St Anthony, and live in the most obscure places in the
mountains, far from the commerce of the world.
As to their faith, they agree in the main with the
rest of the eastern church. > Their priests do not say
mass singly, but all say it together, standing round
the altar. They communicate in unleavened bread 5
and the laity have hitherto partaken in both kinds,
though the practice of communicating in one has of
late been getting footing, having been introduced by
In Lent they eat nothing, unless it
little and little, in i^ent tney eat nothing, unless it “limit, trontier," as ueingj«i-
be two or three hours before sunrising : their other principis marckas seu limites transeundi, sibiqucjusja-
tastings are very numerous. ciendi; as being a right of passing the limits or frontiers
To MAROON, to put one or more sailors ashore of another prince, and doing one’s sell justice,
upon a desolate island, under pretence of their having Letters of marque among us are extraordinary com-
✓ o missions
[ 598 ] lV^ ^ ^
He adds, that committed some great crime. This detestable expedi¬
ent lias been too often practised by some inhuman com¬
manders of ships. .
MAROT,-Clement, the best French poet of lus
time, w-as born at Cahors in 1495 5 an^ Yvas. son
of John Marot, valet de chambre to Francis I. and
poet to Queen Anne of Brittany. Fie enjoyed his
father’s place as valet de chambre to Francis I. and
was page to Margaret of France wife to the duke
of Alemjon. In 1521 he followed that prince into
Italy, and Was- wounded and taken prisoner at the
battle of Pavia ; but at his return to Paris was ac¬
cused of heresy, and thrown into prison, irom whence
he was delivered by the protection of King Francis I.
He at length retired to the queen of Navarre, then
to the duchess of Ferrara, and in 1536 returned to
Paris: but declaring openly for the Calvinists, he was
obliged to fly to Geneva, which he at length left,
and° retiring to Piedmont, died at Turin in 1544,
aged 50. His verses are agreeably filled with natural
beauties. La Fontaine acknowledged himself his dis¬
ciple, and contributed greatly to restore to vogue
the works of this ancient poet. Marot, besides his
other works, has translated part of the Psalms into
verse, which was continued by Beza, and aie still
sang in the Protestant churches abroad.—Michael
Marot, his sen, was also the author ot some verses ,
but they are not comparable to those, of lohn, and much
less to those of ClementMurot.—‘I he works of the three
Marots were collected and printed together at the
Hague in 1731, in 3 vols. 4to, and in 6-vols. i2mo.
MARPURG, a strong and considerable town of
Germany, in the Upper Rhine, and in the landgra-
vate oi Hesse Cassel, with an university, a castle, a
palace, a handsome square, and a magnificent town-
house. It is is seated on the river Lohn, in a pleasant
country, 15 miles south of Waldeck, and 47 sou^1"eas^
of Cassel. E. Long. 8. 53. Ni Lat. .50. 42.
Marpurg, a town of Germany, in Lower Styria,
seated on the river Hrave, 25 miles south-west ot
Gratz, and 60 north-east ot Laubach. L. Long. 1 fi¬
le. N. Lat. 46. 42.
MARQUARD, FrEHER, an eminent German ci¬
vilian, born at Augsburg in 1565. He studied at
Roarges, under the learned Cujas; and acquired great
skill in polite literature, and in the laws. At his re¬
turn to Germany, he became counsellor to the elector
Palatine, and professor ot law at Heidelberg} and was
afterwards sent by the elector Jrederic IV. as bis mi¬
nister, into Polandj to Mentz, and several other courts.
Fie died at Heidelberg in 1614. He wrote many
works which are esteemed j the principal ot which
are, x. Me re monetaria veterum liomanonim, et hodi-
emi apud Gernianos imperii. 2. Teruni Bohenncaritm
scriplores. 3.' Her it m Germanic aruvi scriptores. 4*
Corpus historice Franc ice, &\C.
MARQUE, or Letters of Marque, in military af¬
fairs, are letters of reprisal, granting the subjects ol one
prince or state liberty to make reprisals on those oi
another.—They are so called from the German marcke
limit, frontier j” as being concessum in altenvs
MAR [ 5!*9 ] MAR
iviarque, »»issioBS granted by authority for reparation to mer- of half a crown j and before this another piece of per- Marquesas,
, Marquesas cTiants.taken and despoiled by strangers at sea; and re- forated tortoiseshell, the size of a shilling. Besides' v '
prisals is only the retaking, or taking of one thing for this decoration in front, some have it also on each
See Pre- another . The form in these cases is, tire sufferer must side, but in small pieces; and all have fixed to them
n first t0 tlie iord privy seal, and he shall make out the tail feathers of cocks, or tropic birds, which, when
letters ol request under the privy-seal; and if, after the fillet is tied on, stand upright, so that the whole
such request of satisfaction made, the party required together makes a very sprightly ornament. They
do not, within convenient time, make due satisfaction wear round the neck a kind of ruff or necklace mado
or restitution to the party grieved, the lord chancellor of light wood, the outward and upper sides covered
shall make him out letters of marque under the great with small pease, which are fixed on with gum ; they
seal; and by virtue ol these he may attack and seize also wear some bunches of human hair fastened to a
the property of the aggressor nation, without hazard of string, and tied round the legs and arms. But all the
^nt*emnc<* as a * or pirate. above ornaments are seldom seen on the same person.
MARQUESAS islands, the name of certain All these ornaments, except the last, they freely part-
islands in the South sea, lying between 8 and 10 ed with for a trifling consideration; but the human
degrees of south latitude, and between 139 and 140 hair they valued very highly, though these bunches
degrees of west longitude. They are five in number, were the usual residence of many vermine. It is pro-
viz. La Magdalena, St Uedro, La Dominica, Santa bable, that these were wrorn in remembrance of their
Christina, and Hood island. All the natives of these deceased relations, and therefore were looked upon
islands may be supposed to be ol the same tribe. Those with some veneration ; or they may be the spoils of
spots that are fit lor culture are very populous; but their enemies, worn as the honourable testimonies of
every island is very mountainous, and has many inac- victory. However, a large nail, or something which
cessible and barren rocks; and the whole population struck their eyes, commonly got the better of their
L believed not to exceed 6000. I he Spaniards, who scruples. The king, or chief of the island, came to
first visited here, found the manners of this people visit Captain Cook : he was the only one seen corn-
gentle and inoffensive ; but these qualities did not pre- pletely dressed in this manner. Their ordinary orna-
vrnt those who landed from wantonly butchering several ments are necklaces, and amulets made of shells, &c.
of the natives at Magdalena. . All of them had their ears pierced, though none were
ihe inhabitants of these islands collectively, says seen with ear-rings. The king had not much respect
Captain Cook, are without exception, the finest race paid him by his attendants; he presented Captain Cook
of people in the South sea. For symmetry of shape, with some fruit and hogs; and acquainted him that his
and regular features, they perhaps surpass all other na- name ivas llonco, and that he was hc-ka-ai, which title
tions. Not a single deformed or ill-proportioned per- seems to correspond with the arce of Otaheite, and
son was seen on the island ; all were strong, tall, well- arekee of the Friendly isles. Their dwellings are in
limbed, and remarkably active. The men are about the valleys, and on the sides of the hills near their plan-
five feet ten or six feet high ; their teeth are not so tations. They are built in the same manner as those
good, nor are their eyes so full and lively, as those of at Otaheite, which will be particularly described when
many other nations : their hair is of many colours, but we speak of that island; but they are much meaner,
none red; some have it long, but the most general cu- and are only covered with the leaves of the bread-
stom is to wear it short, except a bunch on each side of fruit tree ; in general, they arc built on a square or
the crown, which they tie in a knot: their countenan- oblong pavement of stone, raised some height above
ces are pleasing, open, and full of vivacity; they are of the level of the ground ; they likewise have such pave-
a tawney complexion, which is rendered almost black ment near their houses, on which they sit to eat and
by punctures over the whole body. They were entirely amuse themselves. Along the uppermost edge of the
naked, except a small piece of cloth round their ivaist mountain a row of stakes or palisadoes, closely con-
and loins. The punctures were disposed with the ut- nected together, were seen like a fortification, in which,
most regularity, so that the marks on each leg, arm, by the help of glasses, appeared something like huts,
and cheek, were exactly similar. Hie women, in two which seemed to bear a great resemblance to the hip-
days time, began to appear in considerable numbers, and pas of New Zealand, which will be described in speak-
the sailors found them not less kind than those of the ing of that country. Their canoes resemble those of
other islands which they had visited : they were inferior Otaheite, but not so large ; their heads had commonly
to the men in stature, but well proportioned : their ge- some flat upright piece, on which the human face was
neral colour was brown ; no punctures were observed coarsely carved ; and their sails were made of mats,
upon them ; they wore a single piece of cloth made of triangular in shape, and very broad at the top: the
the mulberry bark, which covered them from the shoul- paddles which they used were of heavy hard wood ;
ders to the knees. short, but sharp-pointed, and with a knob at the upper
.The principal head dress used in the islands, and wlxat end; they were from 10 to 22 feet long, and about 15
appears to be their chief ornament, is a sort ofbroad fillet, inches broad.
curiously made of the fibres of the busks of cocoa nuts ; Their weapons were all made of the club wood, or
in the front is fixed a mother-of-pearl shell, wrought casuarina; and were either plain spears about 8 or 10
round to the size of a tea saucer ; before that another feet long, or clubs which commonly had a knob at one
smaller, of very fine tortoiseshell, perforated into cu- end. They have also slings with which they throw
rious figures ; also before, and in the centre of that, is stones with great velocity, and to a great distance, but
another round piece of mother-of-pearl, about the size not with a good aim.
The
.^tarquesas,
MAR C 600
The language of these people Is much nearer to that
of Otaheite than any other dialect in the South sea, ex¬
cept that they could not pronounce the letter r.
The only quadrupeds seen here were hogs, except
rats ; here were fowls, and several small birds m the
woods, whose notes were very melodious. The duet
difference between the inhabitants of the Marquesas
and those of the Society islands seems to consist in
their different degrees of cleanliness : the former do
not bathe two or three times a-day, nor wash their hands
and face before and after every meal, as the latter do
and they are besides very slovenly in the manner of
preparing their meals. Their diet is chiefly vegetable ;
though they have hogs and fowls, and catch abundance
‘of fish at certain times. Their drink is pure water, co¬
coa nuts being scarce here.
It was not long before the propensity of the natives
was discovered to be rather to receive than give •, for
when they had taken a nail as the price of a bread¬
fruit, the article so purchased could not be obtained
from them. To remove this dishonest disposition, Cap¬
tain Cook ordered a musket to be fired over their heads,
which terrified them into fair dealing.
Soon after the natives had gathered courage enough
to venture on board the ship, one of them unfortu¬
nately stole an iron stancheon from the gangway, with
which he sprang into the sea, and, notwithstanding its
weight, swam with it to his canoe, and was making to
the shore with all speed. A musket was fired over
his head to frighten him back, but to no eflect, he still
continued to make off with his booty ; the whistling of
another ball over his head was as ineffectual ; an of¬
ficer, less patient of such an injury than reason and hu¬
manity should have taught him to be, levelled a musket
at the poor fellow, and shot him through the head.
Captain Cook had given orders to fire over the canoe,
but not to kill any one •, he was in a boat, and came
up with the canoe soon after. There were two men in
her : one sat bailing out the blood and water in a kind
of hysteric laugh 5 the other, a youth of about 14 or
15 years of age, who afterwards proved to be the son
of the deceased, fixed his eyes on the dead body
Avith a serious and dejected countenance. This act of
severity, however, did not estrange the islanders to the
ship, and a traffic was carried on to the satisfaction
of both parties ; bread-fruit, bananas, plantains, and
some hogs, Avere given in exchange for small nails,
knives, and pieces of Amsterdam cloth $ red leathers
of the Amsterdam island were greatly esteemed here.
Captain Cook, accompanied by the gentlemen of the
ship, in their Avalks about the country, lighted on
the house which had been the habitation of the man
Avho had been shot j there they found his son, Avho fled
at their approach •, they inquired for his female rela¬
tions, and Avere told that they remained at the top
of the mountain to Aveep and mourn for the dead.
NotAvithstanding they Avere then among the relations
of a man Avho had been killed by them, not the least
tokens of animosity or revenge were discernible among
the natives.
The weather being extremely hot, the inhabitants
made use of large fans to cool themselves, of Avhich
great numbers Avere purchased : the fans were for¬
med of a kind of tough bark, or grass, very firmly
and curiously plaited, and frequently whitened Avith
]
M A R
shell-lime. Some had large leathered leaves of a Marquess:
kind of palm, which answered the purpose of an ura- Marquetr;
brella.
The natives at length became so familiar as to
mount the sides of the ship in great numbers. They
frequently danced upon the decks for the diversion of
the sailors : their dances very much resembled those
of Otaheite j their music too was very much the
same;* # t .
A sailor having been inattentive to his duty, receiv¬
ed several bloivs from Captain Cook } on seeing Avhich,
the natives exclaimed tope-a-het-te-tino^ ii he beats his
brother.” From other instances that had occurred,
it Avas clear that they kneiv the difference betAyeen the
commander and his people, but at the same time they
conceived them all brethren ; and, says Mr Forster,
“ to me the most natural inference is, that they only
applied an idea to us in this case, which really existed
Avith regard to themselves ; they probably look on
themselves as one family, of which the eldest born is
the chief or king.”
MARQUETRY, Inlaid Work ; a curious kind
of work, composed of pieces of hard fine wood of dif¬
ferent colours, fastened, in thin slices, on a ground, and
sometimes enriched Avith other matters, as tortoise-shell,
ivory, tin, and brass.
There is another kind of marquetry made, instead of
AVood, of glasses of various colours 5 and a third, where
nothing but precious stones and the richest marbles are
used : but these are more properly called mosaic work.
Bee Mosaic.
The art of inlaying is very ancient 5 and is supposed
to have passed from the east to the Avest, as one of the
spoils brought to the Romans from Asia. Indeed it
Avas then but a simple thing *, nor did it arrive at any
tolerable perfection till the 15th century among the Ita¬
lians : it seems, hoAvever, to have arrived at its height
in the 17th century among the French.
Till John of Verona, a cotemporary Avith Raphael,
the finest works of this kind Avere only black and Avhite,
Avhieh are Avhat avc now call Morescos ; but that reli¬
gious, Avho had a genius for painting, stained his
AVoods with dyes or boiled oils, Avhich penetrated them.
But he Avent no farther than the representing buildings
and perspectives, Avhich requires no great variety ot
colours. Those who succeeded him, not only improved
on the iiiArention of dyeing the Avoods, by a secret which
they found of burning them without consuming, which
served exceedingly Avell for the shadoAvs *, but had also
the advantage of a number of fine neAV woods of na¬
turally bright colours, by the discovery of America.
With these assistances the art is uoav capable ot imita¬
ting any thing} whence some call it the art of painting
in wood.
The ground Avhereon the pieces are to be ranged
and glued, is ordinarily ot oak or fir well dried ; and
to prevent Avarping, is composed of several pieces glued
together. The Avood to be used, being reduced into
leaves, of the thickness of a line, is either stained with
some colour or made black tor shadoAV \ which some
effect by putting it in sand, extremely heated over the
fire, others by steeping it in lime-water and sublimate,
and others in oil of sulphur.—Thus coloured, the eon-
tours of the piece are formed according to the paits 0
the design they are to represent. .
parquetry
Marquis.
M A Ji [ 6gi
This last is the most difficult part of marquetry,
and that wherein most patience and attention are re-
quired. The two chief instruments used herein are
the saw and the vice j the one to hold the matters to
be formed •, the other, to take oft’ from the extremes,
according to occasion. The vice is of wood, having
one of its chaps fixed ; the other moveable, and is open¬
ed and shut by the foot, by means of a cord fastened to
a treadle. Its structure is very ingenious, yet simple
enough.
The leaves to be formed (for there are frequently
three or four of the same kind formed together) are
put within the chaps of the vice, after being glued on
the outermost part of the design whose profile they are
to follow ; then the workman pressing the treadle, and
thus holding fast the piece, with his saw runs over all
the outlines of the design.—By thus joining and form¬
ing three or four pieces together, they not only gain
time, but the matter is likewise the better enabled to
sustain the efforts of the saw j which, how delicate so¬
ever it may be, and how lightly soever the workman
may conduct it, without such a precaution would be
apt to raise splinters, to the ruin of the beauty of the
work.
^Vhen the work is to consist of one single kind of
wood, or of tortoise-shell, on a copper or tin ground, or
vice versa, they only form two leaves on one another,
i. e. a leaf of metal, and a leaf of wood or shell: this they
call sawing in counter parts; for by filling the vacui¬
ties of one of the leaves by the pieces coming out of the
other, the metal may serve as a ground to the wood, and
the wood to the metal.
All the pieces thus formed by the saw, and marked
to know them again, and the shadow given in the man¬
ner already mentioned j they veneer or fasten each in
its place on the common ground ; using for that pur¬
pose the best English glue.
The whole is put in a press to dry, planed over, and
polished with the skin of the sea-dog, wax, and shave-
grass, as in simple veneering; with this difference, how¬
ever, that in marquetry the fine branches, and several
of the more delicate parts of the figures, are touched up
and finished with the graver.
It is the cabinetmakers, joiners, and toymen, among
us, who work in marquetry, it is the enamellcrs and
stone-cutters who deal in mosaic works : the instruments
used in the former are mostly the same with those used
by the ebonists.
MARQUIS, a title of honour, next in dignity to
that of duke. His office is to guard the frontiers and
limits of the kingdom, which were called the marches,
from the Teutonic word tnat'che, a “ limitas, in
particular, were the marches of Wales and Scotland
while they continued hostile to England. The persons
who had command there, were called lords marchers,
or marquesses; whose authority was abolished by statute
27 Hen. VIII. c. 27. though the title had long before
been made a mere design of honour. Robert Vere, earl
of Oxford, being created marquis of Dublin by Rich¬
ard II. in the eighth year of his reign. A marquis is
created by patent; his mantle is double ermine, three
doublings and a half; his title is most honourable ; and
his coronet has pearls and strawberry leaves intermixed
round, of equal height.
Vol. XII. Part H. f
] MAH
MARR, that part of Aberdeenshire situated between m ......
the rivers Dee and Don. |,
MARRACCI, Lewis, a learned Italian, was born Marriage,
at Lucca in Tuscany in 1612. After having finished '
his juvenile studies, he entered into the congregation
of regular clerks of the mother of God, and distin¬
guished himself early by his learning and merit. He
taught rhetoric seven years, and passed through several
offices ot his order. He applied himself principally ^ .
to the study of languages, and attained of himself the
knowledge of the Greek, the Hebrew, the Syriac, the
Chaldee, and Arabic; which last he taught some time
at Rome, by the order of Pope Alexander VII.
I ope Innocent XI. chose him for his confessor, and
placed great confidence in him. He would have
advanced him to ecclesiastical dignities, if Marracci
had not opposed him.—Marracci died at Rome in
1700, aged 87.—He was the author of several pieces
in Italian j but the grand work, ■which has made him
deservedly famous all over Europe, is his edition of
the Alkoran, in the original Arabic, with a Latin ver¬
sion, notes, and confutation of his own. It was beau¬
tifully printed in two vols. folio at Padua in 1698. The
Latin version of the Alkoran, by Marracci, with notes
and observations from him and others, and a synopsis
of the Mahometan religion, by wray of introduction,
w-as published by Heineccius at Leipsic, 1721, in
8vo. Marracci had also a hand in the “ Biblia sacra
Arabica, sacicc congregationis de propaganda fide jussu
edita, ad usum ecclesiarum orientalium,” Romce. 1671
in 3 vols. folio. 7 ’
MARRIAGE, a contract, both civil and religious,
between a man and a woman, by which they engage to
live together in mutual love and friendship for the ends
of procreation, &c. See Moral Vhilosophy.
Marriage is part of the law of nations, and is in
use among all people. The Romanists account it a
sacrament.—The woman, with all her moveable goods,
immediately upon marriage, passes wholly in potesta-
tem viri, into the power and disposal of the hus¬
band.”
The first inhabitants of Greece lived together with¬
out marriage. Cecrops, king of Athens, is said to
ha\e been the first author of this honourable mstitu- -
tion among that people. After the commonwealths
of Greece were settled, marriage was very much en¬
couraged by their laws, and the abstaining from it was
discountenanced and in many places punished. The
Lacedaemonians were very remarkable for their severi¬
ty towards those who deferred marriage beyond a li¬
mited time, as well as to those who wholly abstained
from it. fhe Athenians had an express law, that all
commanders, orators, and persons intrusted with anv
public aftair, should be married men. Polygamy was
not commonly tolerated in Greece. The time of " mar¬
riage was not the same in all places. The Spartans
were not permitted to marry till they arrived at their
full strength ; the reason assigned for which custom by
Lycurgus was, that the Spartan children might be
strong and vigorous : and the Athenian laws are said
to have once ordered, that men should not marry till
35 years of age. The season of the year which they
preferred for this purpose was the winter, and particular¬
ly the month of January, called Gamelion. The Greeks
4 G thought
Marriage.
MAR [
thought it scandalous to contract marriage within cer¬
tain degrees of consanguinity j whilst most of the jar-
barons nations allowed incestuous mixtures.
Most of the Grecian states, especially such as made
anv figure, required their citizens should match with
none but citizens, and the children were not allowed
to marry without the consent, of their parents. Ihe
usual ceremony in promising fidelity was kissing each
other, or giving their right hands, which was a gene¬
ral form of ratifying all agreements. Before the mar¬
riage could be solemnized, the gods were to be con¬
sulted, and their assistance implored by prayers and sa¬
crifices, which were offered to some of the deities that
superintended these affairs, by the parents or nearest
relations of the persons to be married. V\ hen the
victim was opened, the gall was taken out and thrown
behind the altar, as being the seat of anger and ma¬
lice, and therefore the aversion of all the deities
who had the care of love, as well as those who be¬
came their votaries. For the particularities relating
to the bride and bridegroom, see Bride and Bride-
GRThe Romans as well as the Greeks, disallowed of
polygamy. A Roman might not marry any woman
who was not a Roman. Among the Romans, the ka¬
lends, nones, and ides of every month were deemed un¬
lucky for the celebration of marriage, as Avas also the
feast of the parental™, and the whole month of May.
The most happy season in every respect was that which
followed the ides of June.
The Roman laws speak of second marriages in very
hard and odious terms : Matre jam secundis nuptiisju-
nestata, L. iii. C. de sec. nuptiis. By these laws it was
enacted, that the effects of the husband or wife de¬
ceased should pass over to the children, if the survi¬
vor should marry a second time* By the law Hoc
edictali (Cod. de sec. nupt.), the survivor, upon mar¬
rying a second time, could not give the person he mar¬
ried a portion more than equal to that of each of the
children. In the primitive church the respect to chasti¬
ty was carried so high, that a second marriage was ac¬
counted no other than a lawful whoredom, or a species
of bigamy ; and there are some ancient canons which
forbid the ecclesiastics from being present at second
marriages.
Marriage, by the Mosaic law, was subject to se¬
veral restrictions : thus by Levit. chap, xviii. ver. 16.
a man was forbid to marry his brother’s widow unless
he died without issue} in which case it became en¬
joined as a duty. So it was forbid to marry his wife’s
sister, while she was living, ver. 18. •, which was not
forbidden before the law, as appears from the instance
of Jacob.
The ancient Roman law is silent on this head ; and
Papinian is the first who mentions it, on occasion of the
marriage of Caracalla. The lawyers who came after
him stretched the bonds of affinity so far, that they
placed adoption on the same foot with nature.
Affinity, according to the modern canonists, renders
marriage unlawful to the fourth generation, inclusive j
but this is to be understood of direct affinity, and not
of that which is secondary or collateral. Affinis mei
affinis, non est affinis mens. It is farther to be observed,
that this impediment of marriage does not only follow
an affinity contracted by lawful matrimony, but also that
602 ] MAR
contracted by a criminal commerce with the differ- Marriage,
ence, that this last does not extend beyond the second ge¬
neration 5 whereas the other, as has been observed,
reaches to the fourth.
In Germany they have a kind of marriage called
morganatic, wherein a man of quality contracting with
a woman of inferior rank, he gives her the left hand
in lieu of the right ; and stipulates in the contract that
the wife shall continue in her former rank or condition j
and that the children born of them shall be of the
same, so that they become bastards as to matters of in¬
heritance, though they are legitimate in effect. They
cannot bear the name or arms of the family. None
but princes and great lords of Germany are allowed
this kind of marriage. The universities of Leipsic and
Jena have declared against the validity of. such con¬
tracts } maintaining that they cannot prejudice the chil¬
dren, especially when the emperor’s consent intervenes
in the marriage.
The Turks have three kinds of marriages, and three
sorts of wives } legitimate, wives in kebtn, and slaves* .
They marry the first, lure the- second, and buy the
third. . .
Among all the savage nations, whether in Asia, A-
frica, or America, the wife is commonly bought by the
husband from her father or those other relations who
have an authority over her j and the conclusion of a
bargain for this purpose, together with the payment of
the price, has therefore become the usual form or so¬
lemnity in the celebration of their marriages. The
Hebrews also purchased their wives by paying down a
competent dowry for them j and Aristotle makes it one
argument to prove that the ancient Grecians were an
uncivilized people, because they used to buy theii?-
wives •, and in proportion as they laid aside their bar¬
barous manners they left off this practice.
The English law considers marriage in no other light
than as a civil contract j the holiness of the matiimo-
nial state being left entirely to the ecclesiastical law, to
which it pertains, to punish or annul incestuous or otheif
unscriptural marriages. The law allows marriage to
be good and valid, where the parties at the time oi
making it were willing and able to contract, and ac¬
tually did contract, in the proper forms and solemni¬
ties required by law. The disabilities for contracting
are of two sorts : first, such as are canonical, and there-
fore sufficient by the ecclesiastical laws to void the
marriage in the spiritual court 5 such as pre-contract,
consanguinity or relation by blood j and affinity, or ie
lation by marriage, and some particular corporal in r-
mities. But these disabilities in our law do not make
the marriage- ipso facto void, but voidable only by
tence of separation j and marriages are esteemed valid to
all civil purposes, unless such separation is actually made
during the life of the parties. Thus when a man had
married his first wife’s sister, and after her death the.
bishop’s court was proceeding to annul the mainage
and bastardise the issue, the court .of king’s bench grant¬
ed a prohibition quoad hoc; but permitted them to pro¬
ceed to punish the husband lor incest.
By 32 Hen. VJII. c. 38. it is declared, that all per¬
sons may lawfully marry but such as are prohibite
by God’s law, &c. And that nothing (God’s law
excepted) shall impeach any marriage but within the
Levitical degrees: these are enumerated in the 1
45 chapter
Marriage.
MAR [ 603
chapter of Leviticus, and are illustrated by Lord Coke
1 in this manner: a man may not marry his mother,
father’s sister, mother’s sister, sister, daughter, daugh¬
ter of his son or daughter, father’s wife, uncle’s wife,
father’s wife’s daughter, brother’s write, wife’s sister,
son’s wife, or wife’s daughter, and daughter of Iris
wife’s son or daughter. And a woman may not marry
her father, father’s brother, mother’s brother, brother,
son, son of her husband’s son or daughter, mother’s
hfisband, aunt’s husband, sister’s husband, husband’s
brother, and son of her husband’s son or daughter.
By the civil law first cousins are allowed to marry; but
by the canon law both first and second cousins are
prohibited. Therefore when it is vulgarly said that
first cousins may marry but second cousins cannot, this
probably arose by confounding these two laws $ for
first cousins may marry by the civil law, and second
cousins cannot by the canon law. But by the fore-
said stat. 32 Hen. VIII. c. 38. it is clear, that both
first and second cousins may marry. By the same sta¬
tute all impediments arising from precontracts to
other persons were abolished, and declared of none
effect unless they had been consummated with bodily
kno\vledge j in which case the canon law holds such
contract to be a marriage de facto. But this branch
of the statute was repealed by 2 and 3 Ed. VI. c. 23.
How far the act of 26 Geo. II. c. 33. (which pro¬
hibits aH suits in ecclesiastical courts to compel a mar¬
riage in consequence of any contract) may collaterally
extend to revive this clause of Henry VIH.’s statute,
and abolish the impediment of precontract, Judge
Blackstone leaves to be considered by the canonists.
We shall here observe, that on a promise of marriage,
if it be mutual on both sides, damages may be reco¬
vered in case either party refuses to marry 5 and though
no time for the marriage is agreed on, if the plaintiff
b,vers that he offered to marry the defendant who re¬
fused it, an action is maintainable for the damages ;
but no action shall be brought upon any agreement
except it is in writing, and signed by the party to be
charged. The canonical hours for celebrating mar-,
riage are from 8 to 12 in the forenoon.
The other sort of disabilities are those which are
created, or at least enforced, by the municipal laws.
These civil disabilities make the contract void ab initio,
by rendering the parties incapable of forming any con¬
tract at all. The first legal disability is a prior mar¬
riage, or having another husband or wife living j in
which case, besides the penalties consequent upon it as
a felony, the second marriage is to all intents and pur¬
poses void. See Bigamy and Polygamy.
The next legal disability is want of age : therefore
if a hov under 14, or a girl under 12 years of age,
marries, when either of them conies to the age of con¬
sent, they may disagree and declare the marriage void,
without any divorce or sentence in the spiritual court.
However, in our law it is so far a marriage, that if at
the age of consent they agree to continue together,
they need not be married again. Another incapacity
arises from want of consent of parents or guardians.
By several statutes, viz,. 6 and 7 W. III. c. 6, 7, 8.
W. III. c. 35. 10 Ann. c. 19. penalties of 100I. are
laid on every clergyman who marries a couple either
without publication of banns, which may give notice
to parents or guardians, or without a license, to ob-
] MAS
tain which the consent of parents or guardians must Marriage,
be sworn to. And by 4 and 5 Ph. and M. c. 8. who- *-v—
soever marries any woman-child under the age of 16
years, without consent of parents or guardians, shall
be subject to fine or five years imprisonment j and her
estate during her husband’s life shall be enjoyed by
the next heir. Thus also in France the sons cannot
marry without consent of parents till 30 years of
age, nor the daughters till 25; and in Holland the
sons are at their own disposal at 25, and the daugh¬
ters at 20. And by the marriage act, viz. 26 Geo.
II* c* 33* ^ is enacted, that all marriages celebrated
by license (for banns suppose notice), where either
of the parties is under 21, not being a widow or wi¬
dower, without the consent of the father, or if he
be not living, of the mother or guardians, shall be ab¬
solutely void. However, provision is made where
the mother or guardian is non compos, beyond sea, or
unreasonably froward, to dispense with such consent
at the discretion of the lord chancellor; but no pro¬
vision is made in case the father should labour under
any mental or other incapacity. A fourth incapaci¬
ty is want of reason. It is provided by 15 Geo. II.
c. 30. that the marriage of lunatics and sons under
phrensies (if found lunatics under a commission or
committed to the care of trustees by any act of par¬
liament) before they are declared of sound mind by
the lord chancellor or the majority of such trustees,
shall be totally void. Lastly, The parties must not
only be willing and able to contract, but must ac¬
tually contract themselves in due form of law, to
make it a good civil marriage. Any contract made
per verba de preesenti, or in words of the present tense,
and in case of cohabitation per verba de futuro also
between persons able to contract, w^as before the late
act deemed a valid marriage to many purposes, and
the parties might be compelled in the spiritual courts
to celebrate it in facie eedesice. But these verbal con¬
tracts are now of no force to compel a future marriage.
Nor is any marriage at present valid that is not cele¬
brated in some parish church or public chapel, unless
by dispensation from the archbishop of Canterbury'.
It must also be preceded by publication of banns or
by license from the spiritual judge. A marriage in
pursuance of banns must be solemnized in one of the
churches or chapels where the banns wrere published.
No parson, vicar, &c. shall be obliged to publish
banns of matrimony, unless the persons to be married
shall, seven days before the time required for the first
publication, deliver to him a notice in writing of their
true names, and of the house or houses of their re¬
spective abode within such parish, &c. and of the time
that they have dwelt in such house or houses. And
the said banns shall be published upon three Sundays
preceding the solemnization of marriage during the
time of public service : in case the parents or guar¬
dians, or either of the parties who shall be under the
age of 21 years, shall openly and publicly declare, or
cause to be declared, in the church or chapel where
the banns shall be so published, at the time of such pub¬
lication, their dissent to such marriage, such publication
of banns shall be void. And when the parties dwell
in divers parishes, the curate of the one parish shall not
solemnize matrimony betwrixt them without a certifi¬
cate of the banns being thrice asked from the curate
4 G 2 of
MAR [ <J°4 ]
Marriage, of the other parish. A marriage in pursuance of a of widowhood.
V—' license (except a special license), must be solemnized
in such church or chapel where the license is granted 5
and no license of marriage shall be granted by any
archbishop, bishop, &c. to solemnize any marriage m
any other church, &c. than in the parish church, &c.
within which the usual place of abode of one of the
parties shall have been for four weeks immediately be¬
fore the granting such license. By the same statute
all marriages shall be solemnized in the presence of two
credible witnesses at the least, besides the minister, who
shall sign their attestation thereof 5 and immediately
after the celebration of every marriage, an entry there¬
of shall be made in the parish register, expressing that
the said marriage wTas celebrated by banns or license ;
and if both or either of the parties be under age, with
consent of the parents or guardians, as the case shall
be, signed by the minister, and also by the parties
married, and attested by the two witnesses present. It
is held to be also essential to a marriage, that it be
performed by a person in orders 5 though the inter¬
vention of a priest to solemnize this contract is merely
juris positivi and not juris naturalis aut divini; it be¬
ing said that Pope Innocent III. was the first who or¬
dained the celebration of marriage in the church, be¬
fore which it was totally a civil contract. And m the
times of the grand rebellion, all marriages were per¬
formed by the justices of the peace } and these marriages
were declared^valid without any fresh solemnization, by
12 Car. II. c. 33. But as the law now stands, we may
upon the whole collect, that no marriage by the tem¬
poral law is ipso Jacto void, that is celebrated by a per¬
son in orders; in a parish church, a public chapel, or
elsewhere, by a special dispensation ; in pursuing of
banns or a license •, between single persons •, consent¬
ing j of sound mind; and of the age of 21 years-, or
of the age of 14 in males and 12 in females, with
consent of parents or guardians, or without it, in case
MAR
   And no marriage ,is voidable by the Marriage
ecclesiastical law after the death of either ot the par-' '
ties 5 nor during their lives, unless for the canonical
impediments of precontract, it that indeed still exists j
of consanguinity 5 and of affinity or corporeal imbeci¬
lity subsisting previous to the marriage.
By 26 Geo. II. c. 33. the substance of which has
been already recited, if any person shall solemnize ma¬
trimony in any other place than a church, &c. where
banns have been usually published, unless by special li¬
cense, or without publication of banns, unless license
of marriage be first obtained from some person having
authority to grant the same, every such person know¬
ingly so offending shall be guilty of felony, and trans¬
ported for 14 years 5 the prosecution to be within
three years. By the same statute, to make a false en¬
try into a marriage register; to alter it when made ;
to forge or counterfeit such entry, or a marriage li¬
cense, or aid and abet such forgery; to utter the same
as true, knowing it to be counterfeit; or to destroy or
procure the destruction of any register in order to va¬
cate any marriage, or subject any person to the penal¬
ties of this act; all these offences, knowingly and wil¬
fully committed, subject the party to the guilt of fe¬
lony without benefit of clergy. But this act doth not
extend to the marriages ot the royal family ; nor to
Scotland ; nor to any marriages among the people
called Quakers, or among persons professing the Jew¬
ish religion, where both the parties are Quakers or
Jews respectively; nor to any marriages beyond the
seas.
In Scotland, the parties living together as husband
and wife, or declaring themselves so before witnesses,
makes a valid though informal marriage. See Law,
Fart III. N° 160.
For the proportions which marriages bear to births,
and births to burials, in several parts of Europe, Mr
Derham gives us the following table.
Names of Places.
England in general - - - -
London -
Hantshire, from 1569 to 1658
Tiverton in Devonshire from 1656 to 1664
Cranbrook in Kent, from 1560 to 1649
Aynho, in Northamptonshire, for 118 years
Upminster in Essex, for 100 years
Franckfort on the Main, in 1695
Old, Middle, and Lower Marck, in 1698
Dominions of the elector of Brandenburg, in 1698
Breslaw in Silesia, from 1687 to 1691
Paris, in 1670, 1671, 1672 - -
Marriages to
Births, as
to 4.63
to 4
to 4
to 3.7
to 3.9
to 6
to 4.6
to 3-7
to 3.7
to 3.7
I to 4.7
Births to Bu-
i~ials, as
1.12 to I
I. to I.I
1.2 to I
1.26 to I
1.6 to
1.6 to
1.8 to
1.2 to
1.9 to
1.5 to
1.6 to
1.6 to
The
Marriage.
M A R
[ 6°5 ]
M A II
The following Table, simitar to the preceding, is formed from the observations collected and referred to bu
JD r Price.
Marriage.
Names of Places.
London, afinual medium from 1716 to 1736
from 1759 to i768
Northampton, ditto, from 1741 to 1770
Norwich, ditto, from 1740 to 1769
Shrewsbury, ditto, from 1762 to 1768
Manchester and Salford, exclusive of dissentera -
Ditto, from 1755 to 1759 - - . _
Ditto, ditto, including dissenters, from 1768 to 1772
Gainsborough in Lincolnshire, ditto, from 1752 to 1771
Madeira, ditto, from 1759 to 1766
Boston in New England, from i73itoi7i;2
Christiana in Norway, in 1761
Paris, mean of some of the last years
Vienna, annual medium from 1757 to 1769
Amsterdam, ditto, for some of the last years
Copenhagen, ditto - - - . .
Berlin, ditto, for five years, ending at 1759
Breslaw, ditto, from 1633 to 1734
, ditto, from 1717 to 1725
Rome, ditto, from 1759 to 1761
Vaud in Switzerland, ditto, for xo years before 1766
Marriages to
Births, as
1 to 3.7
I to 4.6S
I to 4.3
I to 1.9, &c.
I to 3.04, &C.
I to 3.9, &.C.
I to 3.9
Births to Burials, as
18,000 to 26,529, or 1 to 1.4, &c.
15,710 to 22,956, or 1 to 1.4, &c.
155 to 191, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
1057 to 1206, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
301 to 329, or x to 1.09, &c.
756 to 743, 
1398 to 958, or 1.14, &c. to r.
126 to 105, or 1.2 to 1.
2201 to 1293, or 1.7 to 1.
538 to 608, or 1 to 1.13, &c.
11,024 to 6929, or 1.5 to x.
19,100 to 19,400, or 1 to 1.01, &c.
5800 to 6600, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
4600 to 8000, or 1 to 1.1, &c.
2700 to 3300, or x to 1.2, &c.
3855 to 5°54» or 1 to 1.3, &.c.
1089 to 1256, or 1 to 1.15, &c.
1252 to 1507, or 1 to 1.2, &c.
5167 to 7153, or 1 to 1.3, &c.
3I5J t0 25°4> or I*2, &c. to 1.
For an account of the numbers of male and female
stillborn children and chrysoms, and of boys and girls
under ten, of married men and married women, and of
widows and widowers, who died for a course of years
at Vienna, Breslaw, Dresden, Leipsic, Ratisbon,' and
some other towns in Germany, see Phil. Trans. Abr.
vol. vii. part iv. p. 46, &c.
The reader may find many curious calculations and
remarks relating to this subject in Dr Price’s excel¬
lent work, entitled, Observations on Reversionary Pay¬
ments. From the preceding table it appears, that
marriages, one with another, do each produce about
four births, both in England and other parts of Eu¬
rope. Dr Price obseiwes, that the births at Paris, as
may be seen in the table, are above lour times the
weddings; and therefox-e it may seem, that in the most
healthy country situations, every wedding produces
above four children ; and though this be the case in
Paris, for reasons which he has given, he has observed
nothing like it in any other great town. He adds,
that from comparing the births and weddings in coun¬
tries and towns where registers of them have been kept,
»t appears, that in the former, marriages one with an¬
other seldom produce less than four children each ;
generally between four and five, and sometimes above
five $ but in towns seldom above four, generally be¬
tween three and four, a-id sometimes under three. It
is necessary to be observed here, that though the pro¬
portion of annual births to weddings has been consi¬
dered as giving the true number of children derived
from each marriage, taking all marxuages one with an¬
other : yet this is only true, when, for many years, the
births and burials have kept nearly equal. Where
there is an excess of the births occasioning an increase,
the proportion of annual births to weddings must be
less than the proportion of children derived fi'ont each
marriage} and the contrary must take place where
there is a decrease : and by Mr King’s computation,
about one in a hundred and foivr persons marry $ the
number of people in England being estimated at five
millions and a half, whereof about forty-one thousand
annually marry.
In the district of Vaud in Switzerland, the married
are very nearly a third part of the inhabitants.
Major Graunt and Mr King disagree in the pro¬
portions between males and females, the latter making
10 males to 13 females in London j'iu other cities and
towns, and in the villages and hamlets, 100 males to
99 females: but Major Graunt, both from the London
and country bills, computes, that there are in England
14 males to 13 females ; whence he justly infers, that
the Christian religion, prohibiting polygamy, is more
agreeable to the law of nature than Mahometanism and
others that allow it.
This proportion of males to females Mr Derham
thinks pretty just, being agreeable to what he had ob¬
served, himself. In the hundred years, for instance, of
his own parish register of Upminster, though the burials
of males and females were nearly equal, being 633
males and 623 females in all that time 3 yet there were
baptized 709 males and but 675 females, which is 13
females to 13.7 males.
Irom a register kept at Noi-thampton for 28 years,
from 1741 t0 lTJ°i ^ appears, that the proportion of
males to females that were born in that period is 2361
to 2288, or nearly 13.4 to 13. However, though
more males are born than females, Dr Price has suf¬
ficiently shown, that there is a considerable difference
between the probabilities of life among males and fe¬
males in favour of the latter ; so that males are more
shortlived
K
Mam age.
M A Ft [ 606
shortlived than females-, and as the greater mortality
' of males takes place among children, as well as among
males at all ages, the fact cannot be accounted for
merely by their being more subject to untimely deaths
by various accidents, and by their being addicted to
the excesses and irregularities which shorten life. Mi
Kersseboom informs us, that, during the course of 125
years in Holland, females have in all accidents of age
lived about three or four years longer than the same
number of males. In several towns of Germany, &c.
it appears that of 7270 married persons who had died,
the proportion of married men 'who died to the
married women was 3 to 2 •, and in Breslaw for eight
years, as 5 to 3. In all Pomerania, during nine years
•from 1748 to 1756, this proportion was nearly 15 to
II. Among the ministers and professors in Scotland,
20 married men die to 12 married women at a me¬
dium of 27 years, or in the proportion of 5 to 3 j so
that there is the chance of 3 to 2, and in some cir¬
cumstances even a greater chance, that the woman
shall be the survivor of a marriage, and not the man *,
and this difference cannot be accounted for merely by
the difference of age between husbands and their wives,
without admitting the greater mortality of males. In
the district of Vaud in Switzerland, it appears, that
half the females do not die fill the age of 46 and up¬
wards, though half the males die under 36. It is like¬
wise an indisputable fact, that in the beginning of hie,
the rate of mortality among males is much greater than
among females. x.
From a table formed by Dr Price, from a register
kept for 20 years at Gainsborough, it appears, that of
those who lived to 80, the major part, in the proportion
of 49 to 32, are females. Mr Deparcieux at Paris,
and Mr Wargentin in Sweden, have farther observed,
that not only women live longer than men, but that
married women live longer than single women. From
some registers examined by Mr Muret in Switzerland,
it appears, that of equal numbers of single and married
women between 15 and 25, more of the former died
than of the latter, in the proportion of 2 to 1.
With respect to the difference between the mortality
of males and females, it is found to be much less in
country parishes and villages than in towns j and hence
it is inferred, that human life in males is more brittle
than in females, only in consequence of adventitious
-causes, or of some particular debility, that takes place
in polished and luxurious societies, and especially in
great towns.
From the inequality above stated between the males
and females that are horn, it is reasonable to infer, that
one man ought to have but one wife j and yet that
every woman without polygamy may have a husband :
this surplusage of males above females being spent in the
supplies of war, the seas, &c. from which the women
are exempt.
Perhaps, says Dr Price, it might have been observed
with more reason, that this provision had in view that
particular weakness or delicacy in the constitution of
males, which makes them more subject to mortality *,
and which consequently renders it necessary that more
of them should be produced, in order to preserve in the
world a due proportion between the two sexes.
That this is a work of Providence, and not of
chance, is well made out by the very laws of chance
1
MAR
by Dr Arhuthnot; who supposes Thomas to lay against Marriage
John, that for 82 years running more males shall bev~—
born than females ; and giving all allowances in the
computation to Thomas’s side, he makes the odds
against Thomas, that it does not so happen, to be near
five millions of millions of millions of millions to one j
but for ages of ages, according to the world’s age, to
be near an infinite number to one.
According to Mr Kersseboom’s observations, there
are about 325 children born from 100 marriages.
Mr Kersseboom, from his observations, estimates the
duration of marriages one with another, as in the fol¬
lowing table.
Those whose ages, taken together, make
40, live together between 24 and 25 years.
50
60
70
80
90
100
22
23
19
14
12
23
21
20
l8
15
J3
Phil. Trans
Dr Price
N°
has
(.68. sect. iii. p. 319.
    shown, that on De Moivre’s hypothe¬
sis, or that the probabilities of life decrease uniformly
(see Complement of Lifef) the duration of survivor¬
ship is equal to the duration of marriage, when the ages
are equal j or, in other words, that the expectation of two
joint lives, the ages being equal, is the same with the
expectation of of survivorship ; and, consequently, the
number of survivors, or (which is the same, supposing
no second marriages) of widows and widowers, alive
together, which will arise from any given set of such
marriages constantly kept up, will be equal to the
whole number of marriages, or half of them (the
number of widows in particular) equal to half the
number of marriages. Thus, the expectation of two
joint lives, both 40, is the third of 46 years, or their
complement, i. e. 15 years and 4 months •, and this is
also the expectation of the survivor. That is, suppos¬
ing a set of marriages between persons all 40, they
will one with another last just this time, and the sur¬
vivors will last the same time. In adding together
the years which any great number of such marriages,
and their survivorships, have lasted, the sums would
be found to be equal. It is observed farther, that if
the number expressing the expectation of single or
joint lives, multiplied by the number of single or joint
lives whose expectation it is, be added annually to a
society or town, the sum gives the whole number living
together, to which such an annual addition would in
time grow : thus, since 19, or the third of 57’
expectation of two joint lives whose common age is
29, or common complement 57, 20 marriages ever)
year between persons of this age would in 57 years
grow to 20 times 19, or 380 marriages always existing
together. The number of survivors also arising from
these marriages, and always living together, would in
twice 57 years increase to the same number. More¬
over, the particular proportion that becomes extinct
every year, out of the whole number constantly exist¬
ing together of single or joint lives, must, wherever
this number undergoes no variation, he exactly the
same with the expectation of those lives at the time
when their existence commenced. Thus, if it were
found
4
•MAR [ 607 ] MAR
lilarriage. tKat a 19th part of all the marriages among any
—< body of men whose numbers do not vary, are dissolved
every year by the death of either the husband or wife,
it would appear, that 19 was at the time they were
contracted, the expectation of these marriages. Dr
Price observes, that the annual average of weddings
among the ministers and professors in Scotland for the
last 27 years has been 31 j and the average of married
persons for 17 years ending in 1767, had been 667.
This number, divided by 31, gives 214, the expecta¬
tion of marriage among them 5 which, he says, is above
2\ years more than the expectation of marriage would
be, by Dr Halley’s table, on the supposition, that all
first, second, and third marriages, may be justly consi¬
dered as commencing one with another so early as the
age of 30 ; and he has proved, that the expectation of
two equal joint live;* is to the expectation of a single
life of the same age as 2 to 3 : consequently, the ex¬
pectation of a single life at 30, among the ministers in
Scotland, cannot be less than 32.25. If we suppose the
mean ages of all who marry annually to be 33 and 25,
the expectation of every marriage would be 19 years $
or one w'ith another they would be all extinct in 19
years : the marriages which continue beyond this term,
though fewer in number, enjoying among them just as
much more duration as those that fall short of it enjoy
less. But it appears from the observations and tables
of Mr Muret, that, in the district of ^ aud (dividing
half the number of married persons, viz. 38,328, by
the annual medium of weddings, viz. 808), the expec¬
tation of marriage is only 234- years: so much higher
are the probabilities of life in the countx-y than in towns,
or than they ought to be, according to De Moivre’s
hypothesis.
Marriage (Maritagium'), in Law, signifies not on¬
ly the lawful joining of man and wife, but also the
right of bestowing a ward or a widow in marriage, as
well as the land given in marriage.
Dissohitioji of Marriage. See Divorce.
Forcible Marriage. See Forcible Marriage.
Frank Marriage. See Frank.
Jactitation of Marriage, in Law, is one of the first
and principal matrimonial causes, when one of the par¬
ties boasts or gives out, that he or she is married to the
other, whereby a common reputation of their matrimo¬
ny may ensue. On this ground the party injured may
libel the other in the spiritual court; and unless the de¬
fendant undertakes and makes out a proof of the actual
marriage, he or she is enjoined perpetual silence on that
head ; which is the only remedy the ecclesiastical courts
can give for this injury.
Marriage Settlement is a legal act, previous to mar¬
riage, whereby a jointure is secured to the wife after
the death of the husband. These settlements seem to
have been in use among the ancient Germans, and
their kindred nation the Gauls. Of the former Ta¬
citus give us this account: Dotem non uxor marito,
seel uxori maritus ajfert: inter sunt parentes et propinqui,
etmunera prohant (De Mor. Germ. c. 18.) And Cse-
sar (De Bell. Gallic, lib. vi. c. 18.) has given us the
terms of a marriage settlement among the Gauls, as
nicely calculated as any modern jointure : Viri, quantas
pecunias ah uxoribus dotis nomine acceperunt, tantasex
suis bonis, cestimatione facta, cum dotibus communicant-.
3
Hi jus omnis pcainiw conjunct im ratio habctur,fructus- Marriage-
que servatur. Uter corum vita siipcravit, ad cum pars [j
utriusque cumfructibus superiorum temporumpervenit. Mars.
The dauphin’s commentator supposes that this Gaulish '“"v" ’
custom was the ground of the new x’egulations made by
Justinian, Nov. 97. with regard to the piovision for
widows among the Romans j but surely there is as much
reason to suppose, says Judge Blackstone, that it gave
the hint for our statutable jointures. Comment, vol. ii.
p. 138.
See an excellent marriage settlement by Blackstone in
the appendix to the second volume of his Commentaries;
Duty oj Marriage, is a term used in some ancient
customs, signifying an obligation on women to marry.
Jo understand this, it must be observed, that old
maids and widows about sixty, who held fees in body,
or were charged with any personal or military services,
were anciently obliged to marry, to render those sex-
vices to the lord by their husbands, or to indemnify the
lord for what they could not do in person. And this
was called duty or service of marriage.
Policy of encouraging Marriage.—Till the princi¬
ples of population were explained by Malthus, it was
generally held to be the interest of governments to en¬
courage marriage, and to discourage celibacy. Dr
Halley has enlarged on this subject, and has shown
by computation, that were it not for the backwardness
of people to marry, from the prospect of the necessary
tx-ouble and chai’ge in providing for a family, there
might be four times as many births as there ai’e. It
has been a favourite object, too, with most of the
governments of F.urope at one time or another, to en¬
courage marridge with the view of increasing the po¬
pulation. But we know now that all such attempts
are not merely idle, but mischievous. The motives
that lead men to many are at all times sufficiently
powerful, and the most common error of individuals has
been, not in resisting, but in yielding to these motives,
without a due regard to prudence. Population, so far
from requiring any artificial stimulus, has a constant
tendency to exceed the means of subsistence j and it is
only kept down to the proper level, partly by the pru¬
dence of those who live in celibacy, and partly by the
pressure of misery from the want or the insufficiency
of food. To increase the number of marriages, there¬
fore, without regard to the ability of the parents to bring
up their offspring, would have the effect of bringing
human beings into the world to be destroyed by want or
disease.
MARROW, in Anatomy, a soft oleaginous sub¬
stance contained in the cavity of the bones. See Ana¬
tomy, N° 5.
MARRUBIUM, White Horehound 5 a genu? of
plants belonging to the didynamia class 5 and in the na¬
tural method ranking under the 42d order, Verticillatce.
See Botany Index.
MARS, in Astronomy^ one of the eleven planets,
situated without the earth’s orbit, and remai-kable for
the extent of its atmosphere and the redness of its light;
See Astronomy Index.
The red colour of this planet, according to Dr* Supple-
Brewster *, is owing to the same cause as the x-edness
of the morning and evening clouds. When a beam 0^^aPtersto
white light passes through any medium, its colour in- Astronomy
dines vol. ik ’
MAH
Maps, dines to reil, in proportion to the space through which
Marsais. it has travelled, and the density of the medium. Ihe
momentum of the red or least refrangible rays being
greater than that of the violet or most refrangible rays,
the former will make their way through the resisting
medium, while the latter are either reflected or absorb¬
ed. The colour of the beam, therefore, when it reach¬
es the eye, must partake of the colour of the least re¬
frangible ray; and the redness of this colour must in¬
crease with the number of the violet rays that have been
obstructed. Hence we see, that the sun, moon, and
stars appear red, when in the horizon; and that every
luminous object seen through a mist is of a ruddy hue.
Now, the planet Mars is allowed to have an atmosphere
of great density and extent, as is manifest from the dim
appearance of the fixed stars that are placed at a con¬
siderable distance from his disk. The sun’s light, there¬
fore, by which this planet is illuminated, having to pass
twice through the atmosphere of Mars before it reaches
the earth, must be deprived of a great proportion of
the violet rays j and consequently the colour of the re¬
sulting light by which Mars is visible, must be red.—
As there is a considerable difl’erence of colour among
the other planets, and likewise among the fixed stars,
are we not entitled to conclude, that those in which
the red colour predominates, have the greatest or the
densest atmospheres P According to this principle, Sa¬
turn must have the next greatest atmosphere to that of
Mars.
Mars, in Pagan worship, the god of war. He was,
according to some, the son of Jupiter and Juno *, while
others say that he was the son of Juno alone, who be¬
ing displeased at Jupiter’s having produced Minerva
from his brain, without female aid, in revenge con¬
ceived without the assistance of the other sex, by
touching a flower shown to her by Flora in the plains
of Olenus, and became the mother of this formidable
deity. The amours of Mars and Venus, and the man¬
ner in which Vulcan caught and exposed them to the
laughter of the other gods, have been described by se¬
veral of the ancient poets. He is represented as hav¬
ing several wives and misti'esses, and a considerable
number of children. He was held in the highest vene¬
ration by the Romans, both from his being the father
of Romulus their founder, and from their inclination to
conquest $ and had magnificent temples erected to him
at Rome.
Mars is usually represented in a chariot, drawn by
furious horses. He is completely armed ; and ex¬
tends his spear with the one hand, and grasps a
sword, imbrued in blood, with the other. He has a
fierce and savage aspect. Discord is represented pre¬
ceding his car ; and Clamour, Fear, and Terror, ap¬
pear in his train. The victims sacrificed to him were
the wolf, the horse, the woodpecker, the vulture, and
the cock.
Mars, among the older chemists, denotes iron; that
metal being supposed to be under the influence of the
planet Mars.
MARSAIS, Cesar ChesnEAU DU, an eminent li¬
terary character, was born at Marseilles 1676. He at¬
tached himself at an early period of life to the order of
the congregation of the oratory *, but the situation was
too narrow for his genius, and he soon left it. At Pa¬
ris he married, became advocate, and entered on this
M A B
new profession with great success and approbation. Dis- Marta;.
appointed, however, in his expectations ot making a1*—v~~
speedy fortune, he abandoned the law also. About this
time the peevish humour of his wife occasioned a sepa¬
ration. We next find him as governor to the son of
the president de Maisons $ and when the premature
death of the father deprived him of the fruits of his
industry, he engaged with the famous Law in the same
capacity. After the fall of this extraordinary pro¬
jector, he completed the education of the marquis de
Beaufremont’s children, and reared pupils worthy of
his genius and industry. Although he was accused
of a tendency to Deism, and though there was good
reason for the accusation, yet he never infused into
the minds of his scholars any principle inconsistent
with sound morality, or with the Christian religion.
When he left M. de Beaufremont’s family, he took a
hoarding house, in which., after a method of his own,
he educated a certain number of young men. Unex¬
pected circumstances obliged him to abandon this useful
undertaking. He was even constrained to give some
occasional lessons for the bare necessaries of life. With¬
out fortune, without hope, and almost without resource,
he was reduced to extreme indigence. In this situation
he was found by the authors of the Encyclopedic, and
made a partner in conducting that great work. Among
many other excellent pieces, the article Grammar
breathes the spirit of sound philosophy. His principles
are clear and solid. He discovers an extreme know¬
ledge of the subject, great accuracy in the rules, and
great propriety in the application. M. le Comte de
Lauraguais was so much affected with the distresses,
and so much convinced of the merit of Dm Marsais,
that he procured him a pension oi 1000 livres. Du
Marsais died at Paris on the nth of June 1756, in his
eightieth year, after having received the sacrament.
The compliment which he paid to the priest on this
occasion has been considered by some as rather equivo¬
cal. But there is no necessity to deprive religion of
this triumph, or philosophy of that honour which con¬
viction and penitence must confer on it. “ 1 he faith
of a great genius (says Bayle, who is entitled to credit
on this subject), is not totally extinguished : It is like
a spark under the ashes. Reflection and the prospect ot
danger call forth its exertions. There are certain situ¬
ations in which philosophers are as full ot anxiety and
remorse as other men.” W hatever were the last senti¬
ments of Du Marsais, it cannot be denied that in the
vigour of health he furnished several examples of irreli-
gion, and to these have been added many absurd stories.
The superiority of Du Marsais’s talents consisted in ex¬
actness and perspicuity. His ignorance ot the world,
and of the customs of mankind, together with the
greatest latitude in expressing whatever he thought,
gave him that frank and unguarded simplicity which
is often the chief ingredient of genuine humour. I on-
tenelle used to say of him, “ that he was the most lively
simpleton, and as a man of wit the most simple he ever
knew.” He was the Fontaine ol philosophers. In
consequence of this character, he was a nice judge of
what was natural in every production, and a great ene¬
my to all kind of affectation. His principal works
are, 1. Exposition de la doctrine de PEglise Galhcane
par rapport aux pretensions de la Coitr de Rome, l2mo.
This accurate work was begun at the desire of the pre¬
sident
[ 608 ]
MAR [6
Marsais sident de Maisons, and did not appear till after the
11 death of the author. 2. Exposition (Pune methode rai-
i:'lCS. soneepour apprendre la langueLatine, 12mo, 1722, rare.
This method appears conformable to the natural unfold¬
ing of the powers of the mind, and on that account ren¬
ders the acquisition of the language less difficult; but
it was liable to two great objections to vulgar and un¬
enlightened understandings, namely, its novelty, and
the censure which it conveyed against the former me¬
thod. 3. Traite des tropes, 1730, 8vo; again printed
in 1771, l2mo. This work is intended to explain the
different significations of the same word. It is a master¬
piece of logic, of accuracy, of perspicuity, and preci¬
sion. The observations and the rules are illustrated by
striking examples calculated to show both the use and
the abuse of the rhetorical figures. It is wonderful at
the same time that this excellent book had very little
sale, and is scarcely known. A gentleman who want¬
ed to compliment the author on this extraordinary per¬
formance, told him that he had heard a great deal of
his Histoire des Tropes, and begged to know in what
particular part of the world the nation flourished. 4.
Les veritable Prineipes de la Grammaire raisonee pour
apprendre la langue Latine, 1729, 4to. There was
only the preface of this work published, in which he
introduced the greatest part of his met/wde raisonee.
5. Labiege de la fable du Pere Jouvenci, arranged after
the manner of the original plan, 1731, i2mo. 6. Vue
rcponse manuscrite a la Critique de PHistoire des Oracles
par le Pere Baltus. There are only imperfect frag¬
ments of these papers to be found. 7. Logiqve, ou re¬
flections sur les operations de PEsprit. This is a short
tract, which nevertheless contains every thing necessary
to be known in the art of reasoning. It was reprinted
at Paris in two parts, together with the articles which
he had furnished for the Enci/clopediie, 1762.
MARSAL, a town of France, in Lorrain, remark¬
able for its salt works; seated in a marsh on the river
iSelle, of difficult access, which, together with the for¬
tifications, render it an important place. F. Long.
6. 43. N. Lat. 48. 46.
MARSALA, an ancient and strong town of Sicily,
in the valley of Mazara. It is well peopled, and built
on the ruins of the ancient Lilyboeum. F. Long. 1 2. 27.
N. Lat. 37. 52.
MARSAN, or Mount Marsan, a town of France,
in Gascony, and capital of a small territory of the
same name, fertile in wine 5 seated on the river Miduse,
in W. Long. o. 39. N. Lat. 44. o.
MARSAQUIVFR, or Marsalquiver, a strong
and ancient town of Africa, on the coast of Barbary,
and in the province of Reni Arax, in the kingdom of
Tremesen, with one of the best harbours in A frica. It
■was taken by the Spaniards in 1732. It is seated on a
rock near a bay of the sea, in W. Long. o. 10. N. Lat.
35- 4°*
MARSEILLES, a strong sea port, and the richest
town of Provence, in France. Here is a good har¬
bour, where the French galleys are stationed ; for it
will not admit large men of war. Before the revolution
4500 vessels entered the harbour every year. The en¬
trance, which is extremely narrow and surrounded
by lofty mountains, protects and shelters vessels dur¬
ing the most violent storms. The port itself forms a
delightful walk, even in the middle of winter, as it -is
Vol. XII. Part II.
^9 ] MAR
open to the southern sun, and crowded with vast num- Marseilles
hers of people, not only of all the European nations, 11
but of Turks, Greeks, and natives of the coast of Bar- Mardi;)! ,
bary. The whole scene is one of the most agreeable
that can be imagined, if the chains of the galley slaves
heard among the hum of business did not tincture it
with the hateful idea of slavery. The. galleys them¬
selves rot in their respective stations : and it is said that
no others will ever be constructed to supply their place,
as they have long ceased to be of any utility to the state.
Marseilles pretends to the most remote antiquity ; a co¬
lony of Phocians, in ages unknown, having given it
birth. It is divided into the Old Town and the New j
which are separated by a stx-eet, bordered with trees on
each side. I he Old Town is one of the worst built of
any in Europe. The New has sprung up since the com
mencement of the 18th century, and has all that regu¬
larity, elegance, and convenience, which distinguish the
present times. It is said to contain ioo,oco inhabitants,
and is one of the most trading towns in France. With¬
out the walls is the castle of Notre-I)ame, which is v ery
well fortified. It is a bishop’s see, and there is a French
academy j it having been noted at all times for men of
learning. There is also a cabinet of natural history.
In 1660, Louis XIA . built the citadel and Fort St
John to keep the inhabitants in awe, because they
pretended to be free. The Jesuits had a very fine
observatory here ; and in the arsenal, built not long
ago, there are arms for 40,000 men. In the House of
Discipline they weave gold, silver, and silk brocades.
I he drugs are brought thither from all parts of the
world. It is seated on the north shore of the Mediter¬
ranean, in E. Long. 5. 22. N. Lat. 43. 18. The
surrounding country is rocky and barren, but covered
for several miles on all sides with villas and summer
houses, which commerce has erected.
MARSH, Narcissus, a learned Irish prelate, was
born at Hannington in Wiltshire in 1638. He was
made principal of St Alban’s hall, Oxford, in 1673,
but removed to the provostship of Dublin college in
1678, promoted to the bishopric ofLeighlin and Ferns
in 1682, translated to the archbishopric of Cashel in
1690, to Dublin in 1694, and to Armagh in 1703.
W Idle he held th e see of Dublin, he built a noble li¬
brary for the use of the public, filled it with choice
books, and settled a provision for two librarians. He
repaired, at his own expence, several decayed churches,
besides buying in and restoring many impropriations,
and presenting a great number of oriental MSS. to the
Bodleian library. He was a very learned and accom¬
plished man 5 was well versed in sacred and profane li¬
terature, in mathematics, natural piulosojihy, the learn¬
ed languages, especially the oriental, and in both the
theory and practice of music. He published, 1. fipfi-
tutiones logicee. Manuductio ad loqicam, written* by
Philip de T rieu } to which he added the Greek text of
Aristotle and some tables and schemes. 3. An intro¬
ductory essay on the doctrine of sounds, &c. He died
in 1713.
Marsh, signifies a piece of ground flowed with
water, yet so that the grass and other vegetables rise
above the surface of the water, and, by their decaying,
give rise to putrid effluvia, which are very pernicious
to the human body.
MARSHAL, or Mareschal, (muressullus'), pri-
f • 4H - niaril-
MAR
marily denotes an officer who has the care or the com¬
mand of horses. Nicod derives the word from pole-
marchus, master of the camp j Matthew Paris from
Martis scnescallus. In the old Gaulish language, march
signified “ horsewhence mareschal might signify
“him who commanded the cavalry.” Other deriva¬
tions have been given by different authors; and the
name itself has been applied to officers of very different
employments. # . .
Marshal of France, the highest dignity of preier-
ment in the French armies under the old government.
The dignity of marshal came to be for life, though at
its first institution it was otherwise. They were then
only the king’s first ecuyers under the constable 5, but
in time they became the constable’s lieutenants in the
command of the army, the constable himself being then
become captain general. At first they were but two
in number 5 and their allowance was but 500 livres per
annum in time of war, and nothing in time of peace j
but in the reign of Francis I. a third was added j Hen¬
ry II. created a fourth. Since it has been various ;
Louis XIV. increased it to 20. Their office at first
was, to marshal the army under the constable, and to
command in his absence. They did then what the
mars/ials dc camp do nowto which last they have gi¬
ven their title, and the least considerable part of their
authority.
Earl Marshal of Scotland. His office was to com¬
mand the cavalry, whereas the CONSTABLE command¬
ed the whole army. They seem, however, to have
had a sort of joint command, as of old all orders were
addressed “ to our constable and marischal.” The of¬
fice of earl marischal has never been out of the noble
family of Keith. It was reserved at the Union } and
when the heritable jurisdictions were bought, it was
in the crown, being forfeited by the rebellion of Geo.
Keith, earl marischal, in 1715.
Earl Marshal of England, is the eighth great of¬
ficer of state. This office, until it was made heredi¬
tary, always passed by grant from the king, and
never was held by tenure or sergeantry (by any sub¬
ject), as the offices of lord high steward and lord high
constable were sometimes held. The title is personal,
the office honorary and officiary. They were for¬
merly styled lord marshal only, until King Richard II.
June 20. 1397, granted letters patent to Thomas
Mowbray, earl of Nottingham, and to the heirs male
of his body lawfully begotten, by the name and style
of earl marshal; and further, gave them power to bear
in their hand a gold truncheon, enamelled with black
at each end } having at the upper end of it the king’s
arms engraven thereon, and at the lower end his own
arms.
King James I. was pleased, by letters patent, dated
August 29th 1622, to constitute Thomas Howard, earl
of Arundel and Surrey, earl marshal for life ; and the
next year, the same king granted (with the advice
of the privy-council) letters patent, wherein it was
declared, that during the vacancy of the office of lord
high constable of England, the earl marshal had the
like jurisdiction in the court of chivalry, as both con¬
stable and marshal jointly ever exercised. See Chi¬
valry, Court of.
On the 19th of October 1672, King Charles II.
was pleased to grant to Henry Lord Howard, and the
MAR
heirs male of his body lawfully begotten, the office Marshal
and dignity of earl marshal of England, with power |i
to execute the same by deputy or deputies, in as full Marshal-
and ample a manner as the same was heretofore cxe- .
cuted by Henry Howard, Lord Maltravers, late earl
of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk, grandfather to the
said Henry Lord Howard *, or by Thomas Howard
late duke of Norfolk, grandfather to the said Thomas
Howard, late earl of Arundel, Surrey, and Norfolk >
or by Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk, grandfather
of the said Thomas Howard duke of Norfolk *, or by
John Mowbray duke of Norfolk, or any other earl
marshal of England j with a pension of 20I. each year,
payable out of the hanaper office in chancery 5 and
on default of the issue-male of the said Henry Lord
Howard, with limitation to the heirs male lawfully be¬
gotten of the body of the said Thomas Howard earl
of Arundel, &c.and, on the default of such issue male,
to descend in like manner to the heirs male of Thomas
late earl of Suffolk j and, on default of his issue male,,
to the heirs male of Lord William Howard, late of
Naworth in the county of Cumberland, youngest son
to Henry Howard late duke of Norfolk j and, on de¬
fault of his issue-male, to Charles Howard earl of Not¬
tingham, and the heirs male of his body lawfully be-
g°tten’ . • , T-
Field-MARSHAL, an officer of high rank m the Eu¬
ropean armies. It is now, however, disused in the
British army } Lord Tyrawley was the last, appointed
in 1763.
Knight-Marshal, or Marshal of the King's House,
an English officer, whose business, according to Fleta,
is to execute the commands and decrees of the lord
steward, and to have the custody of prisoners commit¬
ted by the court of verge. Under him are six mar¬
shals men, who are properly the king’s bailiffs, and
arrest in the verge of the court, when a warrant is
backed by the board of green-cloth. The court where.,
causes of this kind, between man and man, are tried,
i ; called the Marskalsea, and is under the knight-mar¬
shal. See Marshalsea.
This is also the name of the prison in Southwark j
the reason of which may probably be, that the marshal
of the king’s house was wont to sit there in judgment,
or keep his prison.
Marshal of the King's Bench, an officer who has
custody of the prison called the King's Bench in South¬
wark. He gives attendance upon the court, and
takes into his custody all prisoners committed by the
court} he is finable for his absence, and non-attend¬
ance incurs a forfeiture of his office. The power of
appointing the marshal of the king’s bench is in the
crown.
In Fleta, mention is also made of a marshal of the
exchequer, to whom the court commits the custody of
the king’s debtors, &c.
MARSHALLING a Coat, in Heraldry, is the
disposal of several coats of arms belonging to distinct
families in one and the same escutcheon or shield, toge¬
ther with their ornaments, parts, and appurtenances. See
Heraldry, chap. vi. p. 466.
MARSHALSEA, the Court of and the Falace
Court at Westminster, though two distinct courts, are
frequently confounded together. The former was
originally holden before the steward and marshal of the
king’s
[ 6io ]
M A U [ Ci
ttfrffslialsea ^1 s house, autl was instituted to administer justice be-
II tween the king’s domestic servants, that they miVhtnot
:',Iars'•and; !>e *awn into other courts, and thereby the kin^o- lose
their service. It was formerly held in, though^not a
part of, the an la regis ; and, when that was subdivid¬
ed, remained a distinct jurisdiction ; holding plea of all
trespasses committed within the verge of the court,
where only one of the parties is in the king’s domestic’
service (in which case the inquest shall be taken by a
jury oi the country) •, and of all debts, contracts, and
covenants, where both of the contracting parties be¬
long to the royal household ; and then the inquest shall
be composed of men of the household only. By the
statute of 13 Rich. II. stat* 1. c. 3. (in affirmance of
the common law), the verge of the court in this respect
extends for 12 miles round the king’s place of residence.
And, as this tiihunal was never subject to the jurisdic¬
tion of the chief justiciary, no writ of error lav from it
(though a court of record) to the king’s bench, but on¬
ly to parliament, till the statutes of 5 Edw. III. c. 2.
and 10 Edw. III. stat. 2. c. 3. which allowed such writ
of error before the king in his place. But this court
being ambulatory, and obliged to follow the king in
all his progresses, so that by the removal of the house¬
hold actions were frequently discontinued, and doubts
having arisen as to the extent of its jurisdiction, King
Charles I. in the sixth year of his reign, by his letters
patent, erected a new court of record, called the curia
palatii, or palace court, to be held before the steward
of the household and knight-marshal, and the steward
of the court, or his deputy $ with jurisdiction to hold
plea of all manner of personal actions whatsoever, which
shall arise between any parties within 12 miles of his
majesty s palace at Whitehall. The court is now held
once a week, together V/ith the ancient court of mar-
shalsea, in the borough of Southwark: and a writ of
error lies from thence to the court of king’s bench.
But if the cause is of any considerable consequence, it
is usually removed on its first commencement, together
with the custody of the defendant, either into the king’s
bench or common pleas, by a writ of habeas corpus cum
causa: and the inferior business of the court hath of
late years been much reduced, by the new courts of
conscience erected in the environs of London ; in con¬
sideration of which the four counsel belonging to these
courts had salaries granted them for their lives bv the
stat. 23 Geo. It. e. 27. ^
MARSHFIELt), a town ef Gloucestershire, seven
rules from Bath, and 104 from London, on the road to
Bristol, and on the very borders of Wilts. It is a con¬
siderable clothing town, derives a good trade in malt,
and is famous for cakes. It consists chiefly of one
street of old buildings near a mile long j and is go¬
verned by a bailiff. Ihe number ol inhabitants in 1801
amounted to 1246. It has a large church, with a well
endowed alms house, and a charity school ; and it has
a weekly market and two fairs.
MARSHLAND, a marshy peninsula in the county
oi Norfolk, opposite to King’s Lynn, almost surround¬
ed with the Ouse and other navigable rivers, and an
arm of the sea. It seems formerly to have been reco¬
vered out of the ocean, from whose inundations it could
]
M A R
never be altogether defended 5 and in Sir Henry Spel-
man’s time it suffered two general ones, viz. one from
the salt water, the other from the freshes ; by the last of M arshlaiul
which the inhabitants suffered 42,000!. damage. It 1(
contains about 30,000 acres, which turn to more profit Afandgli.
by grazing than ploughing. It is about 10 miles in the  v  
widest place, and has no less than in brick bridges.
I he commonage of it belongs to seven villages that sur¬
round it. The air is so unhealthy, that an ague is com¬
monly called the Marshland bailiff.
atSee AlthEa*Botany J//r/e.r.
AlARSI, a nation of Germany, who afterwards
Came to settle in Italy, where they occupied the ter¬
ritory in the environs of the Fucine lake. They at
first proved very inimical to Rome, but in process
of time they became its firmest supporters. They
were allowed by the Romans to be the most intrepid
soldiers of their legions when in friendship, and the
most formidable of their enemies when at variance;
and it was a common saying, that Rome could nei¬
ther triumph over the Marsi nor without them.
I hey are particularly celebrated for the civil war in
which they were engaged, and which from them has
received the name of the Marsian tt'ar. The large
contributions they made to stipport the interest of
Rome, and the number of men which they continu-
ally supplied to the republic, rendered them bold and
aspiring ; and they claimed, with the rest of the Ita¬
lian states, a share of the honour and privileges which
were enjoyed by the citizens of Rome. This petition,
though supported by the interest, the eloquence, and
the integrity of the tribune Drusus, was received with
contempt by the Roman senate ; upon which, in the
662d year of Rome, the Marsi put themselves at the
head of the Social war, one of the most obstinate and
dangerous oppositions ever made to the progress of the
Roman power. They obtained several victories : but
they were at last defeated ; though the war was not ter¬
minated hut by a grant of those privileges for which
they contended.
MARS ICO nuoVo, a small, rich, and handsome
town of Italy, in the kingdom of Naples, and in the
Hither Principato, with a bishop’s see. It is seated at
the foot of the Apennines, near the river Agri, in
E. Long. 15. 49. N. Lat. 20. 42.
MARS1GLI, Lewis Ferdinand, Count, an Ita¬
lian, famous for letters as well as arms, was descended
fi-om an ancient and noble family, and born at Bo¬
logna m 1658. He acquired a great knowledge in
the art of war and fortification ; served under the em¬
peror Leopold II. against the Turks, by whom he
was taken prisoner in 1683, but redeemed, after a
year’s captivity. In the Spanish succession war, Mar-
sigli, then advanced to the rank of marshal, being in
the fortress of Brisac, which surrendered to the duke
of Burgundy in 1703, wlren the place was deemed
capable of holding out much longer, was stripped of all
his commissions, and had his sword broke over him ; and
the count d’Arco W’ho commanded was beheaded. Mar-
sigli now sought for consolation in the sciences; as,
amidst all the hurry and fatigue of war, he had made
all the advantages the most philosophic man could do,
who had travelled purely in quest of knowledge. He
had a rich collection of every thing proper to the ad¬
vancement of natural knowledge, instruments astrono¬
mical and chemical, plans of fortifications, models of
4 U 2 machines,
Marsioli
Mart.
MAR f 6*
machines, &c. all which he presented to the senate of
Bologna by an authentic act in 1712, forming at the
same time out of them what he called the Institute of
' the arts and sciences at Bologna. He also founded a
printing house, and furnished it with the best types
tor Latin, Greek, Hebiew, and Arabic, which he
presented in 1728 to the Dominicans at Bo ogna, on
condition of their printing all the writings ot the In¬
stitute at prime cost: this was called the printing house
of St Thomas Aquinas. His writings on philosophical
subjects are numerous and valuable, in Latin, Italian,
and French. He died in I730,
MARSTON, John, an English dramatic writer,
who lived in the time of James I. Wood says he wa,s
a student in Corpus Christ! college, Oxford; but nei¬
ther his family nor the time of his birth is known.
He produced eight plays lor the stage, which were
all acted at Blackfriars with applause: and one ot
them, called the Dutch Courtezan, was once revived
since the Restoration, under the title of the Bevenge,
or a Match in Newgate. There is no account when
he died; but we find his works were published after
his death by Shakespeare, and may thence reasonably
conclude that it happened about the year 1614. He
was a chaste and pure writer ; avoiding all that ob¬
scenity, ribaldry, and scurrility, which too many
of the playwrights of that time, and indeed much
more so in some periods since, have made the basis
of their wit, to the great disgrace and scandal of the
MARSYAS, in fabulous history, a celebrated mu¬
sician of Celsense, in Phrygia, son of Olympus, or of
Hyagnis, or Oeagrus. He was so skilful in playing on
the flute, that he is generally deemed the inventor ot it.
According to the opinion of some, he found it when
Minerva had thrown it aside on account of the distor¬
tion of her face when she played upon it. Marsyas
was enamoured of Cybele, and he travelled with her as
far as Nysa, where he had the imprudence to chal¬
lenge Apollo to a trial of his skill as a musician. The
.rod accepted the challenge, and it was mutually agreed
that he who was defeated should be flayed alive by the
conqueror. The Muses, or (according to Diodorus)
the inhabitants of Nysa, were appointed umpires. Each
exerted his utmost skill, and the victory, with much
difficulty, was adjudged to Apollo. The god upon this
tied his antagonist to a tree, and flayed him alive : (See
Apollo). The death of Marsyas was universally la¬
mented ; the Fauns, Satyrs, and Dryads, wept at his
fate; and from their abundant tears arose a river of
Phrygia, well known by the name of Marsyas. The
unfortunate Marsyas is often represented on monu¬
ments, as tied with his hands behind his back to a tree,
while Apollo stands before him with his lyre in his
hands. In independent cities, among the ancients, the
statue of Marsyas was generally erected in the forum,
to represent the intimacy which subsisted between
Bacchus and Marsyas as the emblems of liberty. At
Celamse, the skin of Marsyas was shown to travellers
for some time. It was suspended in the public place,
in the form of a bladder or a foot ball.
The sources of the Marsyas were near those of the
Macander, and those two rivers had their confluence a
little below the town of Celsense.
MART, a great fair held: every year for buying
4
2 ] MAR
and selling goods. Public marts, or places of buying
and selling, such as markets and fairs, with the tolls
thereunto belonging, can only be set up by virtue of
the king’s grant, or by long and immemorial usage and
prescription, which presupposes such a grant. The li¬
mitation of these public resorts, to such time and place
as may be most convenient for the neighbourhood,
forms a part of economics, or domestic polity ; which,
considering the kingdom as a large family, and the
king as the master of it, he has clearly a right to dis¬
pose and order as he pleases. .
MARTABAN, a province of Asia, in the kingdom
of Pegu, lying on the gulf of Bengal. It is a country
that produces rice and all kinds of fruits proper to the
climate. It has mines of several sorts of metals, and
carries on a great trade. The chief town, which is of
the same name, is rich, handsome, and very populous,
with a good harbour. E. Long. 97. 50. N. Lat.
Mart'
Martial
Law.
j r. 2 r.
MARTEAU, the name given by French natural¬
ists to a peculiar species of oysters, called also malleus
by others, the figure of which is that of a hammer,
or rather of a pickaxe. See Ostrea, Conchologe
Index.
MARTHA, St, a province, of South America, on
the coast of Terra Firma, bounded on the north by
the North sea, on the east by Rio de la Hache, on the
south by New Granada, and on the west by Cartbage-
na. It is 300 miles in length and 200 in breadth, is
a mountainous country, and the land very high. Here
begins the famous ridge of mountains called the Cor<*/-
leras des los Andes, which run from north to south the
whole length of the continent of South America. It
is extremely hot on the sea coast; but cold in the in¬
ternal parts, on account of the mountains. It abounds
with the fruits proper to the climate; and there are
mines of gold and precious stones, as also salt works.
The Spaniards possess but one part of this province, in
which they have built St Martha the capital. The air
about the town is wholesome ; and it is seated near the
sea, having a harbour surrounded with high mountains.
It was formerly very considerable when the galleons
were sent thither, but is now come almost to nothing.
W. Long. 74. II. N. Lat. 11. 20.
Martha'’s Vineyard, an island of North America,
near the coast of New England, 80 miles south of Bos¬
ton. It is sixteen miles in length and eight in breadth,
and has a light soil, which in some places is fertile. In
conjunction with neighbouring islands of smaller size,
it forms Duke’s county, containing about 3290 inha¬
bitants. The climate is temperate and healthy ; the
winter is generally mild, and in summer the tempera¬
ture seldom exceeds 80 of Fahrenheit. The inhabi¬
tants apply themselves chiefly to the fisheries, in whici
they have great success. W. Lon. 70. 35. N. Lat.
41. o.
MARTIAL, is sometimes used to express prepara¬
tions of iron, or such as are impregnated therewith;
the martial regulus of antimony, &c.
Martial Court. See Court Martial.
Martial Law, is the law of war that depends np-
the just but arbitrary will and pleasure of the king,
or his lieutenant: for though the king doth not make
any laws but by common consent in parliament, yet, in,
time of war, by reason of the necessity of it to guai
against
mar [ 613 1 MAR
Martial against dangers that often arise, he useth absolute power,
Law so that his word is a law. Smith de Repub. Ang. lib. ii.
II. c. 4.
Martin. ^ But the martial law (according to Chief Justice
Hale), is in reality not a law, but something indul¬
ged rather than allowed as a law j and it relates only to
members of the army, being never intended to be exe¬
cuted on others, who ought to be ordered and go¬
verned by the laws to which they are subject, though
it be a time of war. And the exercise of martial law,
whex*eby any person might lose his life, or member, or
liberty, may not be permitted in time of peace, when
the king’s courts are open for all persons to receive
justice.
MARTIALIS, Marcus Valerius, a famous
Latin poet, born at Bilbilis, now called in the
kingdom of Arragon in Spain, was of the order of
knights. He went to Rome at the age of 21, and
staid there 35 years, under the reign of Galba and the
succeeding emperors, till that of Trajan ; and having
acquired the esteem of Titus and Domitian, he was
created tribune. At length, finding that he was
neglected by Trajan, he returned to his own country
Bilbilis, where he married a wife, and had the hap¬
piness to live with her several years. He admires and
commends her much, telling her that she alone was
sufficient to supply the want of every thing he enjoyed
at Rome. “ Romam tu mihi sola facis” says he, in
the 21st epigram of the 12th book. She appears like¬
wise to have been a lady of a very large fortune ; for,
in the 31st epigram of the same book, he extols the
magnificence of the house and gardens he had received
from her, and says that she had made him a little kind
of monarch.
Munera sunt domino : post septima lustra revcrso,
I Las Marcella domos^ parvaque regna dedit.
There are still extant 14 books of his epigrams, filled
with points, a play upon words, and obscenities. The
style is affected. However, some of his epigrams are
excellent; many of them are of the middling kind ;
but the greatest part of them are bad : so that Martial
never spoke a greater truth, than when he said of his
own works^
Sunt bona, sunt qiuedam mediocria, sunt mala plura.
There is also attributed to him a book on the spec¬
tacles of the amphitheatre ; but the most learned cri¬
tics think that this last work was not written by Mar¬
tial. The best editions of Martial are, that in Usum
Delphini, 410, Paris, 1617, and that cum Notis Vari¬
orum.
MARTIGUES, a sea port town of France, in Pro¬
vence, with the title of a principality ; seated near a
lake 12 miles long and five broad, which is navigable
throughout, and from whence they get excellent salt.
E. Long. 4. 20. N. Lat. 43. 38.
MARTIN St, was born at Sabaria in Pannonia,
(at present Stain in Lower Hungary), in the begin¬
ning of the fourth century. His father was a mili¬
tary tribune 5 and he himself was obliged to carry arms,
although peace and solitude were much more agree¬
able to his inclination. He was remarkable for every
virtue, in a profession which is generally considered to
give a sanction to vice. He divided bis coat with a
naked wretch whom he met at the gate of Amiens ; Martin,
and it is reported, that Jesus Christ appeared to him —v—»
On the night following, clothed in this half of his
coat. Martin was then a catechumen j but he soon
afterwards received baptism, and renounced the mili¬
tary profession for the ecclesiastical. After passing many
years in solitude, St Hilary bishop of Poictiers gave
him the power to cast out devils. On his return to
Pannonia, he persuaded his mother to embrace Christi¬
anity $ and with great zeal and activity opposed the
Arians, who governed the church in Illyria. When
he was publicly whipt for giving testimony to the di¬
vinity of Christ, he bore the punishment with the con¬
stancy and patience of the first martyrs. This illu¬
strious champion for Christianity, when he heard that
St Hilary was returned from banishment, went and
settled in the neighbourhood of Poictiers. In this
retirement, a great number of monks placed themselves
under his direction. His virtues became every day
more splendid and remarkable, till he was drawn from
his solitude, and with the general approbation of the
clergy and people elected bishop of Tours in the
year 374. To the zeal and charity of a bishop, he
joined the humility and poverty of an anchorite.
That he might detach himself more from the world,
he built the celebrated monastery of Marmoutier,
which still remains, and which is believed to be the
oldest abbey in France. It is situated near the city
of T burs, betwixt the Loire and a steep rock. In
this situation, together with 80 monks, St Martin dis¬
played the most exemplary sanctity and mortification j
nor were there any monks better disciplined than those
of Marmoutier. After he had converted his diocese
to the Christian faith,,he became the apostle of all
Gaul. He diffused the doctrines of Christianity among
the heathens, destroyed their temples, and (accord¬
ing to the writers of his life), confirmed the truth
by an infinite number of miracles. The emperor Va-
lentinian, at that time in Gaul, received him with
every mark of respect and honour. The tyrant Maxi¬
mus, who had revolted against the emperor Gra-
tian, and seized on Spain, England, and Gaul, receiv¬
ed him in a manner no less distinguished. The holy
bishop attended him at Ti’eves in the year 383, to so¬
licit some favours. Maximus made him sit at his
table with the most illustrious persons of his court,
and placed him at his right hand. In drinking, the
usurper commanded his servants to give him a cup,
that he might again receive it from him ; but this ex-^ -
traordinary prelate gave it to the priest who accom¬
panied him on his journey. This holy boldness, far
from displeasing them, gained him the favour of the
emperor and of his court. Martin, who was an ene¬
my to heresy, but a friend of mankind, employed his
influence with this prince to preserve- the Pibscilli-
anists, who were prosecuted by Ithace and by Idace,
bishops of Spain. The bishop of Tours would hold,
no communion with men whose principles of religion
inclined them to shed the blood of mankind ; and
he obtained the- life of those whose death they had so¬
licited. On his return to Tours, he prepared himself
for the reward of his labours in another world. He
died at Candes the 8th of November 397, but accord¬
ing to others on the nth of November 400. His '
name is given to a particular opinion concerning the
mystery
MAR [ 614- ] M A R
mystery of the holy Trinity. St Martin is the first
of the saints confessors to whom the Latin church of¬
fered public prayers. His life is written in elegant
Latin by Fortunatus, and Sulpicius Severus one of
his disciples. Paul of Pcrigueux and Fortunatus of
PoJctiers have given us Sulpicius’s life of Martin in
verse j but they have debased the admirable prose of
the author by a wretched poetical imitation. Nico¬
las Gervais wrote also the life of St Martin, full ot
many curious and entertaining facts, published at
Tours in 1699, in 4to. The tradition at Amiens is,
that St Martin performed the act of charity which
rendered him so famous, near an ancient gate of the
city, of which the ruins are still visible. The fol¬
lowing Latin verses, which do more honour to the
saint than to the poet, are inscribed on one of the
stones:
Hie quondam vestem Martdnus demidiavit {
Ut facer emus idem, nobis exemplificavit.
Martin, Benjamin, one of the most eminent ar¬
tists and mathematicians of the age, was born in 1704.
After publishing a variety of ingenious treatises, and
particularly a Scientific Magazine under his own
name, and carrying on for many years a very exten¬
sive trade as an optician and globe-maker in ‘ Fleet-
street, the growing infirmities of age compelled him
to withdraw from the active part of business. Trust¬
ing too fatally to what he thought the integrity of
others, he unfortunately, though with a capital more
than sufficient to pay all his debts, became a bank¬
rupt. The unhappy old man, in a moment of despera¬
tion from this unexpected stroke, attempted to de¬
stroy himself*, and the wound, though not immediately
mortal, hastened his death, which happened February
9. 1782, in his 78th year. He had a valuable col¬
lection of fossils and curiosities of almost every species ;
which, after his death, were almost given away by
public auction. His principal publications, as far as
they have occurred to recollection, are, The-Philoso¬
phic Grammar ; being a view of the present state of
experimental physiology, or natural philosophy, 1735,
8vo. A new, complete, and universal System or
Body of Decimal Arithmetic, 1735, 8vo. The young
Students Memorial Book, or Patent Libx-ary, 1735, 8vo.
Description and Use of both the Globes, the Armillary
Sphere and Orrery, 1736, 2 vols, 8vo. Memoirs of
the Academy of Paris, 1740, 5 vols. System of
the Newtonian Philosophy 1759, 3 vols. New Ele¬
ments of Optics, 1759. Mathematical Institutions, viz.
Arithmetic, Algebra, Geometry, Trigonometry, and
Fluxions, 1759. Natural History of England, with
a Map of each County, 1759, 2 vols. Philology, and
Philosophical Geography, 1759. Mathematical In¬
stitutions, 1764, 2 vols. Lives of Philosophers, their
Inventions, &c. 1764. Introduction to the Newto¬
nian Philosophy, 1765. Institutions of Astronomical
• Calculations, 2 parts, 1765. Description and Use
of the Air Pump, 1766. Description of the Torricel¬
lian Barometer, 1.766. Appendix to the Description
and'Use of the Globes, 1766. Philosophia Britan-
nica, 1778, 3 vols. Gentleman and Lady’s Philoso¬
phy) 3 vols. Miscellaneous Correspondence, 4 vols.
System of Philology. Philosophical Geography. Ma¬
gazine complete, 14 vols. Principles of Pump-work.
Theory of the Hydrometer. Doctrine of Loga- Martin
rithms.
Martin, St, a small but strong town of France Martinic*.
in the isle of Khee, with a harbour and a strong cita- -
del, fortified after the manner of Vauban. The island
lies near the coast of Poitou. W. Long. I. o. N. Lat.
-45' 4C* . . .
Cape Martin, a promontory of ^ alencia in Spain,
near a town called Denia, separating the gulf of Va¬
lencia from that of Alicant.
Martin, St, an island of America, and one of
the Caribbees, lying on the gulf of Mexico, to the
north-west of St Bartholomew', and to the south-west
of Anguilla. It is 42 miles in circumference j has nei¬
ther harbour nor river, but several salt pits. After va¬
rious revolutions, it is at length in possession of the
’French and Dutch* who possess it conjointly. ’W,
Long. 62. 35. N, Lat. 18. 15.
Martin. See Hirundo, Ornithology Index, and
Mustela, Mammalia Index.
Free Martin, in 'Zodfogy, is a name given in this
country to a cow' calf cast at the same time with a
bull calf, which is a kind of hermaphrodite that is never
known to breed nor to discover the least inclination fat
the bull, nor does the bull ever take the least notice of
it. See Hermaphrodite.
MAKTINGALE, in the matiege* a thong of lea¬
ther, fastened to one end of the girths under a horse’s
belly, and at the other'end to the muss-roll, to keep
him from rearing.
MART IN ICO, the fhief of the French’Caribbee
islands, the middle of which is situated in W. Long.
61. o. N. Lat. 14. 30.
Th is island Was first settled by M. Desnambuc a
Frenchman, in the year 1635, with only 100 men from
St Christopher’s. He chose rather to have it peopled
from thence than from Europe ; as lie foresaw, that
men, tired with the fatigue of such a long voyage,
w'ould mostly perish soon after their arrival, either from
the climate, or from the hardships incident to most
emigrations. They completed their first settlement
without any difficulty. The natives, intimidated by
their fire-arms, or seduced by promises, gave up the
western and southern parts of the island to the new
comers. In a short time, however, perceiving the
number of these enterprising strangers daily increasing,
they Eesolved to extirpate them, and therefore called
in the savages of the neighbouring islands to assist
them. They fell jointly upon a little fort that had
been hastily erected ; but were repulsed, with the loss
of 760 or 800 of their best w arriors, who were left dead
on the spot.
After this check, the savages for a long time disap¬
peared entirely ', but at last they returned, bringing
with them presents to the French, and making ex¬
cuses for what had happened. They W’ere received in
a friendly manner, and the reconciliation sealed with
pots of brandy. This peaceable state of affairs, how¬
ever, was of no long continuance *, the French took
such undue advantage of their superiority over the sa¬
vages, that they soon rekindled in the others that ha¬
tred which had never been entirely subdued. The sa¬
vages, whose manner of life requires a vast extent of
land, finding themselves daily more and more strait¬
ened, had recourse to stratagem, in order to destroy
S V
M A II [6
lartinica. their enemies. I hey separated into small bands, and
"J way-laid the Irench as they came singly out into the
woods to hunt, and waiting till the sportsman had dis¬
charged his piece, rushed upon and killed him before
he could charge it again. Twenty men had been
thus assassinated before any reason could be given for
their sudden disappearance : but as soon as the matter
was known, the French took a severe and fatal re¬
venge ; the savages were pursued and massacred, with
their wives and children, and the few that escaped
were driven out of Martinico, to which they never re¬
turned.
The French being thus left sole masters of the
island, lived quietly on those spots which best suited
their inclinations. At this time they were divided
into two classes. The first consisted of those who had
paid their passage to the island, and these were called
inhabitants; and to these the government distributed
lands, which became their own, upon paying a year¬
ly tribute. These inhabitants had under their com¬
mand a multitude of disorderly people, brought over
from Europe at their expence, whom they called en¬
gages, or bondsmen. This engagement was a kind of
slavery for the term of three years : on the expiration
of which they were at liberty, and became the equals
of those whom they had served. They all confined
themselves at first to the culture of tobacco and cotton j
to which was soon added that of arnotto and indigo.
The culture of sugar also was begun about the year
1650. Ten years after, one Benjamin d’Acosta, a
Jew, planted some cocoa trees; but his example was
not followed till 1684, when chocolate was more com¬
monly used in France. Cocoa then became the prin¬
cipal support of the colonists, who had not a sufficient
fund to undertake sugar plantations j but by the in¬
clemency of the season in 1718, all the cocoa trees
were destroyed at once.— Coffee was then proposed as
a proper object of culture. The French ministry had
received, as a present from the Dutch, two of these
trees, which were carefully preserved in the king’s
botanical garden. Two young shoots were taken from
these, put on board a ship for Martinico, and intrusted
to the care of one Mr Desclieux. The ship happened
to be straitened for want of fresh water j and the trees
would have perished, had not that gentleman shared
with them that quantity of water which w'as allowed
for his own drinking. The culture of coffee was then
begun, and attended with the greatest and most rapid
success. About the end of last century, however, the
colony had made but small advances. In 1700, it had
only 6597 white inhabitants. The savages, mulattoes,
and free negroes, men, women, and children, amounted
to no more than 5°7* number of slaves was but
14,566. All these together made a population of
21,645 persons. The whole of the cattle amounted to
5668 horses or mules, and 9217 head of horned cattle.
The island produced a great quantity of cocoa, tobac¬
co, and cotton ; had nine indigo houses, and 183 small
sugar plantations.
After the peace of Utrecht, Martinico began to
emerge from that feeble state in which it had so long
continued. I he island then became the mart for ail
the windward French settlements. In the ports of it
the neighbouring islands sold their produce, and bought
the commodities of the mother country j and, in short,
2
15 J M A R
Martinico became famous all over Europe, In 1736, Martinico
there were on the island 447 sugar works 5 115953,232 y——
coffee trees, 103.870 of cocoa: 2,068,480 plants of
cotton, 39,400 of tobacco, 6750 of arnotto. The
supplies for provisions consisted of 4,806,142 banana
trees, 34,483,000 trenches of cassava ; and 247 plots
of potatoes and yams. I lie number of blacks amount¬
ed to 72,000 men, women, and children. Their la¬
bour had improved the plantations- as far as was con¬
sistent with the consumption then made in Europe of
American productions j and the annual exports from
the island amounted to about 700,000!.
The connexions of Martinico with the other islands
entitled her to the profits of commission, and the
charges of transport; as she alone was in the posses¬
sion of carriages. This profit might be rated at the
tenth of the produce ; and the sum total must have
amounted to near 765,000). This standing debt was
seldom called in, and left for the improvement of their
plantations. It was increased by advances in money,
slaves, and other necessary articles; so that Marti¬
nico became daily more and more a creditor to the
other islands, and thus kept them in constant depend¬
ence ; while they all enriched themselves by her as¬
sistance.
The connexions of this island with Cape Breton,
Canada, and Louisiana, procured a market for the or¬
dinary sugars, the inferior coffee, the molasses, and rum,
which would not sell in France, In exchange the in¬
habitants received salt fish, dried vegetables, deals, and
some flour. In the clandestine trade on the coasts of
Spanish America, consisting wholly of goods manu¬
factured by the nation, she commonly made a profit of
90 per cent, on the value of about 175,000!. sent year¬
ly to the Caraccas, or neighboimng colonies.
So many prosperous engagements brought immense
sums into Martinico. Upwards of 787,0001. were
constantly circulated in that island with great rapidi¬
ty; and this is jicrhaps the only country in the world
where the specie has been so considerable as to make
it a matter of indifference to them whether they dealt
in gold, silver, or commodities. This extensive trade
brought into the ports of Martinico annually 200 ships
from France; 14 or 15 fitted out by the mother
country for the coast of Guinea, 60 from Canada, 10
or 1 2 from the islands of Margaretta and Trinidad ;
besides the English and Dutch ships that came to carry
on a smuggling trade. The private navigation from
the island to the northern colonies, to the Spanish con¬
tinent, and to the windward islands, employed 120 ves¬
sels from 20 to 30 tons burden.
The war of 1744 put a stop to-this prosperity. Not
that the fault was in Martinico itself; its navy, con¬
stantly exercised, and accustomed to frequent engage¬
ments, which the carrying on a contraband trade re¬
quired, was prepared for action. In less than six
months, 40 privateers, fitted out at St Peter’s, spread
themselves about the latitude of the Caribbee islands.
They signalized themselves in a manner worthy of the
ancient freebooters ; returning constantly in triumph,
and laden with an immense booty. Yet, in the midst
of these successes, an entire stop was put to the navi¬
gation of the colony, both to the Spanish coast and to
Canada, and they were constantly disturbed even on
their own coasts. The few ships that came from
Frances,
M«rUiiico.
M A It [ 61
France, in order to compensate the hazards they were
exposed to by the loss of their commodities, sold them
at a vei-y advanced price, and bought them at a very
low one. By this means the produce decreased m va¬
lue, the lands were ill cultivated, the works neglected,
and the slaves perishing for want.
When every thing thus seemed tending to decay,
the peace at last restored the freedom of trade, and with
it the hopes of recovering the ancient prosperity ol the
island. The event, however, did not answer the pains
that were taken to attain it. Two years had not elaps¬
ed after the cessation of hostilities, when the colony
lost the contraband trade she carried on with the Ame¬
rican Spaniards. This was owing to the substitution
of register ships to the fleets } and thus were the at¬
tempts of the smugglers confined within very narrow
bounds. In the new system, the number of ships was
undetermined, and the time of their arrival uncertain .
which occasioned a variation in the price of commo¬
dities unknowti before ; and from that time the smug¬
gler, who only engaged in this trade from the cer¬
tainty of a fixed and constant profit, would no longer
pursue it, when it did not secure him an equivalent
to the risks he ran. But this loss was not so sensibly
felt by the colony, as the hardships brought upon
them by the mother country. An unskilful admini¬
stration clogged the reciprocal and necessary connec¬
tion between the islands and North America with so
many formalities, that in 1755 Martinico sent but four
vessels to Canada. The direction of the colonies, now
committed to the care of ignorant and avaricious
clerks, soon lost its importance, sunk into contempt,
and was prostituted to venality. The debts which
had been contracted, during a series of calamities, had
not yet been paid off, when the war broke out afresh.
After a series of misfortunes and defeats, the island fell
into the hands of the British. It was restored, how¬
ever, in July 1763, 16 months after it had been con¬
quered 5 but deprived of all the necessary means of pro¬
sperity, that had made it of so much importance. For
sofne years past, the contraband trade carried on to
the Spanish coasts was almost entirely lost. The ces¬
sion of Canada had precluded all hopes of opening
again a communication, which had only been inter¬
rupted by temporary mistakes. The productions of
the Grenades, St Vincent, and Dominica, which were
now become British dominions, could no longer be
brought into their harbours *, and a new regulation
of the mother country, which forbade her having any
intercourse with Guadaloupe, left her no hopes from
that quarter.
The colony, thus deprived of every thing as it Were,
and destitute, nevertheless contained, at the last sur¬
vey, which was taken on the 1st of January 1770, in
the compass of 28 parishes, 12,450 white people of
all ages and of both sexes 5 1814 free blacks or mu-
lattoes 5 70,553 slaves, and 443 fugitive negroes. The
number of births in 1766, was in the proportion of
one in 30 among the white people, and of one in 25
among the blacks. From this observation, if it were
constant, it should seem that the climate of America
is much more favourable to the propagation of the
Africans than of the Europeans : since the former mul¬
tiply still more in the labours and hardships of slavery,
than the latter in the midst of plenty and freedom.
6 ] MAR
The consequence must he, that in process of time the Martinico
increase of blacks in America will surpass that of the v—J
white men j and, perhaps, at last avenge this race of
victims on the descendants of the oppressois.
The cattle of the colony consists of 8283 horses or
mules ; 12,376 head of horned cattle j 975 hogs $ and
13,544 sheep or goats.
Their provisions are, 17,930,596 trenches of cassava;
3,509,048 banana trees, and 406 squares and a hal fot
yams and potatoes.
Their plantations contain 11,444 squares of land,
planted with sugar j 6,638,957 coffee trees 5 871,043
cocoa trees 5 1,764,807 cotton plants j 59,966 tree.-
of cassia, and 61 of arnotto.
The meadows or savannahs take up 10,072 squares
of land *, there are 11,966 in wood, and 8448 uncul¬
tivated or forsaken.
The plantations which produce coffee, cotton, co
coa, and other things of less importance, are 1515 in
number. There are but 286 for sugar. They employ
116 water-mills, 12 wind-mills, and 184 turned by
oxen. Before the hurricane of the 13th of August
1766, there were 302 small habitations and 15 sugar-
works more. t .
In 1760, France imported from Martinico, upon
202 trading vessels, 177,116 quintals of fine sugai,
and 12,579 (lu“,^a^s ra'v suSar i 68,518 quintals
of coffee 5 n,73i quintals of cocoa*, 6048 quintals
of cotton *, 2518 quintals of cassia 5 783 casks of rum)
307 hogsheads of molasses*, 150 pounds of indigo)
2147 pounds of pi*eserved fruits ) 47 pounds of cho¬
colate ) 282 pounds of rasped tobacco ) 494 pounds
of rope-yarn) 334 chests of liqueurs ) 234 hogsheads
of molasses, &c. 45* quintals of wood for dyeing j
and 12,108 hides in the hair. All these productions
together have been bought in the colony itself, foi
536,631!. 9s. lod. It is true, that the colony has^
received from the mother country to the amount of
588,412!. 16s. 6d. of merchandise 5 but part of this
has been sent away to the Spanish coasts, and anothei
part has been conveyed to the English settlements.
The island is l6 leagues in length and 45 in cir¬
cumference, leaving out the capes, some of which ex¬
tend two or three leagues into the sea. It is very un¬
even, and intersected in all parts by a number ol hil¬
locks ) W'hich are mostly of a conical form. J hiee
mountains rise above these smaller eminences. Ihe
highest bears the indelible marks of a volcano. The
woods with ■which it is covered continually attract
the clouds, which occasions noxious damps, and con¬
tributes to make it horrid and inaccessible ) while the
two others are in most parts cultivated. From these
mountains issue the many springs that wrater the island.
These waters, which flow in gentle streams, are chan¬
ged into torrents on the slightest storm. Iheir qualities
are derived from the soil over which they flow. In
some places they are excellent j in others so had, that
the inhabitants are obliged to drink the water they
have collected during the rainy season.
Of all the French settlements in the West Indies,
Martinico is the most happily situated with regard to
the Avinds which prevail in those seas. Its harbours
possess the inestimable advantage of affording a certain
shelter from the hurricanes which annoy these latitudes.
The harbour of Fort Royal is one of the best in all
M A li [ 617 ] M A K
Marlinico the wind ward islands ; and so celebrated for its safety,
* II that, when it was open to the Dutch, their shipmasters
, Marl>T;_ had orders from the republic to take shelter there in
June, July, and August, the three months in which the
hurricanes are most frequent. The lands of the La-
mentin which are but a league distant, are the richest
and most fertile in the whole island. The numerous
streams which water this fruitful country, convey load¬
ed canoes to a considerable distance from tlie sea. The
protection of the fortifications secured the peaceable
enjoyment of so many advantages } which, however,
were balanced by a swampy and unwholesome soil,
i his capital ot Martinico was also the rendezvous of
the men of war j which branch of the navy has always
oppressed the merchantmen. On this account, Fort
Royal was an improper place to become the centre of
trade, which was therefore removed to St Peter’s. This
little town, notwithstanding the fires that have four
times reduced it to ashes, still contains 1700 houses.
It is situated on the western coast of the island, on a
bay, or inlet, which is almost circular. One part of it
is built on the strand along the sea side, which is called
the anchorage ; and is the place destined for ships and
warehouses. The other part of the town stands upon
a low hill; it is called the Fort, from a small fortifica¬
tion that was built there in 1665, to check the seditions
of the inhabitants against the tyranny of monopoly j but
it now serves to protect the road from foreign enemies.
These two parts of the town are separated by a rivulet.
The anchorage is at the back of a pretty high and
steep hill. Shut up as it were by this hill, which in¬
tercepts the easterly winds, the most constant and most
salubrious in these parts j exposed without any re¬
freshing breezes, to the scorching beams of the sun, re¬
flected from the hill, from the sea, and the black sand
on the beach j this place is extremely hot, and always
unwholesome. Besides, there is no harbour ; and the
ships which cannot winter safely upon this coast are
obliged to take shelter at Fort Royal. But these dis¬
advantages are compensated by the conveniency of the
road of St Peter’s, for loading and unloading of goods ;
and by its situation, which is such that ships can freely
go in and out at all times, and with all winds.
Martinico again fell into the hands of the British in
1794 j was given up to France in 1801 ; retaken in
1809, and finally restored to France by the treaty of
Paris in 1814.
MARTLETS, in Heraldry, little birds represented
without feet j and used as a difference or mark of di¬
stinction for younger brothers, to put them in mind
that they are to trust to the wings of virtue and merit,
. in order to raise themselves, and not to their feet, they
having little land to set their foot on. See Heraldry.
MARTYNIA, a genus of plants belonging to the
didynamia class 5 and in the natural method ranking
under the 10th order, Fersonatce. See Botany Index.
MARTYR, is one who lays down his life, or suffers
death, for the sake of his religion. The word is Greek,
and properly signifies “ a witness.” It is ap¬
plied, by way of eminence, to those who sufl'er in wit¬
ness of the truth of the gospel.
I he Christian church has abounded in martyrs, and
•history is filled with surprising accounts of their singu-
Jar constancy and fortitude under the cruellest torments
'.human nature was capable of suffering. The primitive
VGL. XII. Part II. i
Christians were accused by their enemies of paying a Mhim
sort of divine worship to the martyrs. Of this we have —v~-.
an instance in the answer of the church of Smyrna to
the suggestion of the Jews, who at the martyrdom 0f
Polycarp, desired the heathen judge not to suffer the
Christians to carry off his body, lest they should leave
their crucified master, and worship him in his stead.
To which they answered, “ We can neither forsake*
Christ, nor worship any other : for we worship him as
the Son of God ; but love the martyrs as the disciples
and followers of the Lord, for the great affection they
have shown to their King and Master.” A like- an
swer was given at the martyrdom of Fructuosus in
bpam. lor when the judge asked Eulogius, his dea¬
con, YY hether he would not worship Fructuosus p a$
thinking, that, though he refused to worship the heathen
idols, he might yet be inclined to worship a Christian
martyr j Eulogius replied, “ I do not worship Fruo
tuosus, but him whom Fructuosus worships.” The
primitive Christians believed, that the martyrs enjoyed
very singular privileges ; that upon their death' they
were immediately admitted to the beatific vision, while
other souls waited for the completion of their happiness
till the day ot judgment j and that God would grant
chiefly to their prayers the hastening of his kingdom,
and shortening the times of persecution.
1 he churches built over the graves of the martyrs,
and called by their names, in order to preserve the me¬
mory of their sufferings, were distinguished by the title
martyrium confess™, or memoria.
. Jhe festivals of the martyrs are of very ancient date
in the Christian church, and may be carried back at
least till the time of Polycarp, who suffered martyrdom
about the year of Christ 168. On these days the Chri¬
stians met at the graves of the martyrs, and offered
prayers and thanksgivings to God for the examples
they had afforded them : they celebrated the eucha-
rist, and gave alms to the poor; which, together with
a panegyrical oration or sermon, and reading the acts
of the martyrs, were the spiritual exercises of these an¬
niversaries.
Of the sayings, sufferings, and deaths of the mar¬
tyrs, though preserved with great care for the above
purpose, and to serve as models to future ages, we
have but very little left, the greatest part of them ha¬
ving been destroyed during that dreadful persecution
which Dioclesian carried on for 10 years with fresh
fury against the Christians ; for a most diligent search
was then made after all their books and papers and
all of them that were found were committed to the
flames. Eusebius, indeed, composed a martyrology,
but it never reached down to us 5 and those since com¬
piled are extremely suspected. From the eighth century
downwards, several Greek and Latin writers endea¬
voured to make up the loss, by compiling, with vast
labour, accounts of the lives and actions of the ancient,
martyrs, but which consist of little else than a series of
fables : Nor are those records that pass under the name
of Martyrology worthy of superior credit, since they
bear the most evident marks both of ignorance and
falsehood.
Martyr, Peter, a famous divine, born at Florence
in 1500. He studied philosophy and the languages
at Padua and Bononia, was a regular Augustine in
the monastery of Fiscoli, and was counted one of the
4 i best
MAH [ 618 ]
Mnrtvr best preachers in Italy. Zuinghus an<l Bnccr’s writ-
Martyro- ings gave him a good opinion ol the Protestants, and
l°gy- his conversation with \ aides confirmed it. He pieaci-
' v ' e(l that doctrine at Rome in private } but, being im¬
peached, fled to Naples, and thence to Lucca, where
he brought oyer to the Protestant interest Lmanuel
Tremellius, Celsus, Martinengas, Paul Lasicius, and
Jeremiah Zanchy. He was sent for to England by
King Edward VI. and made professor of divinity at Ox¬
ford in 1549. In Queen Mary’s reign he returned to
Strasburg, and was present at the conference of Poissy.
His sentiments were not the same with Calvin’s about
Christ’s presence in the eucharist. He wrote a great
number of works, and died in 1562.
MARTYROLOGY, a catalogue or list of martyrs,
including the history of their lives and suft’erings for
the sake of religion. The term comes from
“ witness” and 41 discourse.
The martyrologies draw their materials from the
kalendars of particular churches, in which the several
festivals dedicated to them are marked 5 and which
seem to be derived from the practice ol the ancient
Romans who inserted the names of heroes and great
men in their fasti or public registers.
The martyrologies are very numerous, and contain
many ridiculous and even contradictory narratives.
which is easily accounted for, if we consider how many
forged and spurious accounts of the lives of saints and
martyrs appeared in the first ages of the church, which
the legendary writers afterwards adopted without ex¬
amining into the truth of them. However, some good
critics, of late years, have gone a great way towards
clearing the lives of the saints and martyrs trom the
monstrous heap of fiction they laboured under. See
the article Legend.
The Martyrology of Eusebius of Caesarea was the
most celebrated in the ancient church. It was translated
into Latin by St Jerome *, but the learned agree that
it is not now extant. That attributed to Beda, in the
eighth century, is of very doubtful authority : the
names of several saints being there found who did not
live till after the time of Beda. Jhe ninth century
was very fertile in martyrologies j then appeared that
of Florus, subdeacon of the church at Lyons } who
however, only filled up the chasms in Beda. This
was published about the year 830, and was followed by
that of Waldenburtus, monk ot the diocese of Ireves,
written in verse about the year 844, and this by that
of Usuard, a French monk, and written by the com¬
mand of Charles the Bald in 875, which last is the
martyrology now ordinarily used in the Roman church.
That of Rabanus Maurus is an improvement on Beda
and Florus, written about the year 845 $ that of Not-
ker, monk of St Gal, was written about the year 894.
The martyrology of Addo, monk of Ferrieres, in the
diocese of Treves, afterwards archbishop of Vienne, is
a descendant of the Roman, if we may so call it 5 for
Du Sollier gives its genealogy thus : The martyrology
of St Jerome is the great Roman martyrology •, from
this was made the little Roman one printed by Ros-
weyd 5 of this little Roman martyrology was formed
that of Beda, augmented by Florus. Ado compiled
his in the year 858. The mavtyrclogy of Nevelon,
monk of Corbie, written about the year 1089, is little
more than an abridgement of that of Ado ; Father Kir-
MAR
cher also makes mention of a Coptic martyrology pre- Martyro-
served by the Maronites at Rome. logy,
We have also several Protestant martyrologists, con- Marvell,
taining the suflerings of the reformed under the Papists, 'r~~
viz. an English martyrology, by J. Fox j with others
by Clark, Bray, &c.
Martyrology is also used, in the Romish church,
for a roll or register kept in the vestry of each church,
containing the navies of all the saints and martyrs, both
of the universal church and of the particular ones of
that city or monastery.
Martyrology is also applied to the painted or
written catalogues in the Romish churches, containing
the foundations, obits, prayers, and masses, to be said
each day.
MARVELL, Andrew, an ingenious writer in the
17th century, was bred at Cambridge. He travelled
through the most polite parts of Europe, and was secre¬
tary to the embassy at Constantinople. His first appear¬
ance in public business at home was as assistant to Dr
John Milton, Latin secretary to the protector. A little
before the restoration, he was chosen by his native town,
Kingston upon Hull, to sit in that parliament, which
began at Westminster April 25th 1660 j and is record¬
ed as the last member of parliament who received the
wages or allowance anciently paid to representatives
by their constituents. He seldom spoke in parliament,
but he had great influence without doors upon the
members of both houses y and Prince Rupert had al¬
ways the greatest regard for his advice. He made
himself very obnoxious to the government by his ac¬
tions and writings y nothwithstanding which, King
Charles II. took great delight in his conversation, and
tried all means to win him over to his side, but in vain,
nothing being ever able to shake his resolution. J here
were many instances of his firmness in resisting the of¬
fers of the court y but he was proof against all temp¬
tations. The king having one night entertained him,
sent the lord treasurer Danby the next morning to
find out his lodgings : which were then up two pair
of stairs in one of the little courts in the Strand. He
was busy writing when the treasurer opened the door
abruptly upon him. Surprised at the sight of so un¬
expected a visitor, Mr Marvell told his Lordship,
“ That he believed he had mistaken his way.” Lord
Danby replied, “ Not, now I have found Mr Mar¬
vell y” telling him he came from his majesty, to know
what he could do to serve him. Cuming to a serious
explanation, he told the lord treasurer, that he knew
the nature of courts full well 5 that whoever is distin¬
guished by a prince’s favour, is certainly expected to
vote in his interest. The Lord Danby told him, that
his majesty had only a just sense 01 his merits, in re¬
gard to which he only desired to know il there was
any place at court he could be pleased with. J hese
offers, though urged with the greatest earnestness, had
no effect upon him. He told the lord treasurer, that
he could not accept of them with honour y lor he must
be either ungrateful to the king in voting against him,
or false to his country in giving into the measures of
the court. The only favour therefore, he had to re¬
quest of his majesty was, that he would esteem him as
dutiful a subject as any he bad, and more in his pro¬
per interest by refusing his offers than it he had em¬
braced them. The Lord Danby finding no argu¬
ments
MAR [6
ftfarvell, vnenis could prevail, told him, that the king had or-
Mary. dered a thousand pounds for him, which he hoi»ed he
,l—^ would receive till he could think what farther to ask
of his majesty. The last offer was rejected with the
same stedfastness of mind as the first ; though, as soon
as the lord treasurer Avas gone, he was forced to send
to a friend to borroAV a guinea. He died, not without
strong suspicions of his being poisoned, in 1678, in the
58th year of his age. In 1688, the town of Kingston
upon Hull contributed a sum of money to erect a mo¬
nument over him in the church of St Giles in the Fields,
Avhere he Avas interred, and an epitaph composed by
an able hand ; but the ministry of that church forbade
both the inscription and monument to be placed there.
He wrote many ingenious pieces j as, The Rehearsal
transprosed j A short Historical Essay concerning Gen-
neral Councils, Creeds, and Impositions in matters of
Religion, &c.; also Poems and Letters.
Marvel of Peru. See Mirabilis, Botany Index.
MARY, the mother of our Saviour Jesus Christ,
and a virgin at the time that she concei\red him ;
daughter of Joachim and of Anna, of the tribe of Ju¬
dah, and married to Joseph of the same tribe. The
Scripture tells us nothing of her parents, not so much
as their names, unless Heli mentioned by St Luke iii.
23. be the same with Joachim. All that is said con¬
cerning the birth of Mary and of her parents is only to
be found in some apocryphal Avritings j Avhich, Iioav-
ever, are very ancient.
Mary was of the royal race of David, as Avas also
her husband ; ‘ A virgin, espoused to a man Avhose
name Avas Joseph, of the house of David,’ says our
translation of St Luke i. 27. which translation Mr
Whitby thinks might be better rendered thus: A
virgin of the house of David, espoused to a man whose
name was Joseph, and the virgin’s name Aras Maip;
because this agrees better Avith the words of the angel,
“ The Lord shall give him the throne of his father
David,” ver. 32. For since the angel had plainly told
the virgin, that she should have this son Avithout the
knoAvledge of any man, it Avas not Joseph’s but Mary’s
being of the house of David, that made David his fa¬
ther.
Mary Avas akin to the race of Aaron, since Eliza¬
beth the Avife of Zacharias Avas her cousin (A’er. 36.)
Mary very early made a vow of chastity, and enga¬
ged herself to perpetual virginity. The Proto-evan-
gehum of St James tells us, that she Avas consecrated
to the Lord, and offered in the temple from her ear¬
liest youth ; and that the priests gave her Joseph for
a spouse, Avho was a holy and venerable old man,
whom Providence appointed for his purpose by a mi¬
racle, the rod which he commonly carried having
groAvn green and flourished as Aaron’s did formerly.
He espoused Mary, not to li\'e with her in the ordinary
use of marriage, and to have children by her, but
only that he might be the guardian of her virginity.
.Though these circumstances are not to be relied on as
certain, yet Mary’s resolution of continency, even in
a married state, cannot be called in question, since her
virginity is attested by the gospel, and that herself
speaking to the angel, Avho declared to her that she
should become the mother of a son, told him that
‘‘ she knew not a man,” (ver. 34.), or that she lived
an continency with her husband: for Avhich reason,
19 ] M A R
Avhen Joseph perceived her pregnancy, he was extreme¬
ly surprised at it, knowing the mutual resolution they
had agreed to ol living in continency though in a state
of marriage.
When Mary was ready to lie in, an edict Avas pub¬
lished by Caesar Augustus, Avhich decreed, that all
the subjects ot the empire should go to their own ci¬
ties, there to have their names registered according to
their families. Thus Joseph and Mary, Avho Avere both
ot the lineage of David, betook themselves to the city
of Bethlehem, from whence Avas the original of their
family. But Avhile they were in this place, the time
being fulfilled in which Mary was to be delivered, she
brought forth her first-born son. She Avrapped him in
SAvaddling-clothes, and laid him in the manger of the
stable or cavern whither they had retired : for they
could find no place in the public inn, because of the
great concourse of people that Avere then at Bethlehem
on the same occasion ; or they Avere forced to withdraAV
into the stable of the inn, not being able to get a more
convenient lodging, because of the multitude of people
then at Bethlehem.
At the same time the angels made it knoAvn to
the shepherds who were in the fields near Bethlehem,
and who came in the night to see Mary and Joseph
and the child lying in the manger, and to pay him
their tribute of adoration. Mary took notice of all
these things, and laid them up in her heart, (Luke ii.
19. Matth. ii. 8, 9, 10, II, &c.). A feAv days after,
the magi or vvise men came from the east, and brought
to Jesus the mysterious presents of gold, frankincense,
and myrrh ; after Avhich, being Avarned by an angel
that appeared to them in a dream, they returned in¬
to their own country by a Avay different from that
by Avhich they came. But the time of Mary’s puri¬
fication being come, that is forty days after the birth
of Jesus, MaryAventto Jerusalem (Luke ii. 2i.), there
to present her son in the temple, and there to offer the
sacrifice appointed by the Iuav for the purification of
Avomen after childbirth. There was then at Jerusa¬
lem an old man named Simeon, who was full of the
Holy Ghost, ar»d who had received a secret assurance
that he should not die before he had seen Christ the
Lord. He came then into the temple by the influence
of the spirit of God, and taking the little Jesus Avith-
in his arms, he blessed the Lord : and aftenvards ad¬
dressing himself to Mary, he told her, ‘ That this
child should be for the rising and falling of many in
Israel, and for a sign Avhich should be spoken against j
even so far as that her own soul should be pierced as
Avith a SAVord, that the secret thoughts in the hearts
of many might be discovered.’ Aftenvards when Jo¬
seph and Mary Avere preparing to return to their own
country of Nazareth (Mat(h. ii. 13, 14.), Joseph was
Avarned in a- dream to retire into Egypt with Mary
and the child, because Herod had a design to destroy
Jesus. Joseph obeys the admonition, and they con¬
tinued in Egypt till after the death of Herod ; upon
which he and Mary returned to Nazareth, not daring
to go to Bethlehem because it Avas in the jurisdiction
of A rchelaus the son and successor of Herod the Great.
Here the holy family took up their residence, and re¬
mained till Jesus began his public ministry. We read
of Maiy being present at the marriage of Cana in Ga¬
lilee, with her son Jesus and his disciples (John ii.
M A R
l 2 &c/). On which occasion Jesus having turned
water into wine, being the first public miracle that he
performed, he went from thence to Capernaum with
his mother and his brethren, or his parents and dis¬
ciples : and this seems to be the place where the holy
virgin afterwards chiefly resided. However, St Epi-
phanius thinks that she followed him everywhere dur¬
ing the whole time of his preaching* though we do
not find the evangelists make any mention of her
among the holy women that followed him and mi¬
nistered to his necessities. The Virgin Mary was at
Jerusalem at the last passover that our Saviour cele¬
brated there * she saw all that was transacted against
him, followed him to Calvary, and stood at the loot
of his cross with a constancy worthy ol the mother of
God. There Jesus seeing his mother and his beloved
disciple near her, he said to his mother, “ Woman,
behold thy son*” and to the disciple, ‘‘Behold thy
mother.” And from that hour the disciple took her
home to his own house. It is not to be doubted, but
that our Saviour appeared to his mother immediately
after his resurrection * and that she was the first, or at
least one of the first, to whom he vouchsafed this great
consolation. She was with the apostles at his ascension,
and continued with them at Jerusalem, expecting the
coming of the Holy Ghost (Acts i. 140* After this,
she dwelt in the house of St John the Evangelist, who
took care of her as of his own mother. It is thought
that he took her along with him to Ephesus, where she
died in an extreme old age. There is a letter of the
oecumenical council of Ephesus, importing, that in the
fifth century it was believed she was buried there. V et
this opinion was not so universal, but that there are au¬
thors of the same age who think she died and was bu¬
ried at Jerusalem.
Mary Magdalen, who has been generally con¬
founded with Mary the sister of Martha and Lazarus,
hut very improperly, was probably that sinner men¬
tioned by St Luke, chap. vii. 36, 37, &c. whose name
he does not tell us. There are some circumstances
sufficient to convince us, that she is the same whom
he calls Mary Magdalen in chap. viii. 2. and from
whom he says Jesus drove out seven devils. Jesus
having healed the widow’s son of Nain, entered into
the city, and there was invited to eat by a Pharisee
named Simon. While he was at table, a woman of a
scandalous life came into the house, having an alabaster
box full of perfumed oil, and standing upright be¬
hind Jesus, and at his feet, for he was lying at table
on a couch after the manner of the ancients, she pour¬
ed her perfume on his feet, kissed them, watered them
with her tears, and wiped them with her hair. The
Pharisee observing this, said within himself, If this
man were a prophet, he would know who this woman
is that touches him, that she is one of a wicked life.
Then Jesus, who knew the bottom of his heart, illu¬
strated her case by a parable * and concluded with an¬
swering the woman, that her sins were forgiven her.
In the following chapter, St Luke tells us, that Je¬
sus, in company with his apostles, preached the go¬
spel from city to city : and that there were several wo¬
men whom he had delivered from evil spirits, and had
cured of their infirmities, among whom was Mary cal¬
led Magdalen, out of whom went seven devils. This,
M A R
it must be owned, is no positive proof that the sinner Afary.
mentioned before was Mary Magdalen * however, it is ——v—
all that we have in support of this opinion : An opinion
which has been ably controverted by others. Mary
Magdalen had her surname, it is thought, from the town
of Magdalia in Galilee. Lightfoot believes that this
Mary is the same with Mary the sister of Lazarus.
Magdalen is mentioned by the evangelists among the
women that followed our Saviour, to minister to him
according to the custom of the Jews. St Luke viii. 2.
and St Mark xvi. 9. observe, that this woman had been
delivered by Jesus Christ from seven devils. This some
understand in the literal sense * but others take it figu¬
ratively, for the crimes and wickedness of her past life
(supposing her to he the sinner first above mention¬
ed), from which Christ had rescued her. Others
maintain, that she had always lived in virginity ; and
consequently they make her a difl’erent person from
the sinner mentioned by St Luke : and by the seven
devils of which she was possessed, they understand no
other than a real possession, which is not inconsistent
with a holy life. This indeed is the most probable opi¬
nion, and that which has been best supported. In par¬
ticular, the author of a “ Letter to Jonas Hanway”
on the subject of Magdalen House, published in 1758,
has shown by a variety of learned remarks and quo¬
tations both from the Scriptures and from the best
commentators, that Mary Magdalen was not the sin¬
ner spoken of by St Luke, but on the contrary that
she “ was a woman of distinction, and very easy in her
worldly circumstances. For a while, she had laboured
under some bodily indisposition, which our Lord mira¬
culously healed, and for which benefit she was ever
after very thankful. So far as we know, her conduct
wTas always regular and free from censure * and we
may reasonably believe, that after her acquaintance
with our Saviour it wras edifying and exemplary. I
conceive of her (continues our author) as a woman
of a fine understanding, and known virtue and discre¬
tion, with a dignity of behaviour becoming her age,
her wisdom, and her high station : by all which, she
was a credit to him whom she followed as her master
and benefactor. She showed our Lord great respect
in his life, at his death, and after it * and she was one
of those to whom he first showed himself after his re¬
surrection.”
Mary Magdalen followed Christ in the last journey
that he made from Galilee to Jerusalem, and was at
the foot of the cross with the holy virgin (John xix.
25. Mark xv. 47.). After which she returned to Je¬
rusalem to buy and prepare the perfumes, that she
might embalm him after the sabbath was over, which
was then about to begin. All the sabbath day she re¬
mained in the city * and the next day early in the
morning she went to the sepulchre, along with Mary
the mother of James and Salome (Mark xvi. 1, 2. Luke
xxiv. I, 2.). On the way, they inquired of one ano¬
ther, who should take aw'ay the stone from the mouth
of the sepulchre, and were sensible of a great earth¬
quake. This was the token of our Saviour’s resurrec¬
tion. Being come to his tomb, they saw two angels,
who informed them that Jesus was risen. Upon this
Mary Magdalen runs immediately to Jerusalem, and
acquaints the apostles with this good news, returning
herself
[ 620 ]
M A H l 621 ] M A K
jfary. herself to the sepulchre. Peter ami John came also,
—v“““J and were witnesses that the hotly w7as no longer there.
They returned : but Mary stayed, and stooping for-
ward to examine the inside of the tomb, she there saw
two angels sitting, one at the head and the other at the
foot of the tomb •, and immediately afterwards, upon
turning about, she beheld the Lord himself. She
would have cast herself at his feet to kiss them. But
Jesus said to her, “ Touch me not, for I am not vet
ascended to my Father.” As if he had said, “ You
shall have leisure to see me hereafter ; go now to my
brethren, my apostles, and tell them I am going to
ascend to my God and to their God, to my Father and
to their Father.” Thus had Mary the happiness of first
seeing our Saviour after his resurrection. (See Matth.
xxxviii. 5. &c. Mark xvi. 6. &c. John xx. 11, 17.).
She returned then to Jerusalem, and told the apostles
that she had seen the Lord, that she had spoken to him,
and told them what he had said to her. But at first
they did not believe her, till her I'eport was confirmed
by many other testimonies.—This is what the gospel
informs us concerning Mary Magdalen, different from
Mary the sister of Martha, though she has been often
called by this name. For, as to the pretended History
of Mary Magdalen, which is said to have been written
in Hebrew by Marcella servant of Martha ; this can
only relate to Mary sister of Martha, and besides is a
mere piece of imposture.
Mary, queen and tyrant of England, was eldest
daughter of Henry VIII. by his first wife Catharine
of Spain, and born at Greenwich in February 1517.
Her mother was very careful of her education, and
provided her with tutors to teach her what was fit¬
ting. Her first preceptor was the famous Linacre,
who drew’ up for her use the Rudiments of Gram¬
mar, and afterwards De emendata structura latini scr- Mary-
monis libri sex. Linacre dying when she was but six ' ' v—
years old, Ludovicus Vives, a very learned man of
Valenza in Spain, was her next tutor; and he com¬
posed for her De ratione studiipuerilis. Under the di¬
rection of these excellent men, she became so great a
mistress of Latin, that Erasmus commends her for her
epistles in that language. Towards the end of her fa¬
ther’s reign, at the earnest solicitation of Queen Ca¬
tharine Parr, she undertook to translate Erasmus’s
Paraphrase on the gospel of St John j but falling into
ill health, as Udall relates, partly by excessive study
in this work, after she had made some progress there¬
in, she left the rest to be done by Dr Mallet her
chaplain. This translation is printed in the first vo¬
lume of Erasmus’s Paraphrase upon the New Testa¬
ment, London, 1548, folio j and with it is a Pre¬
face, written by Udall, the famous master of Eton,
school, and addressed to the queen dowager (a).—
Had she been educated in Spain, however, and an in¬
quisitor had been her preceptor, she could not have
imbibed more strongly the bloody principles of Ro¬
mish persecution •, and to the eternal disgrace of the
English prelacy, though the reformation had taken
root iu both universities, she found English bishops
ready to carry her cruel designs to subvert it into ef¬
fectual execution. King Edward her brother dying
the 6th of July 1553, she Was proclaimed queen the
same month, and crowned in October by Stephen
Gardiner bishop of Winchester. Upon her acces¬
sion to the throne, she declared, in her speech to the
council, that she would not persecute her Protestant
subjects : but in the following month, she prohibited
preaching without a special license j and before the
expiration of three months, the Protestant bishops
were
(a) As this preface contains many reflections which may very much edify the females of this age, wTe
shall for their sakes here transcribe a part of it. Mr Udall takes occasion in it to observe to*her majesty,
“ The great number of noble women at that time in England, not only given to the study of human sciences
and strange tongues, but also so thoroughly expert in the Holy Scriptures, that they were able to compare
with the best writers, as well in enditing and penning of godly and fruitful treatises, to the instruction and
edifying of realms in the knowledge of God, as also in translating good books out of Latin or Greek into
English, for the use and commodity of such as are rude and ignorant of the said tongues. It wTas now (he
said) no news in England to see young damsels in noble houses, and in the courts of princes, instead of cards
and other instruments of idle trifling, to have continually in their hands either psalms, homilies, and other de¬
vout meditations, or else Paul’s epistles, or some book of holy scripture matters, and as familiarly both to read
or reason thereof in Greek, Latin, French, or Italian, as in English. It was now a common thing to see
young virgins so trained in the study of good letters, that they willingly set all other vain pastimes at nought
for learning’s sake. It was now no news at all to see queens and ladies of most high estate and progeny, in¬
stead of courtly dalliance, to embrace virtuous exercises of reading and writing, and with most earnest study,
both early and late, to apply themselves to the acquiring of knowledge, as well in all other liberal arts and dis¬
ciplines, as also most especially of God and his holy word. And in this behalf (says he), like as to your high¬
ness, as well as for composing and setting forth many godly psalms, and divers other contemplative meditations,
as also for causing these paraphrases to be translated into our vulgar tongue, England can never be able to render
thanks sufficient } so may it never be able, as her deserts require, enough to praise and magnify the most noble
the most virtuous, the most witty, and the most studious Lady Mary’s grace, for taking such pain and travail in
translating this Paraphrase of Erasmus upon the gospel of St John.—-What could be a more plain declaration
of her most constant purpose to promote God’s word, and the free grace of his gospel ?” &c. Mr Udall was
mistaken j she never meant any such thing 5 for soon after her accession to the throne, a proclamation was issued
for calling in and suppressing this very book, and all others that had the least tendency towards furthering the
reformation. And Mr Walpole is of opinion, that the sickness wrhich came upon her while she was translating
St John, was all affected •, “ for (says he) she would not so easily have been cast into sickness, had she been em¬
ployed on the Legends of St Teresa or St Catharine of Sienna.”
Mary-
MAR [62
yvere excluded the house of lords, and all the statutes
' 0f Edward VI. respecting the Protestant religion were
repealed. In July 1544 she was married to Philip
prince of Spain, eldest son of the emperor Charles V.;
and now began that persecution against the Prote¬
stants for which her reign is so justly infamous. Some
have supposed, that the queen wTas herself of a compas¬
sionate and humane disposition *, and that most of those
barbarities were transacted by her bishops without
her knowledge or privity. Without her knowledge
and privity they could not beit would be a better
defence of her to say, that a strict adherence to a false
religion, and a conscientious observance of its perni¬
cious and cruel dictates, overruled and got the better
of that goodness of temper which was natural to her.
But neither can this plea be reasonably admitted by
any one who considers her unkind and inhuman
treatment of her sister the Lady Elizabeth; her ad¬
mitting a council for the taking up and burning of
her father’s body ; her most ungrateful and perfidious
breach of promise with the Suflolk men 5 her unge¬
nerous ahd barbarous treatment of Judge Hales, who
had strenuously defended her right of succession to the
crown j and of Archbishop Cranmer, who in reality
had saved her life. Shall we excuse all this by saying,
Tantinn religio potuit suadere malorinn ? Her obliga¬
tions to Cranmer deserve to be more particularly set
forth. Burnet says, “ that her firm adherence to her
mother’s cause and interest, and her backwardness in
submitting to the king her father, were thought crimes
of such a nature by his majesty, that he came to the re¬
solution to put her openly to death : and that when all
others were unwilling to run any risk in saving her,
Cranmer alone ventured upon it. In his gentle way he
told the king “ that she was young and indiscreet, and
therefore it tvas no wonder if she obstinately adhered
to that which her mother and all about her had
been infusing into her for many years} but that it
would appear strange, if he should for this cause so
far forget the father, as to proceed to extremities
with his own child j that if she wras separated from
her mother and her people, in a little time there might
be ground gained on her ; but that to take away
her life, would raise horror through all Europe against
him}” by which means he preserved her.—Along
with Archbishop Cranmer, who had thus saved her
life, the bishops Ridley and Latimer were also con¬
demned for heresy at Oxford, and afterwards burnt.
10,1556, the persecution became general j and Pro¬
testants of all ranks and ages, and of both sexes, fell
victims to papal fury. It is observable, likewise, that
the same perfidious violation of promises and treaties
prevailed in the queen’s council, with respect to public
affairs. By the treaty of marriage concluded between
the queen and Philip, it was expressly stipulated that
England should not be engaged in any wars with
France on account of Spain } yet in 1557, Philip,
who had brought immense sums of money into Eng¬
land, procured an offensive and defensive alliance
against France, from the English administration, and
8000 of the queen’s choicest troops were sent over to
the assistance of the Spaniards in the Low Countries ;
the loss of Calais to the French was the first fruit of
this war ; and some assert, that upon this single occa¬
sion the queen showed a strong attachment to her
2 ] MAR
live country, lamenting this stroke so deeply, that it ^
occasioned her death $ but it is better authenticated '
that she was carried off by an epidemic fever, which
raged so violently that it did not leave a sufficient num¬
ber of men in health to get in the harvest. She had
long, however, been a prey, if not to remorse, yet to
disappointment and chagrin, arising from various cross
accidents, such as want of children, and the absence
and unkindness of Philip consequent thereupon. Her
death happened Nov. 7. 1558, in the 43d year of her
age, after a reign of five years, four months, and ele¬
ven days. There are some things of her writings still
extant. Strype has preserved three prayers or medi¬
tations of hers: the first, “ Against the Assaults of
Vice j” the second, “ A Meditation touching Adversi¬
ty j” the third, “ A Prayer to be read at the Hour of
Death.” In Fox’s “ Acts and Monuments” are print-
Marv
na-
ed eight of her letters to King Edward and the lords
of the council, on her nonconformity, and on the im¬
prisonment of her chaplain Dr Mallet. In the Syl-
loge epistolarum are several more of her letters, extreme¬
ly curious : one of her delicacy in never having writ¬
ten but to three men } one of affection for her sister ;
one after the death of Anne Boleyn; and one very re¬
markable of Cromwell to her. In “ Haynes’s State
Papers,” are two in Spanish to the emperor Charles V.
There is also a French letter, printed by Strype from
the Cottonian library, in answer to a haughty mandate
from Philip, when he had a mind to marry the Lady
Elizabeth to the duke of Savoy, against the queen’s
and princess’s inclination : it is written in a most ab¬
ject manner, and a wretched style.
Mary of Medici's, wife of Henry IV. king of France,
was declared sole regent of the kingdom in 1610, dur¬
ing the consternation which the assassination of that
beloved king had occasioned. By her ambitious in¬
trigues, the nation lost all its influence abroad, and
was torn to pieces at home by contending factions.
After several vicissitudes of fortune, she was aban¬
doned by her son Louis XIII. whose reign had been
constantly disturbed by the civil commotions she had
occasioned j and died in indigence at Brussels in 1642,
aged 68. She built the superb palace of Luxembourg
at Paris, and embellished that city with aqueducts and
other ornaments.
Mary queen of Scotland, daughter of James V.
was born in the royal palace of Linlithgow on the 8th
of December 1542. Her mother was Mary, the eldest
daughter of Claude duke of Guise, and widow of Louis
duke of Longueville. Her father dying a few days al¬
ter her birth, she scarcely existed before she was hailed
queen.
The government of a queen was unknown in Scot¬
land ; and the government of an infant queen could
not command much respect from martial and turbu¬
lent nobles, who exercised a kind of sovereignty over
their own vassals $ who looked upon the most warlike
of their monarchs in hardly any other light than as
the chief of the aristocracy; and who, upon the
slightest disgusts, were ever ready to fly into rebellion,
and to carry their arms to the foot of the throne.
James had not even provided against the disorders of
a minority, by committing to proper persons the care
of his daughter’s education, and the administration of
affairs in her name. The former of these objects,
however,
M A R [ 623 ] MAR
Mar)-. However, was not neglected, though the regency of
—v-—'the kingdom was.intrusted to very feeble hands. At
six years of age Mary was conveyed to France, where
she received her education in the court of Henry II.
I he opening powers of her mind, and her natural dis¬
positions, allbrded early hopes of capacity and merit.
Alter being taught to s.work with her needle and in
tapestry, she was instructed in the Latin tongue ; and
she is said to have understood it with an accuracy,
which is in this age very uncommon in persons of her
sex and elevated rank, hut which was not then sur¬
prising, when it was the fashion among great ladies to
study the ancient languages. In the French, the Ita¬
lian, and the Spanish tongues, her proficiency was still
greater, and she spoke them with equal ease and pro¬
priety. She walked, danced, and rode with enchant¬
ing gracefulness j and she was qualified by nature, as
well as by art, to attain to distinction in painting, poe¬
try, and music. To accomplish the woman was not,
however, the sole object of her education. Either she
was taught, or she very early discovered, the necessity
of acquiring such branches of knowledge as might en¬
able her to discharge with dignity and prudence the
duties of a sovereign j and much of her time was de¬
voted to the study ot history, in which she delighted to
the end of her life.
Whilst Mary resided in the court of Henry II. her
personal charms made a deep impression on the mind
ot the Dauphin. It was in vain that the constable
Montmorency opposed their marriage with all his in¬
fluence. rIhe importance of her kingdom to France,
and the power of her uncles the princes of Lorraine,
were more than sufficient to counteract his intrigues ;
and the Dauphin obtained the most beautiful princess
in Christendom.
Though this alliance placed the queen of Scotland
in the most conspicuous point of view, in the politest
court of Europe, and drew to her those attentions which
are in the highest degree pleasing to a female mind in
the gaiety ol youth j it may yet be considered as hav¬
ing accidentally laid the foundation of the greatest part
of her future misfortunes. Elizabeth, who now sway¬
ed the sceptre ot England, had been declared illegiti¬
mate by an act of parliament: and though the Eng¬
lish Protestants paid no regard to a declaration which
was compelled by the tyrannic violence of Henry VIII.
and which he himself had indeed rendered null by call¬
ing his daughter to the throne after her brother and
elder sister j yet the papists both at home and abroad
had objections to the legitimacy of Elizabeth’s birth,
founded on principles which with them had greater
weight than the acts of any human legislature. Mary
was unquestionably the next heir in regular succession
to the English throne, if Elizabeth should die without
legitimate issue; and upon her marriage to the Dau¬
phin, she was induced by the persuasion of her uncles,
by the authority of the French king, and no doubt
partly by her own ambition, to assume the title and
arms of queen of England and Ireland. These, in¬
deed, she forebore as soon as she became her own mi¬
stress ; but the having at all assumed them was an of¬
fence which Elizabeth could never forgive, and which
rankling in her bosom made her many years afterwards
pursue the unhappy queen of Scots to the block.
Henry II. dying soon after the marriage of the
Dauphin and Mary, they mounted the throne of ^.ir
! ranee. In that elevated station, the queen did not-y—
fail to distinguish herself. The weakness of her husband
served to exhibit her accomplishments to the greatest
advantage j and in a court where gallantry to the sex,
and the most profound respect for the person“ of the
sovereign, were inseparable from the manners of a gen¬
tleman, she learned the first lessons of royalty. But
this scene ol successful grandeur and unmixed felicity
was of short duration. Her husband Francis died un¬
expectedly after a short reign of sixteen months. Re¬
gret for his death, her own humiliation, the dis¬
grace of her uncles the princes of Lorraine, which in¬
stantly followed, and the coldness of Catharine of Me-
dicis the queen mother, who governed her son Charles
IX. plunged Mary into inexpressible sorrow. She was
invited to return to her own kingdom, and she tried to
reconcile herself to her fate.
She was now to pass from a situation of elegance,
and splendour to the very reign of incivility and tur¬
bulence, where most of her accomplishments would be
utterly lost. Among the Scots of that period, ele¬
gance of taste was little known. The generality of
them were sunk in ignorance and barbarism j and what
they termed religion, dictated to all a petulaut rudeness
of speech and conduct to which the queen of France
was wholly unaccustomed. During her minority and
absence, the Protestant religion had gained a kind of e-
stabhshment in Scotland } obtained, indeed, by violence,
and therefore liable to be overturned by an act of the
sovereign and the three estates in parliament. The
queen, too, was unhappily of a different opinion from
the great body of her subjects, upon that one topic,
which among them actuated almost every heart, and
directed almost every tongue. She had been educated
in the church of Rome, and was strongly attached to
that superstition : V et she had either moderation enough
in her spirit, or discretion enough in her understand¬
ing, not to attempt any innovation in the prevailing
faith of Protestantism. She allowed her subjects the
full and free exercise of their new religion, and only
challenged the same indulgence for her own. She con¬
trived to attach to her, whether from his heart or on¬
ly in appearance, her natural brother, the prior of St
Andrew’s ; a man of strong and vigorous parts, who,
though he had taken the usual oath of obedience to
the pope, had thrown off his spiritual allegiance, and
placed himself at the head of the reformers. By his
means she crushed an early and formidable rebellion
and in reward for his services conferred upon him a
large estate, and created him earl of Murray. For
two or three years her reign was prosperous, and her
administration applauded by all her subjects except the
Protestant preachers j and had she either remained un¬
married, or bestowed her affections upon a more worthy
object, it is probable that her name would have descend¬
ed to posterity among those of the most fortunate and
the most deserving of Scottish monarchs.
But a queen, young, beautiful, and accomplished,
an ancient and hereditary kingdom, and the expect
tation of a mightier inheritance, were objects to excite
the love and ambition of the most illustrious person¬
ages. Mary, however, who kept her eye steadily
fixed on the English succession, rejected every offer of
a foreign alliance y and, swayed at first by prudential
motives,
M A It
[ 624. ]
M A It
Mary.
motives, and afterwards by love the most excessive,
she rave her hand to Henry Stuart Lord Darnley, the
son of the earl of Lenox. This nobleman was, af¬
ter herself, the nearest heir to the crown of tngland;
he was likewise the first in succession after the earl
of Arran to the crown of Scotlandand it is known
that James V. had intended to introduce into his
kingdom the Salique law, and to settle the crown upon
Lenox; in preference to his own daughter. 1 liese con¬
siderations made Mary solicitous for an interview with
Darnley j and at that interview love stole into her
heart, and effaced every favourable thought ol all
her other suitors. Nature had indeed been lavish to
him of her kindness. He was tall of stature •, his
countenance and shapes were beautiful and regular j
and, amidst the masks and dancing with which his ar¬
rival was celebrated, he shone with uncommon lustre.
But the bounty of nature extended not to his mind.
His understanding was narrow ; his ambition excessive
his obstinacy inflexible and under the guidance of no
fixed principle, he was inconstant and capricious. He
knew neither how to enjoy his prosperity nor how to
ensure it. . . „ , .
On the 29th of July 1565, tins ill-fated pair were
married ; and though the queen gave her husband
every possible evidence ot the most extravagant love j
though she infringed the principles ol the constitution
to confer upon him the title of king ; and though she
was willing to share with him all the offices, honours,
and dignities of royalty—he was not satisfied with his
lot, but soon began to clamour for more power. He
had not been married seven months, when he entered
into a conspiracy to deprive Mary of the government,
and to set himself on her throne. With this view he
headed a band of factious nobles, who entered her
chamber at night} and though she was then far ad¬
vanced in her pregnancy, murdered her secretary in
her presence, whilst one of the ruffians held a cocked
pistol to her breast. Such an outrage, together with
his infidelity and frequent amours, could not fail to
alienate the affections of a high spirited woman,
and to open her eyes to those defects in his character
which the ardours of love had hitherto prevented her
from seeing. She sighed and wept over the precipita¬
tion of her marriage : but though it ivas no longer
possible to love him, she still treated him with attention
and respect, and laboured to fashion him to the humour
of her people.
This was labour in vain. His preposterous vanity
and aspiring pride roused the resentment and the
scorn of the nobles : his follies and want of dignity
made him little with the people. He deserted the con¬
spirators with whom he had been leagued in the assassi¬
nation of the secretary $ and he had the extreme im¬
prudence to threaten publicly the earl of Murray,
■who, from his talents and his followers, possessed the
greatest power of any man in the kingdom. The
consequence was, that a combination was formed lor
the king’s destruction *, and, on the 10th day of Febru¬
ary 1567, the house in which he then resided was early
in the morning blown up with gunpowder, and his dead
and naked body, without any marks ot violence, was
found in an adjoining field.
Such a daring and atrocious murder filled every
mind with horror and astonishment. The queen, who
had been in some measure reconciled to her husband,
was overwhelmed with grief, and took e^ry method
in her power to discover the regicides *, but for some
■days nothing appeared which could lead to the disco
very. Papers indeed were posted on the most conspi¬
cuous places in Edinburgh, accusing the earl of Both-
well of the crime j and rumours were industriously
circulated that his horrid enterprise was encouraged
by the queen. Conscious, it is to be presumed, of hei
own innocence, Mary was the less disposed to believe
the guilt of Bothwell, who was accused of having only
acted as her instrument 5 but when he was charged
with the murder by the earl of Lenox, she instantly
ordered him on his trial. Through the management
of the earl of Morton and others, who were afterwards
discovered to have been partners in his guilt, Bothwell
was acquitted of all share and knowledge of the king’s
murder *, and what is absolutely astonishing, and shows
the total want of honour at that time in Scotland, this
flagitious man procured, by means of the same treach¬
erous friends, a paper signed by the majority of the
nobles, recommending him as a fit husband for the
queen! .
Armed with this instrument of mischief, which he
weakly thought sufficient to defend him from danger,
Bothwell soon afterwards seized the person of his sove¬
reign, and carried her a prisoner to his castle at Dun¬
bar. It has indeed been alleged by the enemies of
the queen, that no force was employed on the occa¬
sion ; that she was seized with her own consent *, and
that she wras even privy to the subscribing of the
bond by the nobles. But it has been well observed
by one of her ablest vindicators (a), that “ her previous
knowledge of the bond, and her acquiescence in the
seizure of her person, are two facts m apparent oppo¬
sition to each other. Had the queen acted in conceit
with Bothwell in obtaining the bond from the nobles,
nothing remained, but, under the sanction of their un¬
animous address, to have proceeded directly to the
marriage. Instead of which, can we suppose her so
weak as to reject that address, and ratner choose that
Bothwell should attempt to seize and carry her off by
violence ?—an attempt which many accidents might
frustrate, and which at all events could not fail to ren¬
der him or both of them odious to the whole nation.
Common sense, then, as well as candour, must induce
us to believe, that the scheme of seizing the queen
was solely the contrivance of Bothwell and his asso¬
ciates, and that it was really by force that she was car¬
ried to Dunbar.” Being there kept a close prisoner for
1 2 days} having, as there is reason to believe, actually
suffered violence on her person perceiving no ap¬
pearance of a rescue y and being shown the infamous
bond of the nobles j Mary promised to receive her ra-
visher for a husband, as in her opinion the only refuge
for
(a) 'Ti/tier's Dissertation on the Marriage oj Queen Mary with the carl of Hothwell: Transactions 01 the So
ciety of Antiquaries of Scotland, vol. i. 1
M A 11 [ 6
for her injured honour. Without condemning Avith
-'asperity this compliance of the queen, it is impossible
not to recollect the more dignified conduct which
Kichardson attributes in similar circumstances to his
Clarissa; anil every man who feels for the sufferings,
and respects the memory of Mary, must regret that
■ she had not fortitude to resist every attempt to force
upon her as a husband the profligate and audacious
villain who had offered her such an insult as no virtu¬
ous Avoman ought ever to forgive. Tins, however,
is only to regret that she was not more than human \
that she who possessed so many perfections, should have
had them blended with one defect. “ In the irretriev¬
able situation of her affairs, let the most severe of her
sex say what course Avas left for her to folloiv ? Her first
and most urgent concern was to regain her liberty,
lhat probably she attained by promising to be direc¬
ted by the advice of her council, Avhere Bothwell had
nothing to fear.” T he marriage, thus inauspiciously
contracted, was solemnized on the 15th of May 1567;
and it was the signal for revolt to Morton, Lethington,
and many of the other nobles, by whose Avicked and
relentless policy it had been chiefly brought about, and
Avho had bound themselves to employ their swords
against all persons w ho should presume to disturb so de¬
sirable an event.
As Bothwell Avas justly and universally detested,
and as the rebels pretended that it was only against
him and not against their sovereign that they had
taken up arms, troops flocked to them from every
quarter. The progress and issue of this rebellion Avill
be seen in our history of Scotland : suffice it to say
here, that upon the faith of promises the most solemn,
not only of personal safety to herfelf, but of receiving
iis much honour, service, and obedience, as ever in any
former period was paid by the nobility to the princes
her predecessors, the unhappy queen deliA'ered herself
into the hands of the rebels, and persuaded her husband
to fly from the danger which in her apprehension threat-
ened his life. These promises Avere instantly violated,
the faithless nobles, after insulting their sovereign in
the cruellest manner, hurried her as a prisoner to a
castle within a lake, Avhere she Avas committed to the
care of that very woman who was the mother of her
bastard brother 5 Avho, w’ith the natural insolence of a
Avhore’s meanness, says Mr Whitaker, asserted the le¬
gitimacy of her own child and the illegitimacy of Mary j
and who actually carried the natural vulgarity of a
whore’s impudence so far, as to strip her of all her royal
ornaments, and to dress her like a mere child of for¬
tune in a coarse brown cassoc.
In this distress the queen’s fortitude and presence of
mind did not forsake her ; She contrived to make her
escape from her prison, and soon found herself at the
head of 6000 combatants. This army, however, was
defeated j and, in opposition to the advice and en¬
treaties of all her friends, she hastily formed the re¬
solution of taking refuge in England, The archbi¬
shop of St Andrew’s in particular accompanied her to
the border *, and Avhen she was about to quit her oAvn
kingdom, he laid hold of her horse’s bridle, and on
Ins knees conjured her to return : but Mary proceed¬
ed, with the utmost reliance on the friendship of Eliza¬
beth, Avbich had been offered to her when she Avas a
Vol. XII. Part II. f
25 ] M A li
prisoner, and of the sincerity of Avhich she harboured
not a doubt.
Ihat princess, however, Avho had not yet forgotten
her assumption of the title and arms of queen of Eng¬
land, Avas noAV taught to dread her talents, and to be
envious of her charms. She therefore, under various
pretences, and in violation not only of public faith, but
even of the common rights of hospitality, kept her a
close prisoner lor 19 years : encouraged her rebellious
subjects to accuse her publicly of the murder of her
husband: allowed her no opportunity of vindicating
her honour; and even employed venal scribblers to
blast her fame. Under this unparalleled load of com¬
plicated distress, Mary preserved the magnanimity of
a queen, and practised Avith sincerity the duties of a
Christian. Her suflerings, her dignified affability, and
her gentleness of disposition, gained her great popu¬
larity in England, especially among the Homan Catho¬
lics $ and as she made many attempts to procure her
liberty, and carried on a constant correspondence Avith
foreign poAvers, Elizabeth became at last so much
afraid of her intrigues, that she determined to cut her
off, at Avhatever hazard. With this aucav .she prevail¬
ed upon her servile parliament to pass an act Avhich
might make Mary ansAverable for the crimes of all
Avho should call themselves her partizans $ and upon
that flagitious statute she Avas tried as a traitor con¬
cerned in the conspiracy of Babington: (See Scot¬
land). Though the trial Avas conducted in a mannet
which would haA'e been illegal e%’en if she had been a
subject of England, and though no certain proof ap¬
peared of her connexion Avith the conspirators, she wa^,
to the amazement of Europe, condemned to suffer
death.
The fair heroine received her sentence with great
composure; saying to those by whom it Avas announ¬
ced, “ The neAvs you bring cannot but be most Avel-
come, since they announce the termination of my mi¬
series. Nor do I account that soul to be deserving of
the felicities of immortality, 'which can shrink under
the sufferings of the body, or scruple the stroke that
sets it free.’’ On the evening before her execution,
for which, on the succeeding morn, she prepared herself
Avith religious solemnity and perfect resignation, she
ordered all her servants to appear before her, and drank
to them. She even condescended to beg their pardon
for her omissions or neglects ; and she recommended it
to them to love charity, to avoid the unhappy passions
of hatred and malice, and to preserve themselves sted-
fast in the faith of Christ. She then distributed among
them her money, her jewels, and her clothes, accord¬
ing to their rank or merit. She Avrote her will with
her OAvn hand, constituting the duke of Guise her prin¬
cipal executor j and to the king and queen of France
she recommended her son, provided he should prove
worthy of their esteem.—In the castle of Fotheringay
she was beheaded on the 8th of February 1587, in the
45th year of her age; and her body, after being em¬
balmed and committed to a leaden coffin, Avas buried
with royal pomp and splendour in the cathedral of Pe¬
terborough. Twenty years aftenvards her bones were,
by order of her son and only child King James I. re¬
moved to Westminster, and deposited in their proper
place among the kings of England.
The
MAR
Maw. The general character of Mary, which in the „
J order of biography should novv be laid before the reader,
lias furnished matter of controversy for 200 years.—
She Is universally allowed to have had considerable ta¬
lents, and a mind highly cultivated. By one party
she is painted with more virtues and with fewer defects
than almost any other woman of the age in which she
lived. By another, she is represented as guilty of the
grossest crimes which a woman can commit adulteiy
and the murder of her husband. By all it is confessed,
that, previous to her connexion with the earl of Both-
well, her life as a Christian was exemplary, and her
administration as a queen equitable and mild } and it
has never been denied that she bore her tedious sutler-
ings with such resignation and fortitude as are seldom
r—.1 —conscious guilt. 'Ihese are strong
[ 626 ] MAH
regular with the defence of the borders on account of his tried
found united with conscious guilt. These
presumptions of her innocence.' The moral characters
of men change by degrees; and it seems hardly con¬
sistent with the known principles of human nature, that
any person should at once plunge deliberately from the
summit of virtue to the depths of vice ; or, when sunk
so low, should by one effort recover his original state
of elevation. But in this controversy presumptions
must go for nothing. The positive evidences which
were brought against the queen of Scots are so con¬
clusive, that if they be genuine she must have been
guilty ; and if they be spurious there can be no doubt
of her innocence. They consisted of a box with let¬
ters, contracts, and sonnets, said to be written by her¬
self and sent to the earl of Bothwell. In addition to
these, the supposed confessions of the criminals who
had suffered for the king’s murder were originally
urged as proofs of her guilt: but those confessions are
now admitted by all parties to be either wholly forged,
or so grossly interpolated, that no stress whatever can
be laid upon them ; and during Mary’s life it was af¬
firmed by her friends, and not sufficiently contradicted
by her enemies, that the persons who had accused Both-
well, and were doubtless his accomplices, instead of
criminating the queen, had openly protested her inno¬
cence in their dying moments.
Stuart's This box.then, with its contents, was the evidence
History of upon which her accusers had the chief and indeed the
Scotland. on|y reliance 5 and it is upon this evidence, whatever
it be, that the guilt or innocence of the Scottish prin¬
cess must finally be determined. It is uniformly af¬
firmed upon the part of the earl of Murray and his
faction, that the casket with the letters and the sonnets
had been left by Bothwell in the castle of Edinburgh ;
that this nobleman, before he fled from Scotland, sent
a messenger to,recover them-, and that they were found
in the possession of this person. 'Ihe 20th day of June
1567 is fixed as the date of this remarkable discovery.
The governor of the castle at that time was Sir James
Balfour. George Dalgleish, a servant of Bothwell’s,
is named as his messenger upon this errand. He was
seized, it is said, by the domestics of the earl of Mor¬
ton •, and it was the earl of Morton himself who made
the actual production of the casket and its contents.
This story is unsupported by vouchers, contains im¬
probabilities, and cannot be reconciled with history
and events. There remains not any authentic or un¬
suspicious evidence that the queen had dishonoured the
bed of Lord Darnley", and there is the most satisfac¬
tory evidence*, that though Bothwell was intrusted
4
* Whita¬
ker's Vin¬
dication.
courage and loyalty, he was privately disliked by Mary '
for his uncommon zeal in the cause of Protestantism.
At the very time when the queen is said to have had
the most violent love for that nobleman, and uith him
to have been carrying on the most criminal intercourse
against her husband, we know both from Randolph
and from Knox, that Bothwell refused to gratify her
by the smallest compliance with the ceremonies of her
religion, though many of the other Protestant peers
scrupled not to accompany her to the celebration of
the mass. That the villain who could deliberately
commit murder, should be so scrupulously conscientious
with respect to modes of faith and worship, as to stand
forward with a peculiar strain of bravery to oppose, in
a favourite measure, the queen, who was then admit¬
ting him to her bed, and actually forming plans for rais¬
ing him to her throne, is surely, to say the least of it,
extremely improbable.
But let us suppose this non-compliance on the part
of Bothwell to have been a measure concerted between
the queen and him to conceal more effectually from
the eyes of the public the criminal intercourse in which
they were engaged j is it not very surprising, that of
such politicians, the one should have written those let¬
ters, and the other have left them in the power of
their enemies? The earl of Bothwell was exposed to
more than suspicions of a concern in the murder of the
king. These papers contained manifest proofs of his
guilt. It evidently was not his interest to preserve
them : or admitting, that till his marriage was solem¬
nized with the queen he might look upon them as his
best secunty for the realizing of his ambitious hopes,
yet, after that event, when all his former friends had
deserted him, he must have felt the strongest induce¬
ments to destroy such a criminal correspondence ; and.
Mary must have been ardently animated with the
same wish, i he castle of Edinburgh, where the box
is said to have been lodged, was at this time entirely
at their command ; and Sir James Balfour, their de¬
puty, wras the creature of Both well. It his enemies,
who were now in arms against him, should possess
themselves of this box and its contents, his destruction
was inevitable. From his marriage till the jth day oi
June, it was in his power to have destroyed the latal
papers 5 and if they had existed, it is not to be ima¬
gined that he would have neglected a step so expe¬
dient, not only for his own security and reputation,
but also for those of the queen. During all this time,
however, he made no effort to recover his box and let¬
ters : he had lodged them in the castle of Edinburgh ;
and there he chose to leave them in the custody of a
man in whom he could not have one particle of affi¬
ance. This was excessively foolish *, but his subse¬
quent conduct was still more so. Upon the 6th day
of June, it is evident that he had reason to suspect
the fidelity of Sir James Balfour, since he avoided to
take refuge in the castle of Edinburgh and fled to
Dunbar. He returned, however, with an army in
order to fight the rebels. The balance of empire
might then seem to hang suspended between himself and
his enemies : and in that state of things, a man of
such commodious principles as Balfour appears to have
been, might be inclined to do his old friend and pa¬
tron a secret service, both to efface his former perfidy
and
Marv.
m a n
Mary.
and to create himself a new interest with him in case
1 he should be victorious over the rebels. Yet in these
critical moments Bothwell neglected to make any ap¬
plication to him for the casket and the letters ! On
[ 627 ]
M A li
the 15th of June, all his towering imaginations were
* mita-
:er's Vindi
(ition.
at once dashed to the ground. lie had come to Car-
berry hill, followed by an army and accompanied by
a queen } but he fled from it attended only by a single
servant, and was glad to shelter himself in the castle
ot Dunbar, from the vengeance due to his crimes,
"iet in this extremity of distress he is represented as
trying a bold experiment, which he had not courage
to try when he was fortified with the authority of his
sovereign, and when he was facing the rebels in the
held. In the very hour when almost every friend
had deserted him, he expected a return of friendship
from a man who had deserted him at first only be¬
cause he suspected him to be in danger. At this period
he sent his servant George Dalgleish to wait upon
Balfour, the acting governor of the castle of Edin¬
burgh, with a requisition for the box of letters, and
to bring back the important charge, through ten thou¬
sand dangers, to Dunbar. Though this man was one
of his agents in the murder of the king, and might
therefore have been safely intrusted with any secret,
he did not order him, as common sense requires he
"should have done, to destroy the letters as soon as he
should get them into his possession. No ! he sent him
to fetch them from the castle, as if there was no dan¬
ger in going thither, no doubt of receiving them
there, and no difficulty in carrying them hack. * To
_a traveller in an easy chair, all" roads are smooth, and
all days are fine. Accordingly this same Dalgleish,
though the well-known servant of Bothwell, makes
good his entrance at the gates of the citv, though
these were guarded by 450 harquebusiers all hostile to
his master, finds his way to the castle, and delivers
his message. But what is more astonishing than all,
he actually receives the box of letters from Sir James
Balfour. This indeed, says Mr Whitaker, “ is o’er-
doing Termagant; it out-herods Herod.” Balfour
was the ductile slave of selfishness. He had with in¬
finite perfidiousness turned against his friend, his pa¬
tron, and his queen, only because he saw them oppos¬
ed by a party winch he thought would prove too strong
lor them ; but now when they were both plunged
into the lowest state of distress, and branded with the
appellation of regicides, his selfishness was suddenly
changed into generosity, his meanness gave place to
exalted sentiments, and, at the peril of his own life,
lie performed an heroical act of kindness ! “ In such
circumstances (asks a contemporary writer), is it to
be thought, either that the earl would send to the
said Sir James, or that the said Sir James would send
any thing to the earl P Is it likely ? Is it credible ?”
No matter: Bothwell is made to send for his papers
at a time when his difficulties and his despair render
it improbable that he could think of them, and when
it was absolutely impossible that he could recover them.
His messenger accordingly is intercepted with the
casket ; and the adversaries of the queen, upon the
20th day of June, became possessed of vouchers with
which they might operate her destruction. These in¬
consistencies are glaring, and of a force not easily to
be controuled; and the story is open to other objec¬
tions, which are, if possible, greater, and altogether in¬
surmountable.
By comparing different proclamations of the rebels
with the several despatches of Throgmorton, who was
then Elizabeth’s resident in Scotland, Mr Whitaker
has made it appear in the highest degree probable, that
Dalgleish was not seized till the 17th of July ; that he
was then, in consequence of an order issued by the
court of session, apprehended, together with Powrie,
another of Bothwell’s servants, in that nobleman’s
lodgings in the palace of Holyroodhouse; and that
therefore he could not be the bearer of the letters in¬
tercepted by the earl of Morton on the 20th of June.
Mhat adds greatly to this probability is the account
which the rebels themselves give of his examination.
A few days after lie was taken, he was examined, say
they* judicially, in a council where the earls of Mor¬
ton and Athol are marked as present. It was natu¬
ral upon this occasion to make inquiries about the
casket and the papers. No questions, however, were
put to him cn that subject. He was not confronted
with Sir James Balfour, from whom he had received
the casket ; nor with the domestics of the earl of Mor¬
ton, by whom it was said that he had been appre¬
hended. He was kept in ppison many months after
this examination ; and during a period when the rebels
were infinitely pressed to apologize for their violence
against the queen, there were opportunities without
number of bringing him to a confession. These op¬
portunities, however, were avoided ; and tlnre exists
not the slightest evidence that the casket and the pa¬
pers had ever been in his possession. Is it then to be
supposed, that if the casket and the papers had really
been discovered with him, the establishment of a fact
so important would have been neglected by the adver¬
saries of the queen ? No ! they would have established
it by the most complete evidence; which they were
so far from attempting to do, that the earliest account
which they give of their pretended seizure of the let¬
ters is dated fifteen months after the event itself, and
nearly nine months after the death of Dalgleish. To
have blazoned their discovery at the time they pre¬
tend it was made, might have been attended with very
disagreeable consequences : for Dalgleish, who at his
execution, asserted the innocence of the queen, and
actually charged the earls of Murray and Morton as
the contrivers of the murder, might have found proof
that the casket could not possibly have been intercepted
in bis custody.
The 20th of June 1567 is fixed as the sera of the
discovery ol the letters. If tins discovery had been
real, the triumph of the enemies of the queen would
have been infinite. They would not have delayed one
moment to proclaim their joy, and to reveal to her
indignant subjects the fulness and the infamy of her
guilt. They preserved, however, a long and a pro¬
found silence. It was not till the qih of December
1567 that the papers received their first mark of no¬
tice or distinction ; nor till the 16th of September
1568, that the earl of Morton was said to have inter¬
cepted them with Dalgleish. From the 20th day of
June to the 4th day of December, many transactions
and events of the highest importance had taken place";
and the most powerful motives that have influence
with men had called upon them to publish their dis-
4 ^ 2 coverv.
Marv,
MAR [ 628 ]
Mary covery. They yet made no production of the papers,
r^and v entured not to appeal to them. In the procla¬
mation which they issued for apprehending Bothweli,
they inveigh against his guilt, and express an anxious
desire to punish the regicides : yet though tins deed
was posterior to the 20th of June, there is no asser¬
tion in it to the dishonour of the queen ; and it con¬
tains no mention of the box and the letters. An am¬
bassador arrived in this interval from I ranee, to in¬
quire into the rebellion and the imprisonment of the
queen $ yet they apologized not for their conduct by
communicating to him the contents ol the casket.
To Throgmorton, who had instructions to act with
Mary as well as with her adversaries, they denied the
liberty of waiting upon her at Lochleven, where she
was detained a close prisoner j and they were earnest
to impress him with the idea that her love of Both¬
weli was- incurable. He pressed them on the subject
of their behaviour to her. At different times they
attempted formally to vindicate themselves j and they
were uniformly vehement on the topic of the lo\e
which she bore to that nobleman. Yet they abstained
from producing the letters to him. “ They even spoke
of her to him with respect reverence T which sure¬
ly they could not possibly have done had they been
then in possession ol the letters. They weie solicitous
to divide the faction of the nobles who adhered to
the queen •, and there could not have been a measure
so effectual for this end as the production of tue casket
and its contents 5 yet they called no convention of
her friends, to surprise and disunite them with this
fatal discovery. They flattered the Protestant clergy,
attended assemblies of the church, instilled into them
a belief of the queen’s being guilty ol murder and
adultery, and incited Mr Knox to “ inveigh against
her vehemently in his sermons, to persuade extre¬
mities towards her, and (as Throgmorton continues)
to threaten the great plague of God against the
whole country and nation if she should be spared from
her condign punishmentbut they ventured not to ex¬
cite the fury of these ghostly fathers by exhibiting to
them the box and the letters. They compelled the
queen to subscribe a resignation of her crown j and
they had the strongest reason to be solicitous to justify
this daring transaction. The box and the letters
would have served as a complete vindication of them 5
yet they neglected to take any notice of these import¬
ant vouchers ; and were contented with resting on the
wild and frivolous pretence that the queen, from sick¬
ness and fatigue, was disgusted with the eare of her
kingdom.
To the irrefragable proof of the forgery of the
letters arising from their having been so long conceal¬
ed, it has been replied, that the rebels could not pro¬
duce them sooner with any regard to their own safety.
“ * A considerable number of their fellow7 subjects,
headed by some of the most powerful noblemen in the
kingdom, was combined against them. This combi¬
nation they could not hope to break or to vanquish
without aid either from France or England. In the
former kingdom, Mary’s uncles, the duke of Guise
and the cardinal of Lorrain, were at that period all-
powerful, and the king himself was devotedly attached
tq her. The loading the queen, therefore, with the
imputation of being accessory tq the murder of her
MAR
* Roberi-
aen's Dis¬
sertation,
13th edit.
husband, would be deemed such an inexpiable crime Mary,
by the court of France, as must cut off every hope ofy'—
countenance or aid from that quarter. From Eng¬
land, with which the principal confederates bad been
long and intimately connected, they had many reasons
to expect more efl’ectual support •, but to their astonish¬
ment, Elizabeth condemned their proceedings with
asperity. Her high notions of royal authority, and
of the submission due by subjects, induced her on this
occasion to exert herself in behalf of Mary, not only
w'ith sincerity but with zeal : she negociated, she so¬
licited, she threatened. From all these circumstances,
the confederates had every reason to apprehend that
Mary would soon obtain her liberty, and by some ac¬
commodation be restored to the whole, or at least to a
considerable portion, of her authority as sovereign j and
therefore they were afraid of the consequences of ac¬
cusing her publicly of crimes so atrocious as adultery-
and murder.”
This apology for the rebels consists of assertions for
which there is no evidence, and of arguments which are
wholly untenable. There is no evidence that Elizabeth
exerted herself in behalf of Mary with sincerity and with-
zeal. If she had, she would have done more than
threaten. An English army of 3000 men, aided by* the
Scottish combination which continued faithful to the
queen, would have overturned the rebel government in
the space of a month. It is inconceivable that the re¬
bels were prevented by any apprehension of the queen’s
restoration from accusing her of the crimes of murder
and adultery *, for we learn from a despatch of Throg¬
morton’s, dated the 19th of July 1567, that “ men of
good regard did then boldly and overtly by their
speech, utter great rigour and extremity against their
sovereign j saving, it shall not be in the power of any
within this realm, neither without, to keep her from
condign punishment for her notorious crimes.” From
another despatch of the same ambassador’s, dated five
days after the former, we learn, that through him they
actually did accuse her to Elizabeth of “ incontinency,
as well with the earl of Bothwell as with others, and
likewise of the murder of her husband, of which, they
said, they had as apparent proof against her as might
be *, as well by the testimony of her oivn hand writing,
which they had recovered, as also by sufficient witnes¬
ses.” This testimony, however, was not produced till
more than four months afterwards •, a certain proof,
that though it was now in the hands of the manufac¬
turers, it was not yet ready for inspection.
But let us take the facts of this ablest antagonist of
Mary as he has stated them, and consider the argu¬
ment which they are made to support. It is apparent,
from the last quoted despatch of Throgmorton*, that^j^,
it could not be unknown, either to the court of France a^r.
or the court of England, that the rebels were at all
events determined to crown the prince, and either to
put the queen to death or to keep her a close prison¬
er for life. These desperate enterprises, however,
could not, it seems, be carried into effect without the
eountenanee and aid of Elizabeth or Charles: but
Elizabeth’s notions of regal authority, and ol the sub¬
mission due by subjects, were high \ and the Ireneb
king was devotedly attached to the dethroned queen.
If this was so, common sense says, that the business of
the confederates^ since they expected aid from these
princes,
mar [ 629 ] MAR
Mary princes, was to charge Mary at once with the murder
—y—J and adultery, and support the charge with the most
convincing evidence which they had to produce. No !
says this apologist of theirs, Charles IX. would have
considered such conduct as a crime inexpiable, though
he might reasonably be expected to give them his coun¬
tenance in putting to death, or keeping in perpetual
prison, for a comparatively venial offence, the queen
to whom he was devotedly attached! This is strange
reasoning j but it seems not to have occurred to the
rebels themselves. The letters made their first appear¬
ance in a secret council assembled by the earl of Mur¬
ray on the 4th of December 15675 and the reason
there assigned by the confederates for their unwilling¬
ness to produce them was, “ That luif they beare un¬
to hir person, wha sometime was theire sovereine, and
for the reverrance of his majestic, whais moder she is,
as alsua thay mony gude and excellent gifts and ver-
tues quherewith God sometimes indowit hir.” And
they proceed to say, that they would not have produ¬
ced them at all, “ gif otherwise the sinceritie of their
intentions and proceedings from the beginninge myht
be known to forrein nacions and the inhabitants of this
He (of whome mony yet remains in suspence in judge¬
ment) satisfiet and resolvit of the richtnesness of theire
quarrel, and the securitie of them and their posteritie
be ony other meane might be providit and established.”
80 far were they from dreaming that the production
of the letters would injure their cause in the court of
France, that we see they frankly acknowledged that
the sincerity and rectitude of their proceedings could
not otherwise be manifested to foreign nations. In this
instance they think and talk like reasonable men 5 but
they do not long preserve the same consistency.
In this act of council the rebels discover the great¬
est anxiety for their pardon and security : And “ the
matter being largelie and with gude delibei’acion
ressonit at great length, and upon sundry dales; at
last all the said lords, barrones, and others above ex-
premit, can find no other way or moyen how to find
or make the said securitie but be oppyngynge and re¬
veling of the truth and grunde of the hail matter fre the
beginninge, plainlie and uprightlie, &c. Therefore the
lords of secrete council, &c. desires it to be found and
declaret be the estates and haill body of the parlia¬
ment, that the cause and occasion of the tacking of the
queen’s person upon the 15th dale of Junii, last by past,
and holding and detaininge of the same within the
hous and place of Lochlevin continewallie sensyne,
presentlie, and in all tymes cornyng; and generally all
others things inventit, spoken, writtin, or donne be
them or onny of them, sen the tent daie of February
last by past unto the daie and date heirof, towiching
the saied queen hir person : that caus, and all things
depending theiron or that onie wise male apperteine
theirto, &c. was in the said queen’s awin default, in
as far as be divers her privie letters written
AND SUBSCRIVIT WITH HIR AWIN HAND, and Sent
by her to James Erll Bothwell, &c—and be her un-
godlie and dishonourable proceed!nge in a privait mar-
nage, soddanlie ami unprovisitly, it is most certain,
that she was previe, art and part, and of the actual
devise and deid of the for-mencionit murther of the
king, her lawchful husband, our sovereigne lord’s
father, committit be the said James Erll Bothwell, Mary.
&C.” I—-y—.
Had the letters been really genuine, into the ab¬
surdity of this declaration no man of common sense
could possibly have fallen. Truth is always consistent
with itself: but in a series of forgeries contradictions
are scarcely avoidable. The confederates rose in re¬
bellion against the queen on the 10th of June : they
faced her in rebellion at Carberry hill on the 15th 5
they sent her away into prison on the 16th : yet they
afterwards justified all that they had done since the
tenth of February by letters, which, they said, they had
not till the twentieth of June ! “ This (says Mr Whit¬
aker) if we consider it as folly, is one of the most
striking and eminent acts of folly that the world has
ever beheld. But it ought to be considered in a light
much more dishonourable to the rebels ; and as knavery,
it is one of the rankest that has ever been attempted to
be imposed upon the sons of men.” On the 4th of De¬
cember, it must be remembered that they had not fixed
any day for the discovery of the letters. The story of
the seizure of’Dalgleish with the casket wras not thought
of till near a year afterwards 5 and when it was invent¬
ed, they had certainly forgotten the date of their act
of council. In that act, therefore, they were free to
rove at large 5 but they roved very uncautiously. By
grounding upon the letters, proceedings prior to the
10th of June, they plainly declare the discovery of these
fatal papers to have been antecedent to the twentieth.
By grounding upon them their secret messages for se¬
dition, their private conventions for rebellion, and
“ every thing inventit, spokin, written, or done, be
them, or anny of them, respecting the queen, Both¬
well, or Darnley, sen the tent daie of February last by
past,” they even intimate the discovery to have been
previous to the murder of the king; and yet by their
own accounts some of the letters were then actually un¬
written. This is astonishing; and shows the extreme
difficulty of carrying to any length a consistent series
of falsehoods. Even Murray, Morton, and Lething-
ton, could not do it. They knocked down one ninepin
in endeavouring to set up another ; and they finally
threw down all, by making them mutually and succes¬
sively to strike one another.
We have not yet done with this act of council. It
was with a view to the approaching convention of the
estates that it had been formed and managed. It was
a preparation for the parliament in which the conspira¬
tors had secured their fullest sway, and where they pro¬
posed to effectuate their pardon and security, and to
establish the letters as decisive vouchers against the
queen. Accordingly, upon the 15th day of December
1567, the three estates were assembled. The conspira¬
tors invited no candid or regular investigation. The
friends of the nation and of the queen were overawed.
Every thing proceeded in conformity to the act of
council, the conspirators, by a parliamentary decree,
received a full approbation of all the severities which
they had exercised against the queen. A pardon by
anticipation was even accorded to them for any future
cruelty they might be induced to inflict upon her.—
The letters were mentioned as the cause of this singu¬
lar law 5 and this new appeal to them may be termed
the second mark of their distinction. But, amidst the
plenitude
2
■Mary.
* SeelVhit
akers Vin¬
dication.
U A R 1
plenitude of their power, the conspirators called
the estates to a free and honest examination oi them.
This, indeed, had the letters been genuine,
have annihilated for ever all the consequence
Mary.
would
of the
Upon tins measure, however, they ventured
queen. upuu tma -   
not. The letters were merely produced in parliament,
and an act founded on them •, but the queen was not
brought from her confinement to defend herself, nor
was any advocate permitted to speak for her. We
.learn from a paper of unquestionable authenticity*, that
« sindrie nobilmen that was her Grace’s favouraris then
present, buir with all (the rebel proceedings in this
parliament), maist principellie for safety of hir Grace’s
]yfe, quhilk, or thair coming to parliament, was con-
cludit and subscryvit be ane greit part of hir takeris,
to be taken frae hir in meist crewel manner, as is no-
tourlie known.” By the power of this magic, the
friends of Mary were bound fast. They durst not
venture to question publicly the authenticity of the
letters, from the dread of exposing the queen to the
dagger of the assassin. The parliament, therefore,
sustained these forgeries as vouchers of her guilt,
without scrutiny or debate of any kind. The conspi¬
rators, who were themselves the criminals, were her
accusers and her judges, and passed a law exactly in
the terms in which the act of secret council had before
drawn it up.
It was necessary to describe the letters both in the
act of council and in the ordination of parliament;
and these deeds having fortunately descended to poste¬
rity, it is apparent, from a comparison of them, that
between the 4th and the 15th days of December, the
letters must have undergone very essential alterations
under the management of the conspirators. In the
act of council the letters are described expressly as
“ written an&,subscrivit with the queen’s awin hand j”
but in the act of parliament they are said to be only
“ 'written helilie with hir awin hand,” and there is no
intimation that they were subscribed by her. Whence
arises this difference ? From a blunder in the clerk pen¬
ning the act of council, says one : From a habit con¬
tracted by the same clerk, which made him mechanical-
hj add subscribed to written, says another : From the
carelessness of the writer who transcribed the copy of
the act of council which has descended to us, says a
third. These subterfuges have been exposed in all
their weakness by Messrs Tytier and Whitaker: but
in this abstract it is sufficient to observe, that they are
mere suppositions, supported by no evidence ; and that
the copy of the act of council which we have was
given to the ministers of Elizabeth by the leaders of the
faction, who were neither blundering clerks, nor under
the habit of mechanically adding subscribed to written.
Under one form, therefore, the letters were certainly
exhibited before the council, and under another form
they were produced in parliament; but had they been
genuine, they would have appeared uniformly with the
same face. The clerk of the council was Alexander
Hay, a notary public accustomed to draw up writings
and to attest them •, and what puts his accuracy with
respect to the leetters beyond all possibility of doubt,
his description of them is authenticated in the fullest
manner by the signatures of Murray, Morton, and a
long train of others who formed the secret council.
The letters, therefore, were actually presented to the
630 ] MAR
not secret council with the customary appendage of sub¬
scription to them. But when these artificers of fraud u
came to reflect more closely on the approach ot parlia¬
ment, and to prepare their letters for the inspection
of the friends of Mary, they began to shrink at the
thoughts of what they had done. To substantiate
the charge by letters under her own hand, they had
naturally annexed her own subscription, a letter unsub¬
scribed being a solecism in evidence. But most unfor¬
tunately for the cause of complete forgery, Mary was
still in possession of her own seal, and he who fabri¬
cated the letters was not an engraver. For this rea¬
son, “ the allegit writings in form of missive letters
or epistles,” says the bishop of Ross, in an address to
Elizabeth, “ are not sellit or signetit:'' They were
neither attested by her subscription at the bottom, nor
secured by her seal on the outside. In the secret coun¬
cil, where all were equally embarked in rebellion, these
omissions were of no importance. But that letters con¬
taining intimations of adultery and of murder, should
be sent by the queen to the earl of Bothwell, with her
subscription to them, and yet without any guard of a
seal upon them, so far exceeds all the bounds ot cre¬
dibility, that they could not fexpect it to gain the be¬
lief of parliament. They were struck with the ab¬
surdity of their plan, and dreaded a detection. They
were under the necessity of altering it } but they could
not supply the defect of the seal. 1 hey, therefore,
wrote over the letters anew, and withheld the sub¬
scription.
These letters were now as complete as the conspira¬
tors wished them •, yet in this state, while they were
unsubscribed and unsealed, they wanted other forma¬
lities which are usual in despatches. They were with¬
out directions, and they had no dates. They must,
therefore, have been sent by the queen to Bothwell ns
operand loose papers; yet they contained evidence against
herself, and against him, of the most horrid wicked¬
ness ; and Nicholas Hubert, the person who is said to
have carried most of them, was of the lowest condi¬
tion, and, as Dr Robertson characterizes him, “ a
foolish talkative fellow.” He u'ould, therefore, surely
read those papers, which are polluted from end to end
with open and uncovered adultery, and as surely report
their contents to others. These are most incredible
circumstances, on the supposition that the letters are
authentic, unless the queen was, what none of her ene¬
mies ever represented her, an absolute idiot.
The letters in their composition bear no resemblance
to the other writings of the queen. They have a
vulgarity, an indelicacy, and a coarseness of expression
and manner, that by no means apply to her. They
breathe nothing of the passion of love besides the im¬
pulses of the sensual appetite 5 and they represent a
queen, highly accomplished, in love with one of her
subjects, as acting with all the sneaking humility of.a
cottager to a peer*. A few1 instances will show this.A
“ The devil sinder us," she is made to exclaim, “ and dicaiion.
God knit us togidder for ever for the maist faithful
coupill that ever he unitit: this is myfeith ; I ivill die
in it." “ I am,” she says in another place, “ varrey
glad to write unto you zow quhen the rest are sleipandj
fen I cannot sleip as they do, and as I xvold desyre,
that is, in your arms, my dear lufe.” “ Seeing to obey
zow, my dear lufe, I spare muther honour, conscience,
hasarde,
M A TX [ 631 ] M A ft
Mary, hasarde, nor greatness (juhatsumever; tak it, lpray %ow,
—v in glide part, as from the maist faithful luifer that ever
ze had, or ever sail have.” Se not hir (his wife),
quhais fenzeit teires suld not be sa mikle preisit nor
estemit as the trew and faithful trevellis quhilk I sus-
tine for to merite her place.'l'> “ God give zow, my on¬
ly Itife, the hap and prosperitie quilk your humble and
faithful lufe desyres unto zou, who hopis to be schortly
another thing to you for the reward of my irksome tra-
velles.” “ W hen I will put you out of dout, and cleir
myselfe, refuse it not, my dear lufe ; and suffer me to
mak zou some prufe be my obedience, my faithfulnes,
constancie, and voluntary subjection, quhilk I tak for the
plesandest glide that I might resseif, if %e will eccept
it.” “ Such (says Mr Whitaker) was the coarse kirtle,
and the homely neckatie, in which these wretched re¬
presenters of Mary dressed themselves up, for the exhi¬
bition of a queen dignified, refined, and elegant ;—a
queen whom, according to their own account, “ God
had indowit with mony gude and excellent gifts and
virtues 1”
The evidence which points to the forgery of the
letters is profuse and instructive. In its separate parts-,
Stmrt. i*- powerful and satisfactory *. When taken to¬
gether, and in the union of its parts, it is invincible.
But, amidst all its cogency and strength, there is
a circumstance most peculiarly in its favour, and of
which it required no aid or assistance. By this pecu¬
liarity, it is cased completely in steel, and armed at
every point. The letters have come down to us in
the French, the Scottish, and the Latin languages.
Now, the conspirators affirmed, that they were written
by the queen in the French language. But by a crir
tical examination of them in these different languages,
Mr Goodall demonstrated, that the pretended French
originals are a translation from the Latin of Buchanan*
which is itself a version from the Scotch. This is
indeed acknowledged by Dr Robertson, the ablest and
most persevering of all Mary’s enemies, who pretends,
that, so far as he knows, it never was denied. Deter¬
mined, however, to support the authenticity of the let¬
ters at all events, the same elegant and ingenious wri-
hsserte-ter supposes f, that the French originals are now lost,
l,!. hut that two or three sentences of each of those origi¬
nals were retained, and prefixed to the Scottish trans¬
lation ; and that the French editor observing this,
foolishly concluded, that the letters had been written
partly in French and partly in Scottish. In support
of this singular hypothesis, he proceeds to affirm, that
“ if we carefully consider those few French sentences
of each letter which still remain, and apply to them that
species of criticism by which Mr Goodall examined
the whole, a clear proof mil arise, that there was a
French copy, not translated from the Latin, but which
was itself the original from which both the Latin and
Scottish have been translated.” He accordingly ap¬
plies this species of criticism, points out a few varia¬
tions of meaning between what he calls the remaining
sentences of the original French and the present La¬
tin ; and thinks, that in the former he has discovered
a spirit of elegance w'hich neither the Latin nor the
ocottish have retained. His critical observations have
been examined by Mr Whitaker j who makes it appa¬
rent as the noon day sun, that the doctor has occa¬
sionally mistaken the sense of the Latin, the French,
and even the Scotch ; and that he has forgotten to point Marv.
out either the elegance or the spirit of any particular
clauses in his pretended originals. The same masterly
vindicator of Mary then turns his antagonist’s artil¬
lery against himself j and demonstrates, that such vari¬
ations as he has thought sufficient to prove the exist¬
ence of a former French copy, are not confined to the
first sentence of each of the three first letters, hut are
extended to other sentences, and diffused over all the
letters. Hence he observes, that this mode of pro¬
ving will demonstrate the present French, and every
sentence in it, to he that very original, which it pri¬
marily pretended to be, which Mr Goodall has so
powerfully proved it not to be, and which even the
doctor himself dares not assert it is. Our limits will
not admit of our transcribing the observations of these
twro illustrious critics ^ nor is it necessary that w7e should
transcribe them. By acknowledging that “ Bucha¬
nan made his translation, not from the French but
from the Scottish copy (of which he justly observes,
that, w7cre it necessary, several critical proofs might
he brought),” Dr Robertson, in effect, gives up his
cause. Had there been any other French letters than
the present fi, what occasion had Buchanan for the t Tytters
Scotch, when he himself must have had possession o^knyuirp.
the originals ? It is evident from Mr Anderson’s ac¬
count, that those letters were translated by Buchanan
at London during the time of the conferences. He
was one of the assistants appointed to the rebel com¬
missioners, and intrusted with the whole conduct of
the process against the queen. By him, with Leth-
ington, Macgill, and Wood, the original letters were
exhibited, and their contents explained to the English
commissioners} and we know from the authentic his¬
tory of those papers, that they were neither lost nor
mislaid for many years afterwards. It cannot be pre¬
tended that Buchanan did not understand the French ;
for he past most of his life in that country, and taught
a school there. He w'as, indeed, a daring zealot of re¬
bellion ; hut, with all its audacity, he must have felt
the task in which he was engaged a very ungracious
one. When he sat dow’n to defame, in the eyes of all
Europe, a queen to whom he owed not only allegiance
but also personal gratitude, it is not conceivable that
he could have translated from a Scotch translation, had
he known any thing ol a French original; and if the
rebel commissioners, who were said to produce them,
knew nothing of such originals, certainly nobody else
ever did : if they existed not with Buchanan, they exr
isted nowhere.
Dr Robertson, however, has another argument a-
gainst Mr Goodall, which he thinks conclusive. Of
the-eight letters “ the five remaining (he says) never
appeared in Latin : nor is there any proof of their ever
being translated into that language. Four of them,
however, are published in French. This entirely over¬
turns our author’s hypothesis concerning the necessity
of a translation into Latin.”—An authentic fact will
indeed overturn any hypothesis 5 hut, most unluckily
for this argument, the doctor advances the hypothe¬
sis, and the fact rests with Mr Goodall. It is indeed
true that Buchanan published only the three first letters
in Latin at the end of his Detection j but it does not
therefore follow, that the other five were never trans¬
lated into that language. Indeed Mr Whitaker has
made *
MAR [63
Man-, made it as apparent ns any tiling can be, that the
whole eight were turned into Latin for the use ot
the French translator, who, by his own account, un¬
derstood not the Scotch. He has made it in the
highest degree probable, that this translator was one
Camuz, a French refugee j and he has demonstrated,
that the translation was made in London under the
eye of Buchanan himself. We do not quote his ar¬
guments, because they consist of a great number ot
observations which cannot be abridged ; and because
the translator himself confesses every thing wuch is
of importance to the cause maintained by Mr Goodall.
“ Au reste (he tells us) epistras misas sur la sin,
which were all but the eighth, “ avaient este esentes
par la Boyne, partie en Francois, partied! Lscossois ;
et depuis traduictes ENTIEREMENT en Latin : mais
11’ayant cognoissance de la langue Escossoise, j ay
t.vnrimRr tout ce. que i’ay trouve en
, * Stuart.
mieux aime exprimer tout ce, que j’ay trouve en
Latin, que, &c. “ This confession (says Mr Whit¬
aker) takes a comprehensive sweep. It makes all
the seven letters at least, and the whole of each, to have
been translated into Latin, and from thence to have
been rendered into French. It starts no piddling ob¬
jections about sentences or half sentences, at the head
or at the tail of any. It embraces all within its wide¬
spread arms. -And it proves the fancied existence ot a
French copy at the time to be all a fairy vision ; the
'Creation of minds that have subjected their judgments
to their, imaginations j the invited dreams ot selt-delu-
sion.” .
The letters, so weak on every side, and so incapable
of sustaining any scrutiny, give the marks of suspi¬
cion and guilt in all the stages of their progress. Even
with the parliamentary sanction afforded to them by
the three estates, which the earl of Murray assembled
upon the 15th day of December 1567, he tek the
delicacy and the danger of employing them openly to
the purposes for which they were invented. For while
he was scheming with Elizabeth his accusation ot the
queen of Scots, he took the precaution to submit pri¬
vately the letters to that princess by the agency of his
sccrcttiry Mr Wood* . ihc object this secret tr<inscic-
tion, which took place early in the month of June 1568,
was most flagitious, and .presses not only against the
integrity of IViurray, but also against that of the Eng¬
lish queen. Before he would advance with his charge,
he solicited from her an assurance that the judges to
be appointed in the trial of Mary would hold the letters
to be true and probative.
By the encouragement of Elizabeth, the earl of Mur¬
ray was prevailed upon to prefer his accusation *. He
was soon to depart for England upon this business. A
privy council was held by him at Edinburgh. Fie took
up in it with formality the letters of the queen from the
earl of Morton, and gave-a receipt for them to that
nobleman. That receipt is remarkable and interest¬
ing. It is dated upon the 16th of September 1568,
and contains the first mention that appears in history
of thq discovery of the letters as in the actual possession
of Dalgleish upon the 20th of June 1567. This, as we
have already noticed, is a very suspicious circumstance •,
but it is not the only suspicious circumstance which is
recorded in the receipt. In the act of secret council,
and in the ordination of parliament, in December 1567,
when the earl of Murray and his associates were infinite-
2 ] M A K
ly anxious to establish the criminality of the queen,
the only vouchers of her guilt to which they appealed
were the letters 5 and at that time, doubtless, they bad
prepared no other papers to which they couid atuule.
But in Murray’s receipt in September 1568 there is
mention of other vouchers beside the letters. He ac¬
knowledges, that he also received from the earl of Mor¬
ton contracts or obligations, and sonnets or love verses.
These remarkable papers, though said to have been
found upon the 20th of June 1567, appeared not till
September 1568 •, and this difficulty is not to be solved
by those who conceive them to be genuine. The gene¬
ral arguments which affect the authenticity cf the let¬
ters apply to them in full foice j only it must be obser¬
ved, that as the original letters were undoubtedly in
Scotch, the original sonnets were as certainly written
in French. This has been completely proved by Dr
Robertson, and is fully admitted by Mr Whitaker, who
has made it in the highest degree probable that Lething-
ton forged the letters and Buchanan the sonnets. Be
this as it may, the sonnets have every external and in¬
ternal evidence of forgery in common with the letters,
and they have some marks of this kind peculiar t©
themselves. In particular, they make the love ot Mary
still more grovelling than the letters made it ; and with
a degree of meanness, of which the soul of Letbington
m.v/us probably incapable, the author of the sonnets
has made the queen consider it as “ na lytill honour to
be maistres ol iier -subjects gudis!” In thL the dig¬
nified princess is totally lost in 44 the maid Marien of
her pretended imitators’, and Buchanan, who in his
commerce with the sex was a mere sensualist, forgot
on this occasion that he was personating a lady and a
queen.
There is, however, in these sonnets, one passage et
singular importance, which we must not pass wholly un¬
noticed. . The queen is made to say.
M »ry.
Pour luy aussij'ay jcttt inainte larme
Premier qu'il fust de ce corps possesseur,
Duquel alors il n'avail pas le comr.
Puis me donna un autre dur alar me,
Quand il versa de son sang mainte dragme.
For him also I powrit out motry teiria,
First quhen he made himself possessour of this body,
Of the quhilk then he had not the heart.
Efter lie did give me an uther hard charge,
Quhen he bled ot his blude great quantitie, &o.
If these sonnets could be supposed to be genuine,
this passage would overthrow at once all the letters
and both the contracts which were produced 5 and
would prove, with the lorce ot demonstration, that the
seizure of Mary by Bothwell was not with her own
consent; that he actually committed a rape upon her $
that she had for him no love: and that she married him
merely as -a refuge to her injured honour. The sonnets,
however, are undoubtedly spuriousbut, considered
in this light, the verses before us prove with equal
force the full conviction in the minds ot the rebels ox
what in an unguarded moment they actually confessed
to Throgmorton, and was manifest to all the world
viz. that “ the queen their sovereign was led captive,
and by eear, FORCE, and (as by many conjectures
may be well suspected) others EXTRAORDINARY and
more
L 633 ] MAR
more UNLAWFUL means compelled to become bed-
fellow to another wife’s husband.” They prove like¬
wise, that after the rape, finding Mary highly indig¬
nant at the brutality done her, Bothvvell actually stab¬
bed himself j not, we may believe, with any intention
to take away his own life, but merely that by shedding
many a “ drachm” of blood he might mollify the heart
of the queen.
But we mean not to pursue the history of the son¬
nets any iarther. Though they were undoubtedly in¬
vented in aid of the letters, to prove that fundamental
principle of the conspirators,—that the love of Mary
to Bothwell was inordinate j yet they are so incom¬
patible with history, and with one another, that they
demonstrate the spuriousness of themselves, and of the
evidence which they were intended to corroborate. By
thus endeavouring to give an air of nature and probabi¬
lity to their monstrous fictions, the rebels at once betray¬
ed the fabrication of the whole. They have themselves
supplied us with a long and particular journal, to show
the true dates of facts j and by that journal have their
fetters and their sonnets been demonstrated to be spurious.
The makers of these papers (says Mr Whitaker) have
broken through all the barrier of their oitu history.
They have started aside from the orbit of their own
chronology. They have taken a flight beyond the
bounds of their own creation, and have there placed
themselves conspicuous in the PARADISE of fools.”
^ This mass of forgery was clandestinely shown to
Elizabeth’s commissioners during the conferences at
York : (See Scotland). It was shown again to the
same commissioners and others during tire conferences
at Westminster. But neither Mary nor her commis¬
sioners could ever procure a sight of a single letter or
a single sonnet. By the bishop of Ross and the lord
Herries, she repeatedly demanded to see the papers
said to be written by her ; but that request, in itself so
reasonable, Elizabeth, with an audacity of injustice of
which the history of mankind can hardly furnish a pa¬
rallel, thought fit to refuse. Mary then instructed
her commissioners to demand eopies of the letters and
sonnets j and offered even from these to demonstrate in
the presence of the English queen and parliament, and
the ambassadors of foreign princes, that the pretended
originals were palpable forgeries. Even this demand
was denied her j and there is undoubted evidence still
existing, that neither she nor her commissioners had so
much as a copy of these criminal papers till after those
important conferences had for some time been at an
end. This last demand perplexed Elizabeth ; the con¬
ferences were suddenly broken up*, Murray was dismis¬
sed with his box to Scotland j and the letters were seen
no more !
But the letters, we are told, were at Westminster
compared with letters of the queen’s, and found to
be in the same Roman hand. They were indeed com¬
pared with other writings j hot with what writings ?
a his question let Elizabeth’s commissioners themselves
answer. They collated them, they say, “ with others
her letters, which were showed yesternight, and avow¬
ed by THEM (the rebel commissioners) to be written
by the said queen ” This was such a collation as
must have pronounced them to be idiots *, if we had
net known them to be otherwise j and such as must
pronounce them to be knaves, as we know them to
Vox. XII. Part II. +
have been men of sense. Like persons totally incom¬
petent to the management of business, but in truth
acting ministerially in the work, of profligacy, they com¬
pared the letters produced, NOT with letters furnished
by Mary’s commissioners, not with letters furnished
even by indifferent persons, BUT with letters present¬
ed by the producers themselves.—“ This (says Mr Whit¬
aker) is such an instance of imposition upon Mary
and the world, as can scarcely be paralleled in the an¬
nals of knavery. Many instances of imposition, in¬
deed, occur m the wretched history of our race j but
we can hardly find one, in which the imposition was
so gross, so formal, so important, and so clear. It
was very gross, because it has not a shred of artifice
to cover its ugly nakedness. It was very formal, be¬
cause it was done by men some of whom were of the
first character in their country j and all were bound by
honour, and tied down by oaths, to act uprightly
in the business. It was very important, because no
less than the reputation of a queen, and the continu¬
ance of an usurpation, depended upon it. And it is
very clear, because we have the fact related to us by
the commissioners themselves, recorded to their shame
in their own journal, and transmitted by their own hands
to posterity with everlasting infamy on their heads.”
When Tytler’s Inquiry into the Evidence produced
by the Earls of Murray and Morton against Mary
Queen of Scots was first published, it was reviewed in
the Gentleman’s Magazine by Dr Johnson. The re¬
view, which consists of a brief analysis of the work,
with reflections interspersed on the force of the evi¬
dence, concludes thus :—“ That the letters were for¬
ged is now made so probable, that perhaps they will
never more be cited as testimonies.” Subsequent ex¬
perience has shown, that the great critic’s knowledge
of human nature had not deserted him when he guard¬
ed his prediction with the word perhaps. Few authors
possess the magnanimity of Fenelon: and it is not to be
expected that he who has once maintained the letters
to be genuine, should by reasoning or criticism be com¬
pelled to relinquish them : but wre are persuaded, that,
after the present generation of writers shall be extinct,
these letters and sonnets will never be cited as evidence,
except of the profligacy of those by whom they were fa¬
bricated.
Such is a view (partial it may be deemed by some) of
this remarkable controversy previous to the publication of
MrLaing’s History of Scotland. But, in opposition to all
these arguments against the genuineness and authenticity
of the letters and sonnets attributed to Mary, this histori¬
an observes that it is impossible to fix the supposed forgery
on any one of the different persons to whom it has been a-
scribed, which,if true, renders it abundantly evident, that
they must have been the genuine productions of the ill-
fated Mary. According to Mr Laing, it was necessa¬
ry for Mary to disavow the letters $ and consequently
her commissioners were instructed to affirm that they
were forged, and that there were diverse of each sex in
Scotland, particularly of those in company with her
adversaries, who could counterfeit and write the queen’s
hand, as well as herself. This strange assertion, so ap¬
parently false, is repeated in Lesly’s memorial to Eli¬
zabeth j but of those who could write and counterfeit
the queen’s hand, none were ever named, even in his
defence of her honour; and the supposed forgery could
4 k be
Mary.
MAR t 634 J M A
be fixed on no particular person during Mary’s life, death of her first husband Francis,
must be confessed, renders their forgery ex-
R
1 which, it iuwav . . t' • 1 1
tremely suspicious. The writings suppressed m England
were Lesly’s and other anonymous vindications ot Ma¬
ry in which there is no intimation whatever, ot Le-
thingtou’s confession, tAat he had frequently forged the
aueen's hand. The letters are those m the Ceci col¬
lection, and the Cotton library, which are equally si¬
lent ; and we must conclude, that the author, whether
Cotton, James, or Camden, improving on Norlolk s
apology, that Lethington moved him to consider the
queen as not guilty, asserted gratuitously that Lething¬
ton acknowledged the whole forgery, as he had alrea¬
dy done, that Buchanan frequently repented on us
deathbed, of those calumnies which be reprinted in las
history, at that time in the, press. He who examines
with care, Camden’s mutilated account of the center-
ences in England, must be satisfied that the evidence ot
the Cecil and Cotton papers, which he confessedly exa¬
mined, has been suppressed in his annals, in which Nor¬
folk’s letters from York are industriously concealed.
Mr Laing is of opinion, that the sonnets ascribed to
Mary, are as certainly the productions ot her pen, and
that the grossness of some ot them can only be a pie-
vailing argument for their forgery with those who are
ignorant of the grossness of the age, or foolish enough
to believe with Goodall, that Mary never once be¬
trayed a single foible trom the cradle to the grave.
As to the three contracts of marriage between the
queen and Both well, reckoned forgeries by some au¬
thors, Mr Laing is also of opinion that they are the
genuine productions of Mary, who was glad to get rid
of a husband whose dissolute manners had rendered him
odious in her eyes > and she expressed no genuine sor¬
row after his extraordinary and atrocious murder. He
thinks that there is not to be found in any authentic
history of those times, a single convincing argument of
their being forgeries. In a word, after much ingenious
criticism on the merits of the contracts, he concludes by
saying, that the private, instead of being a copy or
abstract from the public contract, is evidently the
original from which the latter was formed; and it is
observable that the two first contracts written by Mary,
or under her inspection, are far superior in delicacy to
the last: a circumstance in vain imputed to the art of
the forgers, who, in fact,, were more desirous to aggra-
•wate than to extenuate the grossness of her guilt (B.)
She wrote, 1. Poems on various occasions, in the
Latin, French, and Scotch languages. One of her
poems is printed among those of A. Blackwood j an¬
other in Brantome’s Dames ilhistres, written on the
2. Consolation of Mary,
her long imprisonment, and royal advice to her son.' v—
3. A copy of verses, in French, sent with a diamond ring
to Queen Elizabeth. There is a translation of these
verses among the Latin poems of Sir Thomas Chaloner.
4. Genuine Letters of Mary Queen of Scots, to James
earl of Bothwell; translated from the French, by E.
Simmonds, 1726. There are, besides, many other of
her epistles to Queen Elizabeth, Secretary Cecil, Mild-
maye, &c. which are preserved in the Cottonian, Ash-
molean, and other libraries.
Mary II. queen of England, eldest daughter of
James II. by his first wife, was born at St James’s
in 1662. She was bred up a Protestant, and mar¬
ried to William Henry of Nassau, then prince of
Orange, afterwards king of_ England, in the 16th
year of her age. She staid in Holland with her hus¬
band till February 12. 1689, when she came over, and
was solemnly proclaimed queen of England, &c. She
was an equal sharer with her husband in all the
rights belonging to the crown j but the administra¬
tion and execution thereof, were lodged solely in the
king. She was a princess endowed with the high¬
est perfections both of body and mind : she loved his¬
tory, as being proper to give her useful instructions ;
and was also a good judge as well as a lover of poe-
trv. She studied more than could be imagined, and
would have read more than she did, if the fiequent re¬
turns of ill humours in her eyes had not forced her to
spare them. She gave her minutes of leisure to archi¬
tecture and gardenings and since it employed many
hands she said, she hoped it would be forgiven her.
She was the most gracious of sovereigns to her sub¬
jects, and the most obliging of wives to her husband,
as well as the most excellent of mistresses to her ser¬
vants : she ordered good books to be laid in tbe places
of attendance, that persons might not be idle while
they were in their turns of service. She was exceed*
ing zealous for a reformation of manners j charitable
in" the highest degree, without the least ostentation.
This excellent queen died on the 28th of December
1695, at Kensington, of the smallpox, in the 33d year
of her age. In her the arts lost a protectress, the
unfortunate a mother, and the world a pattern of eveiy
virtue. As to her person she was tall, of a majestic
graceful mien, her countenance serene, her complexion
ruddy, and her features beautiful.
Mary Magdalen's Day, a festival of the Bomisb
church, observed on the 22d of July.
MARY-Gerane's-House, a name given to Dunmore-
head in the parish oi Dunqueen, county of Kerry, and
urovince
(b) This article stands in need of an apology *, but whether for its length or its shortness, our readers may pei-
haps differ in opinion. If it be considered as a piece of common biography, and compared with the limits winch
we have prescribed to our other articles of the same kind, it has swelled to an extent beyond all proportion. But
as a piece of common biography it ought not to be considered : it is intimately connected with the history 0
Scotland at a very interesting period •, and it has been justly observed, by one ot the ablest writers of the age,
that “ the fact under dispute in the life of Mary, is a fundamental and essential one ; and that, according to the
opinion which the historian adopts with regard to it, he must varyaml dispose the whole of ills subsequent narration.
Viewed in this light, our abstract of the evidence which has been urged on both sides of this controversy will >y
many be deemed too short. To such as wish for complete satisfaction, we can only recommend the unbiassed study
of the writings oi Buchanan, Leslie bishop of floss,, Goodall,. llobertson, Hnnie, Tytler, Sir David Daliynip cV
Stuart, Whitaker, and Laing.
mar [ 635 1 MAR
Mary province of Munster, in Ireland. It is tlie most western
[1 point of all Europe, and called by the Irish Ty Vorney
.Mary la ml Qeer0ne. It is a point as much celebrated by them as
John-of-Groat’s house by the Scots, which is the utmost
extremity of North Britain.
MARYBOROUGH, a borough, market, and post
town, and the assizes town to Queen’s county, in the
province of Leinster, in Ireland j so called in honour of
Mary queen of England, who reduced this part of the
country to shire-ground by act of parliament 6th and
7th Philip and Mary. It is governed by a burgomas¬
ter and bailiffs, and has a barrack for a troop of horse.
It formerly returned two members to parliament. It is
distant from Dublin 40 miles. N. Lat. 53. o. W. Long,
7. 20.
MARYBURGH. See Fort William.
MARYGOLD. See Caltha, Botany Index.
Corn Marygold. See Chrysanthemum, Botany
Index.
French Marygold. See Tagetes, Botany Index.
MARYLAND, one of the United States of America.
It received that name in honour of Henrietta Maria,
the consort of King Charles I. who made a grant of
this country, with very extraordinary powers, to Lord
Baltimore. It lies between 38 and 40 degrees north
latitude, and in longitude from 74 to 78 degrees west
from London. It is bounded on the north by Pennsyl¬
vania *, on the east by the Delaware state; on the
south-east and south by the Atlantic ocean, and a
line drawn from the ocean over the peninsula (divid¬
ing it from Accomack county in Virginia) to the
mouth of Patomack river, thence up the Patomack
to its first fountain, thence by a due north line till it
intersects the southern boundary of Pennsylvania, in
Lat. 390 43' 18"5 so that it has Virginia on the south,
south-west, and west. It contains about 10,800 square
miles, of which about one-fifth is water. It is divided
into 18 counties, 10 of which are on the western and
8 on the eastern shore of Chesapeak bay. Each of
the counties sends four representatives to the house
of delegates; besides which, the city of Annapolis
and town of Baltimore send each two, making in
the whole 76 members. Tbe climate is generally mild
and agreeable, suited to agricultural productions and
a great vamty of fruit trees. In the interior hilly
country the inhabitants are healthy: but in the flat
country, in the neighbourhood of the marshes and
stagnant waters, they are, as in the other southern
states, subject to intermittents. Chesapeak bay di¬
vides this state into the eastern and western divisions.
It affords several good fisheries 5 and, in a commercial
view, is of immense advantage to the state. It re¬
ceives a number of the largest rivers in the United
States. From the eastern shore in Maryland, among
other smaller ones, it receives Pokomoke, Choptank,
Chester and Elk rivers j from the north the rapid
Susquehannah 5 and from the west Patapsco, Severn,
Patuxent, and Patomack, half of which is in Mary¬
land and half in Virginia. Except the Susquehannah
and Patomack, these are small rivers. East of the Blue
ridge of mountains, which stretches across the western
part of this state, the land, like that in all the southern
states, is generally level and free of stones. Wheat
and tobacco are the staple commodities of Maryland.
The growth of tobacco i» 1816 was estimated at
19,000 hogsheads. In the interior country, on the up- Maryland,
lands, considerable quantities of hemp and flax are raised. * ■ -■v-—
The number of inhabitants in this state, in 18x0,
was 380,546, of which 111,502 yvere slaves, and
33>927 free blacks. Maryland is the eighth state in the
union in point of population. The militia of this state
in 1 814 amounted to 41,000. The inhabitants, except
in the populous towns, live on their plantations, often
several miles distant from each other. To an inhabi¬
tant ol the middle, and especially of the eastern states,
which are thickly populated, they appear to live very
retired and unsocial lives. The effects of this compa¬
rative solitude are visible in the countenances as well
as in the manners and dress of the country people $
there being among them very little of that cheerful
sprightliness of look and action which is the invariable
and genuine offspring of social intercourse ; nor do
they pay that attention to dress which is common, and
which decency and propriety have rendered necessary,
among people who are liable to receive company almost
every day. As the negroes perform all the manual
labour, their masters are left to saunter away life in
sloth, and too often in ignorance. These observations,
however, must in justice be limited to the people in
the country, and to those particularly whose poverty or
parsimony prevents their spending a part of their time
in populous towns or otherwise mingling with the
world. The value of lands and houses in this state in
1799, was 32>372>29° dollars j and in 1814 it had in¬
creased to 122,577,572 dollars.
The chief towns in this state are Annapolis and Bal
timore—-—Annapolis, the capital, and the wealthiest
town of its size in America, is situated just at the
mouth of Severn river, 30 miles south of Baltimore,
and contained 2000 inhabitants in 1810. Tbe houses
are generally large and elegant •, and the stadthouse is
the noblest building of the kind in America.—Balti-
morc has had the most rapid growth of any town on
the continent, and is the fourth in size and the fifth in
trade in the United States. It lies in Lat. 39. 21. on
the north side of Patapsco river, around what is called
the Bason. The situation of the town is low. The
houses were numbered in 1787, and found to be 1955 j
about 1200 of which were in the town, and the rest at
Jell’s point. The number of stores was 152 ; and of
churches 9, which belong to German Calvinists and
Lutherans, Episcopalians, Presbyterians, Roman Ca¬
tholics, Baptists, Methodists, Quakers, Nicolitee or
New Quakers. The number of inhabitants was
46,555 Jn l8l°, antl in 1817 had increased to 55,000.
They bear a high character in the United States for
hospitality, liberality, and commercial enterprise. Tbe
trade of Maryland is principally carried on from Balti¬
more, with the other states, with the West Indies, and
with some parts of Europe. The exports in 1817,
amounted to 8,933,930 dollars, of which 5,887,884
dollars were domestic, and 3,046,046 foreign produce.
The exports are wheat, flour, corn, tobacco, flax-seed,
beans, pork, and timber, which are sent to tbe West
Indies, to England, France, and the north .of Europe.
The imports are dry goods, hardware, wines, rum,
sugar, &c. In 1815, 222,000 barrels of flour were
exported to foreign places, besides 140,000 sent coast¬
wise. The amount of manufactures in 1810,. was
11,468,794 dollars.
The
4 L 2
M A R
[ 636 ]
M A S
MarvlanA The Roman Catholics, who were tue first settlers
 / jn Maryland, are the most numerous religious sect.
Besides these, there are Protestant Episcopalians, Eng¬
lish, Scots, and Irish Presbyterians, German Calvi¬
nists German Lutherans, Friends, 1 apists, Metho¬
dists’ and Nicolites or New Quakers. The clergy¬
men are supported by voluntary contributions. The col¬
leges in this state have all been founded since the year
1782, and are yet in their infancy. The names ot the
several seminaries are, Washington College at Ches-
tertown, instituted in 1782’, St John’s College at An¬
napolis, founded in 1784 (these two united form the
university of Maryland, and include a Medical Institu¬
tion)-, Cakesbury College at Abingdon, instituted by the
Methodists in 1785 and a college founded by the Ro¬
man Catholics at Georgetown. There are a lew other
literary institutions, of inferior note, in difterent parts
of the state. In 1811 the sum of 25,000 dollars a year
was appropriated hy the legislature for the suppoit ol
common schools, which are established in every county.
The legislature of this state is composed of two di¬
stinct branches, a senate and house of delegates j and
styled The General Assembly oj Mainland. The senate
consists of 15 members, chosen every five years. Nine
of these must be residents on the western shore and
six on the eastern j they must be more than 25 years
of a"e, must have resided in the state more than three
years next preceding the election, aud have real and
personal property above the value ol icool. rlhe
house of delegates is composed ot four members for
each county, chosen annually on the first Monday in
October. The city of Annapolis and town ol Balti¬
more send each two delegates. 1 he qualifications ol a
delegate, are full age, one year’s residence in the county
where he is chosen, and real or personal property above
the value of 500I. Every free white male citizen a-
bove 21 years of age, and who has resided 12 months
in the city or county, has a vote in the election of se¬
nators and delegates.
On the second Monday of November annually, a go¬
vernor is appointed by the joint ballot ol both houses.
The governor cannot continue in office longer than
three years successively, nor be elected until the expi¬
ration of four years after he has been out of office.
The qualifications for the chief magistracy are 25
vears of age, five years residence in the state next
preceding the election, and real and personal estate
above the value of 5000k-, 1000k of which must be
freehold estate. This constitution was established by
a convention of delegates at Annapolis in I77^> andhas
since received some amendments.
Maryland was granted, as has been already noticed,
bv King Charles I. to Cecilius Calvert, baron of Bal¬
timore in Ireland, June 20. 1632. The government
of the province was by charter vested in the proprie¬
tary j but it appears that he either never exercised
these powers alone, or but for a short time. The
honourable Leonard Calvert, Esq. Lord Baltimore’s
brother, was the first governor or lieutenant general.
In 1638, a law was passed, constituting the first regular
house of assembly, which was to consist of such repre¬
sentatives, called burgesses, as should be elected pur¬
suant to writs issued by the governor. These burgesses
possessed all the powers of the persons electing them j
but any other freemen, who did not assent to the elec-
Mas.
tion, might take their seats in person. Twelve bur- Maryhmd
gesses or freemen, with the lieutenant general and se¬
cretary, constituted the assembly or legislature. This ^
assembly sat at St Mary’s, one of the southern coun¬
ties, which was the first settled part of Maryland. In
1687, the government was taken out ol the hands ot
Lord Baltimore by the grand convention ol England.
Mr Copley was appointed governor by commission
from William and Mary in 1692, when the Protestant
religion was established by law. In 1716, the govern¬
ment ol this province was restored to tne proprietary,
and continued in his hands till the late revolution 5
when, being an absentee, his property in the lands was
confiscated, and the government assumed by the free¬
men of the province, who formed the constitution now
existing. At the close of the war, Henry Harlord,
Esq. the natural son and heir of Lord Baltimore, peti¬
tioned the legislature of Maryland lor his estate } but
his petition was not granted. Mr Harford estimated
his loss of quit-rents, valued at 20 years purchase, and
including arrears, at 259,488k 5s.—dollars at 7s. 6d.
and the value of his manors and reserved lands at
327,441k of the same money. See United States,
Supplement.
MARYPORT, a sea port town of Cumberland, si¬
tuated at the mouth of the Line. It has a good har¬
bour j and has 70 or 80 sail of shipping from 30 to 250
tons burden, principally employed in the coal trade}
some of them sail up the Baltic for timber, flax, iron,.
&c. They have a furnace for cast iron and a glass¬
house. The population in 1811 was 3I24-
MAS, Lewis du, natural son to Jean Louis do
Montcalm Seigneur de Candiac, and a widow of rank
of Rouergue, was born at Nismes in 1676- His first
attention was bestowed on jurisprudence ; but after¬
wards he rvas altogether occupied with mathematics,
philosophy, and the stndy of the languages. I ather
Malebranche cultivated his acquaintance and esteemed
his virtues. His first appearance was severe, his ge¬
neral temper tranquil ; yet he had a lively and fertile
imagination. His mind was active, full of resources,
and methodical. We are indebted to his industry for
the Typographical Bureau. 'Ihis invention is the
more ingenious, as it presents the tedious parts of edu¬
cation, namely, reading, writing, and the elements of
languages, to the youthful mind as a delightful enter¬
tainment j and many people in France, both in the ca¬
pital and in the provinces, have adopted it with suc¬
cess. After he had conceived the idea of this inven¬
tion, he made the first trial of it on the young Candiac,
who was remarkable for his understanding in his ear¬
liest years. Hu Mas conducted his pupil to Paris and
the principal cities in 1* ranee, where he was univer¬
sally admired. This prodigy was carried oft in the
year 1726 before he was seven years of age, and his
loss had nearly deprived Hu Mas of his reason. A
dangerous illness was the consequence of his vexation j
and he would have died of want, if a gentleman had
not taken him from his garret and entertained him in
his own house. Hu Mas afterW'ards retired with Mar
dame de Vaujour within twm leagues of Paris, and died
in the year 1774* aged 68. He was a philosopher both
in genius and character. His works are, 1. L'Art^ de
transposer toutes soi'tes de Mustques sans etre oblige de
ccnmitre, ni le temps, ni le mode, published at Paris in
4to,
M AS [ (
Mas 4{0- J711, work is extremely curious, but of
11 no advantage to the study of music. 2. A volume in
/fastMtlun. quarto, printed at Paris 1733, in four parts, entitled,
Bibliotheque des enfans. In this treatise he has placed
in a clear point ot view, the system and economy of
his Typographical Bureau. This invention, like every
thing new, was censured by some and admired by
others. The author himself defended it with much
success in the journals and in several occasional pam¬
phlets. This collection, however, is become exceed¬
ingly scarce. The Typographical Bureau was brought
to perfection by M. Ileybert a citizen of Avignon,
who enriched it with many articles containing useful
and agreeable information in geography, history, fable,
&c. &c. 3. fylemoires de l ’ E cos sc sons le regne de
Marie Stuart, by Crawford, and translated from the
English. This translation was found in manuscript in
the library of the marquis d’Aubais, with whom De Mas
had lived in the most intimate habits of friendship.
Mas Plaiita, a plant which upon the same root pro¬
duces male flowers only. See Masculus Flos, Bo¬
tany Index.
MASAFUERO, an island of the South sea, lying
in S. Lat. 33. 45. W. Long. 8o. 46. It is very high
and mountainous, and at a distance seems to consist
of one hill or rock. It is of a triangular form, and
seven or eight leagues in circumference. There is
such plenty of fish, that a boat with a few hooks and
lines may very soon catch as many as will serve 100
people. Here are coal-fish, cavilliers, cod, halibut,
and cray-fish. Captain Carteret’s crew caught a king¬
fisher that weighed 87 pounds, and was five feet and
a half long. The sharks were here so ravenous, that,
in taking soundings, one of them swallowed the lead,
by which they hauled him above water j but he re¬
gained his liberty by disgorging his prey. Seals are
so numerous here, that Captain Cartei’et says, if many
thousands were killed in a night, they would not be
missed next morning. These animals yield excellent
train oil; and their hearts and plucks are very good
food, having a taste something like those of a hog:
their skins are covered with a very fine fur. There
are many birds here, and some very large hawks. Of
the pintado bird one ship caught 700 in one night.
Commodore Byron landed here with difficulty in 1765,
in order to take in wood and water, of both which he
found plenty. He found also great numbers of goats,
whose flesh tasted as well as venison in England.
MASBOTHiEI, or MESBOTHiEl, the name of a
sect, or rather of two sects ; for Eusebius, or rather
Hegesippus, whom he cites, makes mention of two
different sects of Masbothaeans. The first was one of
the seven sects that rose out of Judaism, and proved
very troublesome to the church ; the other was one
of the seven Jewish sects before the coming of Jesus
Christ.
The word is derived from the Hebrew rirw, schahat,
u to rest or repose j” and signifies idle easy indolent people.
Eusebius speaks of them as if they had been so called
from one Masbotheus their chief: but it is much more
probable that their name is Hebrew, or at least Chal-
daic, signifying the same thing with a Sabbatarian in
our language; that is, one who makes profession of
keeping Sabbath. Valesius will not allow the two
37 ] M A S
sects to he confounded together: the last being a Masbothun
sect of Jews before, or at least contemporary with 11
Christ j and the former a sect of heretics descended Masunssa.
from them. y
MASCULINE, something belonging to the male,
or the stronger of the two sexes. See Male.
Masculine, is more ordinarily used in grammar to
signify the first and worthiest of the genders of nouns.
See Gender.
The masculine gender is that which belongs to the
male kind, or something analogous to it.
Most substances are ranged under the heads of mas¬
culine or feminine.—This, in some cases, is done with
show of reason j but in oUiers is merely arbitrary, and
for that reason is found to vary according to the lan¬
guages, and even according to the words introduced
from one language into another.—Thus the names of
trees are generally feminine in Latin and masculine in
the French.
Farther, the genders of the same word are sometimes
varied in the same language. Thus alvus, according to
IViscian, was anciently masculine, hut is now become
feminine. And navire, “ a ship,” in French, was an¬
ciently feminine, but is now masculine.
Masculine Rhyme, in the French poetry, is that
made with a word which has a strong, open, and ac¬
cented pronunciation j as all words have, excepting
those which have an e feminine in their last syllable.-
For instance, amour and /o«r, mart and sort, are mas¬
culine rhymes ; and pere and mere, gloire and memoire,
are feminine. Hence also verses ending with a mascu¬
line rhyme, are called masculine verses, and those end¬
ing with a feminine rhyme, fcmitiinc verses. It is now
a rule established among the French poets never to use
the above two masculine or two feminine verses suc¬
cessively, except in the looser kind of poetry. Marot-
was the first who introduced this mixture of mas¬
culine and feminine verses, and Ronsard was the
first who practised it with success. The mascWine^
verses should always have a syllable less than the fe¬
minine ones.
Masculine Signs. Astrologers divide the signs into-
masculine and feminine 5 by reason of their qualities,
which are either active, and hot or cold, accounted
masculine •, or passive, dry and moist, which are fe¬
minine.—On this principle they call the Sun, Jupiter,
Saturn, and Mars, masculine ; and the Moon and Venus
feminine. Mercury, they suppose, partakes of the two.
Among the signs, Aries, Libra, Gemini, Leo, Sagitta¬
rius, Aquarius, are masculine: Cancer, Capricornus,
Taurus, Virgo, Scorpio, and Pisces, are feminine.
MASGULUS flos. See Flos, Botany Index.
MASH, a drink given to a horse, made of half a
peck of ground malt put into a pail, into which as
much scalding hot water is poured as will wet it very-
well : when that is done, stir it about, till, by tasting,
you find it as sweet as honey •, and when it has stood
till it is lukewarm, it is to be given to the horse. This
liquor is only used after a purge, to make it work the
better: or after hard labour, or instead of drink in the
time of any great sickness.
MASK. See Masque.
MASINISSA, a king of a small part of Africa, who
at first assisted the Carthaginians in their wars against
Rome ;
MAS
[
Mas'll,
Mason.
Home ; but afterwards joined the Romans, and became
their firm ally. See Numidia.
MASON, a person employed under the direction of
an architect, in the raising of a stone building. The
chief business of a mason is to make the mortar j raise
the Vails from the foundation to the top, with the ne¬
cessary retreats and perpendiculars ; to form the vaults,
and employ the stones as delivered to him. When the
stones are large, the business of hewing or cutting them
belongs to the stonecutters, though these are frequent¬
ly confounded with masons ; the ornaments of sculpture
are performed by carvers in stones or sculptors.
Mason, William, an English poet of distinction,
born in 1725, was the son of a clergyman who held
the living of Hull. He took his first degrees at St
John’s college, Cambridge in 1745, whence he remov¬
ed to Pembroke college, of which he was admitted a
fellow in 1747. He was M. A. in 1749, a minister
in 1754. The earl of Holdernesse presented him to
the valuable rectory of Aston in Yorkshire, and pro¬
cured for him the office of chaplain to his majesty. His
ode on the installation of the duke of Newcastle as
chancellor of the university of Cambridge was the first
specimen of his poetical talents, which gained him con¬
siderable reputation, although the subject was not popu¬
lar. His monody to the memory of Pope, and Isis, an
elegy, added to his fame, which was still farther in¬
creased by his dramatic poem of Elfrida in I752> ant^
Caractacus in 1759*
He did not succeed in writing tragedy, as he did not
compose for the modern stage, but wished to revive the
manner of the ancients. He published a small collec¬
tion of odes in 1756, intended as an imitation of his
dear friend Gray. He gave the world some elegies in
1763, which in general are marked with the simplicity
of language proper to this species of composition,
breathing noble sentiments of freedom and of virtue.
In point of morality he may justly be considered as the
pui#t of poets, and one of the warmest friends of civil
liberty by which the age he lived in was distinguished.
The first book of his English Garden made its appear¬
ance in 1772, a didactic poem in blank verse, of which
the fourth and last hook was printed in the year 1781.
Some good critics consider this poem as rather stiff, and
the dry minuteness of the preceptive part, prevented it
from bringing the author any great degree of populari¬
ty. In 1775 he published the poems of Mr Gray, to
which he prefixed memoirs of his life and writings.
His observations on the character and genius of his
friend did honour to his taste and feelings, and of con¬
sequence the volume was favourably received.
At the place of his residence he acted with the
friends of reform, and the enemies of such measures as
were deemed incompatible with the liberties of free¬
men. During tbe continuance of the American war,
he addressed an ode to the naval officers of Great Bri¬
tain, on the acquittal of Admiral Keppel in 1779, in
which he decidedly execrated the war carrying on
against the people of America. When Mr Pitt rose to
power in 1782, Mason addressed an ode to him, which
contained patriotic and manly sentiments, but his lyric
imagery did it considerable injury. He published in
1783 a poetical translation of Fresnoy’s Latin poem on
the art of painting, which unites great elegance of
638 ] MAS
language and versification with a correct representation
of a difficult original.
Besides the living with which he was presented soon ^
after taking orders, lie obtained the preferments of pre¬
centor and canon residentiary of the cathedral of York.
At that church he preached an occasional discourse in
1788 on the subject of the slave-trade, full of animated
declamation against the inhumanity of the traffic. The
centenary commemoration of the revolution in that year
produced his secular ode, which breathed his usual
spirit of freedom. An additional volume of his poems
was given to the world in 1797, consisting of miscella¬
neous pieces, the revised productions of his youth, and
the effusions of his old age. In his Palinody to Liberty
we behold the change wrought in his political princi¬
ples by the melancholy events of the French revolu¬
tion.
Mr Mason died in April 1797, at the age of 72,
in consequence of a mortification by a hurt in his leg.
He had married an amiable lady, who died of a con¬
sumption in 1767, and w'as buried at Bristol cathedral,
under a monument on which are inscribed some very
tender and beautiful lines by her husband. The cha¬
racter of Mason in private life was exemplary for worth
and active benevolence. A tablet has been placed to
his memory in Poets Corner in Westminster abbey.
Some satirical pieces of merit have been ascribed to
him, but some are of opinion that the internal evidence
is sufficient to decide against his title to them *, yet it
must be allowed that he could write with energy and
simplicity, and the objects of satire in these pieces are
such as it was extremely probable that he would fix
upon.
MASONRY, in general, a branch of architecture,
consisting in the art of hewing or squaring stones, and
cutting thetn level or perpendicular, for the uses of
building : but, in a more limited sense, masonry is the
art of assembling and joining stones together with mor¬
tar.
Hence arise as many different kinds of masonry as
there are different forms and manners for laying or
joining stones. Vitruvius mentions several kinds of
masonry used among the ancients} three of hewed
stone, viz. that in form of a net, that in binding, and
that called the Greek masonry ; and three of unhewed
stones, viz. that of an equal course, that of an unequal
course, and that filled up in the middle } and the seventh
wras a composition of all the rest.
Net masonry, called by \ itruvius reticulatum, from
its resemblance to the meshes of a net, consists of stones
squared in their courses, and so disposed as that their
joints go obliquely *, and their diagonals are the one
perpendicular and the other level. rihis is the most
agreeable masonry to the eye, but it is very apt to
crack.
Bound masonry, is that in which the stones were
placed one over another, like tiles 5 the joints of their
beds being level, and the mounters perpendiculars, so
that the joint that mounts and separates two stones al¬
ways falls directly over the middle of the stone below.
This is less beautiful than the net work; but it is more
solid and durable.
Greek masonry, according to Vitruvius, is that where
after we have laid two stones, each of which makes a
eourse,
Mason,
Masonry.
MAS [ 639 ] M A S
Masonry, course, another is laid at the end, which makes two
•—-Y““—' courses, and the same order is observed throughout
the building ; this may be called double bindine;, in re¬
gard the binding is not only of stones of the same course
with one another, but likewise of oae course with ano¬
ther course.
Masonry by equal courses, called by the ancients iso-
domum, differs in nothing from the bound masonry, but
only in this, that its stones are not hewn.
Masonry by unequal courses, called pseudisodomum,
is also made of unhewed stones, and laid in bound work ;
but then they are not of the same thickness, nor is there
any equality observed excepting in the several courses,
the courses themselves being unequal to each other.
Masonry filled up in the middle, is likewise made of
unhewed stones, and by courses: but the stones are
only set in order as to the courses.
Compound masonry is of Vitruvius’s proposing, so Masonry,
called as being formed of all the rest. In this the 111 (
courses are of hewed stone ; and the middle being left
void, is filled up with mortar and pebbles thrown in
together : after this the stones of one course are bound
to those of another course with iron cramps fastened
with melted lead.
All the kinds of masonry now in use may be reduced
to these five, viz. bound masonry j that of brick work,
where the bodies and projectures of the stones enclose
square spaces or pannels, &c. set with bricks j that de
nioilon, or small work, where the courses are equal,
tvell squared, and their edges or beds rusticated j that
where the courses are unequal 5 and that filled up in
the middle with little stones and mortar.
MASONRY, FREE,
■pvENOTESthe rule or system of mysteries and secrets
peculiar to the society of free and accepted masons,
ausc of I. When men are in a state of barbarity, and are
ie separa- scattered over the surface of a country in small and in-
Dti ofpio- (}epen(lent; tribes, their wants are as small in matmi-
isions. , , , . . T.., »
tune, as they ai*e tew 111 number. It is in the power,
therefore, of every individual, to perform for himself
and his family, every work of labour which necessity or
comfort requires ; and while, at one time, he equips
himself for the chase or the combat, at another he is
rearing a habitation for his offspring, or hollowing his
canoe to surmount the dangers of the sea. But as soon
as these tribes associate together, for the purposes of
mutual protection and comfort, civilization advances
apace; and, in the same proportion, the wants and de¬
sires of the community increase. In order to gratify
these, the ingenuity of individuals is called forth j and
those, who, from inability or indolence, cannot satisfy
their own wants, will immediately resort to the superior
skill of their neighbours. Those members of the com¬
munity, who can execute their work with the greatest
elegance and celerity, will be most frequently employed j
and, from this circumstance, combined with the princi¬
ple of emulation, and other causes, that distinction of
professions will arise, which is found only among nations
considerably advanced in civilization and refinement.
>asons 2. One of the first objects of man, in a rude state, is
iy arohi- to screen himself and his family from the heat of the
j!tlr tropic sun, from the inclemency of the polar regions, or
entlic fVom the sudden changes of more temperate climates.
proles- ^ !ias arrived at such a degree of improvement, as
a. to live under the dominion of a superior, and under the
influence of religious belief, the palace of his king, and
the temple of his gods, will be reared in the most mag¬
nificent style which his skill can devise and his indus¬
try accomplish, and decked with those false ornaments
which naturally catch the eye of unpolished men.
From that principle which impels the lower orders to
imitate the magnificence and splendour of their supe¬
riors, a foundation will be laid for improvement in the
art of building y and it is extremely probable, from the
3
circumstances which have been mentioned, as well as
from others which the slightest reflection will suggest,
that architecture will be the first profession to which
men will exclusively devote their attention, and for
which they will be trained by an established course of
preparatory education.
# 3* ^or it from this ground only, that masonry de-Arclikec-
rives its superiority as a separate profession. Whileture supe-
many other arts administer to our luxury and pride,norto
and gratify only those temporary wants and unnaturalm^nkal
desires which refinement has rendered necessary, the profession,
art of building can lay claim to a higher object. The
undertakings of the architect, not only furnish us with
elegant and comfortable accommodation from the in¬
clemency of the seasons, from the rapacitcy of wild
beasts, and the still more dangerous rapacity of man j
they contribute also to the ornament and glory of na¬
tions, and it is to them that we are indebted for those
fortresses of strength which defend us from the inroads
of surrounding enemies. Nor can the works of the
architect be ranked among those objects which furnish
amusement and accommodation for a few years, or at
most during the short term of human life ; they descend
unimpaired from generation to generation ; they ac¬
quire additional grandeur and value from an increase
of age ; and are the only specimens of human labour
which in some measure, survive the revolutions of king¬
doms, and the waste of time. The splendid remains of
Egyptian, Grecian, and Roman architecture, which, in
every age, have attracted the attention of the learned,
and excited the astonishment of the vulgar, are stand¬
ing monuments of the ingenuity and power of man j
and, in ages yet to come, they will reflect a dignity on
the art of building, to which no ocher profession can
arrogate the slightest claim.
4. But there is still another consideration, which cn-other
titles architecture to a decided pre-eminence among the causes of
other arts. It is itself the parent of many separate pro-the pre-
fessions 5 and requires a combination of talents, and :in eiliinence
extent of knowledge, for which other professions have^.^1^'
not the smallest occasion. An acquaintance with the
sciences
M A S O N R Y, FREE.
Descrip¬
tion of the
institution
of free ma¬
sonry.
sciences of geometry anil mechanical philosophy, with
the arts of sculpture and design, and other abstruse and
elegant branches of knowledge, are indispensable re¬
quisites in the education of a good architect i and raise
his art to a vast height above those professions, which
practice alone can render familiar, and which consist in
the mere exertion of muscular force. It appears, then,
from these considerations, that there is some foundation
in the very nature of architecture, for those extraordi¬
nary privileges to which masons have always laid
claim, and which they have almost always possessed—
privileges, which no other artists could have confidence
to ask, or liberty to enjoy j and there appears to be
some foundation for that ancient and respectable order
of free masons, whose history we are now to investigate.
5. But, that w’e may be enabled to discover free
masonry under those various forms which it has assum¬
ed in different countries, and at different times, before
it received the name which it now bears, it will be ne¬
cessary to give a short description of the nature of this
institution, without developing those mysteries, or re¬
vealing those ceremonial observances which are known
only to the brethren of the order.
6. Free masonry is an ancient and respectable insti¬
tution, embracing individuals of every nation, of every
religion, and of every condition in life. In order to
confirm this institution, and attain the ends for which it
was originally formed, every candidate comes under a
solemn engagement never to divulge the mysteries of
the order, nor communicate to the uninitiated the se¬
crets with which he may be entrusted, and the pro¬
ceedings and plans in which the fraternity may be
engaged. After the candidate has undergone the
necessary ceremonies, and received the usual instruc¬
tions, appropriate words and significant signs are im¬
parted to him, that he may be enabled to distinguish
his brethren of the order from the uninitiated vulgar,
and convince others that he is entitled to the privileges
of a brother, should he be visited by distress or want,
in a distant land. If the newly admitted member be
found qualified for a higher degree, he is promoted,
after due intervals of probation, till he has received
that masonic knowledge, which enables him to hold
the highest offices of trust to which the fraternity can
raise its members.' At regular and appointed seasons,
convivial meetings of the fraternity are held in lodges
constructed for this purpose : temperance, harmony, and
joy, characterise these mixed assemblies. All distinc¬
tions of rank seem to be laid aside, all differences in re¬
ligious and political sentiments are forgotten : and those
petty quarrels which disturb the quiet of private life,
cease to agitate the mind. Every one strives to give
happiness to his brother; and men seem to recollect, Masonm
for once, that they are sprung from the same origin, -v—--'
that they are possessed of the same nature, and are de¬
stined for the same end.
7. Such are the prominent features of an institution, Various
which has of late produced so great division in the sen-
timents of the learned, respecting its origin and ten- J
dency. While a certain class of men (a), a little over-frcc mason,
anxious for the dignity of their order, have represented ry.
it as coeval with the world ; others, influenced by an
opposite motive, have maintained it to be the invention
of English Jesuits, to promote the views of that in¬
triguing and dangerous association (b). Some philoso¬
phers, among whom we may reckon the celebrated
Chevalier Ramsay, have laboured to prove, that free
masonry arose during the crusades ; that it was a se¬
condary order of chivalry ; that its forms originated
from that warlike institution, and were adapted to the
peaceful habits of scientific men (c). Mr Clinch (D)
has attempted, with considerable ingenuity and learn¬
ing, to deduce its origin from the institution of Pytha¬
goras. M. Barruel (e) supposes it to be a continua¬
tion of the society ol knights templars j while others, with
a degree of audacity and malice rarely to be found in
the character of ingenuous men, have imputed the
origin of free masonry to secret associations, averse to
the interests of true government, and pursuing the
villanous and chimerical project oflevelling the distinc¬
tions of society, and freeing the human mind from the
sacred obligations of religion and morality.
8. Without adopting any of these untenable opini-rree ma-
ons, or attempting to discover the precise period whenaonry has
free masonry arose, it may be sufficient to establish
its claim to an early origin, and to shew that it has ex-rent foi.^s
isted in different ages of the w orld under different forms difiercti
and appellations (f). In the execution of this task, the countries,
candid inquirer will be satisfied with strong and numer¬
ous resemblances, as the nature of the subject excludes
the possibility of rigid demonstration. Every human
institution is subject to great and numerous variations ;
the different aspects under which they appear, and the
principles by which they are regulated, depend upon
the progress of civilization, upon the nature of the go¬
vernment by which they are protected, and on the [pe¬
culiar opinions and habits of their members. If there¬
fore, in comparing free masonry with other ancient as¬
sociations, we should find it coincide with them in every
circumstance, there would be strong reasons for sus¬
pecting, that the imagination of the writer had coun¬
terfeited resemblances when destitute of authentic in¬
formation j or that the order had adopted the rites and
ceremonies of antiquity, to cloak the recency of their
origin*
(a) Anderson’s History and Constitutions of Free Masonry, p. 1. Preston’s Illustrations of Masonry, p. 6. tenth
edition.
(b) Manuscript of tlode of Germany, in the possession of M. Mounier.
(c) Leyden’s Preliminary Dissertation to the Complaynt of Scotland, p. 67, 71.
(d) Anthologia Hibernica, for January, March, April, and June 1794.
(e) Memoirs of Jacobinism, vol. ii. p. 377, 378, &c.
(f) M. Mounier observes, that if the order of free masons existed among the ancients, it would have been
mentioned by cotemporary waiters. This argument, however, for the recency of their origin, is far from being
conclusive. For though it is allowed by all, that free masonry has existed in this country for at least 300 years,
yet the association is never once mentioned in any of the histories of England.
1
Masonry
Reasons
why the
knowledge
of architec¬
ture would
he confined
to a lew.
‘uses of
e union
religious
es with
s myste-
s of free
isonry.
or igin, to command the veneration and excite the no¬
tice ot the public. Against free masonry, however,
this charge cannot be preferred : wc shall have occa¬
sion to consider it when connected with the idolatry of
the heathens, when devoted to the church of Rome,
ami when flourishing under the milder influence of the
reformed religion.
9. As men, in the early ages of society, were desti¬
tute ot those methods of diffusing knowledge which we
now enjoy, and even of those which were used in
Greece and Rome, when the art of printing was un¬
known ; the few discoveries in art and science which
were then made, must have been confined to a small
number of individuals. In these ages, the pursuit of
science must have been a secondary consideration, and
those who did venture to explore the untrodden regions
of knowledge, would overlook those unsubstantial spe¬
culations, which merely gratify the curiosity of philoso¬
phers j and would fix their attention on those only
which terminate in public utility, and administer to the
necessities of life. As architecture could only be pre¬
ceded by agriculture, it must have been in this science
that the first efforts of human skill were tried ; and in
which man must have first experienced success in ex¬
tending his dominion over the works of nature. The
first architects, therefore, would be philosophers. They
alone required the assistance of art j and they alone
would endeavour to obtain it. The information which
was acquired individually, would be imparted to others
of the same profession } and an association would be
formed for the mutual communication of knowledge,
and the mutual improvement of its members. In order
to preserve among themselves that information which
they alone collected j in order to excite amongst others
a higher degree of respect for their profession, and pre¬
vent the intrusion of those who were ignorant of archi¬
tecture, and, consequently, could not promote the ob¬
ject of the institution, appropriate words and signs
would be communicated to its members; and significant
ceremonies would be performed at their initiation, that
their engagement to secrecy might be impressed upon
their minds, and greater regard excited for the infor¬
mation they were to receive. Nor is this mere specu¬
lation ; there exist at this day, in the deserts of Egypt,
such monuments of architecture, as must have been
reared in those early ages which precede the records
of authentic history ; and the erection of these stupend¬
ous fabrics, must have required an acquaintance with
the mechanical arts, which is not in the possession of
modern architects. It is an undoubted fact, also, that
there existed, in these days, a particular association of
men, to whom scientific knowledge was confined, and
who resembled the society of free masons in every thing
but the name,
ic. In Egypt, and those countries of Asia which
lie contiguous to that favoured kingdom, the arts and
sciences were cultivated with success, while other na¬
tions were involved in ignorance : it is here, therefore,
that free masonry would flourish, and here only can we
Vol. XII. Part II. t
M A S O N It Y, FREE.
discover marks of its existence in the remotest ages. It
is extremely probable, that the first and the only ob¬
ject of the society of masons, was the mutual communi¬
cation of knowledge connected with their profession ;
and that those only would gain admittance into their
order, whose labours were subsidiary to those of the
architect. But when the ambition or vanity of the E-
gyptian priests prompted them to erect huge and ex¬
pensive fabrics, for celebrating the worship of their
gods, or perpetuating the memory of their kings, they
would naturally desire to participate in that scientific
knowledge, which was possessed by the architects they
employed; and as the sacerdotal order seldom fail,
among a superstitious people, to gain the objects of their
ambition, they would, in this case, succeed in their at¬
tempts, and be initiated into the mysteries, as well as
instructed in the science of free masons. These remarks
will not only assist us in discovering the source from
which the Egyptian priests derived' that knowledge
for which they have been so highly celebrated 5 they
will aid us also in accounting for those changes which
were supeiinduced on the forms of free masonry, and
for the admission of men into the order whose profes¬
sions had no connection with the royal art.
11. When the Egyptian priests had, in this manner,
procured admission into the society of free masons, they
connected the mythology of their country, and their
metaphysical speculations, concerning the nature of God
and the condition of man, with an association formed
for the exclusive purpose of scientific improvement, and
produced that Combination of science and theology
which, in alter ages, formed such a conspicuous part of
the principles of free masonry.
12. The knowledge of the Egyptians was carefully
concealed from the vulgar; and when the priests did
condescend to communicate it to the learned men of
other nations, it was conferred in symbols and hierogly¬
phics, accompanied with particular rites and ceremo¬
nies, marking the value of the gift they bestowed.
What those ceremonies were, which were performed at
initiation into the Egyptian mysteries, we are unable, at
tins distance of time, to determine. But as the Eleu-
sinian and other mysteries had their origin in Egypt,
we may be able, perhaps, to discover the qualities of
the fountain, by examining the nature of the stream.
13* The immense population of Egypt, conjoined Tlie
wuth other causes, occasioned frequent emigrations from science
that enlightened country. In this manner it became anc* “‘y510-
the centre of civilization, and introduced into the mostries oi.the
distant and savage climes the sublime mysteries of its fafrieSo
religion, and those inventions and discoveries ivhirt,
religion, and those inventions and discoveries which Greece,
originated in the ingenuity of its inhabitants. The first
colony of the Egyptians that arrived in Greece, was
conducted by Inachus, about 1970 years before the
Christian era j and about three centuries afterwards, he
was followed by Cecrops, Cadmus, and Danaus (g).
The savage inhabitants of Greece beheld with astonish¬
ment the magical tricks of the Egyptians 5 and regard¬
ed as gods those skilful adventurers, who communicated
4 M to
(g) Voyage du Jeune Anacharsis en Grece, 4to. tom. i. p. 2. Cecrops arrived in Attica in 1657 *B. C.
Cadmus came from Phenicia to Boeotiu in 1593 B. C. and Danaus to Argolis in 1586 B. C.
Inslitution
of the Eleu
sinian my-
ttcries.
Institution
of the Pan-
athenea
and Diony¬
sian my¬
steries.
Resem¬
blance be¬
tween the
Eleusinian
and Diony¬
sian my¬
steries.
Similarity
between
the Eleusi¬
nian my¬
steries and
free ma¬
sonry.
M A S O N R
to them the arts and sciences of their native land (h).
In this manner were sown those seeds oi improvement,
which, in future ages, exalted Greece to such pre-emi¬
nence among the nations. ^ . . , . ,
14 After the Egyptian colonies had obtained a se¬
cure settlement in their new territories and were treed
from those uneasy apprehensions which generally
trouble the invaders of a foreign land, they instituted,
after the manner of their ancestors, particular festi vals or
mysteries, in honour of those who had benefited t icir
country by arts or by arms. In the reign of Ericthonius,
(A. C. i coo), the mysteries of the Egyptian Isis were
established at Eleusis under the name ot the Eleusima.
They were instituted in honour of Ceres, who having
come to Greece in quest of her daughter Proserpine,
resided with Triptolemus at Eleusis, and instructed him
in the knowledge of agriculture, and in the still more
important knowledge ot a future state (i)* .
i c. About the same time, the Panathenea were insti¬
tuted in honour of Minerva, and the Dionysian my¬
steries in honour of Bacchus, who invented theatres (k),
and instructed the Greeks in many useful arts, but par¬
ticularly in the culture of the yme (l). 1 hat the E-
leusinian and Dionysian mysteries were intimately con¬
nected with the progress of the arts and sciences, is ma¬
nifest from the very end for which they were formed j
and that they were modelled upon the mysteries ot Isis
and Osiris, celebrated in Egypt, is probable from the
similarity of their origin, as well as from the consent
of ancient authors (m). If there be any plausibihty in
our former reasoning concerning the origin ei know¬
ledge in Egypt, it will follow, that the Dionysia and
the°mysteries of Eleusis, were, like the societies of free
masons, formed for scientific improvement, though tinc¬
tured with the doctrines of the Egyptian mythology.
16. But it is not from conjecture only that this con¬
clusion may be drawn. The striking similarity among
the external forms of these secret associations, and tic
still more striking similarity ot the objects they had in
view, are strong proofs that they were only different
streams issuing from a common fountain. I hose who
were initiated into the Eleusinian mysteries, were bound
Y, F R E E.
by the most awful engagements, to conceal the mstruc- Masonry,
tions they received, and the ceremonies that were per- v
formed (n). None were admitted as candidates, till
they arrived at a certain age •, and particular persons
were appointed, to examine and prepare them for the
rites of initiation (o). Those, whose conduct was found
irregular, or who had been guilty ot atrocious crimes,
were rejected as unworthy ot initiation j while the suc¬
cessful candidates were instructed,by significant symbols
in the principles of religion (r), were exhorted to quell
every turbulent appetite and passion (Q_), and to merit,,
by the improvement ot their minds, and the purity ot
their hearts, those ineffable benefits which they were
still to receive (r). Significant words were communi¬
cated to the members: grand officers presided over
their assemblies (s) : Their emblems were exactly simi¬
lar to those of free masonry (t)j and the candidate ad¬
vanced from one degree to another, till he received ah
the lessons of wisdom and of yirtue which the priests
could impart (u). But besides these circumstances ot
resemblance, there are two facts, transmitted to us by
ancient authors, which have an astonishing similarity to
the ceremonies of the third degree of free masonry, bo
strikin'* b the resemblance, that every brother ot the
order who is acquainted with them, cannot question,
for a moment, the opinion which we have been attempt¬
ing to support (x). re
17 Having thus mentioned some features of resem-The myMe-
blance between the mysteries of Eleusis, and those of
free masonry, let us now attend to the sentiments «f f£reeina_
contemporaries, respecting these secret associations, anasonry i,ave
we will find, that they have been treated with the same experkn-
illiberality and insolence. That some men, who, fro^edthe^
self-sufficiency, or unsocial dispositions, have refused tOmentfroia
be admitted into these orders, should detract from the the unjni.
character of an association, which pretends to enlighten dated,
the learned, and expand the aflections of narrow and
contracted minds, is by no means a matter of surprise ;
and it is equally consistent with human nature, that
those, whose irregular conduct had excluded them horn
initiation, should calumniate an order, whose blessings
they were not allowed to participate^ and whose honours
J they
(H) Herodot. lib. i. cap. 58. (0 Isocrates Paneg. tom. i. p. 132.
into Greece during the reign of A.phyetvon,
Wh(M^)°En^adsum natura7parens tuis Luci admota precibus summa numinum —cujus nmnen
specie, ritu vario, totus veneratur orbis. Me primogenii Phryges Pess.nunticam nommant deum ma^em , hme
Autochtones Attici Cecropiam Minervam (alluding to the Panathenea) :Illinc Cre.^S ^ riis ’ co.
Eleusinii vetustam Deam Cererem •, priscaque doctnna pollentes Egyptu, ceremonn p P P
lentes. appellant vero nomine reginam Isidem. L. Apuleii Metamorph. lib. xi. ,, , 1 u tUp Das„
(n) Andoc. de Myst. p. 7. Meursius in Elens. Myst. cap. 20. lliis latter author has c P
sages in ancient ivriters, about the Eleusinian mysteries.
(o) Hesychius in Y^ocv..
(p) Clemens Alexand. Strom, lib. i. p. 325* v^’
(q.) Porphyr. ap. Stob. Eclog. Phys. p. 142.
(r) Arrian in Epictet. lib. hi. cap. 21. p. 440.
(s) Robertson’s Greece, p. 127.
(t) Euseb. Prepar. Evangel, lib. iii. cap. 12. p. ii1/.
(u) Petav. ad Themist. p. 414. Anacharsis, tom. iii. p. 582. , v;storv
(x) The brethren of the order may consult, for this purpose, the article Ellusinia, and Robertson . ry
of Ancient Greece, «. i2’7.
845*
MASONRY, F R E E.
Masonry tliey were prohibited to share. Men of this description
represented the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, as
scenes of riot and debauchery j and reproached the mem¬
bers of the association, that they were not more virtuous
and more holy than themselves (y). But it is the opinion
of contemporary writers, that these rumours were com¬
pletely unfounded, and arose from the silence of the
initiated, and the ignorance of the vulgar. They even
maintain, that the mysteries of Eleusis produced sancti¬
ty of manners, attention to the social duties, and a de¬
sire to be as distinguished by virtue, as by silence.
''See Eleusinia. The illustrious Socrates could never
he prevailed upon to partake of these mysteries (z) $
and Diogenes, upon receiving a similar solicitation, re¬
plied, “ That Pattccion, a notorious robber, obtained
initiation j and that Epaminondas and Agesilaus never
desired it (a).” But did not these men know, that in
all human societies, the virtuous and the noble must
■sometimes associate with the worthless and the mean P
Did they not know that there often kneel in the same
temple, the righteous and the profane j and that the
saint and the sinner frequently officiate at the same al¬
tar ? Titus did the philosophers of antiquity calumniate
and despise the mysteries of Eleusis •, and, in the same
manner, have some philosophers of our own day, de¬
famed the character, and questioned the motives of free
masons.
Objection JS- This similarity of treatment, which the mysteries
usweted. of Ceres and free masonry have received, is no small
proof of tlte similarity of their origin, and their object.
To this conclusion, however, it may be objected, that
though the points of resemblance between these secret
societies are numerous, yet there were circumstances in
the celebration of the Eleusinian mysteries, which have
no counterpart in the ceremonies office masonry. The
sacrifices, purifications, hymns, and dances, which were
necessary in the festival of Ceres, have, indeed, no
place in the society of free masons. But these points
of dissimilarity, instead of weakening, rather strengthen
our opinion. It cannot he expected, that in the reign
of Polytheism, just sentiments of the deity should he
entertained j and much less, that the adherents of
Christianity should bend their knees to the gods of the
heathens. The ancients worshipped those beings, who
conferred on them the most signal benefits, with sacri-
64.
fices, purifications, and other tokens of their humility Masonn
and gratitude. But when revelation had disclosed to“"'v—
man more amiable sentiments concerning the Divine
Being, the society of free masons banished from their
mysteides those useless rites, with which the ancient
brethren of the order attempted to appease and requite
their deities; and modelled their ceremonies upon this
foundation, that there is but one God, who must be
worshipped in spirit and in truth.
19. The mysteries of Ceres were not confined to the The mjSte.
city of Eleusis’, they were introduced into Athens a-rics of ”
bout 1356 B. C. (b) ; and, with a few slight varia-
tions, were observed in Phrygia, Cyprus, Crete, and 'vere c®1e'
Sicily (c). They had reached even to the capital of^^al1”
France (d) : and it is highly probable that, in aCountries.
short time after, they were introduced into Britain, and
other northern kingdoms (e). In the reign of the em¬
peror Adrian (f), they were carried into Rome, and
were celebrated, in that metropolis, with the same rites
and ceremonies which were performed in the humble
village of Eleusis. They had contracted impurities,
however, from the length of their duration, and the
corruption of their abettors j and though the forms of
initiation were still symbolical of the original and noble
objects of the institution ; yet the licentious Romans
mistook the shadow for the substance j and, while they
underwent the rites of the Eleusinian mysteries, they
w’ere strangers to the object for which they were
framed.
20. About the beginning of the fifth century, Theo- Abolition
dosius the Great prohibited, and almost totally extin-of the
guished the Pagan theology in the Roman empire (g) • FJeusinian
and the mysteries of Eleusis suffered in the general
vastation (h). It is probable, however, that these0fTheo-^
mysteries were secretly celebrated, in spite of the severe dosius.
edicts of Theodosius 5 and that they were partly conti¬
nued during the dark ages, though stripped of their
original purity and splendour, We are certain, at
least, that many rites of the Pagan religion were per¬
formed, under the dissembled name of convivial meet¬
ings, long after the publication of the emperor’s
edicts (1) ; and Psellus (k), informs us, that the mys¬
teries of Ceres subsisted in Athens till the eighth centu¬
ry of the Christian era, and were never totally sup¬
pressed.
4M 2 21. Having
(y) Robertson’s Greece, p. 127. Porphyr. de Abstinentia, lib. iv. p. 353. Julian orat. v. p. 173.
(z) Lucian in Demonact. tom. ii. p. 380.
(a) Plut. de and. Poet. tom. ii. p. 21. Diog. Laert. lib. vi. § 39.
(b) Playfair’s Chronology.
(c) Lucii Apuleii Metamorph. lib. xi, p. *97, 198.
(d) Praise of Paris, or Sketch of the French capital, 1803, S. West, F. R. S. F. A. S. This author
observes, in the preface to his wox’k, that Paris is derived from Par Ists, because it was built beside a temple
dedicated to that goddess j that this temple was demolished at the establishment of Christianity, and that there
remains to this day, in the Petits Augustins, a statue of Isis nursing Orus.
(e) Omitto Eleusinam sanctam illam et augustam, ubt initiantur gentes orarum ultirrue. Cic. de Nat. Dea¬
rum, lib. i. sub fine.
(f) A. D. 117. Encyclop, Brit. vol. vi. p. 555. Potter’s Antiq. vol. i. p. 389.
(g) Gibbon’s History of the Decline and Fall of the Roman Empire, 8vo. vol. v. p. 120.
(h) Zozim. Hist. lib. iv.
(1) Gibbon, vol. v. p. no.
(k) In his treatise 'datu.owv 'tru, ii eAMvi{, quoted by Mr Clinch in the Anthologia Hibernica, for
January 1794, p. 36.
644
Masonry-
Origin and
history of
the Diony¬
sian myste¬
ries.
M A S O N ft
21. Having thus considered the origin and decline
of the mysteries of Eleusis, and discovered in them
numerous and prominent features of resemblance to
those of free masonry 5 we may reasonably inter, that
the Egyptian mysteries which gave rise to the former,
had a "still nearer affinity to the latter and, from this
conclusion, the opinions that were formerly stated, con¬
cerning the antiquity of the order, and the origin of
Egyptfan knowledge, will receive very considerable
confirmation. _ .
22. Let us now direct our attention to the Hionysia,
or mysteries of Bacchus, which were intimately con¬
nected with those of Ceres, and, perhaps, still more
with the mysteries of free masonry. Herodotus (l) in¬
forms us that the solemnities, in honour of Dionysius or
Bacchus, were originally instituted in Egypt*, and
were transported from that country into Greece, by one
Melampus. But not only did the mysteries of Ceres
and Bacchus flow from the same source j the one was
in some measure interwoven with the other, and it is
almost certain, from what we are now to mention, that
those who were initiated into the former, were entitled
to be present at the celebration of the latter. The
sixth day of the Eleusinian festival was the most bril¬
liant of'the whole. It received the appellation of
Bacchus, because it was chiefly, if not exclusively, de¬
voted to the worship of that god. His statue, attended
by the initiated and the ministers of the temple, was
conducted from Athens to Eleusis, with much pomp
and solemnity (m). And after it had been introduced
into the temple of Ceres, it was brought back to
Athens with similar ceremonies. 1 he connection be¬
tween the Eleusinian and Dionysian mysteries is ma¬
nifest, also, from the common opinion, that Ceres was
the mother of Bacchus (n). And Plutarch assures us,
that the Egyptian Isis was the prototype of Ceres 5 that
Osiris was the same with Bacchus ^ and that the D10-
nysia of CTreece was only another name lor the I amy-
lia of Egypt (o). As Bacchus was the inventor of
theatres, as well as of dramatical representations, that
particular class of masons, who were employed in the
erection of these extensive buildings, were called the
Dionysian artificers (p), and were initiated into the
mysteries of their founder, and consequently into those
of Eleusis (q,). But, from the tendency of the human
mind to embrace the ceremonial, while it neglects the
substantial part of an institution, the Dionysian festival,
in the degenerate ages of Greece, was more remark¬
able for inebriation and licentiousness, than for the cul-
Y, FREE.
tivation of virtue and of science *, and lie who was at Masourjv
first celebrated as the inventor of arts, was afterwards v—J
worshipped as the god of wine. Those who were desi¬
rous of indulging secretly in licentious mirth and un¬
hallowed festivity, cloaked their proceedings under the
pretence of worshipping Bacchus *, and brought dis¬
grace upon those mysteries, which were instituted
for the promotion of virtue, and the improvement of
arB . . „„
23. About 200 years B. C. an illiterate and licen- ^lie fac¬
tious priest came from Greece to Tuscany, and mstitu-^^1^
ted the Bacchanalia, or feast of the Bacchanals (R)-edwith
From Tuscany they were imported to Borne } hut the the Diony-
promoters of these midnight orgies having proceeded to sian myste-
the farthest extremity of dissipation and disloyalty, they nes*
Avere abolished throughout all Italy, by a decree of the
senate (s). It has been foolishly supposed that the
Bacchanalia Avere similar to the Dionysian mysteries,
merely because they were both dedicated to Bacchus.
The Liberalia of Rome Avas the festival corresponding Tbe^Libc-
to the Dionysia of Greece (x) j and it is probable that ^ J"6
this feast Avas observed throughout the Roman empire, tiie Djonv.
till the abrogation of the Pagan theology in the reign sian mvste-
of Theodosius. The opinion which an impartial in-ness,
quirer Avould form, concerning the nature and tenden¬
cy of the mysteries of Bacchus, Avould not be very fa¬
vourable to the character of the institution. But it
should be remembered that deviations from the inten¬
tions and form of any association, are no objection to
the association itself. They are rather proofs of its ori¬
ginal purity and excellence j as it is not from the paths
of vice, but from those of virtue, that avc are accustom-
ted to stray.
24. Hitherto we liaA*e considered the Dionysian mys¬
teries under an unpropitious aspect; let us uoav trace
them in their progress from Europe to Asia, where
they retained their primitive lustre, and effectually
contributed to the rapid advancement of the fine
arts.
25. About 1000 years B. C. (u), the inhabitants oflnconse-
Attica, complaining of the narroAvness of their terri- quence of
tory, and the unfruitfulness of its soil, Avent in quest nf^V1^
more extensive and fertile settlements. Being joined t^e j)jony.
by a number of the inhabitants of surrounding pro-sian myste-
vinces, they sailed to Asia Minor, drove out the inha-ries were
bitants, seized upon the most eligible situations, and uni- f€
ted them under the name of Ionia, because the greatest
number of the refugees Avere natives of that Grecian
province (x). As the Greeks, prior to the Ionic mi-
(l) EMttm yxg h S5-T1 e wnretfiMs ra btowm to Ti kxi t»iv 6v<nw. Herodot. lib. 11. cap. 49.
(m) Anacharsis, tom. iii. p. 531. Plut. in Phoc. tom. i. p. 754. Meurs. in Elens, cap. 27.
(n) Potter, vol. i. p. 393. _ s -n •
(o) De Iside et Osiride. Idee du Gouvernment Ancien et Modern de PEgypte, p. 20. I ans 1743.
(p) Aiovwnajioi Aulus Gellius, lib. xx. c. 4*
(q) Vid. Potter, vol. i. p. 41.
(r) Tit. Liv. lib. xxxix. cap. 8.
(s) Grtecus ignobilis in Etruriam venit, mdla cum arte eanim quas nmltas ad animarum corporumque cultitm
nobis eruditissima omnium gens invexit, sed sacrificulus et vatis. ..... ...
(x) Liberalia (says Festus) liberi Festa, quae apud Grsecos dicuntur Dionysia. id. Universal History, vol.
xiii. p. 262. ... 1 1 r A
(u) Playfair places the Ionic migration in 1044 B. C. Gillies in 1055 *, and Barthelemy, the author 01 Ana-
charsis’s Travels, in 1076.
(x) Herodotus, lib. i. cap. 142. Gillies’s Hist, of Greece, 8vo. vol. p. 102.
M A S O N tt
Masonry, gration, hail made considerable progress In tlie arts and
—v—^ sciences (y), they carried these along with them into
their new territories •, and introduced into Ionia the
mysteries of Minerva and Dionysius (z), before they
were corrupted by the licentiousness of the Athenians.
In a short time the Asiatic colonies surpassed the mo¬
ther-country in prosperity and science. Sculpture in
marble, and the Doric and Ionian orders, were the re¬
sult of their ingenuity (a). They returned even into
Greece ; they communicated to their ancestors the in¬
ventions of their own country; and instructed them in
that style of architecture which has been the admira¬
tion of succeeding ages. For these improvements the
istory of world is indebted to the Diomjsian artificers, an associ-
e Diony- ation of scientific men, who possessed the exclusive pri-
maru- vilege of erecting temples, theatres, and other public
ers- buildings in Asia Minor (b). They supplied Ionia,
and the surrounding countries, as far as the Hellespont,
with theatrical apparatus by contract; and erected the
magnificent temple at Teos, to Bacchus, the founder
of their order (c). These artists were very numerous
in Asia, and existed, under the same appellation, in
Syria, Persia, and India (d). About 300 years before
the birth of Christ a considerable number of them
were incorporated, by command of the kings of Per-
gamus, who assigned to them Teos as a settlement,
tieirre- being the city of their tutelary god (e). The mem-
nblance bers of this association, which was intimately connect-
free ed with the Dionysian mysteries, were distinguished
from the uninitiated inhabitants of Teos, by the science
which they possessed, and by appropriate words and
signs, by which they could recognize their brethren of
the order (F.) Like free masons they were divided
into lodges, which were distinguished by different
names (g). They occasionally held convivial meetings
in houses erected and consecrated for this purpose 5 and
each separate association was under the direction of a
Y, FBEE.
master, and presidents or wardens (h). They held a
general meeting once a-year, which was solemnized
with great pomp and festivity j and at which the breth¬
ren partook of a splendid entertainment, provided bv
the master, after they had finished the sacrifices to their
gods, and especially to tlieir patron Bacchus (1).
They used particular utensils in their ceremonial obser¬
vances 5 some of which were exactly similar to those
that are employed by the fraternity of free masons (k).
And the more opulent artists were bound to provide
for the exigencies of their poorer brethren (l). The
very monuments which were reared by these masons, to
the memory of their masters and wardens, remain to
the present day in the lurkish burying grounds, at
Siverhissar and Eraki (m). The inscriptions upon them
express, in strong terms, the gratitude of the fraternity,
lor their disinterested exertions in behalf of the order j
for their generosity and benevolence to its individual
members j for their private virtues, as well as for their
public conduct. From some circumstances which are
stated in these iuscriptions, but particularly from the
name of one of the lodges, it is highly probable, that
Attalus, king of Pergamus, was a member of the Dio¬
nysian fraternity.
26. Such is the nature of that association of archi¬
tects, who erected those splendid edifices in Ionia,
whose ruins even afford us instruction, while they ex¬
cite our surprise. If it be possible to prove the identity
of any two societies, from the coincidence of their ex¬
ternal forms, we are authorised to conclude, that the
fraternity of the Ionian architects, and the fraternity of
free masons, are exactly the same j and as the former
practised the mysteries of Bacchus and Ceres, several
of which we have shown to be similar to the mysteries
of masonry *, we may safely affirm, that, in their inter¬
nal, as well as external procedure, the society of free
masons resembles the Dionysiacs of Asia Minor (n).
27. The
(y) According to the author of Anacharsis’s Travels, the arts took their rise in Greece about 1547, B. C.
(z) Chandler’s Travels in Asia Minor, p. 100, 4to. 1775. The Panathenea and the Dionysian mysteries
were instituted about 300 years before the Ionic migration.
(a) Gillies’s Hist. Ant. Greece, vol. ii. p. 162.
(b) Strabo, lib. iv. Chishull Antiquitates Asiaticae, p. 107. Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 20.
(c) Ionian Antiquities, published by the Society of Dilettanti, p. 4. Strabo, lib. iv. Chishull Antiq. Asiat.
P- 139-
(d) K*< tu Atcrjcu t«v oA>jv xstdiegairam? Strabo, p. 471. Ionian Antiquities, p. 4.
(e) Chandler’s Travels, p. 100. Chishull Antiq. Asiat. p. 138. Ionian Antiquities, p. 4.
(f) Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 20.
(g) One of these lodges was denominated K«<vo» tm A-rratAis-iwv, i. e. Commune Attalistarum > and another
Konev tdj E^nu Syee^egnej, i. e. Commune Sodalitii Echini. Chishull, p. 139.
(11) See the two decrees of these artists preserved by Chishull, p. 138—149. The place where they assembled
is called cvwkix, contubernium 5 and the society itself, sometimes o-vvetyMyn, collegium ; ccwtns, secta $ c-vto^og,
synodus ; x«*ve;, communitas. See Aldus Gellius, lib. viii. cap. xi.
(1) Chandler’s Travels, p. 103.
(k) See the decree of the Attalists in Chishull, particularly the passages at the bottom of p. 141, 142} «v«A<w£v
Tee wgej ivr%ripto<rtv ev rtuirei oeeevee, i. e. in delnbro etiam, ultra ea quae ornamento erant, non
pauca utensilia reliquit.
(l) Chishull, p. 140.
(m) Chandler’s Travels, p. 100. These monuments were erected about 150 years B. C. The inscriptions
upon them were published by Edmund Chishull, in 1728, from copies taken by Consul Shcrard in 1709, and
examined in 1716. Ionian Antiquities, p. 3.
(n) Dr Robison, who will not be suspected of partiality to free masons, ascribes their origin to the Dionysian
artists.
The exist¬
ence of free
masonry at
the build¬
ing of Solo¬
mon’s tem¬
ple not im¬
probable.
Objection
answered.
M A SON R
27. The opinion, therefore, of free masons, that
their order existed and flourished at the building of
Solomon’s temple, is by no means so pregnant with ab¬
surdity as some men would wish us to believe. e
have already shown, from authentic sources of informa¬
tion, that the mysteries ol Ceres and Bacchus were in¬
stituted about 400 years before the reign of Solo¬
mon (o) ; and there are strong reasons for believing,
that even the association of the Dionysian architects ex¬
isted before the building of the temple. It was not, in¬
deed, till about 300 years before the birth of Christ,
that they were incorporated at 'leos, under the
kings of Pergamus j but it is universally allowed, that
they arose long before their settlement in Ionia, and,
what is more to our present purpose, that they existed
in the very land of Judea (p). It is observed by l)r
Hobison tliat t*”3 association came from Persia in¬
to Syria, along with that style ot architecture which is
called Grecian: And since we are informed by Jose¬
phus (r), that that species of architecture Avas used at
the erection of the temple ; there is reason to infer, not
only that the Dionysiacs existed before the reign of So¬
lomon, but that they assisted this monarch in building
that magnificent fabric, which be reared to the God of
Israel. Nothing, indeed, can he more simple and con¬
sistent than the creed ot the fraternity, concerning the
state ♦f their order at this period. The vicinity of Je¬
rusalem to Egypt; the connection of Solomon with
the royal family of that kingdom (s) ; the progress of
the Egyptians in architectural sciencetheir attach¬
ment to mysteries and hieroglyphic symbols •, and the
probability of their being employed by the king of Is¬
rael, are additional considerations, which corroborate
the sentiments of free masons, and absolve them from
those charges of credulity and pride with which they
have been loaded.
28. To these opinions, it may he objected, that if
the fraternity of free masons flourished during the reign
of Solomon, it would have existed in Judea in after
ages, and attracted the notice of sacred or profane his¬
torians. Whether or not this objection is well founded,
we shall not pretend to determine ; but if it can be
shown, 'that there did exist, after the building of the
temple an association of men, resembling free masons,
Y, FREE.
in the nature, ceremonies, and object of their institu- Masonry.
tion j the force of the objection will not only be taken   
away, hut additional strength will be communicated to
the opinion which we have been supporting. The as¬
sociation here alluded to, is that of the Essences, whose
origin and sentiments have occasioned much discussion
among ecclesiastical historians. Ihey aie all of one
mind, however, respecting the constitution and obser¬
vances of this religious order. _ _
29. When a candidate w as proposed for admission, History of
the strictest scrutiny was made into his character ('r).tbe Es-
If his life had hitherto been.exemplary 5 and if he ap-senc8<
peared capable of regulating his conduct according to
the virtuous though austere maxims of their order, he
was presented at the expiration of his noviciate, w ith a
white garment, as an emblem of the correctness of his
conduct and the purity of his heart (u). A solemn
oath was then administered to him, that he would ne¬
ver, even at the risk of his life, divulge the mysteries
of the order that he would make no innovations on
the doctrines of the society,j and that he would conti¬
nue in that honourable course of piety and virtue which
he had begun to pursue (x). Like Tree masons, they
instructed the young member in the knowledge which
they derived from their ancestors (y). They admitted
no women into their order (z). They had particular
signs for recognizing each other, which have a strong
resemblance to those of free masons (a). They were
divided into;separate lodges or colleges (b). They had
different, places of meeting, w here they practised their
rites, and settled the affairs of the society j and, after
the performance of these duties, they assembled in a
large hall, where .an entertainment was provided for
them by the president, or master of the college, who
allotted" a certain quantity of provisions to every indivi¬
dual (c). They abolished all distinctions of rank j and,
if preference was ever,given, it was given to piety, li¬
berality, and virtue (d). Stewards were appointed in
every town, to supply the w'ants .of indigent stran¬
gers (e). The Essenes pretended to higher degrees of
piety and knowledge, than the uninitiated vulgar j and
though their pretensions were high, they were never
questioned by their enemies. Austerity oi manners was
one of the chief characteristics of the Essenian fraterni¬
ties :
(o) According to Playfair’s Chronology, the temple of Solomon was begun in 1016, and finished in 1008,
B. C. The Eleusinian mysteries were introduced into Athens in 1356 B. ,C. a considerable time alter their in¬
stitution.
(p) Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 20.
(qJ Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 20, 21.
(r) Jewish Antiquities, book viii. chap. v.
(s) Josephus’s Jewish Antiquities, book viii. chap. ii. _ ,
(t) Joseph, de Bello Judaico, lib. ii. cap. 1. (u) Id. id. (x) Id. id.
(y) Philo de Vita Contemplativa, apud opera, p. 691, Basnage, b. ii. ch. 13. § 8.
(z) Basnage, b, ii. ch. 12. § 26. Id. id. § 22. % ,
(a) In order to be convinced of-this, our brethren of the order may consult some of the works already quoted ,
particularly, Philo’s Treatise de Vita Contemplativa, apud opera, p. 691. _ #
(b) Basnage, b. iii. c. 12. § 14. vid. opera Philonis, p. 679- When Philo, in his Treatise entitled * Quo
omnis probus Liber,” ^describing the society of the Essenes, he employs the same terms to denote the associa¬
tion itself, and their places of meeting, which are used in the decree of the Dionysians already mentioned. 1 e
Philo de Vita Contemplativa, p. 691. j , _
„ (c) Joseph, de Bello Judaico, lib. ii. cap. 1. (d) Id. id. § 20, 22. Philonis Opera, p. 670.
(e) Basnage, b. iii. c. 12. § 20. chap. 13. § 1.
M A S O N R
Masonry, ties : They frequently assembled, however, in convivial
y—»parties ; and relaxed for a while the severity of those
duties which they were accustomed to perform (f). This
remarkable coincidence between the chief features of
the masonic and Essenian fraternities, can be accounted
for only by referring them to the same origin. Were
the circumstances of resemblance either few or fanci¬
ful, the similarity might have been merely casual. But
when the nature, the object, and the external forms of
two institutions, are precisely the same, the arguments
for their identity are something more than presumptive.
There is one point, however, which may, at first sight,
seem to militate against this supposition. The Essenes
appear to have been in no respects connected with ar¬
chitecture, nor addicted to those s'ciences and pursuits
which are subsidiary to the art of building. That the
Essenes directed their attention to particular sciences,
which they pretended to have received from their fa¬
thers, is allowed by all writers ; but, whether or not these
sciences were in any shape connected with architecture,
we are, at this distance of time, unable to determine.
Be this as it may, uncertainty upon this head, nay,
even an assurance that the Essenes were unconnected
with architectural science, will not aftect the hypothesis
which we have been maintaining. For there have been,
and still are, many associations of free masons, where
no architects are members, and which have no connec¬
tion with the art of building. But if this is not deemed
a sufficient answer to the objection, an inquiry into the
origin of the Essenes will probably remove it altogether,
while it affords additional evidence, for the identity of
the masonic and Essenian associations,
he Es- 30. Sacred and profane historians have entertained
:nes origi-different opinions concerning the origin of the Essenes.
' They all agree, however, in representing them as an
I 'ans/ivho ancient association, originating from particular frater-
■ ere bound nities, which formerly existed in the land of Judea (g).
I)preserve Pliny refers them to such a remote antiquity (h) that
*JenT^6 they must have existed during the reign of Solo-
Jem. " mon ’ an(^ even Basnage, who is the only writer that
seems disposed to consider them as a recent association,
confesses that they existed under Antigonus, about 300
years before the Christian era (1). Scaliger contends,
with much appearance of truth, that the Essenes were
descended from the Kasideans, who make such a con¬
spicuous figure in the history of the Maccabees (k).
The Kasideans were a religious fraternity, or an order
Y, F R E E. . 647
of the Knights of the Temple of Jerusalem, who bound Masonry,
themselves to adorn the porches of that magnificent ——y——
structure, and to preserve it from injury and decay (l).
This association was composed of the greatest men of
Israel, who were distinguished for their charitable and
peaceful dispositions (m) ; and always signalized them¬
selves by their ardent zeal for the purity and preserva¬
tion of the temple (n). From these facts it appears,
that the Essenes were not only an ancient fraternity,
but that they originated from an association of archi¬
tects, who were connected with the building of Solo¬
mon’s temple. Nor was this order confined to the Holy
Land. Like the fraternities of the Dionysiacs and free
masons, it existed in all parts of the world (o) •, and
though the lodges in Judea were chiefly, if not wholly,
composed of Jews, yet the Essenes admitted into their
order men of every religion, and every rank in
life (p). They adopted many of the Egyptian myste¬
ries (qJ 5 and, like the priests of that country, the ma¬
gi of Persia, and the gymnosophists in India, they unit¬
ed the study of moi'al with that of natural philoso¬
phy (r). Although they were patronized by Herod,
and respected by all men for the correctness of their
conduct, and the innocence of their order (s), they
suftered severe persecutions from the Romans, till their
order was abolished, about the middle of the fifth cen¬
tury (x) j a period extremely fatal to the venerable in¬
stitutions of Egypt, Greece, and Rome.
31. Connected with the Essenian and Masonic fraterni- Institution
ties, was the institution of Pythagoras at Crotona. After of Pythago-
this philosopher, in the course of his travels throughr<ls al ^IO~
Egypt, Syria, and Ionia, had been initiated into the a‘
mysteries of these enlightened kingdoms, he imported
into Europe the sciences of Asia, and offered to the in¬
habitants of his native soil, the important benefits which
he himself had received (u). The offers of the sage
having been rejected by his countrymen of Samos (x),
he settled at Crotona, in Italy, where more respect was
paid to his person, and more attention to his pre¬
cepts (y). When the kindness of the Crotonians, and
their solicitude to obtain scientific information, had in¬
spired Pythagoras with some hopes of success, he select¬
ed a number of his disciples, who from the similarity
of their characters, the mildness of their dispositions,
and the steadiness of their conduct, seemed best adapted
for forw’arding the purposes he had in view (z). These
he formed into a fraternity, or separate order of men,
whom
(f) Dicam aliquid de sodalitiis eorum, quoties hilarius convivia celebrant. Philonis opera, p. 692.
(g) Gale’s Court of the Gentiles, part ii. book ii. chap. 6. p. 147. Serrarii Trihteraes. lib. iii. cap. ii. Vid,
etiam Basnage, b. ii. ch. 12. § 4.; and Pictet. Theolog. Chret. tom. iii. part. iii. p. 106.
(h) Plin. lib. v. cap. 17. Vid. etiam Solinum, c. 35. p. 43. edit. Salmasii j and art. Essenes.
(1) Basnage, book ii. chap. ii. § 8. Pictet. Theolog. Chret. tom. iii. part. iii. p. 107.
(k) Scaliger de Emend. Temp.
(l) Scaliger Elench. Trihaercesii Nicolai Serrarii, cap. 22. p. 441.
(m) 1 Maccabees, vii. 13, (n) Scaliger ut supra.
(o) Basnage, b. ii. chap. 13. § 4.
(p) Id. Id. chap. 12. § 20. compared with chap. 13. § 4. (Q_) Id. Id*, chap. 12. § 24.
(r) Philo’s Treatise, entitled, “ Quod omnis probus Liber,” apud Opera, p. 678.
(s) Id. Id. chap. 12. § 13, 25. (x) Basnage, b. ii.. chap. 12. § 25, 26.
(u) Pythagoras returned from Egypt about 560 years before Christ.
(x) Jamblichus de vita Pytliagorae, part i. cap. 5. p. 37. (y) Id. Id. cap. 6. p. 42, 43.
(z) Gillies’s History of Ancient Greece, vol. ii. p. 27.
648
Masonry.
Resem¬
blance be¬
tween the
Pythago¬
reans and
free ma¬
sons.
M A S O N R Y, FREE.
whom he instructed in the lienees of the east (a), and
to whom he imparted the mysteries and rites of the E-
gyptian, Syrian, and Ionian associations. Before any
one was received into the number of his disciples, a mi¬
nute and diligent enquiry was made into his temper
and character (b). If the issue of this inquiry was fa¬
vourable to the candidate, he bound himself by a solemn
engagement, to conceal, from the uninitiated, the mys¬
teries which he might receive, and the sciences in which
he might be instructed (c). The doctrines of charity,
of universal benevolence, and especially ot affection to
the brethren of the order, were warmly recommended
to the young disciples (d) ; and such was the influence
which they had upon their minds, that discord seemed
to have been banished from Italy (e) and the golden
age to have again returned. Strangers of every coun¬
try, of every religion, and of every rank in life, were
received, if properly qualified, into the Pythagorean
association (f). Like free masons they had particular
words and signs, by which they might distinguish each
other, and correspond at a distance (g). rlhey wore
white garments as an emblem ot their innocence (h).
They had a particular regard for the east (1). They
advanced from one degree of knowledge to another (k).
They were forbidden to commit to writing their myste¬
ries, which were preserved solely by tradition (l). The
Pythagorean symbols and secrets were borrowed from
the Egyptians, the Orphic and Eleusinian rites, the
Magi, the Iberians, and the Celts (m). They consisted
chiefly of arts and sciences, united with theology and
ethics, and were communicated to the initiated in cy¬
phers and symbols (n). An association of this nature,
founded upon such principles, and fitted for such ends,
did not remain long in obscurity. In a short time it
extended over the kingdoms of Italy and Sicily, and
was diffused even through ancient Greece, and the
islands of the Egean sea (o). Like other secret societies,
it was vilified by malicious men, who were prohibited
from sharing its advantages, from the weakness of their
minds and the depravity of their hearts (p.) Chagrined
with disappointment, and inflamed with rage, they of¬
ten executed vengeance upon the innocent Pythago¬
reans, and even set fire to the lodges in which they
were assembled (a). But the disciples of the sage per¬
sisted in that honourable cause in which they had em¬
barked 5 and, though the persecution of their enemies
drove them from their native land, they still retained
for each other the sympathy of brothers, and often suf¬
fered death in its most agonizing form, rather than vio¬
late the engagements into which they had entered (r).
An attempt, like this, against the society of free masons,
has been witnessed in our own day. It has not, indeed,
proceeded to such an extremity of violence. The spirit
of extirpation, however, existed in sentiment, though it
had not the courage to display itself in action. Disaf¬
fection to government, and disrespect to religion, were
charged upon them with all the confidence of truth :
And, had the governments of Europe been weak enough
to credit the fancies of a few political enthusiasts, then-
subjects might, at this moment, have been armed a-
gainst each other, and the nations of the world embroil¬
ed in discord.
32. From these observations, it is manifest, that the
Pythagorean and Masonic institutions were similar in
their external forms, as well as in the objects which
they had in view; and that both of them experienced,
from contemporaries, the same unmerited reproach.
Mr Clinch, in his Essays on Free Masonry (s) has e-
numerated, at great length, all the points of resemblance
between these two institutions. He attempts to prove,
that free masonry took its rse from the Pythagorean
fraternity} but though he has been successful in point¬
ing out a remarkable coincidence between these associa¬
tions, he has no authority for concluding that^ the lor-
mer originated from the latter. In a masonic manu¬
script, preserved in the Bodleian library, in the hand¬
writing of King Henry VI. it is expressly said, that
Pythagoras learned masonry from Egypt and Syria, and
from those countries where it had been planted by the
Phenicians; that the Pythagoreans carried it into
France •, and that it was, in the course of time, im¬
ported from that country into England (x). This, in¬
deed, is no direct proof of our opinion ; it shews us, at
least, that the same sentiments have been entertain¬
ed about four hundred years ago by the fraternity
in England. It has been supposed by some philoso-
(a) Aldus Gellius lib. i. cap. 9. Gillies, vol.ii. p. 27.
(b) Jamblichus de vita Pythagorse, cap. 17. p. 76. Gillies, vol. iii. p. 27.
(c) Jamblichus, cap. 23. p. 104.
(d) Id. cap. 8.p. 53. cap. 33. p. 193. cap. 6. p. 43. cap. 23. p. 102. Basnage’s History of the Jews, b. ii.
cap. 13. § 21. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 181.
(e) Jamblichus, cap. 7. p. 46.
(f) Gillies, vol. ii. p. 28. Jamblichus, cap. 33. p. 202.
(g) Gilles, vol. ii. p. 27. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 181.
(h) Basnagc, b. ii. cap. 13. § 21. Anthologia Hibernica for March 1794, p. 183.
(l) Basnage b. ii. cap. 13. § 21. (k) Jamblichus, cap. 17. p. 72.
(l) Jamblichus, part i. cap. 32, p. 191.
(m^ Warburton’s Divine Legation of Moses, book iii. sect. 3. vol. 2. p. 132, 133. Jamblichus, cap. 8. p. 139.
Gillies, vol. ii. p. 27.
(N^ Jamblichus, cap. 8. p. 139. Gillies ut supra.
(o) Gillies, vol. ii. p. 28. Jamblichus, cap. 35. p. 207. (p) Id. Id. p. 200.
(0,) Jamblichus, p. 208. et seq. (rJ Id. Id. chap. 32. p. 189
(s) Published in the Anthologia Hibernica for 1794.
(x) Lives of Leland, Hearne, and W ood, Oxford, I772* Appendix to the life of Leland, N° vii. A copy
of this manuscript may be seen in every work on free masonry.
MASONRY, FREE.
Masonry.^ pliers (u),t!iat Pythagoras derived his mysteries chiefly
""v ' from the Essenes, who were at that time much respected
and very numerous in Egypt and Syria. The wonderful
similarity, indeed, between these societies, both in the
forms which they had in common with free masonry,
and in those lesser customs and ceremonies, which were
peculiar to themselves, render such a supposition ex¬
tremely probable. It is remarked by all ecclesiastical
historians, that the Essenes were Pythagoreans, both in
discipline and doctrine (x) ; without every considering
that the former existed some hundred years before the
birth of Pythagoras (y). The Pythagoreans, there¬
fore, were connected with the Essenes, and the Essenes
with the Kasideans, who engaged to preserve and adorn
the temple of Jerusalem.
isvvered 33‘ There is one objection to the view which we
s ' have taken of this subject, which, though it has al¬
ready been slightly noticed, it may be necessary more
completely to remove. Although it will be acknow¬
ledged by every unbiassed reader, that free masonry has
a wonderful resemblance to the Eleusinian and Diony¬
sian mysteries, the fraternity of Ionian architects, and
the Essenian and Pythagorean associations j yet some
may be disposed to question the identity of these institu¬
tions, because they had dift'erent names, and because
some usages were observed by one, which were neglect¬
ed by another. But these circumstances of dissimilari¬
ty arise from those necessary changes, which are super¬
induced upon every institution, by a spirit of innovation,
by the caprice of individuals, and by the various revo¬
lutions in civilized society. Every alteration or im¬
provement in philosophical systems, or ceremonial insti¬
tutions, generally produces a corresponding variation in
their name, deduced from the nature of the improve¬
ment, or from the name of the innovator. The differ¬
ent associations for example, whose nature and tenden¬
cy we have been considering, received their names from
circumstances merely casual, and often of trifling consi¬
deration j though all of them were established for the
same purpose, and derived from the same source. When
the mysteries of the Essenes were imported by Pytha¬
goras into Italy, without undergoing much variation,
they were there denominated the mysteries of Pythago¬
ras ; and in our own day, they are called the secrets
of free masonry, because many of their symbols are de¬
rived from the art of building, and because they are
believed to have been invented by an association of ar¬
chitects, who were anxious to preserve, among them¬
selves, the knowledge which they had acquired (z).
The diflerence in the ceremonial observances ef these
institutions may be accounted for nearly upon the same
principles. From the ignorance, or superior sagacity of
those who presided over the ancient fraternities, some
ceremonies would be insisted upon more than others,
Vol. XII. Part II.
649
some of less moment would be exalted into conse- Masonry,
quence, while others of greater importance would be * —
depressed into obscurity. In process of time, therefore,
some trifling changes would be effected upon these ce¬
remonies, some rites abolished, and some introduced.
The chief difterence, however, between the ancient
and modern mysteries, is, in these points which concern
religion. But this arises from the great changes which
have been produced in religious knowledge. It cannot
be supposed that the rites of the Egyptian, Jewish, and
Grecian religions, should be observed by those who pro¬
fess only the religion of Christ 5 or that we should pour
out libations to Ceres and Bacchus, who acknowledge
no heavenly superior, but the true and the living God.
34. It may be proper here to take notice of an ob- Objection,
jection urged by M. Barruel, against the opinion 0fof Barruei^
those, who believe that the mysteries of free masonry an!>"erct*’
are similar to the mysteries of Egypt and Greece (a).
From the unfairness with which this writer has stated
the sentiments of his opponents on this subject; from
the confidence and triumph with which he has proposed
his own ; and, above all, from the disingenuity with
which he has supported them, many inattentive readers
may have been led to adopt his notions, and to form as
despicable an idea of the understandings as he would
wish them to form of the character of masons. He
takes it for granted, that all who embrace the opinion
which we have endeavoured to support, must necessarily
believe, that a unity of religious sentiments, and moral
precepts, was maintained in all the ancient mysteries ;
and that the initiated entertained just notions of tire
unity of God, while the vulgar were addicted to the
grossest polytheism. Upon this gratuitous supposition,
which we completely disavow, because it has no connec¬
tion with our hypothesis, does Barruel found all his de¬
clamations against the connection of our order with
the Pythagorean and Eleusinian institutions. If this
supposition, indeed, were true, his opinion would be ca¬
pable of proof. But he is all the while combating the
dogmas of Warburton, while he thinks he is overturn¬
ing the antiquity of our order. There is perhaps in no
language such a piece of downright sophistiy as this por¬
tion of Barruel’s Work. He seems to scruple at no me¬
thod, however base or dishonourable, that can bring dis¬
credit upon free masonry, and every thing connected
with it. After having overturned the opinion of War-
burton, he then attacks us on our ground, and stiles us
the children of sophistry, deism, and pantheism, who de¬
duce our origin from associations of men that were ene¬
mies to Christianity (b), and followed no guide but the
light of nature. But this writer should recollect, that
the son is not accountable for the degeneracy of bis pa¬
rents and, if the ancient.mysteries were the nurseries
of such dangerous opinions, as this writer, in opposi-
+ 4 N tion
(u) Faydit Lettre, Nouvelles de la Republique des Lettres, Octobre 1703, p. 472.
(x) Gregory's Church History, vol. i. cent. 1.
(y) Pliny, book 5. cap 17. Solinus, cap. 35. p. 43.
(z) Symbols derived from the art of building, were also employed by the Pythagoreans, for conveying instruc¬
tion to those who were initiated into their fraternity. Vid. Proclus in Eucl. lib. xi. def. 2. &c.
(a) Memoirs of Jacobinism, vol. ii. p. 355—360.
(b) Vid Barruel, vol. ii. p. 357. I do not find in any system of chronology, that Christianity existed in the
tmie of Pythagoras, or at the establishment of the Eleusinian mysteries !
Modern
history of
free ma-
ionry.
The acade
my of se¬
crets esta¬
blished by
Baptista
Porta.
M A S O N R
tion to authentic history, lays to their charge it is to
the glory of their posterity, that they have shaken off
the yoke, and embraced that heavenly light which
their ancestors affected to despise. . ,
- r Having finished what may be properly denomi¬
nated the ancient history of free masonry, we are now
to trace its progress from the abolition ot the heathen
rites, in the reign of Theodosius, to the present day,
and though the friends and enemies of the order seem
to coincide in opinion upon this part of its history, the
materials are as scanty as before, and the incidents
equally unconnected. In those ages of ignorance and
disorder which succeeded the destruction of the homan
empire the minds of men were too much debased by
superstition, and contracted by bigotry, to enter into
associations for promoting mental improvement and
mutual benevolence. The spirit which then raged,
was not a spirit of inquiry. The motives which then
influenced the conduct ot men, were not those bene¬
volent and correct principles of action which once di¬
stinguished their ancestors, and which still distinguish
their posterity. Sequestered habits and unsocial dis¬
positions characterized the inhabitants of Europe, m this
season of mental degeneracy 5 while free masons, actuat¬
ed by very different principles, inculcate on their
brethren the duties of social intercourse, and commu¬
nicate to all within the pale of their order, the know¬
ledge which they possess and the happiness which
they feel. But, if science had existed in these ages, and
if a desire of social intercourse had animated the minds
of men, the latter must have languished for want of
gratification, as long as the former was imprisoned
within the walls of a convent, by the tyranny ot su¬
perstition, or the jealousy of power. Science was in
these days synonymous with heresy; and had any bold
and enlightened man ventured upon philosophical in¬
vestigations, and published his discoveries to the world,
he would have been regarded by the vulgar as a magi¬
cian, and punished as a heretic by the church of
Rome. These remarks may be exemplified and con¬
firmed by an appropriate instance of the interfering
spirit of the Romish church, even in the sixteenth cen¬
tury, when learning had made considerable advance¬
ment in Europe. The celebrated Baptista I orta ha¬
ving, like the sage of Samos, travelled into distant
countries for scientific information, returned to his na¬
tive home, and established a society which he deno¬
minated the academy of secrets. He communicated
the information which he had collected to the memheis
of this association-, who, in their turn, imparted to
their companions the knowledge which they had indi¬
vidually obtained. But this little fraternity, advancing
in respectability and science, soon trembled under the
rod of ecclesiastical oppression and experienced in its
dissolution, that the Romish hierarchy was determined
to check the ardour of investigation, and retain the
human mind in its former fetters of ignorance and su¬
perstition. How then could free masonry flourish, when
the minds of men had such an unfortunate propensity
to monkish retirement, and when every scientific and
Y, FREE.
secret association was overawed and persecuted by the Masonry,
rulers of Europe ? ' —
36. But, though the political and intellectual condi-It is probj
  a V r Vi 1 rr 11 ^Proba¬
tion of society was unfavourable to the progress ot treeble thattb
masonry $ and, though the secret associations of the an- ancient
cients were dissolved in the fifth century, by the com- mysteries
mand of the Roman emperor, yet there are many rea-^d°b*
  * , #.t . - served pn
sons for believing that the ancient mysteries were ob-vatcly ait(,(
^ ^ ~      O J 0.1 u \
served in private, long after their public abolition, by their abd .
those enemies of Christianity who w-ere still attached tohon.
the religion of their fathers. Some authors (c) even
inform us, that this was actually the case, and that the
Grecian rites existed in the eighth century, and were
never completely abolished, (Art. 2C.). Ihese con¬
siderations enable us to connect the heathen mysteries,
with that trading association of architects, which ap¬
peared, during the dark ages, under the special au¬
thority of the see of Rome.
37. The insatiable desire for external finery, and Tradings,
gaudy ceremonies, which was displayed by the catholic sociation 0
priests in the exercise of their religion, introduced
corresponding desire tor splendid monasteries, and mag_dark ages,
nificent cathedrals. But as the demand for these build¬
ings was urgent, and continually increasing, it was with
great difficulty that artificers could be procured, even
for the erection of such pious works. In order to en¬
courage the profession of architecture, the bishops of
Rome, and the other potentates of Europe, conferred
on the fraternity of tree masons the most important
privileges \ and allowed them to be governed by laws,
customs and ceremonies, peculiar to themselves. I he
association was composed of men ot all nations, of Ita¬
lian, Greek, French, German, and Flemish artists, who
were denominated free masons, and who, ranging from
one country to another, erected those elegant churches
and cathedrals, which, though they once gratified the
pride and sheltered the rites of a corrupted priesthood,
now excite the notice of antiquarians, and administer
to the grandeur of kingdoms. The government of this
association was remarkably regular. Its members lived
in a camp of huts, reared beside the building in which
they were employed. A surveyor, or master, presided
over and directed the whole. Every tenth man was
called a warden, and overlooked those who were under
his charge 5 and such artificers as were not members of
this fraternity, were prohibited from engaging in those
buildings which free masons alone had a title to
rear ^d). It may seem strange, and perhaps incon¬
sistent with what we have already said, that the frater¬
nity of free masons should have been sanctioned, and
even protected by the bishops ot Rome. Secret associ¬
ations, indeed, are always a terror to temporal and
spiritual tyranny. But the church ol Rome, instead ot
approving of the principles of tree masonry, by the en¬
couragement and patronage which they gave to archi¬
tects, only employed them as instruments for gratifying
their vanity, and satiating their ambition. For in after
ages, when masons were more numerous, and when the
demand for religious structures was less urgent than be¬
fore, the bishpps of Rome deprived the fraternity of
those
(c) Gibbon, 8vo. vol. v. p. HQ. r •
(d) Wren’s Parentalia, or a History of the Family of Wren, p. 306, 307. Henry’s History of Great Rritain^,
wL viii. p. 273. b. iv. chap. 5. j I. Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 21..
MASONRY,
'Masonry, those very privileges 'which had been conferred upon
them without solicitation, and persecuted, with unre¬
lenting rage, the very men whom they had voluntarily
taken into favour, and who had contributed to the
grandeur of their ecclesiastical establishment.
38. Wherever the catholic religion was taught, the
FREE.
atroduc-
nsonry
| ito Scot-
md,
V.
ion oi tree meetings of free masons were sanctioned and patroni-
vasnnnr , yU. • • i 1 r
zed. Ihe principles ot the order were even imported
into Scotland (e), where they continued, for many ages,
in their primitive simplicity, long after they had been
extinguished in the continental kingdoms. In this
manner, Scotland became the centre from which these
principles again issued, to illuminate, not only all the na¬
tions on the continent, but every civilized portion of
the habitable world. What those causes were which
continued the societies of free masons longer in Bri¬
tain than in other countries, it may not, perhaps, be
easy to determine $ but as the fact itself is unquestion¬
able, it must have arisen, either from some favourable
circumstances in the political state of Britain, which
did not exist in the other governments of Europe j or
from the superior policy, by which the British masons
eluded the suspicion of their enemies, and the superior
prudence with which they maintained the primitive
simplicity and respectability of their order. The form¬
er of these causes, had, without doubt, a considerable
share, in producing the effect under consideration j and
we know for certain, that, in our own days, the latter
has preserved free masonry in a flourishing condition
throughout these united kingdoms, while, in other
countries, the imprudence and foolish innovations of its
members, have exposed it to the severest and justest
censure, and, in many cases, to the most violent perse¬
cutions. It is a fact, requiring no confirmation, and
resulting from the most obvious causes, that free mason¬
ry never flourishes in seasons of public commotion j and
even in Great Britain, though the seat of war is com-
inonly in foreign countries, it has universally declined.
But in those lands which are the theatre of hostilities,
it will be neglected in a still greater degree ; and, if
these hostilities are long continued, or frequently recur,
the very name and principles of the order must be soon
extinguished. Amid those continual wars, therefore,
which, during the middle ages, distracted and desolated
the continent of Europe, the association of architects
would be soon dissolved ; while in the humble village
of Kilwinning, on the western coast of Scotland, they
found a safe retreat from the violent convulsions of con¬
tinental wars.
anection 39* ^e^ore we detail the progress of free masonry,
ween after its importation into Britain, it will be necessary to
2 masons give some account of the knights templars, a fraternity
1 the 0f free masons whose affluence and virtues often raised
tplars ^ie envy contemporaries, and whose unmerited and
unhappy end must have often excited the compassion of
posterity. It would be needless labour to enter into
any investigation, in order to prove, that the order of
the knights templars was a branch of free masonry.1
This fact has been invariably acknowledged by free
masons themselves ; and none have been more zealous
to establish it than the enemies of their order (f).
The former have admitted the fact, not because it was
creditable to them, but because it was true j and the
latter have supported it, because by the aid of a little
sophistry, it might be employed to disgrace their oppo¬
nents.
40. The order of the knights templars was instituted History of
during the crusades, in the year 1118, by Hugo de the knights
Paganis, and Geoffrey of St Omers. It received thistcmPlars"
appellation because its members originally resided near
the church in Jerusalem, which was dedicated to our
Saviour. Though the professed object of this religi¬
ous association was to protect those Christian pilgrims,
whose mistaken piety had led them to the holy city;
yet it is almost beyond a doubt, that its chief and pri¬
mary intention, was to practise and preserve the rites
and mysteries of masonry. We know at least, that the
knights templars, not only possessed the mysteries, but
performed the ceremonies, and inculcated the duties of
free masons ; and it is equally certain, that the prac¬
tising of these rites could contribute nothing to the pro¬
tection and comfort of the Catholic pilgrims. Had
the templars publicly avowed the real object of their
institution, instead of that favour which they so long
enjoyed, they would have experienced the animosity of
the church of Rome. But as they were animated with
a sincere regard for the Catholic religion, and with
a decided abhorrence for the infidel possessors of Judea,
it was never once suspected that they transacted any
other business at their secret meetings, but that which
concerned the regulation of their order, the advance¬
ment of religion, and the extirpation of its enemies.
The many prodigies of valour which they exhibited
against the infidels; the many charitable deeds which
they performed towards the distressed pilgrims ; and
the many virtues which adorned their private character,
prdcured them, from the rulers of Europe, that respect
and authority to which they were so justly entitled, and
which they so long maintained. But respect and au¬
thority were not the only rewards which they pur¬
chased by their virtues and military prowess. From
the munificence of the popes, the generosity of the
pious princes and nobles of Europe, and from the gra¬
titude of those opulent pilgrims, who, in the moments
of distress, had experienced their kind assistance, the
knights templars had acquired such immense possessions
in every kingdom of Europe, but particularly in France,
that their revenues often exceeded those of the secular
princes. Thus independent in their circumstances, and
being fatigued with those unsuccessful struggles against
the infidels, which they had maintained with such man¬
ly courage, they returned to their native land to enjoy,
4 N 2 in
(e) A. D. 1140. Vid. Statistical account of Scotland, vol. xi. Parish of Kilwinning; or Edinburgh Magazine
for April 1802, p. 243.
(f) Vid. Barruel’s Memoirs of Jacobinism, vol. ii. p. 379—383* where this is attempted at some length. As
Barruel, however, was unacquainted with the observances of the templars and masons, he has attributed to both
many absurd rites which probably never existed but in his own mind. For the same reason he has omitted many
points of resemblance which would have established the common opinion upon an immoveable- foundation.
“Death of
the grand
master and
other digni¬
taries.
M A S O N R
in peace and quiet, the recompense of their toils. But,
like all men who are suddenly transported from danger
and fatigue, to opulence and ease, many of the templars
deviated from that virtuous course which they had
hitherto pursued, and indulged too freely in those lux¬
uries and fashionable amusements to which they were
invited by opulence, and impelled by inactivity. 1 bus,
from the indiscretions of a few, did the knights templars
lose a considerable share of those honours, and that ce¬
lebrity, which they had long enjoyed. But this relax¬
ation of discipline, and attachment to luxurious indo¬
lence, were the only crimes of which the templars were
guilty 5 and to men of honour and spirit like them, the
forfeiture of popularity, which was the consequence ot
their apostasy, would he a sufficient punishment. 1 his,
however, was not the sentiment of Philip the fair.
That barbarous monarch, instigated by private revenge
against some individuals of the order *, encouraged by
the prospect of sharing in their ample revenues; and
spurred ou by a spirit which seldom resides in a human
breast, imprisoned in one day all the templars in I' ranee,
merely at the instance of two worthless members of the
order, who had been disgraced and punished by their
superiors, for the enormity of their crimes. It was
pretended by these base accusers, that the templars ab¬
jured our Saviour, that they spit upon his cross, that
they burned their children, and committed other atro¬
cious crimes, from which the human mind recoils with
horror, and which could have been perpetrated only by
men so completely abandoned as the informers them¬
selves. Under the pretence of discovering what de¬
gree of credit might be attached to these accusations,
the templars were extended on the rack till they con¬
fessed the crimes with which they were charged. Se¬
veral of the knights, when stretched on this instrument
of agony, made every acknowledgement which their
persecutors desired. But others, retaining on the rack
that fortitude and contempt of death which they had
exhibited in the field, persisted in denying the crimes
laid to their charge, and maintained with their latest
breath, the innocence of their order. Many of those,
even, who had tamelv submitted to their persecutors,
retracted those ignominious confessions which the rack
had extorted*, and maintained their integrity in the
midst of those flames which the barbarous Philip had
kindled for their destruction. Fifty-nine of these un¬
happy men were burnt alive at Paris, by a slow fire 5
and the same vindictive and inhuman spirit was exhibit¬
ed in the other provinces of France, and in the other
nations of Europe. The fortitude which, in every
country, was displayed by these unfortunate suflerers,
could have been inspired by innocence alone $ and is a
strong proof, that their minds were not so enervated by
indolence, nor their bodies so enfeebled by luxury, as
has been generally believed. The only murmurs which
parted from their lips, were those which expressed their
anguish and remorse, that they had betrayed, in the
hour of pain, the interests of their order, and had con¬
fessed themselves guilty of crimes unworthy of a temp¬
lar and a man.
41. But the atrocious scene was yet to come which was
Y, FREE.
to complete the ruin of the templars, and satiate the ven¬
geance of their enemies. Their grand master Molay,
and other dignitaries of the order, still survived : and,
though they had made the most submissive acknowledge¬
ments to their unrelenting persecutors, yet the influence
which they had over the minds of the vulgar, and their
connection with many of the princes of Europe, render¬
ed them formidable and dangerous to their oppressors.
By the exertion of that influence, they might restore
union to their dismembered party, and inspire them with
courage to revenge the murder ot their companions ^ or,
by adopting a more cautious method, they might repel,
by uncontrovertible proofs, the charges for which they
suflered } and, by interesting all men in their behalf,
they might expose Philip to the attacks of his own.
subjects, and to the hatred and contempt of Europe.
Aware of the dangers to which his character and per¬
son would be exposed by pardoning the surviving
templars, the French monarch commanded the grand
master and his brethren to be led out to a scaffold,
erected for the purpose, and there to confess before the
public, the enormities of which their order had been
guilty, and the justice of the punishment which had
been inflicted on their brethren. If they adhered to
their former confessions, a full pardon was promised to
them; but if they should persist in maintaining their
innocence, they were threatened with destruction on a
pile of wood, which the executioners had erected in
their view, to awe them into compliance. W hile the
multitude were standing around in awful expectation,
ready, from the words of the prisoners, to justify or con¬
demn their king, the venerable Molay, with a cheerful
and undaunted countenance, advanced, in chains, to
the edge of the scaffold j and, with a firm and impres¬
sive tone, thus addressed the spectators. “ It is but
just, that in this terrible day, and in the last moments
of my life, I lay open the iniquity of falsehood, and
make truth to triumph. I declare, then, in the face
of heaven and earth, and I confess, though to my eter¬
nal shame and confusion, that I have committed the
greatest of crimes j but it has been only in acknowledg¬
ing those that have been charged with so much viru¬
lence upon an order, which truth obliges me to pro¬
nounce innocent. I made the first declaration they re¬
quired of me, only to suspend the excessive tortures of
the tack, and mollify those that made me eudure them.
I am sensible what torments they prepare for those that
have courage to revoke such a confession. But the hor¬
rible sight which they present to my eyes is not capable
of making me confirm one lie by another. On a con¬
dition so infamous as that, I freely renounce life which
is already but too odious to me. For Avhat would it
avail me to prolong a few miserable days, when I must
owe them only to the blackest of calumnies (g).” In
consequence of this manly revocation, the grand master
and his companions were hurried into the flames, where
they retained that contempt of death which they had
exhibited on former occasions. This mournful scene
extorted tears from the lowest of the vulgar. Four
valiant knights, whose charity and valour had procured
them the gratitude and applause of mankind, suffering,
without
(g) Histoire de Chevaliers Hospitaliers de Saint Jean de. Jerusalem, par Abbe Yertot, tom. ii» p» i01* I02l,,
MASONRY, FREE.
Masonry, without fear, the most cruel and ignominious death,
—-v 1 was indeed a spectacle well calculated to excite emo¬
tions of pity in the hardest hearts j and, whatever opi¬
nion we may entertain concerning the character of that
unhappy order, every mind of sensibility will compas¬
sionate the late of the templars, and curse the inhuman
policy of Philip the Pair.
The inno- 42. Prom this short and imperfect account of the
iTknHits oriS*n an(* ru*n ^ie knights templars, the reader will
templars' S enabled to understand the merits of the question, re¬
considered. specting the innocence of that order, which it will be
necessary here to consider. The opinions of contempo¬
rary writers wex*e too much influenced by party spirit,
and religious zeal, to deserve any i*egard in this inves¬
tigation. All those writers (h), however, who are ge¬
nerally deemed impartial historians, and who were in
no respects interested, either in the condemnation or
acquittal of the templars, have, without hesitation, pro¬
nounced them innocent of the crimes laid to their
charge, and imputed their destruction to the avarice
and private resentment of Philip. In the decision of
these historians, the public had, in general, acquiesced,
till their sentiments were unsettled by the bold preten¬
sions, and the sophistical reasoning of Barruel. This
writer has charged upon the templars all those crimes
with which their enemies had formerly loaded them :
he has attempted to justify the severity of the Prench
king, and has reproached, with the bitterest invective,
the society of free masons, because they were once con¬
nected with a fraternity, which, in his opinion, was so
wicked and profane. While we endeavour, therefore,
to defend the templars against these recent calumnies,
we shall, at the same time, be maintaining the respecta¬
bility of the masonic institution, by vindicating its mem¬
bers from that imputed- depravity, which, according to
Earruel, they have inherited from their fathers.
43. In order to form an impartial judgment respect¬
ing any sentence which has been passed, without pro¬
per evidence, either against individuals or associations,
it is necessary to be acquainted with the motives and
character of the accusers, and with the benefits which
might accrue to them and the judges, by the punish¬
ment or liberation of the accused. In the case before
us, the accusers had been disgraced and imprisoned by
the accused, for their villany and crimes. Their chief
prosecutor and judge was actuated by motives of avarice
and private resentment 5 and many rival orders who
had been languishing in obscurity and indigence, pro¬
pagated with assiduity the slanderous tale, in hopes of
sharing in those ample possessions, and that public fa¬
vour, which had been acquired by the superior abilities
of the knights templars. To all ranks of men, indeed,
the veneration which the name of a templar inspired,
was an object of envy : their opulent revenues were cal¬
culated to give trouble to a covetous mind, and the re¬
markable regularity of their conduct was no small in¬
citement to the exercise of detraction. Such were the
motives and prospects of their judges and accusers.
Let us attend now to the accusations which were
653
brought against them, and we shall find that these
could scarcely come under the cognizance of law, as
their pretended crimes were committed against them¬
selves and not against society. Did they perpetrate
murder upon any of their fellow-citizens ?—This was
never laid to their charge. Did they purloin any
man’s treasures ?—Of theft they were never accused.
Did they instigate to rebellion the subjects of any go-
verment, or plot destruction against the person of any
king ?—Under such a character they were never known,
till Barruel called them traitors and regicides j because,
forsooth, it was his opinion, that their successors, the
free masons in France, were accessory to the murder of
their king. What then were their crimes ? it was said,
that they burned their own infants ! and yet an instance
was never produced, in which the child of a templar
had disappeared, and in which the tenderness of a mo¬
ther, as would certainly have happened, remonstrated
against the murder of her child. They were said to
have committed the most unnatural of all crimes ! and
yet no individual produced a specific instance which he
could corroborate by indubitable proof. They were
accused of insulting the cross of Christ 5 and yet they
had shed their blood in the defence of his religion. ^ Of
crimes like these, one may conceive a depraved indi¬
vidual to have been guilty j but to believe, that a re¬
spectable fraternity, consisting of thousands of members,,
could be capable of such enormities, requires a degree,
of faith to which the most credulous will scarcely at¬
tain.
44. The innocence of the templars, and the injustice
of Philip, will be still more apparent, by considering
the conduct of the latter, as related even by Barruel.
This writer observes, “ That two men, who had been
imprisoned for their crimes, declared that they had
some important discoveries to make concerning the
knights templars, and that this declaration, though
entitled to little credit, made the king determine on
the dissolution of the order, and arrest on. one day all
the templars in his kingdom (l).” Here then was
the most flagrant injustice in the very threshold of the
whole affair. Without summoning a single witness
without examining a single templar j without consult¬
ing a single friend; without even knowing what the
important discoveries were which the criminals had to,
make ; the French king determined on the destruction,
of the templars, on the destruction of an order whose
grand master had been his particular friend, and even,
the. godfather of one of his children (k). This lat¬
ter circumstance, indeed, is brought forward by Bar¬
ruel, to justify the conduct of Philip, because he sacri¬
ficed the duties of friendship to the principles of justice.
But, when we take it in connection with the rest of his
conduct, it must inspire every honest mind with a more
degx-ading opinion of the head and heai’t of that perse",
cuting monarch.
45. Such being the, premature and precipitant de¬
termination of Philip, we may consider the order of the
templars as at that time dissolved, and regard all those
examinations.
Masonry.
(h) Among these we may reckon Hume, History of England, vol. ii. p. 373. Henry, History of Britain,
vol. viii. p. 43. and Vertot, ut supra.
(i) Memoirs of Jacobinism, vol. ii. p. 364. (k) Td. Id. p. 366..
^54
M A S O N R
Masonry, examinations, inquiries, confessions, trials, and councils
which succeeded, as mere phantoms of justice, conjured
up by that crafty prince, to dazzle the eyes of his sub¬
jects, and sanctify the depravity of his own conduct.
By keeping this circumstance in view, the intelligent
reader will be enabled to understand the minute, though
sometimes contradictory, details of historians, respect¬
ing the trial and confessions of the knights templars;
and, notwithstanding the veil of justice with which the
judges attempted to cover their proceedings, he will be
enabled to develope the detestable principles upon which
their trial was conducted, and the still more detestable
motives ■which invited Clement "V. to partake in the
guilt of Philip the Fair.
46. The most formidable, and indeed the only plau¬
sible argument by which Barruel supports his opinions,
is drawn from the confessions of the templars. He
maintains that the avowals of the knights were free
from compulsion, and that no set ot men could be so
base as to accuse their brethren of crimes, of which they
believed them to be entirely innocent. But the fallacy
of his reasoning will appear from the slightest reflection.
It is a curious, though unquestionable fact, that, when
an avowal must be made, men are more ready to accuse
themselves of crimes of which they have never been
guilty, than to confess those which they have actually
committed. Such as have attended to the operation
of their own minds, particularly in the earlier part of
life, will acquiesce in this extraordinary truth $ and
those who have not had occasion to observe it, will
find, upon consideration, that it is consonant to the con¬
stitution of the human mind. When a man confesses
himself guilty of a crime which he has really perpe¬
trated, he is exposed, not only to the reproaches of
his own conscience, but to those of the world 5 and,
should he, at any time, retract his confessions, he must
be aware that every subsequent inquiry wouifl only
confirm the truth of his first deposition. But when a
man, from a principle of fear, acknowledges the truth
of accusations with which he has been unjustly loaded,
a sense of his integrity and innocence supports him
under the opprobrium of the world, and he is conscious
that his character will be vindicated by evex-y investiga¬
tion, and that the confessions which he himself made,
may at any time be proved to have been the offspring
of necessity. Such undoubtedly were the feelings by
which the templars were actuated. Convinced, that
the crimes which they were desired to acknowledge,
rvere of such an unnatural kind, that they could never
be imputed, by any reasonable man, to a numerous and
hitherto respectable fraternity, they yielded to the soli¬
citations of their persecutors *, with the well-grounded
hope that future inquiry would remove the stain which
the irresistible desire of self-preservation had prompted
them to throw upon their character. From this very
consideration, indeed, namely from the nature of the
crimes charged upon the templars, have many eminent
historians maintained the innocence of that unhappy
order. But were we even to allow with Barruel, in
opposition to all history, that the avowals of the knights
Y, FREE.
were free and numerous; by an application of the prin- Mascmry
ciples already laid down, we would from that circum-—y-l-j
stance, prove the innocence, and not the guilt of the
templars.
47. It is not, however, upon speculative principles
alone, that we can account for the confessions and sub¬
sequent recantations of the knights. There are, for¬
tunately, some historical facts which furnish a rational
explanation of their conduct j but which Barruel,
either from ignorance or design, has totally overlooked.
About the commencement of the whole affair, Molay
the grand master of the order, had been examined at
Paris. From the causes already explained, but parti¬
cularly from a dread of those torments, to which an
obstinate avowal of his innocence would expose him, he
made every confession which his persecutors demanded j
but he at the same time transmitted circular letters to
an immense number of his brethren, requesting them
to make the same confessions with himself (l) ; for it
was only by submissive conduct, that they could hope to
disarm the furv of their enemies, and avert the blow
which Was threatened to their order. Agreeably to the
request of Molay, many of the templars made the same
acknowledgments 5 while others with a morality more
inflexible, and courage more undaunted, disdained to do
evil that good might come, and persevered unto death
in the avowal of their own innocence, and that of their
order. Molay, however, and those knights who had
followed his example, soon perceived that though their
submissions had protected them from injury as indivi¬
duals, they had nevertheless rather inflamed the rage
of Philip against the order j and being now convinced
that their acknowledgements of guilt had produced an
effect opposite to what they expected, they boldly re¬
tracted their former avowals, and adopted that intrepid
conduct of which we have already given a short ac¬
count. There is another circumstance connected with
this part of our subject, xvhich, though not taken notice
of by historians, is well deserving of the reader’s at¬
tention. It is asserted by all contemporary writers,
whether the friends or adversaries of the templars, that
all those knights who maintained their innocence, were
condemned either to death, or to a punishment equally
severewhile all who confessed, and adhered to their
confessions, were either completely acquitted, or sen¬
tenced to a few days fasting and prayer, or a short im¬
prisonment (m). It is allowed also by these historians,
and even by Barruel, that a very considerable number
of the templars were altogether ignorant of the crimes
perpetrated by the rest, and that some who were privy
to them, were not partakers in their guilt. In which
class then are we to rank these innocent men ? among
those who suffered or among those who were saved P If
among the former, their enemies were guilty of the
most flagrant injustice and cruelty, in consuming the
innocent on the same pile with the guilty. If among
the latter, they must have been compelled to confess
themselves guilty of crimes of which they were com¬
pletely innocent.
48. In order to show that the confessions of the tem¬
plars
(l) Histoire de Chevaliers Hospitaliers, par Abbe Vertot, tom. ii. p. 86.
(m) Some of them even received pensions for their confessions. See Vertot, tom. ii. p. 91.
MASONRY,
plars were voluntary, and not extorted by the rack.
Barruel is obliged to deny facts which are admitted
by every historian. But, lest his readers should not be
so sceptical on this point as himself, he takes care to in¬
form them, that the bishops declared, that all whose con¬
fessions were extorted by the rack, should be regarded as
innocent, and that no templar should be subject to it ;
that Clement V. rather favoured the templars, and that
lie sent the most venerable persons to interrogate those
whose age and infirmities prevented them from appear¬
ing before him. But who were those aged and infirm
templars to whom Clement is so compassionate P Were
they men smarting under diseases inflicted by the hand
of heaven ? Were they men whose aged limbs were
unfit for the fatigues of a journey, or whose gray hairs
had excited the pity of the Roman pontiff? No—they
were a few undaunted knights whom the blood-extort¬
ing screws of their tormentors had tortured and dis¬
abled ; whose flesh had been lacerated on the rack,
and whose bones had been disjointed or broken on the
wheel. These are the men, who, in the language of
the above writer, were prevented by their age and in-
firmities from travelling to Poictiers, or who, in the more
simple style of the Pope himself, were unable to ride on
horseback, or to bear any other method of conveyance
whatsoever.
49. Having thus endeavoured to vindicate the charac¬
ter of the templars from the accusations of their ene¬
mies, it will be necessary to make a few remarks re¬
specting the ceremonial observances which are attributed
to them and their posterity, by the author of the me¬
moirs of Jacobinism. But this, our enemies well know,
is forbidden ground, on which free masons are prohibi¬
ted to enter by the laws of their order. It is here, con¬
sequently, that the most numerous, and apparently the
most successful attacks have been made, for we can be
provided with no means of defence without laying open
the mysteries of the fraternity. Conscious of the dis¬
advantages under which free masons labour, their ad¬
versaries have fabricated the most irightful and foolish
ceremonies, and imposed them upon the world as the
ceremonies of masonry. Among this number, may be
reckoned those rites and oaths which Bax-ruel ascribes
to the templars and their posterity, but which, we so¬
lemnly aver, have no connexion either with the one or
the other; and, were we permitted to divulge to the
world the whole of our ritual system, many who have
duped the public by deceitful information, would stand
abashed at their conduct 5 while others, who have con¬
fided in such information, would be astonished at the
extent of their credulity. Then might free masons de¬
fy, as they have done in every other point, the fabrica¬
tions of the malicious, and the conjectures of the igno¬
rant : then, too, might they mock at the ingenuity of
the wise. But, as they are bound to preserve from pu¬
blic view the rites of their order, it is highly disinge¬
nuous to assail them in a quarter where resistance is
impossible, and where every unprincipled man may
triumph with impunity. Is not this to assassinate an
enemy with his hands tied behind his back ? Is not
this to reproach a foe who is deprived of the organs of
utterance ?
50. But there is another important consideration,
which, while it points out in a moi'e striking manner
the disingenuity of such conduct, should, at the same
3
FREE.
u03
time, incite the candid inquirer to I’eject every calunx- Masonry,
ny against secret associations, aidsing from repox ts con- —y—
cerning their rites and ceremonies. If ever the secrets
of free masonry were betrayed, they must have been
betrayed by men who were completely destitute of reli¬
gious principle \ who paid no respect to those ties which
unite the members of civil, as well as secret associa¬
tions ; who, in short, neither feared God, nor regarded
man. Suppose, then, that a person, pretending to be
a free mason, offered to communicate, either to an in¬
dividual, or to the public, the x-ites and ceremonies of
his order. What degx-ee of cx-edit should men of pro¬
bity attach to the information thus received P A per¬
son addresses them under the character of a perjurer,
offering to violate the most solemn engagements, and
to divulge mysteries which have been concealed for
ages. He may give them accurate information, or he
may not. If the secrets which he offers to beti'ay have
been hitherto unknown, thei’e is no possible way of
ascei'taining the truth of his deposition. And it is ra¬
ther to be suspected, than he will dupe his auditors by
false infoi’mation, than trample upon an. engagement,
guarded by tlie most awful sanctions. He might, in¬
deed, confirm by an oath, the truth of Iris asseveration ;
but, as he must have violated an oath equally solemn,
no man of sense will give him the smallest ci’edit. But,
supposing that he really divulges the secrets and cei’e-
monies of free masoniyy, it is clear, that he has not un¬
derstood their true import, or, at least, that they have
made no impression upon his mind. It is almost cer¬
tain, therefore, that, from ignorance, or misapprehen¬
sion of their meaning, he will exhibit, under an aspect
calculated to excite ridicule, those rites and ceremonies,
which, if properly explained, would command admira¬
tion. If then it be so difficult for the uninitiated to
discover the secrets of free masonry, and still more so
to as? tain their signification, if they should discover
them j what must we think of those men who open
their ears to every slanderous tale against free masons,
which unprincipled men may impose upon their credu¬
lity ? What must we think of those who reproach and
vilify the oi'der, upon the uncertain reports of cun¬
ning and interested men ? We appeal to the impartial
reader, if they are not equally base with the informers
themselves.
51. Such are the considerations by which we would
attempt to repel those charges and distorted facts, with
which Barruel has calumniated the character, and dis¬
figured the history of the templars. They will be
sufficient, we hope, to remove those erroneous impres¬
sions which the perusal of the Memoirs of Jacobinism
may have left upon the reader’s mind. Although we
have adopted the opinion of those who maintain the in¬
nocence of that unfortunate order, we cannot coincide
with them in believing, that, as individuals, they were
free from blame. The templars were possessed of the
same nature, and influenced by the same passions as
their fellow men 5 and they were, unquestionably, ex¬
posed to more sti’ong and numerous temptations. Some
of the knights therefore, may have been guilty of
crimes, and these too of an aggravated kind, which,
by a strange, though not uncommon mistake, might
have been transferred to their order. But it was never
pi’oved that they wei’e traitor’s, child-murderei’s, regi¬
cides, and infidels. A certain class of historians, in¬
deed,
M A S O N R
deeii, have iinputtd to theiU such iniquities , and, when
unable to establish their assertions, have fixed upon then
order the more probable crimes of drunkenness and de¬
bauchery. 33 ut amidst all these accusations, we heai
nothing of that valour which first raised the templars to
pre-eminence ; nothing of that charity and beneficence
which procured them the respect of contemporaries;
nothing of that fortitude and patience which most of
them exhibited on the rack, and in the flames. In their
case it has been too true, that
The evil which men do lives after them
The good is often interred with their bones.
52. But allowing the templars to be as guilty as their
enemies have represented them; upon what principles
of sound reasoning, or of common sense, does Barruel
transfer their guilt to the fraternity of free masons? Is
it absolutely necessary, that the son should inherit the
bodily diseases, and the mental debility of his fore-fa¬
thers ? or is it fair, that one order, proposing to itself
the same object, and instituted upon the same principles
as another, should be charged also with the same
crimes ? certainly not. If virtue and vice were heredi¬
tary qualities, free masons might arrogate to themselves
much honour from their connection with the templars ;
but, as we have not been applauded for a templar’s vir¬
tues, we should not be reproached for a templar’s crimes.
But the reasoning of Barruel is as repugnant to the dic¬
tates of experience, as it is to those of common sense.
Were not the inhabitants of England, at one period,
fanatics, rebels, and regicides ? But where now is the
nation that is more liberal in its religion, and more steady
in its loyalty ! Did not the French, at one time, tor¬
ture, burn, and massacre their fellow citizens, from the
fury of their religious zeal, and the strength of their
attachment to the Catholic communion ? But what na¬
tion under heaven was a few years ago less influenced
by religious principles, and less attached to the church of
Borne ! Did not the rulers of France, at one time,
torment and assassinate hundreds of the templars, be¬
cause they deemed them infidels, traitors, and regi¬
cides ? And have we not seen, in these latter days,
the very rulers of France themselves, infidels, traitors,
and regicides ! But if the impartial reader should, upon
farther inquiry, give credit to the guilt of the templars;
in order to remove the imputed stain which has been
transferred to free masons, it may be sufficient to ad¬
dress him in the words of the poet,
Tcmpora mutantur, et nos mutamur in illis.
Origin and 53. About the time of the knights templars, chivalry
advantages arrlVed at its highest perfection. It had its ex-
-of chivalry. jstence> indeed prior to this period, but as it continued
to influence the minds of men long after the destruction
of that unhappy order, it was thought proper to defer
its consideration till the present stage of our history.
When chivalry made its first appearance, the moral and
political condition of Europe was in every respect de-
Y, F R E E.
plorable. The religion of Jesus existed only in name. Masonry,
A degrading superstition had usurped its place, and  r-~
threatened ruin to the reason and the dignity of man.
The political rights of the lower orders were sacrificed
to the interest of the great. War was carried on with
a degree of savage cruelty, equalled only by the sangui¬
nary contentions of the beasts of prey; no clemency
was shown to the vanquished, and no humanity to the
captive. The female sex, even, W'ere sunk below their
natural level: they were doomed to the most labori¬
ous occupations, and were deserted and despised by that
very sex, on whose protection and sympathy they have
so natural a claim. To remedy these disorders, a few
intelligent and pious men formed an association, whose
members swore to defend the Christian religion, to prac¬
tise its morals, to protect widows, orphans, and the
weaker sex ; and to decide judicially, and not by arms,
the disputes that might arise about their goods or ef¬
fects. It was from tliis association, undoubtedly, that
chivalry arose (n) ; and not, as some think, from the
public investiture with arms which was customary
among the ancient Germans. But, whatever was its
origin, chivalry produced a considerable change in the
manners and sentiments of the great. It could not,
indeed, eradicate that ignorance and depravity which
engendered those awful evils which we have already
enumerated. It has softened, however, the ferocity of
war. It has restored the fair sex to that honourable
rank which they now possess, and which at all times
they are entitled to hold. It has inspired those senti¬
ments of generosity, sympathy, and friendship, which
have contributed so much to the civilization of theworld;
and has introduced that principle of honour, which,
though far from being a laudable motive to action, of¬
ten checks the licentious, when moral and religious
considerations would make no impression upon their
minds.
54. Such was the origin of chivalry, and such the hies- Chivalryb
sings which it imparted. That it was a branch of free ^
masonry, may be inferred from a variety of considera- ^
tions, from the consent of those who have made the
deepest researches into one, and who were intimately
acquainted with the spirit, rites, and ceremonies of the
other. They were both ceremonial institutions. Im¬
portant precepts were communicated to the members
of each, for the regulation of their conduct as men, and
as brethren of the order (o). The ceremonies of chi¬
valry, like those of free masonry, though unintelligible
to the vulgar, were always symbolical of some impor¬
tant truths (P). The object of both institutions was
the same, and the members bound themselves, by an
oath, to promote it with ardour and zeal (Q_). In chi¬
valry there were also different degrees of honour,
through which the youths were obliged to pass before
they were invested with the dignity of knighthood (r) j
and the knights, like free masons, w'ere formed into
fraternities or orders, distinguished by different appel¬
lations (s).
55. From
"It!
^Ol
%
(n) Boutainvilliers on the Ancient Parliaments of I ranee, letter filth, quoted in Brydson’s Summary
«>f Heraldry, pp. 24, 25, 26.
(o) Brydson’s Summary View' of Heraldry, p. 3r* (p) Id* P- 95* (OJ P* 32"
00 Id. pp. 36, 37. (s) Id. pp. 38. 40.
MASONRY, FREE.
Masonry. 55* From these cn*cumstances of resemblance, we do
n°t mean to infer that chivalry was free masonry un-
i om the ^er another name 5 we mean only to show that the two
opinions of in3tlt-utions were intimately connected ; that the former
the learned took its origin from the latter, and borrowed from it, not
and other only some of its ceremonial observances, but the lead-
ronsidera- ing features and the general outline of its constitution.
These points of similarity, indeed, are in some cases so
striking, that several learned men have affirmed that
free masonry was a secondary order of chivalry, and
derived its origin from the usages of that institution
(t). From what reasons these authors deduce the forms
of free masonry from the ceremonies of chivalry, it is
difficult to conjecture. The only argument which they
adduce, is the similarity of the institutions j but they do
not consider, that this proves, with equal force, that free
masonry is the parent of chivalry. We have already
shown, that there were many secret institutions among
the ancients, but particularly the fraternity of Diony¬
sian architects, which resembled free masonry in every
thing but the name j and it requires no proof that these
fraternities arose many hundred years before the exist¬
ence of chivalry. If then there be any resemblance
between the institutions which we have been comparing,
we must consider free masonry as the fountain, and chi¬
valry only as the stream. The one was adapted to the
habits of intelligent artists, and could flourish only in
times of civilization and peace ; the other was accom¬
modated to the dispositions of a martial age, and could
exist only in seasons of ignorance and war. With these
observations, indeed, the history of both fraternities en¬
tirely corresponds. In the enlightened ages of Greece
and Rome, when chivalry was unknown, free masonry
flourished under the sanction of government, and the
patronage of intelligent men. But during the reign of
Gothic ignorance and barbarity, which followed the
destruction of imperial Rome, free masonry languished
in obscurity, while chivalry succeeded in its place, and
proposed to accomplish the same object by different
means, which, though more rough and violent, were
better suited to the manners of the age. And when
science and literature revived in Europe, and scat¬
tered those clouds of ignorance and barbarism with
which she had been overshadowed, chivalry decayed
along with the manners that gave it birth, while
free masonry arose with increasing splendour, and
advanced with the same pace as civilization and re¬
finement.
e con- The connexion between chivalry and free ma-
don of sonry, is excellently exemplified in the fraternity of the
Ufree heights templars. It is well known that this associa-
| sonry ^*on was an or(^er chivalry, that the templars per-
:mpliiied f°rmed its ceremonies, and were influenced by its pre-
! the so- cepts j and we have already shown, that the same as*
*> of the sociation was initiated into the mysteries, and practised
'p,m- Vol. XII. Part II. t
the rites of free masonpy (Art. 39, 46.) : But, thougli Masonry,
they then existed in a double capacity, it must be evi- *■■■ -y— <
dent to all who study the history of the templars, that
their masonic character chiefly predominated, and that
they deduced the name of their institution, and their
external observances, from the usages of chivalry, to
conceal from the Roman pontiff the primary object of
then order, and to hold their secret meetings free from
suspicion or alarm. About tins time, indeed, the
chmch of Rome sanctioned the fraternity of operative
masons, and allowed them to perform their ceremonies
without molestation or fear. But this clemency, as we
have already shown, was the offspring of necessity
(Ait. 371)} and the same interested motive which
prompted his holiness to patronize that trading associa¬
tion, could never influence him to countenance the du¬
plicity of the templars, or permit them to exist in their
masonic capacity. It was the discovery, indeed, of
their being free masons, of their assembling secretly,
and performing ceremonies to which no stranger was
admitted, that occasioned those awful calamities which
befel their order. It will, no doubt, appear surprising
to some readers, that such zealous defenders of the Ca¬
tholic religion should practise the observances of an asso¬
ciation, which the church of Rome has alwavs perse¬
cuted with the bitterest hostility. But their surprise
will cease, when it is recollected, that even about the
middle of the 18th century, when free masonry was
prohibited in the ecclesiastical states, by a papal bull, the
members of the Romish church adopted the same plan.
So much attached were they to the principles and prac¬
tice of the fraternity, that they established a new secret
association similar to that of free masonry, into which
they professed to admit none but zealous abettors of the
papal hierarchy. In this manner, by flattering the pride
of the church, they eluded its vigilance, and preserved
the spirit of free masonry, by merely changing its name,
and professing to make it subservient to the interest of
the pontificate.
57* Relore leaving this subject, it may be interest- The tern-
ing to some readers, and necessary for the satisfaction Fiars W( re
of others, to show in what manner the knights templars by
became depositaries of the masonic mysteries. We have te^niUes.^
already seen, that almost all the secret associations of
the ancients either flourished or originated in Syria,
and the adjacent countries. It was here that the Dio¬
nysian artists, the Essenes, and the Kasideans arose.
I rom this country also came several members of that
trading association of masons, which appeared in Eu¬
rope during the dark ages (u) 5 and we are assured,
that, notwithstanding the unfavourable condition of that
province, there exists, at this day, on Mount Libanus,
one of these Syriac fraternities (x). As the order of
the templars, therefore, was originally formed in Syria,
and existed there for a considerable time, it would be
4 O no
vT) Chevalier Ramsay. See Robison’s Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 39. Leyden’s Preliminary Dissertation to
the Complaynt of Scotland, pp. 67* 71* an^ the preface to Guilliam’s Display of Heraldry, edit. 6th.
(u) Mr Clinch, who appears not to have been acquainted with this fact* supposes that free masonry was intro¬
duced into Europe by means of the Gypsies. Anthologia Hibernica, for April 1794, p. 280. There was such
a constant communication betw-een Asia and Europe in the time of the crusades, that the customs and manner^
of the one, must, in some measure, have been transferred to the other.
(x) Anthologia Hibernica* April 1794, p. 279.
M A S O N. R
History of
free ma¬
sonry in
Britain.
Free ma¬
sonry in¬
troduced
i ito Scot¬
land.
And also
into Eng¬
land.
no improbable supposition that they received their ma¬
sonic knowledge from the lodges in that quarter. But
we are fortunately in this case not left to conjecture,
for we are expressly informed by a foreign author (Y),
who was well acquainted with the history and customs
of Syria, that the knights templars were actually mem¬
bers of the Syriac fraternities. .
58. Having thus compared free masonry with those
secret associations which ai-ose during the dark ages •,
let us now direct our attention to its progress in Bri¬
tain, after it was extinguished in the other kingdoms o
Europe. We have already seen that a trading frater¬
nity of free masons existed in Europe during the mid¬
dle arres ; that many special favours were conterred
upon it by the Homan see ; that they had the exclusive
privilege of erecting those magnificent buildings, which
the pride of the church of Rome, and the misguided
zeal of its members, had prompted them to rear j and
that several masons travelled into Scotland, about the
beginning of the 12th. century, and imported into that
country the principles and ceremonies ol their ouei.
And we have illustrated several causes which preserv¬
ed this association in Britain after its total dissolution
on the continent. . . ,
59. That free masonry was introduced into .'•cotland
by those architects who built the abbey of Kilwinning,
is- manifest, not only from those authentic documents,
by which the existence of the Kilwinning lodge has been
traced back as far as the end of the 15th century, but
by other collateral arguments, which amount almost to
a demonstration. In every country where the tempo¬
ral and spiritual jurisdiction of the pope was acknow¬
ledged, there was a continual demand, particularly du¬
ring the rath century, for religious structures, and con¬
sequently for operative masons, proportional to the piety
of the inhabitants, and the opulence of their ecclesias¬
tical establishmentand there was no kingdom in Eu¬
rope where the zeal of the inhabitants for popery was
more ardent than in Scotland, where the kings and
nobles were more liberal to the clergy, and where,
of consequence, the church was nore richly endow¬
ed (z). The demand, therefore, far elegant cathe¬
drals and ingenious artists, must have been propor-
tionably greater than in other countries, and that de¬
mand could be supplied only from the trading associa¬
tion on the continent. When we consider, in addition
to these facts, that this association monopolized the
building of religious structures in Christendom j we
are authorised to conclude, that those numerous and
elegant ruins, which still adorn the villages of Scot¬
land, were erected by foreign masons, who introduced
into this island the customs of their order.
60. It was probably about this time, also, that free
masonry was introduced into England } hut whether
the English received it from the Scotch masons at
Kilwinning, or from other brethren who had arrived
Y, FREE.
from the continent, there is no method of determining. Miscnry
The fraternity in England, however, maintain, that' 
St Alban, the proto-martyr, who flourished about the
end of the third century, was the first who brought
masonry to Britain j that the brethren received a char¬
ter from King Athelstane, and that his brother Edwin
summoned all the lodges to meet at York, which form¬
ed the first grand lodge of England (a). But these
are merely assertions, not only incapable of proof from
authentic history, but inconsistent also with several hi¬
storical events which rest upon indubitable evidence (is).
In support of these opinions, indeed, it is alleged, that
no other lodge has laid claim to greater antiquity than
that of York, and that its jurisdiction over the other
lodges in England has been invariably acknowledged
bv the whole fraternity. But this argument only
proves that York was the birthplace of tree masonry in
England. It brings no additional evidence in support
of the improbable stories about St Alban, Athelstane,
and Edwin. If the antiquity of free masonry in Bri¬
tain can be defended only by the forgery of silly and
uninteresting stories, it does not deserve to be defended
at all Those who invent and propagate such tales, do
not, surely, consider that they bring discredit upon
their order by the warmth of their zeal 5 and that, by
supporting what is false, they prevent thinking men
from believing what.is tine. . . .
61 After the. establishment of the Kilwinning and Progress of
York lodges,, the prindjWs of free ma^n^erer.-free-
pWly diOM throughout both kingdoms and several
lodges were erected in difTerent parts ol the island. As
all these derived their existence and authority from the
two mother lodges, they were likewise under then* ju¬
risdiction and controul} and when any differences arose,
that were connected with the art of building, they were
referred to the general meetings of the fraternity, which
were always held at Kilwinning and ^ oi k. In this
manner did free masonry flourish for a while in Britain,
after it was completely abolished 111 every part of the
world. But even here it was doomed to sutler a long
and serious decline, and to experience those alternate
successions of advancement and decay, which mark the
history of every human institution. And though um-
imr several centuries after the importation of free ma¬
sonry into Britain, the brethren of the order helu then-
public assemblies, and were sometimes prohibited from
meeting by the interference of the legislature, it can
scarcely be said to have attracted general attention till
the beginning of the 17th century* I he causes of tins
remarkable retardation which the progress of masonry
experienced, it is by no means difficult to discover.
In consequence of the important privileges which the
order received from the church of Rome, many chose
the profession of an architect, which, though at all
times an honourable employment, was particularly m
high request during the middle ages. On tins accoun
Robertson’s History of Scotland,
(y) Adler de Drusis Montis Libani, Rom. 1786.
(z) The church possessed above one half of the property in the kingdom.
(a)PA. D%26. Preston’s Illustrations of Masonry, p. 148. Smith’s Use and Abuse of Iree Masonry,
p. 51. Free Mason’s Calendar 177^*
(Y) Sec Dr Plot’s Natural Histoiy of Staffordshire, chap. viii. pp. 3.16—318.
anses of
s subse-
uent de-
ine.
M A S () N II
Unsonry- the body of operative masons increased to such a de-
—-v——' gree, and the rage, as well as the necessity for religions
edifices, was so much diminished, that a more than suf¬
ficient number of hands could, at any time, be procur¬
ed for supplying the demands of the church, and of
pious individuals. There being now no scarcity of ar¬
chitects, the very reason which prompted the church to
protect the fraternity, ceased to exist; they, therefore,
withdrew from them that patronage, which they had
spontaneously proffered, and denied them even the li¬
berty of holding their secret assemblies. But these
were not the only causes which produced such a striking
change in the conduct of the church, to the masonic
order. The spirit of free masonry, as we have already
said, was hostile to the principles of the church of
Borne. The intention of the one was to enlighten the
mind j the object and policy of the other to retain it in
ignorance. When free masonry flourished, the power
of the church must have decayed. The jealousy of the
latter, therefore, was aroused j and, as the civil power
in England and Scotland was almost always in the
hands of ecclesiastics, the church and the state were
combined against the principles and practice of free
masonry (c). Along with these causes, the domestic
and bloody wars, which convulsed the two kingdoms
from the 13th to the 17th century, conspired in a great
degree, to produce that decline of the fraternity for
which we have been attempting to account.
62. But notwithstanding these unfavourable circum¬
stances, free masonry seems to have flourished, and at-
c rewn 0ftracted the attention of the public in the reign of Hen-
enry VI ry VI. who, when a minor, ascended the throne of
England in 1422. In the third year of his reign, in¬
deed, the parliament passed a severe act against the fra¬
ternity, at the instigation of Henry Beaufort, bishop of 1
Winchester, who was then entrusted with the education
of the young king. They enacted that the masons
should no longer hold their chapters and annual assem¬
blies ; that those who summoned such chapters and as¬
semblies should be considered as felons ; and that those
who resorted to them should be fined and imprison¬
ed (d). But it would appear that this act was never
put in execution j for, in the year 1429, about five
years after it was framed, a respectable lodge was held
at Canterbury under the patronage of the archbishop
himself (e). When King Henry was able to take into
his own hands the government of his kingdom, and to
form an opinion of his own respecting the use and ten¬
dency of the masonic fraternity, in order to atone for
F
"script.
:ee nia-
nry flou
:hes in
, -REE. 659
the rigorous conduct of his parliament, he not only per- Masonry,
mitted the order to hold their meetings without moles- —-1
tation, but honoured the lodges by his presence as a
brother. Before he was initiated, however, into the
mysteries of the order, he seems to have examined, with
scrupulous care, the nature of the institution, and to
have perused the charges and regulations of the frater¬
nity, as collected from their ancient records. These
facts are contained in a paper written in the reign of
his successor, Edward IV. and confirmed by a manu¬
script in King Henry’s own hand-writing, which is fa¬
miliar to every person who has studied the history of the
order. This manuscript consists of questions and an-Account of
swers respecting the nature and tendency of free mason-a curious
ry, and seems to be the result of the king’s examina-lnasonic
tion of some of the brethren before he became a mem¬
ber of the fraternity. It was first procured from the
Bodleian library by the celebrated Mr Locke, who
transmitted it to the earl of Pembroke, accompanied
with explanatory notes (f). In the title of the manu¬
script, it is said to have been faithfully copied from the
hand-writing of King Henry VI. by John Leland, an¬
tiquarian, who, according to Mr Locke, was the cele¬
brated antiquary of that name who lived in the 16th
century, and was appointed by King Henry VIII. at
the dissolution of monasteries, to search for, and save
such books as were worthy of preservation. As this
manuscript was originally printed at,Frankfort, I was
led to inquire what grounds there were for believing
that the explanatory notes, and the letter to the earl
of Pembroke which accompany it, were the production
of Mr Locke. But I found that this had been uni¬
formly taken for granted by every writer upon the sub¬
ject, though the circumstance is not mentioned in the
large edition of Mr Locke’s works. The style of the
letter, however, and the acuteness of the annotations,
resemble so much that philosopher’s manner of writing,
and the letter is so descriptive of Mr Locke’s real situ¬
ation at the time when it was written, that it is almost
impossible to deny their authenticity. In the letter it¬
self, which is dated 6th May 1696, Mr Locke re¬
marks that he composed the notes for the sake of Lady
Masham, who was become very fond of masonry, and
that the manuscript had so much excited his owjjbcurio¬
sity, that he was determined to enter into the fraternitv
the next time he went to London, which, he adds, will
be very soon. Now Mr Locke was at this time resid¬
ing at Oates, the country seat of Sir Francis Masham,
as appears from one of his letters to Mr Molyneux,
4 O 2 which
(c) As a proof of the hostility of the church of Rome to secret associations which pretended to enlighten the
mind, we mentioned (p. 53. supra) its treatment of the academy of secrets, instituted in the 16th century for the
advancement of physical science. When a local and temporary institution drew down the vengeance of the Ro¬
man see, what must have been its conduct to a lodge of masons ? A farther account of the academy of secrets
may be found in Priestley’s History of Vision, vol. ii.
(d) 3 Henry VI. cap. 2. A. I). 1425, see Ruft head’s Statutes. E)r Plot’s Natural History of Staffordshire,
chap. viii. p. 318.
(f.) Manuscript Register of William Morlat, prior of Canterbury, p. 28. entitled, Liberatio generall's Domini
Guliehni prior is Ecclesice Christ i Cantuarensis, erg afestum natalis Domini 1429. In this Register are mention¬
ed the names of the masters, wardens, and other members of the lodge.
(f) This manuscript was first printed at Frankfort in 1748, and afterwards reprinted in the London and Gen¬
tleman’s Magazines for 1735. It may be seen in the lives of Leland, Hearne, and Wood, 8vo. Oxford, I772»
vol. i. pp. 96, 104. Appendix, N° viii. j and in Preston’s Illustrations of Masonry, p. 110.
MASONRY, FREE.
660
Masonry, which is dated Oates, March 30. 1696 j and it ap-
» v / pears, that he actually went to London, a short time
after the 6th of May ; for another letter to the same
gentleman is dated, London, 2d July 1696 (g). 'Not¬
withstanding these facts, Dr Plot maintains that free
masonry was not patronised by King Henry \ I. (H ),
and that those who have supported a different opinion,
were ignorant of the laws and chronicles of their own
country. Dr Plot may have been a good chemist and
natural historian, but when our readers hear upon what
foundation he has established his opinion, they will
agree with us in thinking that he was a bad logician.
He observes, that an act was passed in the king’s mi¬
nority, prohibiting all general assemblies and chapters
of free masons, and that as this act was not repealed
till 1562, by 5th Elizabeth, cap. 4. it was impossible
that free masonry could be patronised in the same reign
in which it was prohibited. The fact is, that the act
was not repealed by 5th Elizabeth, cap. 4. which does
not contain a single word about free masons. If Dr
Plot’s argument, therefore, proves any thing, it would
prove that free masonry has not been patronised since
the reign of Henry VI. for that act has never yet been
repealed. But supposing that it was repealed, the pro¬
hibitory statute in Henry’s reign might never have been
put in execution, as very often happens ; and Dr Plot
himself remarks, that the act 5th Elizabeth was not
observed. It is plain, therefore, that instead of being
impossible, it is highly probable that King Henry pa¬
tronised the fraternity. When they were persecuted
by his parliament, he was only three years of age, and
could neither approve nor disapprove of its sentence ;
and it was very natural, that when he came to the
years of maturity, he should undo a deed which his
parliament had dishonourably done.
Free ma- 63. While free masonry was flourishing in England
sonry pa- un4er the auspices of Henry VI. it was at the same
Scotknd'by ^me patronised, in the sister kingdom, by King James I.
King ' By the authority of this monarch, every grandmaster
James L who was chosen by the brethren, either from the nobi¬
lity or clergy, and approved of by the crown, was en¬
titled to an annual revenue of four pounds Scots from
each master mason, and likewise to a fee at the initia¬
tion of every new member. He was empowered to ad¬
just any differences that might arise among the breth¬
ren, and to regulate those affairs, connected rvith the
fraternity, which it Avas improper to bring under the
cognizance of the courts of law. The grandmaster also
appointed deputies or Avardens, Avho resided in the chief
toAvns of Scotland, and managed the concerns of the
order, Avhen it Avas inconvenient to appeal to the grand¬
master himself (1).
And by 64. In the reign of James II. free masonry was by
Kang no means neglected. The office of grandmaster was
James II, grante4 by t[ie cr0wn to William St Clair, earl of
Orkney and Caithness, baron oLRoslin, and founder of
the much admired chapel of Roslin. On account of
the attention Avhich this nobleman paid to the interests Masonry,
of the order, and the rapid propagation of the royal art1 ■ ‘ v —1
under his administration, King James II. made the of¬
fice of grandmaster hereditary to his heirs and succes¬
sors in the barony of Roslin j in which family it conti¬
nued till the institution of the grand lodge of Scotland.
The barons of Roslin, in the capacity of hereditary
grandmasters, held their principal annual meetings at
Kilwinning, the birthplace of Scotish masonry, while
the lodge of that village granted constitutions and char¬
ters of erection to those brethren of the order, who
were anxious that regular lodges should be formed in
diflerent parts of the kingdom. These lodges all held
of the lodge of KilAvinning j and, in token of their re¬
spect and submission, joined to their oAvn name, that ot
their mother lodge, from Avhom they derived their ex¬
istence as a corporation (k).
65. During the reigns of the succeeding Scotish mo-
narchs, free masonry still flourished, though very little
information can be procured respecting the state of the
fraternity. In the privy seal book of Scotland, how¬
ever, there is a letter dated at Holyroodhouse, 25th
September 1590, and granted by King James VI. “ to
Patrick Copland of Udaught, for using and exercising
the office of Avardanrie over the art and craft ol mason-
rie, over all the boundis of Aberdeen, Banff, and Kin¬
cardine, to had Avardan and justice courts within the
said boundis, and there to minister justice (l).” This
letter confirms what has already been said concerning
the state of masonry in Scotland. It proves beyond
dispute, that the kings of Scotland nominated the of¬
fice-bearers of the order j that these provincial masters,
or wardens, as they Avere then called, administered jus¬
tice in every dispute Avhich concerned the “ art and
craft of masonrie j” that lodges were established in all
parts of Scotland, even in those remote, and, at that
time, uncivilized counties of Aberdeen, Banff, and
Kincardine ; and it completely overturns the unfound¬
ed assertion of Dr Robison, Avho maintains (m), that the
celebrated antiquary Elias Ashmole, who was initiated
in 1646, is the only distinct and unequivocal instance
of a person being admitted into the fraternity Avho was
not an architect by profession.
66. The minutes of St Mary’s chapel, which is the Minutes of
oldest lodge in Edinburgh, extend as far back as the St Mary *
year 1598 5 but as they contain only the ordinary pro-c aPe "
ceedings of the lodge, we can derive from them no
particular information respecting the customs and.condi¬
tion of the fraternity. It appears, hoAvever, from these
minutes, that Thomas Boswell, Esq. of Auchinleck,
was made a Avarden of the lodge in the year 1600 j
and that the honourable Robert Moray, quartermaster-
general to the army in Scotland, was created a master
mason in 1641. These facts are deserving of notice,
as they show, in opposition to Dr Robison, that persons
were early admitted into the order, who were not archL
tects by profession.
67. When
(g) Locke’s Works, folio, vol. iii.
(h) Natural History of Staffordshire, cap. viii. p. 318.
(1) Charter. Hay’s MSS. see art. 66
(l) Privy Seal Book of Scotland, 61. F. 47,
(m) Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 21*
(k) Such as Canongate Kilwinning, &c=
MASONRY, FREE.
661
Masonry.
'he Sin-
lairs of
oslin ap-
ointed he
ditary
and ma-
67. When James VI. ascended the throne of Eng¬
land, he seems to have neglected his right of nominat¬
ing the office-bearers of the craft. In Hay’s manuscript
in the advocate’s library, there are two charters granted
by the Scotish masons, appointing the Sinclairs of Ros-
lin their hereditary grandmasters. The first of these is
without a date, but signed by several masons who ap¬
point William St Clair ot Roslin, his heirs and succes¬
sors, their “ patrons and judges.” The other is, in
some measure, a ratification of the first, and dated
1630, in which they appoint Sir William St Clair of
Roslin, his heirs and successors, to be their “ patrons,
protectors, and overseers, in all time coming.” In the
first of these deeds, which seems to have been written a
little after the union of the crowns, it is stated, that for
some years the want of a protector had engendered
many corruptions among the masons, and had consider¬
ably retarded the progress of the craft $ and that the
appointment of William Sinclair, Esq. was, with the
advice and consent of W’illiam Shaw, master of work
to his majesty. After presiding over the order for ma¬
ny years, William St Clair went to Ireland, where he
continued a considerable time j and, in consequence of
his departure, the second charter was granted to his
son Sir William St Clair, investing him with the same
powers which his father enjoyed. It deserves also to be
remarked, that in both these deeds, the appointment of
William Sinclair, earl of Orkney and Caithness, to the
office of grandmaster, by James II. of Scotland, is
spoken of as a fact well known, and universally admit¬
ted. These observations will set in a clear point of
view what must hitherto have appeared a great incon¬
sistency in the history of Scottish masonry. In the degd
by which William Sinclair, Esq. of Roslin, resigned the
office of hereditary grandmaster in 1736, it is stated
that his ancestors, William and Sir William St Clair of
Roslin, were constituted patrons of the fraternity by the
Scotish masons themselves j while it is well known, that
the grant of hereditary grandmaster was originally made
by James II. of Scotland, to their ancestor, William
Sinclair, earl of Orkney and Caithness. But, when
we consider that James VI. by not exercising his power,
virtually transferred to the craft the right of electing
their office-bearers, the inconsistency vanishes j for Mr
Sinclair and his predecessors, as far back as the date of
these charters, held their office by the appointment of
the fraternity itself. Lest any of Mr Sinclair’s poste¬
rity, however, might, after his resignation, lay claim
to the office of grandmaster, upon the pretence that this
office was bequeathed to them by the grant of James II.
to the earl of Caithness and his heirs ; he renounces not
only the right to the office which he derived from the
brethren, but any right also, which as a descendant of
the earl of Caithness, he might claim from the grants
of the Scotish monarchs.
68. Notwithstanding those civil commotions which
disturbed Britain in the 17th century, free masonry
flourished in Scotland, under the auspices of the Sin¬
clairs of Roslin. No particular event, however, which
is worthy of notice, occurred during that time, or even
during the remainder of the century. The annual as- Masonry.
semblies of the fraternity were still held at Kilwinning, —~v J
and many charters and constitutions were granted by
the lodge of that village, for the erection of lodges in
different parts of the kingdom.
69. In the year 1736, William St Clair of Roslin, The office
who was then grandmaster of Scotland, was under the of 8rand
necessity of disponing his estate, and, as he had no chil-
dren ot his own, he was anxious that the office of grand-
master should not be vacant at his death. Having, clair.
therefore, assembled the Edinburgh and neighbouring
lodges, he represented to them the utility that would
accrue to the order, by having a gentleman or noble¬
man, of their own choice,.as grandmaster of masonry
in Scotland j and, at the same time, intimated his in¬
tention to resign into the hands of the brethren, every
title to that office which he at present possessed, or
which his successors might claim from the grants of the
Scotish kings, and the kindness of the fraternity. In
consequence of this representation, circular letters were
dispatched to all the lodges of Scotland, inviting them
to appear, either by themselves or proxies, on next St
Andrew’s day, to concur and assist in the election of a
grandmaster. When that day arrived, about 32 lodges
assembled, and, after receiving the deed of resignation
from William Sinclair, proceeded to the election of an¬
other grandmaster j when, on account of the zeal which
W ilham Sinclair of Roslin had always shown for the
honour and prosperity of the order, he was unanimously
elected to that high office, and proclaimed grandmaster
mason of all Scotland. Thus wras instituted the grand tnstitution
lodge of Scotland, which continues to flourish at the of the
present day. grand lodge
70. We have already brought down the history 0f?fScot'and
masonry in England to the end nearly of the 15thm 173 ‘
century. During the whole of the 16th, and the be¬
ginning of the 17th century, no events occurred which
can be inserted in a general history of the order. The
lodges continued to meet, but seem neither to have at¬
tracted the notice, nor excited the displeasure of the
legislature.
71. During the civil wars, however, between the Free ma¬
king and the parliament, the fraternity appears to have sonry flou-
been better known j and many were initiated into itsris^eddu"
mysteries, who were equally distinguished by their lite-”-11^ t^e..
rary talents, and their rank in life. Elias Ashmole in-Cm
forms us, that he and Colonel Mainwaring were admit¬
ted into the order at Warrington, in October 1646 (n).
This gentleman was the celebrated antiquarian who
founded the Ashmolean museum at Oxford. His at¬
tachment to the fraternity is evident from his diligent
inquiries into its origin and history, and his long and
frequent attendance upon its meetings (o). Charles II.
too, was a member of the fraternity, and frequently
honoured the lodges with his presence (p). From this
fact, chiefly, Dr Robison asserts, that free masonry was
employed by the royalists for promoting the cause of
their sovereign, and that the ritual of the masters de¬
gree seems to have been formed, or twisted from its ori¬
ginal institution, in order to sound the political princi¬
ples
(n) Ashmole’s Diary, p. 15.
(p) Proofs of a Conspiracy, p. 22»
(g) Id. p. 66.
662
Masonry
Free ma¬
sonry is
supposed by
some to
have origi¬
nated in
the time of
the com¬
monwealth.
Absurdity
of this opi¬
nion.
M A SO N K
pies of flic Candidate (ti). The strained and fanciful
analogy by which this opinion is supported, is perhaps
0ne of the"most striking instances that could he adduced
tt> show, to what peurile arguments the most learned
will resort, when engaged in the defence of a desperate
"cause. But though Dr Robison maintains, that all
who witnessed the ceremonies of the master’s degree
during the civil wars, could not fail to show, by their
countenances, to what party they belonged, yet he
observes, in another part of Ills work, that the symbols
of masonry seemed to he equally susceptible of every
interpretation, and that none Of these were entitled to
any decided preference (R). Such inconsistencies'as
these it is not easy to explain.
'72. An opinion of an opposite nature, though equal¬
ly extravagant, has been maintained by Rivati Js),
and the author of “ Free Masonry Examined.” These
writers assert, that free masonry originated in the time
of the English commonwealth •, that Oliver Cromwell
was its inventor j that the level was the symbol of re¬
publican equality; and that the other signs and cere¬
monies were merely arbitrary, and formed for concealing
their political designs. It-would be ridiculous to enter
into a serious refutation of such opinions as these, which
are founded on the most unpardonable ignorance. That
free masonry existed before fhe time of Cromwell is as
capable of'demonstration, as that Cromwell himself ever
existed. It is really entertaining to observe, what in¬
consistent and opposite opinions are formed upon the
same subject. According to one writer, free masonly
was invented and employed by the adherents of the
king •, according to another, it was devised by the
friends of the parliament. In the opinion of some it
originated among the Jesuits, who used it for the pro¬
motion of their spiritual -tyranny and superstition j
while others maintain, that it arose among a number of
Unprincipled sceptics,-who employed it for destroying
the spiritual tyranny and superstition of the Jesuits !
-73. It was about this time, according to Dr Robi¬
son, that free masonry was introduced among the con¬
tinental kingdoms. After James II. of England had
abdicated the throne, and taken refuge in France with
several of his adherents, it is probable that they would
communicate additional spirit to the French lodges j
hut that the English refugees were the1 first who ex¬
ported masonry from Britain, or that they employed it
for re-establishing the Stuart family on the English
throne, it is impossible to prove. "Such assertions Dr
Robison has not only hazarded, hut has employed them
also as the foundation of defamatory conclusions, with¬
out adducing a single proof in their support. Notwith¬
standing the difficulty, however, of determining the
precise period when the principles of free masonry were
Y, FREE.
imported into France, it is manifest, from the universal Mnsotrrv.
consent of the continental lodges, that it was of British
origin 5 and it is more than probable, that the French
received it from Scotland about the middle of the i6lh
century, during the minority of'Queen Mary. It is
well known, that there was at that time a freer inter¬
course between Scotland and France than at any other
period. Mary queen of Scots was then married to the
heir-apparent of France 5 and Mary of Guise, sister to
the French king, was at the same time regent of Scot¬
land. In consequence of this intimate connection be¬
tween the two kingdoms, French troops were sent to
the assistance of the Scots, who, having resided many
years in the kingdom, and habituated to the manners
and customs of their allies, would naturally carry along
with them into their native country, those customs
which afforded them pleasure ; and none we know could
he more congenial to the taste and dispositions of
Frenchmen, than the ceremonial observances of free
masonry. But it is not upon these considerations mere¬
ly that our opinion depends. lt> receives ample confir¬
mation from a fact, of which Dr Robison seems to have
been totally ignorant. In the year 1645, a particular
jurisdiction for masons, called mapnnerie, or masonry,
was established in France. All differences which re¬
lated to the art of building, were decided by particular
judges, who were called overseers of the art of masonry j
and several counsellors'were appointed for pleading the
causes, which were referred to1 their decision (t). This
institution has such a striking resemblance to the warden
courts which existed in Scotland in the 16th century,
art 65. that it must have derived its origin from these.
In both of them, those causes only were decided which
related to masonry, and overseers were chosen in both
for bringing these causes to a decision (u). But as
similar tribunals were held in no other part of the world,
and as the warden courts were first established in Scot¬
land, it is almost certain, that the Irench borrowed
from the Scots the idea of their masonic tribunal, as
well as free masonry itself, at that particular period
when there was such a free communication between the
two kingdoms. That the French received free mason¬
ry from Scotland, may he presumed also from the sin¬
gular pre-eminence which was always given by foreign¬
ers to Scotish masonry, and from the degree of Cheva¬
lier Mapon Ecossois, which, as a mark of respect to
Scotland, the French had added to the three symboli¬
cal degrees of masonry about the beginning of the 18th
century. Had free masonry not been introduced into
France till after the revolution in 1688, as Dr Robison
affirms, it is wonderful how such a fact should have
been so quickly forgotten j for it was unknown about
30 or 40 years afterwards, at what period the I rench
t* zi r> 1 v r
(q.) Proofs of Conspiracy, p. 21.
(r) Id. p. 99. ... . ,
(s) Pivati Art. Liberi MuratOri aUvero Francs Masons Venezia, quoted by Mr Llinch. . . ^ .
(t) Magonnerie est aussi le nom d’une jurisdiction particuliere pour les magons : File se tientau palais a 1 aris,
et les appellations sont portees au parlement: cette jurisdictiori a ete etablie en 1645. Ceux qui I’exercent sont
appclles Generaux des Oeuvres de Magonnerie de France. Ils connoissent de differends entre les oeuvneis
concernant le fait des batiments. Fa magonnerie a des procureurs particulieres, differens de ceux de parlement,
qui cependant peuvent y plaider. * Dictionnaire de Trevoux, Vol. v. p. 23.
(u) See Appendix, N° ii.
M A S O N R Y, F II E E.
66
Masonry.
nnovation
ipon free
nasonry in
Trance.
received it from Britain ; and, if the exiled family had
employed free masonry, for overturning the Hanoverian
succession, it is still more strange that such a circum¬
stance should he unknown in a country, where con¬
cealment was certainly unnecessary. When any new
custom is introduced into a nation, the time of its intro¬
duction may he remembered for 70 to 80 years by one
individual, without being committed to writing 5 and,
though it be not of sufficient importance, tradition will
preserve it from oblivion for a much greater length of
time. If free masonry, therefore, never existed in
France till after the revolution in 16S8, is it not ab¬
surd to suppose, that the period when such a singular in¬
stitution was established, should he utterly forgotten at
the distance of 30 or 40 years from its establishment,
though, during that time, it was never persecuted by the
French government ?
74. But, at whatever period, and from whatever
source free masonry rvas introduced into France, it as¬
sumed there a very remarkable form. The attachment
of that people to innovation and external finery, pro¬
duced the most unwarrantable alterations upon the prin¬
ciples and ceremonies of the order’, A number of new
degrees were created j the office-bearers of the craft
were arrayed in the most splendid and costly attire ;
and the lodges were transformed into lecturing rooms,
where the wiser brethren supported the most extravagant
opinions, discussed the abstrusest questions in theology
and political economy, and broached opinions hostile to
the interests of true religion and sound government. In
the other countries of the continent, similar innovations,
in a greater or less degree, prevailed, while the British
lodges preserved the principles of the craft in their pri¬
mitive simplicity and excellence. Such dangerous in¬
novations have not the smallest connection with the
principles of free masonry. They are unnatural excres¬
cences formed by a warm imagination, and fostered by
the interference of designing men. Those who reprehend
free masonry, therefore, for the changes which it under¬
went in the hands of foreigners, may throw equal blame
upon religion, because it has been a cloak for licentious¬
ness and hypocrisy •, or, upon science, because it has
been converted into an instrument of iniquity. The
changes of which we have been treating, arose altoge¬
ther from the political condition of the countries where
they were made. In France, and the other kingdoms
of Europe, where popery was the ecclesiastical establish¬
ment, or where absolute power was in the hands of
their monarchs, the most slavish restraints were imposed
upon the conduct and conversation of the people. None
durst utter his own sentiments, or converse upon such
metaphysical subjects as militated against the theology
and politics of the times. Under such restraints specu¬
lative men, in particular, were highly dissatisfied.
These powers which heaven had bestowed, and on the
exercise of which their happiness depended, were fet¬
tered by human laws^ and that liberty of speech re¬
strained which tyranny had no right to controul. For
these reasons, the lodges were frequented by men of
philosophical habits, who eagerly embraced an oppor¬
tunity of publishing their sentiments', and discussing the
favourite objects of their study, without dreading the
threats of government, or the tortures of the inquisition.
In this view, the lodges may be compared to little re¬
publics, enjoying the rational liberties of human nature,
in the midst of an extensive empire, enslaved by despo- Masonry,
tism and superstition. In the course of time, however, ——v—
that liberty was abused, and doctrines were propagated
in the I rench and German lodges, which it is the duty
and policy of every government to discourage and sup¬
press. But these corruptions had by no means a ne¬
cessary connection with free masonry: they arose whol¬
ly from the political condition of the continental king¬
doms. In Britain, where the order subsisted much Causes of
longer than in any other country, its history is stained
oy no glaring corruptions or olrensrve innovations 5 ^
more attention was paid to the intrinsic value of the
order, than to its external observances j and the British
lodges had a greater resemblance to charitable meet¬
ings, than to pompous and splendid assemblies. Blessed
with a free constitution, and the enjoyment of every li¬
berty which does not approach to licentiousness, the
British masons were under no temptation to introduce
into their lodges religious and political discussions. The
liberty of the press enables them to give the widest cir¬
culation to their opinions, however new or extravagant j
and they are liable to no punishment, by publicly at¬
tacking the established religion of their country. The
British lodges, therefore, have retained their primitive
purity *, they have been employed in no sinister cause j
they have harboured in their bosom neither traitors,
nor atheists, nor French philosophers.
75. While the French were busily engaged in the
decoration of their lodges, and in the invention of new
degrees and trifling ceremonies, the masons in England
were more wisely employed in extending the bounda¬
ries ol the royal art. About the beginning of the 18th
century, during the reign of Queen Anne, free mason¬
ry seems to have rapidly declined in the south of Eng7
land. Four lodges only existed in the south, and few
hopes could he entertained of revival, while the seat of
the grand lodge was at such a distance as the city of
York. In such circumstances the four lodges met in
1717, and, in order to give vigour to their declining Institution'
cause, and advance the interests of the fraternity in the of tb*5
south, they elected themselves into a grand lodge, and^Jl^
chose Anthony Saver, Esq. for their first grandmaster.jn
Thus wras instituted the. grand lodge of England, which
has now attained to such a pitch of prosperity and
splendour. The motive which suggested this institution,
was . certainly laudable and useful j but every person
must be aware, that the four lodges were guilty of a
considerable impropriety in omitting to request the
countenance of the grand lodge of York. Notwith¬
standing this negligence, the greatest harmony subsisted
between the two grand lodges till 1734*, and under
the auspices of both, the order flourished in every part
of the kingdom, but particularly in the south of Eng¬
land, where it had formerly been m such a languishing,
condition. In the year 1734, however, th&grand lodge
of England having granted constitutions to lodges with¬
in the. district of York, without the consent of their
grand lodge, incurred to such a degree the displeasure
of the York masons, that the friendly intercourse which
had formerly subsisted between them, was completely
broken off j and the prosperity of the one was always
viewed by the other with a suspicious eye. In 1739
also some trifling innovations upon the ancient customs
of the order, having been imprudently sanctioned by
the grand lodge of England, several of the old Lo. v
2 masons
6g4 M A S O N R
Masonrv masons were highly offendetl, and, after seceding from
. —v— i the grand lodge, and pretending to act under the York
constitution, they gave themselves the appellation of
Ancient Masons, while they attached to those connect¬
ed with the grand lodge the odious appellation of Mo¬
derns, who, in their opinion, never existed till the
year 1717. The ancient masons, after their secession,
continued to hold their meetings, without acknowledg¬
ing a superior, till the year 1772, when they chose for
their grandmaster the duke of Athol, who was then
grandmaster elect for Scotland. Since that penod both
the grand lodges of England have attained to a high
degree of prosperity •, but such is their mutual antipa-
thy, that the members of the one have no correspon¬
dence or communion with those of the other. Ihe
Irish and Scotish masons, however, who seem rather
to favour the ancients, hold •communion with both the
grand lodges, and are allowed to be present at all their
meetings. It is much to be regretted, that such re¬
spectable bodies as the two grand lodges of England,
should retard the progress of masonry by their mutual
jealousies and dissensions. Schisms in societies general¬
ly arise from misconduct on both sides, which was cer¬
tainly the case in the schisms under consideration. The
moderns undoubtedly departed from their usual caution
and propriety of conduct, by authorising the slightest
innovations upon the ceremonies of an ancient institu¬
tion. But the ancients have been guilty of a greater
impropriety by being the active promoters of the schism j
and still more, by holding up the moderns to the ridi¬
cule of the public. If these errors, however, were mu¬
tually acknowledged, and. buried in oblivion, that breach
would soon be repaired which has so long separated the
two lodges, and which the Scotish and Irish masons
have always regarded with pity and indignation.
Free ma- 76. After the institution of the grand lodge of Eng-
sonryintro-land in l*]!*], free masonry assumed a bolder and a
duced into more independent aspect. It was no longer confined to
^tsTftheth® British isles, or to the capital of France, but was
world.0 C destined to irradiate every portion of the globe ; and
while the grand lodges of Scotland and England con¬
templated with pleasure the propagation of the royal
art, their diligence was fully rewarded by the gratitude
and liberality of the foreign lodges, for the gift which
they received.
Into the 77- 1° the year 1729 free masonry was introduced
East Indies, into the East Indies j and, in a short time after, a pro-
America, vincial grandmaster was appointed to superintend the
Germany, i0(jges \n that quarter. In 1730 the grand lodge of
Africa, &c. jrejan(i was instituted } lodges -were erected in different
parts of America *, and a provincial deputation granted
to M. Thuanus, for the circle of Lower Saxony. A
patent was sent from England in 1731, to erect a lodge
at the Hague, in which Francis Stephen, duke of Lor-
rain, and afterwards emperor of Germany, was initiated
into the order; and provincial grandmasters were ap¬
pointed for Russia, and Andalusia in Spain. In 1736
lodges were erected at Cape Coast, in Africa, and at
Geneva *, and provincial deputations were granted for
Upper Saxony and the American islands. In 1738, a
lodge was instituted at Brunswick, under the patronage
of the gi’and lodge of Scotland, in which the late king
of Prussia was initiated when prince royal. His ma¬
jesty was so pleased with the maxims and ceremonies of
the order, that he, ever afterwards, was its most zea-
3
Y, FREE.
lous partizan, and even requested that a lodge should Masonry,
be established in the capital of his own dominions. In't—
this lodge many of the German princes were initiated,
who afterwards filled the office of grandmaster, with
much honour to themselves, and advantage to the fra¬
ternity.
78. But while free masonry flourished in these differ- Free ma.
ent parts of the world, and in many other places which sons per¬
il would be tedious to enumerate, it was doomed to un-
derg;o a variety of persecutions from the unfounded jea- 0
lousies of a few despotic rulers, and the deep-rooted su¬
perstition of a few Catholic priests. These persecutions
took their rise in Holland in the year 1735. The
States-General were alarmed at the rapid increase of free
masons, who held their meetings in every town under
their government ; and as they could not believe that
architecture and brotherly love were their only objects,
they resolved to discountenance their proceedings. In
consequence of this determination, an edict was issued
by government, stating, that though they had discover¬
ed nothing in the practices of the fraternity, either in¬
jurious to the interests of the republic, or contrary to
the character of good citizens ; yet, in order to prevent
any bad consequences which might ensue from such asso¬
ciations, they deemed it prudent to abolish the assem¬
blies of free masons. Notwithstanding this prohibition,
a respectable lodge continued to meet privately at Am¬
sterdam ; but intelligence having been communicated
to the magistrates, all the members were arrested and
brought before the court of justice. At this tribunal,
in presence of all the magistrates of the city, the masters
and wardens boldly defended themselves ; and declared
upon oath, that they were loyal subjects, faithful to
their religion, and zealous for the interests of their coun¬
try ; that free masonry was an institution venerable in
itself, and useful to society ; and that though they could
not reveal the secrets and ceremonies of their order,
they could assure the judges that they were contrary to
the laws neither of God nor man, and that they would
willingly admit into their order any individual in whom
the magistrates could confide, and from whom they
might receive such information as would satisfy a ^rea¬
sonable mind. In consequence of these declarations,
the brethren were dismissed, and the town secretary re¬
quested to become a member of the fraternity. After
initiation he returned to the court of justice, and gave
such a favourable account of the principles and prac¬
tice of the society, that all the magistrates became
brethren of the order, and zealous patrons of free ma¬
sonry. . _
79. After free masonry" had thus honourably triumph-^reema^
ed over her persecutors in Holland, she had to contend ^ied itt
in France with prejudices equally inveterate though prance j
less insuperable. Although many persons of distinction
defended the fraternity, and expostulated with the court
on the impropriety of severe measures, their assemblies
were abolished in I737» un£ler common pretext that
some dreadful design was concealed beneath their in¬
violable secrets, hostile to religion, and dangerous to
the kingdom. But when these ebullitions of party spirit
and private malice had subsided, the prohibition of go¬
vernment was gradually forgotten, and the fraternity
in France recovered their former prosperity and splen-
doui*# ^ and
80. In Germany too, the tranquillity of the order QerjnaBy,
was
MASONRY, FREE. 66;
Masonry. was disturbed by the intrigues of some ignorant females,
v Some German ladies, who possessed more curiosity than
is common to their sex, were anxious to discover the
secrets of free masonry. Having been baffled in all
their attempts on the fickleness of their husbands, and
the fondness of their admirers, they converted their cu¬
riosity into revenge, and attempted to inflame the mind
of Maria Theresa, the empress queen, against the lodges
in Vienna. Their attempt was in some measure suc¬
cessful, as they persuaded her to issue an order for sur¬
prising all the masons in the city when assembled in
their lodges. This plan, however, was frustrated by
the intervention of the emperor Joseph I. who being
himself a mason, pledged himself for the good conduct
of his brethren, and showed the ladies and their friends,
that their charges against the order were false and de¬
famatory.
onsoerse- ^I' t^ie dame °f persecution is once kindled,
uted in devastations are seldom confined to the spot where it
Italy, originated. The example of one nation is urged as an
excuse for the conduct of another j and like the storm
on the sandy desert, its effects are ruinous in proportion
to its progress. In Holland and France the hostility of
the government against free masonry was soon disarmed.
But when the flame reached the ecclesiastical states of
Italy, its effects were more baneful and its duration
more lengthened. In the year 1738, a formidable bull
was thundered from the conclave, not only against free
masons themselves, but against all those who counte¬
nanced a set of men who, in the opinion of his holiness,
were enemies to the tranquillity of the state, and hostile
to the spiritual interests of souls. This bull was follow¬
ed by an edict dated 14th January 1739, in which the
servitude of the galleys, the tortures of the rack, and a
fine of 1000 crowns in gold, were threatened to persons
of every description who breathed the infectious air of
a masonic assembly. A few weeks afterwards a decree
was issued by his holiness condemning a French book,
entitled An Apology for the Society of Free Masons,
and ordering it to be burnt by the ministers of justice,
in one of the best frequented streets of Rome.
5 Ad in Hoi- o t /• 1
n(j o2. Jn consequence 01 these enactments at Rome,
the catholic clergymen in Holland attempted in 1740
to enforce obedience to the decrees of their superiors.
In examining the religious qualifications of those who
required a certificate to receive the holy sacrament, the
priests took occasion to refuse the certificate to such as
were free masons, and expelled them for ever from the
communion table. Having exerted their authority in
the expulsion of several respectable characters, the atten¬
tion of the public was roused by such arbitrary proceed¬
ings, and after the publication of several pamphlets by
the adherents of both parties, the states general inter¬
fered, and prohibited the exercise of that spiritual
power, which, instead of suppressing immorality, had
tituti exc^ted divisions amtong their fellow subjects,
the asso ^3' order t° preserve the order from that ruin to
I dion of which it seemed fast approaching, several free masons of
1 'fliopses distinction in Germany who were friendly to the church
of Rome, instituted a new association formed on the
same principles, and proposing to itself the same object
as free masonry. The members were denominated
mopses, from the German word mops, signifying a young
mastiff, which was deemed a proper emblem of the mu¬
tual fidelity and attachment of the brethren. But that
Vol. XII. Part II.
they might preserve the mysteries of free masonry from Masonry,
such of the members as were not masons, they rejected —y—~
from their ritual all the masonic signs and ceremonies;
and in order to escape the vengeance of the church of
Rome, they converted the oath of secrecy into a simple
promise, and admitted women into their new associa¬
tion. The mopses were patronised by the most illus¬
trious characters in Germany, and several princes of the
empire were grand masters of the order. The hostility
of the Roman see to the protestants in Germany in¬
duced the mopses to exclude them from their fraternity j
but this was merely a pretence to deceive his holiness,
for they afterwards admitted men of every religion and
of every country.
84. As the authority of the pope did not extend to
Switzerland, free masonry flourished in that republic till
1741, when the council of Berne issued an edict pro¬
hibiting under the severest penalties the assemblies of
free masons. No reason was assigned for this conduct,
and no charges advanced against the order-. The coun¬
cil of Berne are terrified for secret associations, and
therefore they must oppress and persecute them. Not
satisfied with abolishing the lodges in the republic, they
decreed that every free mason must accuse himself be¬
fore the magistrates of the district, that he must re¬
nounce his obligations to secrecy, and swear in the pre¬
sence of the Almighty, to trample upon those engage¬
ments, which before the same Being they had sworn to
revere. Such an instance of tyranny over the minds
and consciences of men, is a remarkable fact in the his¬
tory of a republic where the reformed religion had been
practised from its infancy, and where free masons
had always conducted themselves with exemplary pro¬
priety.
85. The persecutions which free masonry encounter-*rec ma"
ed were hitherto confined to the continent. The tide*””^^rsC-
of religious frenzy, however, now rolled to the shores Scotland,
of Britain. In the year 1745, the Associate Synod at¬
tempted to disturb the peace of the fraternity 5 and had
they been possessed of half the power- of the church of
Rome or the council of Berne, their proceedings,
prompted by equal fanaticism, would have been mark¬
ed with the same severity •, but, fortunately for the or¬
der, their pow-er extended only to the spiritual concerns
of those delinquents who were of the same sect with
themselves. In the beginning of the year 1745, an
overture was laid before the synod of Stirling, stating
that many improper things were performed at the initia¬
tion of masons, and requesting that the synod would con¬
sider whether or not the members of that order were en¬
titled to partake in the ordinances of religion. The sy¬
nod remitted this overture to all the kirk-sessions under
their inspection, allowing them to act as they thought
proper. In 17 55, however, they appointed all their kirk-
sessions to examine every person who was suspected to
be a free mason, and to demand an explicit answer to
any question which they might ask, concerning the ad¬
ministration of the mason oath. In the course of these
examinations, the kirk session discovered, (for they seem
hitherto to have been ignorant of it) that men who were
not architects were admitted into the order. On this
account the synod, in the year 1757, thought it neces¬
sary to adopt stricter measures. They drew up a list of
questions, which they appointed eveiy kirk-session to
put to those under their charge. These questions re-
f 4 P lated
666 M A S O N R
Masonry, lated to what they thought were the ceremonies of free
i ■■ y 1 masonry j and those who refused to answer them weie
debarred from religious ordinances. 1 he object of
these proceedings was not, certainly, as is pretended, to
make the abettors of the Associate Synod more holy
and upright, by detaching them from the fraternity.^
This could have been effected without that species of
examination which they authorised. The church of
Rome were contented with dispersing the fraternity, and
receiving its repentant members into their communion.
The council of Berne went no farther than abolishing
the society, and compelling the brethren to renounce
their engagements, lest they should be inconsistent with
the duties of citizens. But a synod of Scotish dissen¬
ters, who cannot imitate in these points the church of
Rome and the council of Berne, must compel the free
masons of their congregation to give them an account
of those mysteries and ceremonies, which they durst not
obtain by regular initiation.
t'ree ma- 86. Notwithstanding these persecutions, free masonry
sopry tlou- flourished, and was in the highest estimation in Great
rishes on Britain, France, Germany, and several other kingdoms
tuient'11' of Europe. In 1743, it was exported from Scotland
to Denmark} and the lodge which was then instituted
is now the grand lodge oi that kingdom. T-he same
prosperity has attended the first lodge in Sweden, which
was erected at Stockholm in 1754, under a patent from
Scotland. In 1765, a splendid apartment was erected
at Marseilles for the accommodation of the brethren.
It was adorned with the finest paintings, representing
the most interesting scenes that occur in the history of
the Old and New Testament, and calculated to remind
the spectator of his various duties as a man, a subject,
and a Christian. The representation of Joseph and his
brethren, of the Samaritan and Jew, of Lot and the
Angels, must have reminded every brother of the beau¬
ty of charity and forgiveness, which are the first prin¬
ciples of masonry, as they are the first duties of man.
The picture of Reter and the Apostles paying tribute
to Caesar, must have recalled to every individual his
obligations, as a citizen, to revere and support the con¬
stituted authorities. And the representation of Job in
Ills misfortunes, lifting up his hands to heaven, must have
forced upon the minds of the most inconsiderate, this
important reflection—that fortitude and resignation to
the will of God are the duties of all in distress, and
that the divine blessing will ultimately attend those who
bear, without murmuring, the chastisements of their fa¬
ther, and preserve, amidst the severest trials, their pa¬
tience and virtue unimpaired (x). These observations,
apparently trifling, are important in one respect, as they
show that the French lodges had not at that time foster¬
ed in their bosom the votaries of scepticism and disloy¬
alty. The other lodges in France were at this time nu-
rtierous and magnificent. The grand lodge contained
about twenty offices, which were all filled by noblemen
of the highest rank. They had provincial grand ma¬
sters similar to those of Scotland, and the insignia and
jewels of all those office-bearers, were as rich and splen¬
did as the lodges where they assembled.
87. In the year 1767, a lodge under an English
Y, FREE.
constitution was established at Berlin, under the appel- Masonry,
lation of Le lloyale York, in honour of the duke of —v—
York, who tvas initiated into the fraternity by that
lodge while he was travelling on the continent. In
1768, the free masons of Germany were authorised to
hold their assemblies, by a charter granted by the king
of Prussia, the elector of Saxony, and the queen of
Hungary and Bohemia, and afterwards by the emperor
of Germany himself. By another charter from Eng¬
land, in 1769, a lodge ivas erected at Brunstvick, which,
a short time after, received a provincial deputation from
England, for superintending the lodges of Lower Saxony.
In the year 1773, a compact was entered into between
the grand lodge of England, under Lord Petre, and
the grand lodge at Berlin, under the prince of Hesse
Darmstadt, which had a few years before been duly
erected into a grand lodge, at a meeting of the masters
and wardens of twelve regular lodges. In this com¬
pact it Avas stipulated, that the grand lodge of Berlin
should be acknowledged as the grand lodge of the
Avbole empire of Germany, including the dominions of
his Prussian majesty } that it should exercise no masonic
poAver out of the empire of Germany, or within the dis¬
trict under the authority of the grand lodge of Bruns-
Avick ; that the electorate of Hanover should be free
to both the grand lodges in Germany 5 and that the
contracting parties should unite their efforts to counter,
act all innovations in masonry, and particularly the pro¬
ceedings of a set of masons in Berlin, who, under the
denomination of Stride Observant#, had annihilated
their former constitutions, erected themselves into a
grand lodge, and sanctioned very improper innovations
upon the principles and ceremonies of the fraternity.
This compact was highly approved of by the king of
Prussia, avIio immediately erected the grand lodge ot
Berlin into a corporate body. In I777> ^le king
Prussia was protector of all the masons in Germany.
Ferdinand, duke of BrunsAvick and Lunenburgh, was
grand master of all the united lodges in Germany j
and the other offices were filled by the most able and
illustrious princes of the empire. Under the auspices
of such distinguished personages, and the jurisdiction
of the grand lodges of Berlin and BrunsAvick, free ma¬
sonry has flourished to the present day in that extensive
egipire.
88. In Germany, Denmark, and Sweden, charity- (/]iar;ty
schools Avere erected by the lodges, for educating the schools
children of free masons, whose poverty debarred them erected by
from this advantage. In that which was formed at1^1111'
Brunswick, they Avere instructed even in classical learn-'
ing, and various branches of the mathematics j and
were regularly examined by the duke of Brunswick,
who rewarded the most deserving Avith suitable dona¬
tions. At Eisenach several seminaries of this kind
were established. The teachers were endoAved Avith fix¬
ed salaries j and, in a short time after their institution,
they had sent into the Avorld 700 children, instructed
in the principles of science, and the doctrines oi Christ¬
ianity. In 1771, an establishment of a similar kind
was formed at Cassel, in which the children were main¬
tained and educated till they could provide for them¬
selves.
(x) For a further account of this building, see Smith’s Use and Abuse of Free Masonry, p. 165.
Masonry.
ree ma-
nry per-
i cuted in
>rtugal.
igin and
tory of
< illurai-
MASONRY, FREE. , 667
selves. In 1773 united lodges of Dresden, Leip- expressly affirms, that illumimsm “ took its rise among Masonry,
sick, and Gorlitz, erected at I rederickstadt a seminary the free masons, but was totally different from free ma- 1 —7-—" >
of learning for children of every denomination in the sonry j” and by a deceitful anachronism, he represents
electorate of Saxony. The masonic subscriptions were Weishaupt as an active member in the German lodges,
so numerous that the funds of the institution were suf- before he acquaints his readers that he was the founder
flcient for its maintenance j and in the space of five years, of the illuminati, for no other reason than to make
above 1100 children received a liberal education. In them believe that Weishaupt was a free mason before
the same year, an extensive workhouse was erected at he planned his new association (y). Now the case was
Prague in which the children were not only initiated very difierent indeed. Barruel himself asserts, “ that
into the first principles of learning, but into those it is a fact demonstrated beyond a doubt, that Weishaupt
branches of the useful and fine arts which might qualify became a mason in 1777 only ; and that two years be-
them for commercial and agrieultural situations. It fore this, when he established illuminism, he was totally
deserves to be remarked, that the founders of these in- unacquainted with the mysteries of free masonry (z).”
stitutions, amid their anxiety for the public prosperity, Here then is an important fact which strikes at the
never neglected the spiritual interests of the children. root of all Dr Robison’s reasoning against free masonry.
They saw that early piety is the foundation of all that Barruel maintains, that Weishaupt was not a mason till
is useful and honourable in life ; and that without this, two years after the organization of his new institution j
speculative knowledge and practical skill are of little and Dr Robison allows, that illuminism was totally dif-
avail.—How inconsistent are such facts with those fa- ferent from free masonry. The two institutions, there-
bulous accounts of the German lodges, which have been fore, were totally unconnected ; for the members of
published in England by a few party-men. the one w'ere never admitted into the lodges of the
89. While these things were going on in Germany, other, without being regularly initiated into the mys-
the brethren in Portugal were exposed to the persecu- teries of both. Upon these simple facts we would arrest
tion of its bigotted rulers. Major Francois d’Alin- the attention of every reader, and those in particular
court, a Frenchman, and Don Oyres de Ornellas Pra- who have been swindled out of their senses, by the uni-
cao, a Portuguese nobleman, were in 1766 imprisoned ted exertions of a priest and a philosopher.
by the governor of Madeira for their attachment to 92. After Weishaupt had organized his institution,
their order. Being afterwards carried to Lisbon, they he exerted every nerve to disseminate its principles,
were confined for fourteen months, till they were re- For this purpose he became a free mason in 1777 ; and
leased by the generous intercession of the brethren in by means of emissaries, he attempted to circulate his
that city. In the following year several free masons opinions among the French and German lodges. In
were confined at Naples, but soon liberated by the in-' these attempts, indeed, he was sometimes successful,
tercession of foreign princes, and the eloquence of an But it should be recollected by those who, on this ac-
Italian advocate. count, calumniate free masonry, that the same objection
90. Notwithstanding the persecutions which the fra- may be urged against Christianity, because impostors
ternity experienced in Holland, free masonry was have sometimes gained proselytes, and perverted the
flourishing in that republic in 1779. At that time a wavering minds of the multitude. These doctrines,
compact was entered into between the grand lodge of however, were not merely circulated by Weishaupt in
Holland, held at the Hague, and that of England. In a few of the lodges, and taught at the assemblies of
this compact it was stipulated that the grand lodge of the illuminati. They were published to the world in
Holland should be permitted to erect lodges within her the most fascinating form, by the French encyclope-
territories, both at home and abroad, and to appoint pro- dists ; and were inculcated in all the eloquence, with
vincial grand masters over each district. Inconsequence which some of the most celebrated philosophers on the
of this accession of power to the grand lodge of Hoi- continent could adorn them. It can only be said of
land, free masonry flourished, under its auspices, in the Weishaupt, therefore, that he was not just such a deter-
Dutch settlements in India, Africa, and South America. mined infidel as ^ oltaire and his associates.—Such is a
91. Let us now direct our attention to a new secret short, and it is hoped, an impartial view of the origin
association which about this time arose in Germany, and progress of the illuminati. It may be now proper
and which was imagined to have taken its rise from ' to attend to the causes from which this association arose,
free masonry, and to have planned a diabolical con- and the advantages and disadvantages which it may
spiracy against every religious and political establish- have engendered.
ment in Europe. In 1775 the order of the illuminati 93. About the middle of the eighteenth century the Causes from
was founded by Dr Adam Weishaupt, professor of literati on the continent were divided into two great
canon law in the university of Ingolstadt. In this as- parties. The one may be considered as ex-jesuits, or rose_
sociation speculative opinions were inculcated, which adherents to the Catholic superstition, who ivere promo-
were certainly inconsistent with the principles of sound ters of political and religious despotism, and inculcated
religion and social order. But that illuminism origi- the doctrines of non-resistance and passive obedience,
nated from free masonry j that it brought about the rI he other party was composed of men who were friends
French revolution, or even planned any dangerous con- to the reformed religion, enemies of superstition and
spiracy, are circumstances for which the shadow of a fanaticism, and supporters of the absuid docti ine of the
proof has not yet been adduced. Dr Robison indeed infinite perfectibility of tne human mind. I hey weie
- 4 P 2 dissatisfied
(y) Proofs of a Conspiracy, Introduction, p. 15. and p. 101. .
4z) Memoirs of Jacobinism, Part iii. Preliminary Observations, p. 15. and p. 12.
668 M A S O N R
Masonry, dissatisfied with that slavery which was imposed by the
t—-v——J despotism of the continental rulers, and the superstition
of the church of Home ■, and many of them entertained
opinions adverse to the Christian religion, and to every
existing form of government. Between these two
parties there was a perpetual struggle for power. The
ex-jesuits accused their opponents as heretics and pro¬
moters of jacobinism and infidelity J while the others
were constantly exposing the intrigues of priests, and
the tyranny of despots. To this latter class belonged
Weishaupt and his associates, who instituted the order
of the illuminati for no other purpose than to oppose
those corrupted priests, who would have degraded them
as Christians, and those tyrannical despots who have
enslaved them as citizens. The collision of these parties
Avas certainly productive of the greatest advantages.
While the Jesuits restrained the inclination of one part
of the community, to overrate the dignity of the hu¬
man mind, and anticipate ideal visions of religious and
political perfection ; the illuminati counteracted those
gloomy opinions which debase the dignity of our nature,
which check the energies of the mind, and impose the
most galling yoke of religious and political servitude.
94. After the French revolution, which, as Mounier
has well shown, arose from other causes than those to
which Barruel and Robison ascribe it, the plans of these
parties were not carried on in Germany so systemati¬
cally as before $ and notAvithstanding the fabrications
Avith which Barruel has calumniated the lodges in that
Respecta- country, free masonry prevails to this day, respected
bility of by the most virtuous and scientific members of the
free masons commiUnj^yj an4 patronized by the most distinguished
n* nv^ princes of the empire.
95. In Germany the qualifications for a free mason
Y, FREE.
are great and numerous. No person is initiated into Masonry,
the order Avithout the consent of evrery member of the 
lodge •, and it frequently happens, that a German even
is excluded by a single dissentient voice. On this ac¬
count the lodges of that country are filled Avith persons
of the first rank and respectability 5 and every thing is
conducted Avith the greatest decorum and solemnity.
As masonry is there held in the highest estimation, an
Englishman Avill obtain an easier introduction to the
chief nobility and literati of Germany in a mason lodge
than in any other place 5 and will never repent of hav ing
been initiated into the order in his native country (a).
96. After the publication of the Avorks of Barruel
and Robison, the progress of free masonry in Britain
was retarded by an act ol parliament in 1799 ^or ^ie
suppression of seditious societies, by Avhich the fraternity
were virtually prohibited from erecting new lodges in
the kingdom. But this act Avas not promoted by the
calumnies of these Avriters. It became necessary from
the political condition of the kingdom ; and the excep¬
tions which it contained in favour of free masons, com¬
pletely prove that government never credited the re¬
ports of these alarmists, but placed the most implicit
confidence in the loyalty and prudence of British ma¬
sons. The private characters, indeed, as Avell as the
public situations of those individuals who are now grand
masters of the order, are a sufficient pledge to the le¬
gislature and the uninitiated .public, that free masonry
will preserve in these kingdoms its ancient purity and
simplicity, and that it will ever continue to be the foe
of despotism and oppression, the enemy of superstition
and fanaticism, the promoter of civilization and good
order, and the friend of true benevolence and unaf¬
fected piety.
MAS
Masora. MASORA, a term in the JeAvish theology, signify-
 v—ing a work on the Bible, performed by several learned
rabbins, to secure it from any alterations which might
otherwise happen.
Their Avork regards merely the letter of the Hebrew
text, in which they have, first, fixed the true reading
by voAvels and accents : they have, secondly, numbered
not only the chapters and sections, but the verses,
words, and letters of the text: and they find in the
Pentateuch 5245 verses, and in the AvholeBible 23,206.
The masora is called, by the Jews, the hedge or fence of
the law, because this enumeration of the verses, &c.
is a means of preserving it from being corrupted and
altered. They have, thirdly, marked whatever irregu¬
larities occur in any of the letters of the HebreAV text;
such as the different size of the letter’s, their various
positions and inversions, &c. and they have been fruit¬
ful in finding out reasons for these irregularities and
mysteries in them. They are, fourthly, supposed to
be the authors of the Keri and Chetibh, or the margi¬
nal corrections of the text in our Hebrew Bibles.
The text of the sacred books, it is to be observed,
MAS
was originally Avritten Avithout any breaks or divisions Masora.
into chapters or verses, or even into Avoids •, so that a-y—
Avhole book, in the ancient manner, was but one con¬
tinued Avord ; of this kind AA"e have still several ancient
manuscripts, both Greek and Latin. In regard, there¬
fore, the sacred writings had undergone an infinite
number of alterations, Avhence various readings had
arisen, and the original AV.as become much mangled
and disguised, the Jews had recourse to a canon, which
they judged infallible, to fix and ascertain the reading
of the HebreAV text j and this rule they call masora,
“ tradition,” from "Dis, tradidit, as if this critique
were nothing but a tradition which they had received
from their forefathers. Accordingly they say, that
Avhen God gave the law to Moses at Mount Sinai, he
taught him, first, the true reading of it ; and, second¬
ly, its true interpretation j and that both these Avere
handed down by oral tradition, from generation to ge¬
neration, till at length they were committed to Avriting.
The former of these, viz. the true reading, is the sub¬
ject of the masora 5 the latter, or true interpretation,
that of the mishna and gemara.
According
(a) Dr Render’s Tour through Germany, Introduction to A'ol. i. p. 30. and 33. Dr Render maintains, that
free masonry has greatly improved the manners and disposition of the Germans. See vol* ii. p. 200. .Note.
MAS [ 669 ] MAS
Masora, According to Elias Levita, they ■were the Jews of
Masque, a famous school at Tiberias, about 500 years after
Christ, who composed, or at least began, the masora j
whence they are called masorites, and masoretic doctors.
Aben Ezra makes them the authors of the points and
accents in the Hebrew text, as we now find it; and
which serve for vowels.
The age of the masorites has been much disputed,
Archbishop Usher places them before Jerome ; Capel,
at the end of the fifth century, Father Morin, in the
tenth century. Basnage says, that they were not a so¬
ciety, but a succession of men •, and that the masora is
the work of many grammarians, who, without associ¬
ating and communicating their notions, composed this
collection of criticisms on the Hebrew text. It is ur¬
ged that there were masorites from the time of Ezra and
the men of the great synagogue, to about the year of
Christ 1030: and that Ben Asher and Ben Naphtali,
who were the best of the profession, and who, according
to Basnage, were the inventors of the masora, flourished
at this time. Each of these published a copy of the
whole Hebrew text, as correct, says Dr Prideaux, as
they could make it. The eastern Jews have followed
that of Ben Naphtali, and the western that of Ben
Asher; and all that has been done since is to copy
after them, without making any more corrections or
masoretical criticisms.
The Arabs have done the same thing by their Ko¬
ran that the masorites have done by the Bible j nor do
the Jews deny their having borrowed this expedient
from the Arabs, who first put it in practice in the
seventh century.
There is a great and little Masora printed at Venice
and at Basil, with the Hebrew text in a different cha¬
racter. Buxtorf has written a masoretic commentary,
which he calls Tiberius.
MASQUE, or Mask, a cover for the face, con¬
trived with apertures for the eyes and mouth ; origi¬
nally worn chiefly by women of condition, either to
preserve their complexion from the weather, or out of
modesty to prevent their being known. Poppcea, wife
of Nero, is said to be the first inventor of the masque ;
which she did to guard hex* complexion from the sun
and weather, as being the most delicate woman, with
regard to her person, that has been known.
Theatrical masques were in common use both among
the Greeks and Romans : Suidas and Athenseus ascribe
the invention of them to the poet Cboerilus, a contem¬
porary of Thespis : Horace attributes them to Aeschy¬
lus •, but Aristotle informs us, that the real inventor,
and consequently the time of their first introduction
and use, were unknown. Brantome observes, that the
common use of modern masques was not introduced till
towards the end of the sixteenth century.
Masque is also used to signify any thing used to
cover the face, and prevent a person’s being known.
The penitents of Lyons and Avignon hide their faces
with large white veils, which sei*ve them fox’ masques.
The iron Masque (Masque de Fer), or Man with
the Iron Masque, a remarkable personage so denominat¬
ed, who existed as a state prisoner in France during
the latter part of the 17th century. As the circumr
stances of this person form a historical problem which
has occasioned much inquiry, and given rise to many
conjectures, as well as of late, in consequence of the de¬
struction of the Bastile, excited in a particular manner
the curiosity of the public, it shall be endeavoured to Masque,
condense in this article the substance of every thing—v~**“
material that has been published on the subject. We
shall first x’elate such paxticulars concerning this extra¬
ordinary prisoner as appear to be well authenticated ;
and shall afterwards mention the different opinions and
conjectures that have been entertained with x’egard to.
his real quality, and the causes of his confinement.
I. The authenticated particulai’s concerning the Iron
Masque are as follows : A few months after the death
of Cardinal Mazarine, there arrived at the isle ofSainte
Marguerite, in the sea of Provence, a young prisoner
whose appearance was peculiarly attracting: his per¬
son was above the middle size, and elegantly formed,,
his mien and depoxtment were noble, and his manners
graceful; and even the sound of his voice, it is said,
had in it something uncommonly interesting. On the
road he constantly wore a masque made with ii-on
springs, to enable him to eat without taking it off". It
was at first believed that this masque was made entire¬
ly with iron j whence he acquired the name of “ the
Man with the iron mask.” His attendants bad receiv¬
ed ordex’S to despatch him if he attempted to take off
his masque or discover himself. He had been first con¬
fined at Pignerol, under the care of the governor M. de
St Mars; and upon being sent from thence to Sainte
Marguerite, he was accompanied thither by the same
person, who continued to have the charge of him. He
was always treated with the most marked respect: he
was served constantly in plate; and the governor him¬
self placed his dishes on the table, retiring immediately
after and locking the door behind him. He tu-to'yoit
(thee’d and thou’d) the governor j who, on the other
hand, behaved to him in the most respectful manner,
and never wore his hat before him, nor sat down in
his px’esence unless he was desired. The marquis de
Louvoisis, who went to see him at St Marguerite,
spoke to him standing, and with that kind of attention
which denotes high respect.
Dux-ing his residence here, he attempted twice, in
an indirect manner, to make himself known. One
day he wrote something with his knife on a plate, and
threw it out of his window towards a boat that was
drawn on shore near the foot of the tower. A fisher¬
man picked it up and carried it to the governor. M.
de St Mars was alarmed at the sight j and asked the
man with gi’eat anxiety, whether he could xead, and
whether any one else had seen the plate P The man
answered, that he could not read, that he had but just
found the plate, .and that no one else had seen it. He
was, however, confined till the governor was well as¬
sured of the truth of his assertions.—Another attempt
to discover himself proved equally unsuccessful. A
young man who lived in the isle, one day perceived
something floating under the prisoner’s window j and
on picking it up, he discovei'ed it to be a very fine
shirt written all over. He carried it immediately to
the governor; who, having looked at some parts of
the writing, asked the lad, with some appearance of
anxiety, if he had not had the curiosity to read it P He
protested repeatedly that he had not; but two days
afterwards, he was found dead in his bed.
The Masque de Fer remained in this isle till the year
1698, when M St Mars being pi’omoted to the go¬
vernment of the Bastile, conducted his prisoner to that
fortress. In his way thither, he stopt with him at his
estate
Masque.
MAS [67
estate near Palteau. The Masque arrived there in a
-litter, surrounded by a numerous guard on horseback.
M. de St Mars ate at the same table with him all the
time they resided at Palteau ; but the latter was always
placed with his back towards the windows j and the
peasants, who came to pay their compliments to their
master, and whom curiosity kept constantly on the
watch, observed that M. de St Mars always sat op¬
posite to him with two pistols by the side of his plate.
They were waited on by one servant only, who brought
in and carried out the dishes, always carefully shutting
the door both in going out and returning. The pri¬
soner was always masked, even when he passed through
the court j but the people saw his teeth and lips, and
.also observed that his hair was gray.—The governor
slept in the same room with him, in a second bed that
was placed in it on that occasion. In the course of
their journey, the Iron Mask was one day heard to
ask his keeper whether the king had any design on
his life P “ No, prince,” he replied 5 “ provided that
you quietly allow yourself to be conducted, your life is
perfectly secure.”
The stranger was accommodated as well as it was
possible to be in the Bastile. An apartment had been
prepared for him by order of the governor befox-e his
arrival, fitted up in the most convenient style 5 and
every thing he expressed a desire for was instantly pro¬
cured him. His table was the best that could be pro¬
vided } and he was ordered to be supplied with as rich
clothes as he desired : but his chief taste in this last
particular was for lace, and for linen remai'kably fine.
It appears that he was allowed the use of such books
as he desired, and that he spent much of his time in
reading. He also amused himself with playing upon
the guitar. He had the liberty of going to mass 5
but was then strictly forbid to speak or uncover his
face : orders were even given to the soldiers to fire upon
him if he attempted either 5 and their pieces were al¬
ways pointed towards him as he passed through the
court. When he had occasion to see a surgeon or a
physician, he was obliged, under pain of death, con¬
stantly to wear his mask. An old physician of the
Bastile, who had often attended him when he was in¬
disposed, said, that he never saw his face, though he
had frequently examined his tongue, and different parts
of his body ; that there was something uncommonly
interesting in the sound of his voice ; and that he ne¬
ver complained of his confinement, nor let fall from
him any hint by whieh it might be guessed who be was.
It is said that he often passed the night in walking up
and down his room.
This unfortunate prince died on the 19th of No¬
vember 1703, after a short illness j and was interred
next day in the burying-place of the parish of St Paul.
The expence of his funeral amounted only to forty
livres. The name given him was Marchiali: and even
his age, as well as his real name, it seemed of import¬
ance to conceal} for in the register made of his fune¬
ral, it was mentioned that he was about forty years
old ; though he had told his apothecary, some time
before his death, that he thought he must be sixty.—
It is a well-known fact, that immediately after the
prisoner’s death, his apparel, linen, clothes, mattresses,
and in short every thing that had been used by him,
were burnt 5 that the walls of his room were scraped,
I
o ] MAS
the floor taken up, evidently from the apprehension Masque
that he might have found means of writing any thing —v—
that would have discovered who he was. Nay, such
w'as the fear of his having left a letter or any mark
which might lead to a discovery, that his plate was
melted down •, the glass was taken out of the window
of his room and pounded to dust; the window-frame
and doors burnt 5 and the ceiling of the room, and
the plaster of the inside of the chimney, taken down.
Several persons have affirmed, that the body was bu¬
ried without a head *, and Monsieur de Saint Foix in¬
forms us*, that “ a gentleman having bribed the sex-#inys£
ton, had the body taken up in the night, and found usais Histo-
stone instead of the head.” riques.
The result of these extraordinary accounts is, that
the Iron Masque was not only a person of high birth,
but must have been of great consequence •, and that
his being concealed was of the utmost importance to
the king and ministry. We come now’, therefore, to
notice,
II. The opinions and conjectures that have been
formed concerning the real name and condition of this
remarkable personage. Some have pretended that he
was the duke of Beaufort j others, that he was the
count de Vermandois, natural son to Louis XIV. by
the duchess de la Valliere. Some maintain him to
have been the duke of Monmouth, natural son of
Charles II. of England by Lucy Walters j and others
say, that he was Gerolami Magni, minister to the duke
of Modena.
Besides these conjectures, none of which possesses
sufficient probability to entitle them to consideration,
a fifth has been advanced j namely, That the Iron
Masque was a son of Anne of Austria, queen to
Louis XIII. and consequently that he was a brother of
Louis XIV. ; but whether a bastard brother, a bro¬
ther-german, or a half-brother, is a question that has
given rise to three several opinions, which we shall
state in the order of time in which the respective trails
actions to which they allude happened.
1. The first opinion is, that the queen proved with
child at a time when it was evident it could not have
been by her husband, who for some months before,
had never been with her in private. The supposed
father of this child is said by some to have been the
duke of Buckingham, who came to France in May
1625, conduct the Princess Henrietta, wife of
Charles I. to England. The private letters and me¬
moirs of those times speak very suspiciously of the
queen and Buckingham j his behaviour at Amiens,
whither the queen and queen-mother accompanied the
princess in her way to Boulogne, occasioned much whis¬
pering : notwithstanding the pains that have been ta¬
ken by La Porte in his Memoires to excuse his mistress,
it appears that the king, on this occasion, was ex¬
tremely offended at her, and that it required all the
influence and address of the queen-mother to effect a
reconciliation. It is said, that this child was privately
brought up in the country; that when Mazarine be¬
came a favourite, he was intrusted with the care of
him} and that Louis XIV. having discovered the
secret on the death of the cardinal, thought it neces-^r^
sary to confine him in the manner that has been related,
But it may be observed, that this secret could No 6.
scarcely have escaped the vigilance of the cardinal dep. 343-
Kichlieu;
mas [ 671
Kichlieu ) and it is not improbable, that a minister so
little scrupulous, it inclined to save the honour of a
queen, would have removed a child, who, if he lived,
might have been made use of to disturb the tranquil¬
lity of the kingdom. After this supposed birth, the
queen had frequent quarrels with the king, and what
was more dangerous, with the cardinal *, who even
used every means in his power to inquire into her most
private transactions. It was on a memorable occa¬
sion of this kind, that her servant La Porte was thrown
into the Bastile ; and it can scarcely be imagined she
would have had the firmness she then displayed, while
conscious of so much guilt, and under the risk of hav¬
ing it discovered. The prisoner with the masque ap¬
pears, by several accounts, to have been a vouth of
a handsome figure in the year 1661 ; and in 1703,
when he died, to have been above sixty ; but had he
been a son of Buckingham, he would have been about
thirty-six in 1661, when lie could not be said to have
been a youth 5 and in November 1703, aLout seventy-
eight.
2. The second opinion is, that he was the twin bro¬
ther of Louis Xn . born some hours after him. This
first appeared in a short anonymous work published
without date, and without the name of place or printer.
It is therein said, “ Louis XIV. was born at St Ger¬
mains en Laye, on the 5th of September 1638, about
noon 5 and the illustrious prisoner, known by the ap¬
pellation of the Iron Masque, was born the same day,
while Louis XIII. was at supper. The king and the
cardinal, fearing that the pretensions of a twin brother
might one day be employed to renew those civil wars
with which France had been so often afflicted, cauti¬
ously concealed his birth, and sent him away to be
brought up privately. Having but an imperfect know¬
ledge of the circumstances that followed, I shall say
nothing more, for fear of committing errors; but I
firmly believe the fact I have mentioned *, and time will
probably prove to my reader, that I have ground for
what I have advanced.”
This opinion has been more noticed since the publi¬
cation of a work called Memoires du Marechal Due de
Richlieu, written by the abbe Soulavie j concerning
which it may be proper to premise, that the present
duke of Richlieu, son of the mareehal, disavows this
work, while the abbe Soulavie, who had been em¬
ployed by the marechal, insists on the authenticity of
his papers (a). He informs us that the duke of Rich-
lieu was the lover of Mademoiselle de Valois, daughter
of the regent duke of Orleans, and afterwards duchess
of Modena, who in return was passionately fond of him ;
that the regent had something more than a paternal
affection for his daughter; and that, though she held
his sentiments in abhorrence, the duke of Richlieu
made use of her influence with her father to discover
the secret of the prisoner with the masque ; that the
regent, who had always observed the most profound
silence on this subject, was at last persuaded to intrust
her with a manuscript, which she immediately sent to
her lover, who took a copy of it. This manuscript is
3
MAS
supposed to have been written by a gentleman on his
deathbed, who had been the governor of the prisoner.
'I he following is an extract of it, from what the abbe
Soulavie has told us.
“ 1 be birth of the prisoner happened in the evening
of the 5th of September 1638, in presence of the chan¬
cellor, the bishop of Meaux, the author of the manu¬
script, a midwife named Peronete, and a sieur Honorat.
Ibis circumstance greatly disturbed the king’s mind;
he observed that the Salique law had made no provi¬
sion for such a case ; and that it was even the opinion
of some, that the last born was the first conceived, and
therefore had a prior right to the other. By the ad¬
vice of Cardinal de Richlieu, it was therefore resolved
to conceal his birth, but to preserve his life, in case by
the death of his brother it should be necessary to avow
him. A declaration was drawn up, and signed and
sworn to by all present, in which every circumstance
was mentioned, and several marks on his body describ¬
ed. This document being sealed by the chancellor
with the royal seal, was delivered to the king ; and all
were commanded and took an oath never to speak on
the subject, not even in private and among themselves.
The child was delivered to the care of Madame Pero¬
nete the midwife, to be under the direction of Cardinal
de Richlieu, at whose death the charge devolved to
Cardinal de Mazarine. Mazarine appointed the author
of the manuscript his governor, and intrusted to him
the care of his education. But as the prisoner was
extremely attached to Madame Peronete, and she
equally so to him, she remained with him till her death.
His governor carried him to his house in Burgundy,
where he paid the greatest attention to his education.
“ As the prisoner grew up, he became impatient to
discover his birth, and often importuned his governor
on that subject. His curiosity had been roused bv
observing that messengers from the court frequently
arrived at the house : and a box, containing letters
from the queen and the cardinal, having one day been
inadvertently left out, he opened it, and saw enough
to guess at the secret. From that time he became
thoughtful and melancholy; ‘ which (says the author)
I could not then account for. He shortly after asked
me to get him a portrait of the late and present king;
but I put him off by saying that I could not procure
any that were good. He then desired me to let him
go to Dijon; which I have known since was with an
intention of seeing a portrait of the king there, and
of going secretly to St John de Lus, where the court
then was on occasion of the marriage with the infanta.
He was beautiful; and love helped him to accomplish
his wishes. He had captivated the affections of a
young housekeeper, who procured him a portrait of
the king. It might have served for either of the bro¬
thers ; and the discovery put him into so violent a pas¬
sion, that he immediately came to me with the portrait
in his hand, saying, Voila mon frere, et voila que jesins,
showing me at the same time a letter of the cardinal de
Mazai'ine that he had taken out of the box.’ Upon this
discovery his governor immediately sent an express to
court
Masque.
(a) A letter from the duke of Richelieu, and answer from the abbe Soulavie, appeared
Paris.
in the Journal de
M A S
iTasqne. court to communicate what had happened, and to desire
——v—^ new instructions ; the consequence of which was, that
the governor and the young prince under his care were
arrested and confined.”
This memoir, real or fictitious, concludes with say¬
ing, “ I have suffered with him in our common prison:
I am now summoned to appear before my judge on high j
and for the peace of my soul I cannot but make this
declaration, which may point out to him the means of
freeing himself from his present ignominious situation,
in case the king his brother should die without children.
Can an extorted oath compel me to observe secrecy on
a thing so incredible, but which ought to be left on
record to posterity.”
3. The third opinion is, that he was a son of the
queen by the cardinal de Mazarine, born about a year
after the death of her husband Louis XIII.", that he
was brought up secretly j and that soon after the death
of the cardinal, which happened on the 9th ot March
1661, he was sent to Pignerol. To this account Fa-
* Traite dither Griffct * objects, that it was needless to masque
la merite de a face t}iat was unknown j and therefore that this
rHistotre, op;n;on does n0t merit discussion.” But in answer it
P 31 ' ’ has been observed, That the prisoner might strongly
resemble Louis XIV. which would be a sufficient rea¬
son to have him masked. This opinion is supposed to
have been that entertained by Voltaire, who asserts his
thorough knowledge of the secret, though he declined
being altogether explicit. The abb^ Soulavie, author
of Memoirs of the Marechal de Richlieu, speaking on
this subject, says, “ That he once observed to the ma¬
rechal, that he certainly had the means of being in¬
formed who the prisoner was } that it even seemed that
he had told Voltaire, who durst not venture to publish
the secret; and that he at last asked him, whether he
wTas not the elder brother of Louis XIV. born without
the knowledge of Louis XIII. ? That the marechal
seemed embarrassed, but afterwards said, that he was
neither the bastard brother of Louis XIV. nor the
duke of Monmouth, nor the count of Vermandois, nor
the duke of Beaufort, as different authors had advan¬
ced } that their conjectures were nothing but reveries :
but added, that they however had related many cir¬
cumstances that were true ; that in fact the order was
given to put the prisoner to death if he discovered
himself*, and that he finished the conversation by say¬
ing, All I can tell you on the subject is, that the pri¬
soner was not of such consequence when he died at the
beginning of the present century as he had been at the
beginning of the reign of Louis XIV. and that he
was shut up for important reasons of state.” The
abbe Soulavie tells us, that he wrote down what had
been said, and gave it to the marechal to read, who
corrected some expressions. The abbe having pro¬
posed some further questions, he answered. “ Read
what Voltaire published last on the subject of the pri¬
soner with the masque, especially at the end, andreliect
on it.”—The passage of Voltaire alluded to, is as fol¬
lows :
“ The man with the masque, (says he), is an enigma
of which every one would guess the mt aning. Some
have said that it was the duke of Beaufort; but the
duke of Beaufort was killed by the Turks in the de¬
fence of Candy in 1669, and the prisoner with the
masque was at Pignerol in 1661. Besides, how could
4
[ 672 ] MAS
the duke of Beaufort have been arrested in the midst
of his army, and brought to France, without any one
knowing it ? and why confine him ? and why that
masque ?—Others have dreamed that he was the count
de Vermandois, natural son of Louis XIV. who died
publicly at the army in 1683 of the smallpox, and
was buried at the little town of Aire and not Arras;
in which Father Griffet was mistaken, but in which
to be sure there is no great harm. Others have ima¬
gined, that it was the duke of Monmouth, who was
beheaded publicly in London in the year 1685. But
for this lie must have risen again from the dead, and
he must have changed the order of time, and placed
the year 1662 in the room of the year 1685. King
James, who never forgave any one, and who on that
account deserved all that happened to him, must have
pardoned the duke of Monmouth, and got another to
die in his stead, who perfectly resembled him. This
Sosia must first have been found, and then he must
have had the goodness to let his head be cut off in
public, to save the duke of Monmouth. It was ne¬
cessary that all England should be mistaken j and that
King James should beg of Louis XIV. to be so oblig¬
ing as to be his gaoler ; that Louis XIV. after having
shown this trifling piece of civility to King James,
should not have been wanting in the same attention to
his friend King William and to Queen Anne (with
both of whom he was engaged in Avar), and to please
them, retained the dignity of gaoler, with which James
had honoured him.
“ All these illusions being dissipated, it then remains
to know Avho this prisoner Avas, and at what age he
died. It is clear, that if he was not permitted to
cross the court of the Bastile, or to speak to his phy¬
sician, except covered Avith a masque, it must have been
from the apprehension that his features and counte¬
nance might have discovered some resemblance. He
could sIioav his tongue but not his face. He said him¬
self to the apothecary of the Bastile, a few days before
his death, that he believed he Avas about 60. Mr Mar-
soban, Avho Avas son-in-laAV to this apothecary, and sur¬
geon to the marechal de Richlieu, and afterwards to
the regent duke of Orleans, told me this frequently-
Why give him an Italian name ?—They ahvays call¬
ed him Marchiali. He Avho Avrites this article perhaps
knows more than F ather Griffet, but he AVill say no¬
thing farther.”
This opinion has been lately resumed, illustrated,
and enforced, by M. de Saint Mihiel, in a Avork en¬
titled Ze Veritable Homme, &c. “ The real Man with
the Iron Masque.” The author, in support of his
idea, attempts to pro\re that Anne of Austria and Car¬
dinal Mazarine Avere married. This, says he, the
duchess of Orleans assures us of in three of her letters.
In the first, dated Sept. 13. 1713, she expresses her¬
self as folloAvs : “ Old Beauvais, Avho Avas first lady of
the bedchamber to the queen dowager, Avas acquaint¬
ed with the secret of the ridiculous marriage 5 this
rendered it necessary for the queen to do every thing
that her confidant Avished j and this circumstance has
given rise in this country to an extension of the rights
of first ladies of the bedchamber.” In the second of
these letters, dated Nov. 2. 1717, she says, “The queen-
mother, AvidoAV of Louis XIII. did Averse than love
Cardinal Mazarine 5 she married him, for he Avas not
a
MAS [673
Masque, a priest: lie was not even in orders; and who could
 * ' have hindered her ? He was most horribly tired of the
good queen-mother, and lived on very bad terms with
her, which is the reward that people deserve for enter¬
ing into such marriages.” In her third letter, dated
July 2. 17 J9’ speaking of the queen, the duchess says,
“ Siie was perfectly easy respecting Cardinal Mazarine 5
he was not a priest, and therefore nothing could pre¬
vent their being married. The secret passage through
which the cardinal went every evening to the queen’s
apartment is still to be seen at the Palais royal.” A-
mong other proofs besides the above, which M. de
St Mihiel brings to substantiate this marriage, he ob¬
serves, that Mazarine held all councils of state in his
apartment whilst he was shaving or dressing ; that he
never permitted any person to sit down in his presence,
not even the chancellor nor marshal de Villeroi; and
that while they were deliberating with him on state
affairs, he would be often playing with his monkey or
linnet. What man (continues the author) would have
subjected to such humiliations a chancellor, who holds
the first office in the kingdom since that of constable
has been suppressed, and a marshal who was governor
to the king, had he not been in reality a sovereign him¬
self, in virtue of his being husband to the queen-regent ?
He therefore concludes, that the man with the iron
masque was son to Anne of Austria and Cardinal Ma¬
zarine } and endeavours to justify this assertion by a
variety of conjectural proofs. Of some of these we
shall give a short sketch :—
1. No prince, or person of any consideration, after
the year 1644, at which time the man with the iron
masque was born, until the time when his existence
was known, disappeared in France. This personage,
therefore, was not a prince or great lord of France
known at that time.
2. The man with the iron masque was not a fo¬
reigner ; for foreigners, even of the highest distinction,
did not at that period study the French language in such
a manner as to attain so great perfection in it as to pass
for Frenchmen. If this prisoner had spoken with the
least foreign accent, the officers, physicians, surgeons,
apothecaries, confessors, and others employed in the
prisons where he was, and especially the prisoners with
whom he conversed at St Margaret, would not have
failed to discover it. From all this M. de St Mihiel
infers that he must have been a Frenchman.
3. The existence of the man with the iron masque
has been known for upwards of 90 years. Had any
person of high rank disappeared at an anterior period,
his friends, relations, or acquaintances, would not have
failed to claim him, or at least to suppose that he was
the man concealed by this masque. But no one disap¬
peared, nor was any one claimed: the man with the
iron masque was therefore a person unknown.
4. This man was not torn away from society on ac¬
count of any criminal action j for when he was arrest¬
ed, it was foreseen that he would cause much embar¬
rassment, and accasion great expences. He was there¬
fore not a criminal, else means would have been pur¬
sued to get rid of him j and consequently all the import¬
ance of his being concealed was attached solely to his
person.
5. This stranger must have been a person of very
Vol. XII. Part II. f
] MAS
high birth j for the governor of the prison, St Mars,
behaved always to him with the greatest respect. '
6. Louis XIII. played on the guitar; Louis XIV,
did the same in a very masterly manner j and the man
with the iron masque played also on that instrument:
which gives us reason to believe that his education was
directed by the same persons who had presided over
that of Louis XIV. and who appear to have been the
particular choice of Anne of Austria.
7. This stranger died on the 19th of November
17°3j antI a few days before his death, he told the
apothecary of the Bastile, that he believed he was about
60 years of age. Supposing that he was then 59 and
a half, he must have been born towards the end of May
1644 > and if he was 60 wanting three months, he must
have been born in the end of August, or the beginning
of September, of the same year; a period when the
royal authority was in the hands of Anne of Austria,
but in reality exercised more by Mazarine than by her.
“ I have already proved (continues the author), that
from the first day of the regency of Anne of Austria,
the greatest friendship, and even intimacy, subsisted
between this princess and the cardinal; that these sen¬
timents were changed into a mutual love, and that they
were afterwards united by the bonds of marriage. They
might, therefore, well have a son about the month of
September 1644, as Louis XIII. had been then dead
more than 15 months, having died on the 15th of May
the year preceding. But nothing of what I have re¬
lated, or of what has been written, and acknowledged
as fact, respecting the man with the iron masque, can
be applied, except to a son of Mazarine and Anne of
Austria. The man with the iron masque, was indebt¬
ed, therefore, for his existence to Cardinal Mazarine
and the regent widow of Louis XIII.”—To account
for the manner in which the queen was able to conceal
her pregnancy and delivery, Madame de Motteville is
quoted: who relates, under the year 1644, that Anne
of Austria quitted the Louvre, where she had resided
for 29 years, because her apartments there displeased
her : that she went to reside at the Palais Royal, which
Richlieu, when he died, bequeathed to the deceased
king : that when she first occupied this lodging, she
was dreadfully afflicted with the jaundice: that the
physicians ascribed this disorder to her dejection and
application to business, which gave her much embar¬
rassment : but that being cured of her melancholy, as
well as of her malady, she resolved to think only of en¬
joying tranquillity; which she did, by communicating
to her minister the burden of public affairs.
8. As it is necessary that some name should be given
to every man, in order to distinguish him from another,
that of Marchiali was given to the man wTith the iron
masque: a name which evidently shows, that it had
been invented by an Italian. [Cardinal Mazarine was
a native of Piscina in the Abruzzo.]
9. Anne of Austria was remarkably delicate respect¬
ing every thing that touched her person. It was with
great difficulty that cambric could be found fine enough
to make shifts and sheets for her. Cardinal Mazarine
once rallying her on this subject, said, That if she
should he damned, her punishment in hell would he to
sleep in Holland sheets. The predominant taste of the
man with the iron masque, was to have lace and linen
4 Q of
Masque.
Masque.
mas
of the most extraordinary fineness _ ,
i author) does not perceive, in this similarity of tastes,
the maternal tenderness of Anne of Austria, who would
have thought her son a great suft'erer had he not been
indulged with fine linen ?” .
“ Louis XIII. (continues M. de St Mihiel) was a
husband of a gloomy disposition, and an enemy to plea¬
sure : while the queen, on the contrary, was fond of
social life ; and introduced at the court of France, espe¬
cially after she became free, that ease and politeness
which distinguished it under Louis XIV. from all the
other courts of Europe. Louis XIII. had also a disa¬
greeable coutenance, and a breath so offensive, that it
was a punishment for Kichlieu to remain near him. It
is clear, therefore, that she could not be much pleased
with such a husband. When she became regent of the
kingdom by the king’s death, which happened on the
14th of May 1643, as slie liatl no.t enjoyed that happi¬
ness which arises from a close union of hearts, it will
not appear extraordinary that she should indulge the af¬
fection she entertained for C ardinal Mazarine, and that
she should marry him. Every circumstance that could
tend to favour such a marriage will be found united in
her situation. She was at a distance from her family;
absolute mistress of all her actions ; and had, besides, a
heart formed for love. Mazarine, though a cardinal,
had never entered into orders ; he gave out that he was
descended from a great family} he was handsome and
well made •, he was of a mild, insinuating disposition,
and remarkably engaging in conversation 5 and his of¬
fice, as prime minister, afforded him every opportunity
of visiting and conversing with the queen whenever he
thought proper. Is it, therefore, so very astonishing,
that, with so many advantages he was able to capti¬
vate the queen so far as to induce her to marry him ?
Such a marriage was not, indeed, according to the usual
course of things. Yet it was not without many prece¬
dents, particularly among sovereigns of the other sex,
who had given their hands to persons of inferior rank.
As the women, however, are not forgiven so readily as
the men for entering into such marriages, Anne of Aus¬
tria kept hers a secret from this motive, and because
she would have been in danger of losing the regency of
the kingdom had it been known.”
The reasoning of M. de St Mihiel is both ingeni¬
ous and plausible j though the probability of the ac¬
count is somewhat diminished by considering what must
have been the queen’s age at this period, after she had
been Louis’s wife for 29 years before his death.—
The account immediately preceding, without this ob¬
jection, seems abundantly credible. But, whether, up¬
on the whole, either of them can be received as deci-
or* whether the mystery of the iron masque re-
sive.
— • ~7 —   - J J x
mains still to be unravelled, we must leave to the reader
to determine.
Masq,ue, \xiArchitecturey is applied to certain pieces
of sculpture, representing some hideous forms, grotesque,
or satyrs faces, &c. used to fill up and adorn vacant
places, as in friezes, the pannels of doors, keys of arches,
&c. but- particularly in grottos.
MASQUERADE, or Mascarade, an assembly of
persons masqued or disguised, meeting to dance and di¬
vert themselves. This was much in use with us, and
has been long a very common practice abroad, especial¬
ly in carnival time. The word comes from the Italian
[ 674 ] MAS
Who (says the mascarata, and that from the Arabic mascara, which
signifies “ raillery, buffoonery.” Granacci, wbo died
in 1543, is said to have been the first inventor of mas- _
querades.
MASRAKITHA, a pneumatic instrument of mu¬
sic among the ancient Hebrews, composed of pipes of
various sizes, fitted into a kind of wooden chest, open
at the top, and stopped at the bottom with wood co¬
vered with a skin. Wind was conveyed to it from the
lips, by means of a pipe fixed to the chest: the pipes
were of lengths musically proportioned to each other,
and the melody was varied at pleasure, by stopping and
unstopping with the fingers the apertures at the upper
extremity. See Plate CCXCVIII.
MASS, in Mechanics, the matter of any body cohe¬
ring with it, i. e. moving and gravitating along with it.
In which sense, mass is distinguished from bulk, or
volume, which is the expansion of a body in length,
breadth, and thickness. The mass of any body is right¬
ly' estimated by its weight and the masses of two bo¬
dies of the same weight are in a reciprocal ratio of
their bulks.
Mass, Missa, in the church of Rome, the office or
prayers used at the celebration of the euchanst , 01 in
other words consecrating the bread and wine into the
body and blood of Christ, and offering them so transub¬
stantiated as an expiatory sacrifice for the quick and
the dead. As the mass is* in general believed to be a
representation of the passion of our blessed Saviour, so
every action of the priest, and every particular part of
the service, is supposed to' allude to the particular cir¬
cumstances of his passion and death.
Nicod, after Baronius, observes that the word
comes from the Hebrew missach {oblatum') / 01 from
the Latin missa mtssorum; because in the former
times, the catechumens and excommunicated tvere sent
out of the church, when the deacons said Ite, mtssa
est, after sermon and reading of the epistle and gos¬
pel j they not being allowed to assist at the consecra¬
tion. Menage derives the word from missio, “ dis¬
missing Others from missa, “missing, sending*,”
because in the mass, the prayers of men on earth are
sent up to heaven.
The general division of masses consists in high and
low. The first is that sung by the choristers, and cele¬
brated with the assistance of a deacon and sub-deacon ;
low masses are those in which the prayers are barely
rehearsed without singing.
There are many different or occasional masses in
the Romish church, some of which have nothing pe¬
culiar but the name : such are the masses of the
saints *, that of St Mary of the snow, celebrated on
the fifth of August j that of St Margaret, patroness
of lying-in-women j that of the feast of St John the
Baptist, at which are said three masses ; that of the
innocents, at which the gloria in excelsis and the
hallelujah are omitted, and it being a day ol mourn¬
ing, the altar is of a violet colour. As to ordinary
masses, some are said for the dead, and, as is supposed,
contribute to fetch the soul out of purgatory: at these
masses the altar is put in mourning, and the only de¬
corations are a cross in the middle of six yellow wax-
lights j the dress of the celebrant, and the very mass-
book, are black *, many parts of the office are omitted,
and the people are dismissed without the benediction.
Masque
Mass.
MAS C 675 ]
IVTa^sa If the mass be said for a person distinguislied by his in 1815 was 137,008
setts.
|| rank or virtues, it is followed with a funeral oration j
Massaclm- t|iey erect a chapelle arclente, that is, a representimi
j of the deceased with branches and tapers of yellow
'Wax, either in the middle of the church, or near the
deceased’s tomb, where the priest pronounces a solemn
•absolution of the deceased. There aVe are likewise pri¬
vate masses said for stolen or strayed goods or cattle,
for health, for travellers, &c. which go under the name
of votive masses. There is still a further distinction of
masses denominated from the countries in which they
were used 5 thus the Gothic mass, or missa mosarabum,
is that used among the Goths when they were masters of
Spain, and which is still kept up at Toledo and Sala¬
manca •, the Ambrosian mass is that composed by St
Ambrose, and used only at Milan, of which city he was
bishop; the Gallic mass, used by the ancient Gauls;
and the Roman mass, used by almost all the churches in
the Romish communion.
Mass of the P resanctified {missa prcesanctificatorwri),
is a mass peculiar to the Greek church, in which there
is no consecration of the elements ; but after singing
some hymns, they receive the bread and wine which
was before consecrated. This mass is performed all
Lent, except on Saturdays, Sundays, and the annun¬
ciation. The priest counts upon his fingers the days
of the ensuing week on which it is to be celebrated,
and cuts oft’ as many pieces of bread at the altar as
he is to say masses ; and after having consecrated them,
steeps them in wine, and then puts them in a box ;
out of which, upon every occasion, he takes some of
it with a spoon, and putting it on a dish sets it upon
-the altar.
MASSA, a town of Italy, in the kingdom of Na¬
ples, and in the Terra di Lavoro, with a bishop’s see ;
seated on a mountain near the sea, in E» Long. 10. o.
N.Lat. 43. 5.
Massa, an ancient, populous, and handsome town of
Italy, and capital of a small territory of the same name,
with the title of a principality, and a strong castle. It
is famous for quarries of fine marble, and is situated in
E. Long. 14. 23. N. Lat. 40. 40.
MASSACHUSETTS, one of the United States of
North America. This is one of the five states includ¬
ed under the name of New England ; and a pretty
full account having been given, under that article, of the
situation, soil, productions and population of the whole,
we shall confine ourselves here, to the leading facts con¬
nected with this particular state.
Massachusetts has the state of New York on the
west, the sea on the east, New Hampshire and Ver¬
mont on the north, and Connecticut and Rhode Island
on the south. Its area is about 6250 square miles.
It is rather a hilly country, and not generally fertile,
though some of the valleys are very rich. The climate
is variable and the winter long. The mean tempera¬
ture of the year is 490, though the latitude is only 42.
The annual quantity of rain at Cambridge is 47!-
inches ; the number of rainy days in the year, 88.
This is the most densely peopled state in the Union,
the population in 1810, being 472,040, which is about
75 persons to each square mile. There are no slaves
in this state. The principal town is Boston, which in
1818 had a population of 40,000 (Fearon’s Travels).
Jt is a place of great commercial activity; its tonnage
M A S
The tonnage of the whole state Massachtl-
was 454,205, which was greater than that of any other
state in the Union. The exports, in 1817, were
11,927,997 dollars, of which 5,908,416 were domestic,
and 6,009,581 foreign produce. The whale fishery is a
leading branch of this commerce. In 1811 there were
1200 sailors in this trade, belonging to the small island
of Nantucket, which is its principal seat. Ship-build¬
ing is carried on in this state to a great extent. The
whole value ot the manufactures for the year 1810 was
18,536,933 dollars. The principal domestic articles
exported are flour, corn, rice, tobacco, Cotton, beef,
pork, cheese, butter, oil, whalebone, lumber, naval
stores, &c. The foreign articles imported are piece
goods, hardware, wines, spirits, teas, sugar, cocoa, &c.
A canal 25 miles in length, connects the harbour of Bos¬
ton with the river Merrimack. Agriculture is conduct¬
ed with much skill. The principal productions are
India corn, rye, oats, barley, potatoes, hemp, flax.
Wheat is but little cultivated, being subject to blight.
The inhabitants of this state are generally well edu¬
cated, industrious, temperate, persevering, shrewd and
resolute ; but they are charged with hypocrisy, craft,
obstinacy, a spirit parsimonious and selfish, and a tem¬
per severe and contentious. They are generally decent
in their manners, and capital crimes are rare.
The legislative power resides in a senate and house
of rejrresentatives. The senators and representatives
are elected annually by all persons who have freehold
estates of the annual Value of three pounds, or any
estate to the value of sixty pounds. The governor is
also chosen annually. The judges hold their office
during good behaviour. There is no state religion.
The Congregaticmalists are the most numerous sect,
the Baptists next. There are some Episcopalians,
Methodists, and Quakers.
The district of Maine, which extends along the
Atlantic to the British colony of New Brunswick, is
united with the state of Massachusetts. It covers an
area of 32,628 square miles. It is similar in soil to
Massachusetts, but rather more hilly and barren. It
only contains about 1500 families. See United
States, Supplement.
MASSACRE, a term used to signify the sudden
and promiscuous butchery of a multitude. The mist
atrocious example of this kind upon record is that call¬
ed the Pai'isian Massacre, or Massacre of St Bartho¬
lomew's Daij. The Parisian massacre was carried on
with such detestable perfidy, and executed with such
a bloody cruelty as would surpass all belief, were it
not attested by the most undeniable evidence. In
the year 1572, in the reign of Charles IX. many of
the principal Protestants were invited to Paris, under a
solemn oath of safety, upon occasion of the marriage
of the king of Navarre with the French king’s sister ;
viz. the king of Navarre’s mother, Coligni admiral
of France, with other nobles. The queen-dowager
of Navarre, a zealous Protestant, was poisoned by
a pair of gloves before the marriage was solemni¬
zed ; and on the 24th of August 1572, being Bar¬
tholomew’s day, about daybreak, upon the toll of the
bell of the church of St Germain, the butchery be¬
gan. The admiral was basely murdered in his own
house ; and then thrown out of the window, to grati¬
fy the malice of the duke of Guise ; his head was af-
4 Q 3 terwards
MAS
t 676 ]
MAS
SItissacrc.
terwavds cut off, and sent to the king and queen-mo-
' ther j and his body, after a thousand indignities offer¬
ed to it, hung up by the feet on a gibbet. Alter this,
the murderers ravaged the whole city of Paris, and
butchered in three days above ten thousand lords, gen¬
tlemen, presidents, and people of all ranks. An hor¬
rible scene of things, says Xhuanus, when the veiy
streets and passages resounded with the noise of those
that met together for murder and plunder } the groans
of those who were dying, and the shrieks of such as
  just going to be butchered, were everywhere
Massillon,
heard ; the bodies of the slain thrown out of the win- zons j
.lows the courts and chambers of the houses filled
with them ; the dead bodies of others dragged through
the streets, their blood running down the channels in
such plenty, that torrents seemed to empty themselves
in the neighbouring river j and in a word, an innume¬
rable multitude of men, women with child, maidens,
and children, were all involved in one common destruc¬
tion j and the gates and entrances of thtt king’s palace
all besmeared with their blood.
From the city of Paris the massacre spread almost
throughout the whole kingdom. In the city oi Meaux
they threw above two hundred into jail j and after they
had ravished and killed a great number of women, and
plundered the houses of the Protestants, they executed
their fury on those they had imprisoned, and calling
them out one by one, they were killed, as Ihuanus ex¬
presses, like sheep in a market} the bodies of some were
flung into ditches, and of others into the river Maine.
In Orleans they murdered above five hundred men,
women, and children, and enriched themselves with
their spoil. The same cruelties were practised at An¬
gers, Troyes, Bourges, La Charite, and especially at
Lyons, where they inhumanly destroyed above eight
hundred Protestants ; children hanging on their parents
necks j parents embracing their children ; putting ropes
about the necks of some, dragging them through the
streets, and throwing them, mangled, torn, and half
dead, into the river.
It would be endless to mention the butcheries com¬
mitted at Valence, Romaine, Rouen, &c. We shall,
therefore, only add, that, according to Thuanus, above
thirty thousand Protestants were destroyed in this mas¬
sacre, or as others with greater probability affirm, above
one hundred thousand. Yet medals were struck at
Paris in honour of it.
But how were the news of this butchery received at
Rome, that faithful city, that holy mother of churches !
How did the vicar of Christ, the successor of Peter,
and the father of the Christian world, relish it P Let
Thuanus tell the horrid truth. When the news, says
he, came to Rome, it was wonderful to see how they
exulted for joy. On the 6th of September, when the
letters of the pope’s legate were read in the assembly
of the cardinals, by which he assured the pope that
all was transacted by the express will and command of
the king, it was immediately decreed that the pope
should march with his cardinals to the church ol St
Mark, and in the most solemn manner give thanks
to God for so great a blessing conferred on the see of
Rome and the Christian world ) and that on the
Monday after, solemn mass should be celebrated in the
church of Minerva ; at which the pope, Greg. Xlil.
and cardinals were present j and that a jubilee should
3
be published throughout the whole Christian world, Massacre
and the cause of it declared to be, to return thanks
to God for the extirpation of the enemies of the
truth and church in France, In the evening the can¬
non of St Angelo were fired, to testify the public joy 5
the whole city illuminated with bonfires ; and no one
sign of rejoicing omitted that was usually made for
the greatest victories obtained in favour of the Roman
church.
MASSAGET/E, an ancient people about whose
seat there is as much doubt as about that of the Ama-
Tibullus and Ammian place them near Albania,
beyond tbe Araxes, which sometimes denotes the Oxusj
it is probable they dwelt to the east of Sogdiana, (Dio¬
nysius Periegetes, Herodotus, Arrian).
MASSALIANS, a set of enthusiasts who sprang up
about the year 361? in the reign of the emperor Con-
stantius, who maintained that men have two souls, a ce¬
lestial and a diabolical, and that the latter is driven out
by prayer.
M ASS ANIELL O. See History of Naples.
MASSETER, in Anatomy. See there {Table of
the Muscles).
MASSICOT. See Masticot.
MA8S1EU, William, a learned French writer,
member of the Academy of Belles Lettres, and of the
French Academy, was born at Caen in Normany in
1665, and completed his studies at Paris, when he
entered amongst the Jesuits $ but afterwards left them,
that he might follow his inclination to polite litera¬
ture with the greater freedom. In 1710 he was made
Greek professor in the royal college ; and enjoyed that
post till his death, which happened at Paris in 1722.
He wrote, 1. Several curious dissertations in the Me¬
moirs of the Academy of Inscriptions. 2. A history of
the French poetry, in i2mo, &c.
MASSILIA, in Ancient Geography, a town of Gal¬
lia Narbonensis, peopled by a colony of Phoceans, from
Phocsea, a city of Ionia, universally celebrated, not
only for its port, commerce, and strength, but especially
for its politeness of manners and for its learning. Now
Marseilles, a city of Provence.
MASSILLON, Jean Baptiste, son of a notary at
Hieres in Provence, was born in 1663, and entered in¬
to the congregration of the oratory in 1681. He gain¬
ed the affections of every person in the towns to which
he was sent, by the charms of his genius, the liveliness
of his character, and by a fund of the most delicate
and unaffected politeness. His first attempts in the
art of eloquence were made at V icnne, while he was
professor of theology. His funeral oration on Henry
de Villars, archbishop of that city, received universal
approbation. This success induced Father de la Tour,
who was at that time general of the congregation,
to call him to Paris. After he had been there for
some time, he was asked what he thought ol the
preachers who made a figure on that great theatre ?—•
“ I find them possessed of great genius and abilities
(answered he) j but if I preach, I will not preach like
them.” He in fact kept his word, and struck out a
new path in this great field of eloquence. P. Bourda-
loue was excepted from the number ol those whom he
proposed not to imitate. If he did not take him for a
model in every thing, the reason wras, that his ge¬
nius led him to a different species of eloquence.-—
His
MAS [ 677
. His manner of composing, therefore, was peculiar to
himself, and in the opinion of men of taste and judge¬
ment, was superior to that of Bourdaloue. The affect¬
ing and natural simplicity of the father of the oratory,
(said a great man), appears fitter to bring home the
truths of Christianity to the heart than all the dialec¬
tics of the Jesuit. We must seek for the logic of the
gospel in our own breasts j and the most powerful rea¬
sonings on the indispensable duty of relieving the di¬
stressed, will make no impression on that man who has
beheld without concern the sufferings of his brother.
If logic is necessary, it is only in matters of opinion }
and these are fitter for the press than for the pulpit,
which ought not to be the theatre of learned discus¬
sions. The truth of these reflections was clearly per¬
ceived when he appeared at court. Upon preaching
his first Advent sermon at Versailles, he received this
eulogium from the mouth of Louis XIV. “ Father,
when I hear others preach, I am very well pleased
with them *, but whenever I hear you, I am dissatis¬
fied with myself.” The first time he preached his fa¬
mous sermon on the small number of the elect, the whole
audience were, at a certain place of it, seized with a
sudden and violent emotion, and almost every person
half rose from his seat by a kind of involuntary
movement. The murmur of acclamation and surprise
was so great that it threw the orator into confusion j
but this only heightened the impression of that pathe¬
tic discourse. What was most surprising in Massillon,
were his descriptions of the world, which were so sub¬
lime, so delicate, and so striking in the resemblance.
When he was asked, whence a man, like him, whose
life was dedicated to retirement, could borrow them j
he answered “ From the human heart; however little
we examine it, we will find in it the seeds of every
passion. When I compose a sermon (added he), I
imagine myself consulted upon some doubtful piece of
business. I give my whole application to determine
the person who has recourse to me, to act the good
and proper part. I exhort him, and urge him, and I
leave him not till he has yielded to my persuasions.”
His declamation did not fail to be accompanied with
success. “ We think we see him in our pulpits (say
those who had the pleasure of hearing him), with
the simple air, the modest carriage, the downcast and
humble looks, the easy gesture, the affecting tone,
and the countenance of a man deeply penetrated with
his subject, conveying the clearest information to the
understanding, and raising the most tender emotions in
the heart.” Baron, the famous comedian, having met
him one day in a house which was open for the recep¬
tion of men of letters, paid him this compliment:
“ Continue to deliver as you do. Your manner is
peculiar to yourself; leave the observance of rules to
others.” When this famous actor came from hearing
one of his sermons, truth drew from him the follow¬
ing confession, which is so humiliating to his profes¬
sion : “ Friend (said he to one of his companions who
accompanied him), here is an orator; we are only
actors.
In 1704, Massillon made his second appearance at
court, and displayed still more eloquence than before.
Louis XIV. after expressing his satisfaction to him,
added, in the most gracious tone of voice, Et je veuux,
mon pere, vans entendre tons les deux ans. These flat-
] MAS
tering encomiums did not lessen his modesty. When
one of his fellows was congratulating him upon his
preaching admirably, according to custom j Oh ! give
over, Father (replied he), the devil has told me so al¬
ready, much more eloquently than you.” The duties
of his office did not prevent him from enjoying society $
and in the country he forgot that he was a preacher,
but always without trespassing against decency. One
day when he was at the house of M. de Crozat, the lat¬
ter said to him, “ Father, your doctrine terrifies me,
but 1 am encouraged by your life.” He was chosen
on account of his philosophical and conciliatory dispo¬
sition of mind, to reconcile the cardinal de Noailles
with the Jesuits. All he gained by his attempts was
the displeasure of both parties; and he found that it
was easier to convert sinners than to reconcile theolo¬
gians. In 1717, the regent, personally acquainted
with his merit, appointed him to the bishopric of
Clermont. The next year, being destined to preach
before Louis XV. who was only nine years of age, he
composed in six weeks those discourses which are so
well known by the name of Petit Careme. These are
the chef d’ceuvre of this orator, and indeed of the ora¬
torical art. They ought continually to be read by
preachers as models for the formation of their taste,
and by princes as lessons of humanity.
Massillon was admitted into the French academy a
year afterwards, in 1719. The abbacy of Savigny
becoming vacant, the cardinal du Bois, to whom he
had been weak enough to give an attestation for be¬
ing a priest, procured it for him. The funeral ora¬
tion of the duchess of Orleans, in 1723, was the last
discourse he pronounced in Paris. He never after-
wards left his diocese, where his gentleness, politeness,
and kindness, had gained him the affection of all who
knew him. He reduced the exorbitant rights of the
episcopal roll to moderate sums. In two years, he
caused 20,000 livres to be privately conveyed to the
Hotel Hieu of Clermont. His peaceable disposition was
never more displayed than while he Avas a bishop. He
took great pleasure in collecting the fathers of the
oratory and the Jesuits at his country house, and in
making them join in some diversion. He died on the
28th of September 1742, at the age of 79. His
name has become that of eloquence itself. Nobody
ever kneAV better how to touch the passions. Prefer¬
ring sentiment to every thing else, he communicated
to the soul that lively and salutary emotion which ex¬
cites in us the love of virtue. What pathetic eloquence
did his discourses display ! Avhat knowledge of the hu¬
man heart! what constant disclosing of a mind deeply
affected with his subject 1 what strain of truth, philo¬
sophy and humanity ! what imagination, at once the
most lively, and guided by the soundest judgment!
Just and delicate thoughts} splendid and lofty ideas j
elegant, well chosen, sublime, and harmonious expres¬
sions j brilliant and natural images; true and lively
colouring ; a clear, neat, swelling and copious style,
equally suited to the capacity of the multitude, and
fitted to please the man of genius, the philosopher,
and the courtier, form the character of Massillon’s elo¬
quence, especially in his Petit Careme. He could at
©nee think, describe, and feel. It has been justly ob¬
served concerning him, that he was to Bourdaloue
what Racine was to Corneille. To give the finishing
stroke
Massillon.
M A S [
UTassiUutt. stroke to- his eulogium, Of all the French orators,
5 y-—' is the most esteemed by foreigners.
An excellent edition of Massillon s ivoiks was pub¬
lished by his nephew at Paris in 1745 anc^ *n
14 vols. large l2mo, and 12 vols. of a small size.—
Among them we find, 1. Complete sets of Sermons
for Advent and Lent. It is particularly in his moral
discourses, such as are almost all those of his sermons
for Advent and Lent, that Massillon’s genius appears.
He excels, says M.- d’Alembert, in that species of
eloquence, which alone may be preferred to all others,
which goes directly to the heart, and Winch agitates
without wounding the soul. He searches the inmost
recesses of the heart, and lays open the secret work¬
ings of the passions, with so delicate and tender a
hand, that we are hurried along rather than overcome.
His diction, which is always easy, elegant, and pure,
everywhere partakes of that noble simplicity, with¬
out which there can be neither good taste nor true
eloquence *, and this simplicity is, in Massillon, joined
to the most attractive and the sweetest harmony, from
which it likewise borrows new graces. In short, to
complete the charm produced by this enchanting style,
we perceive that these beauties are perfectly natural j
that they flow easily from this source, and that they
have occasioned no labour to the composer. T here
even occur sometimes in the expressions, in the turns,
or in the affecting melody of his style, instances of ne¬
gligence which may be called happy, because they
completely remove every appearance of labour. By
thus abandoning himself to the natural current of
thought and expression, Massillon gained as many friends
as hearers. He knew, that the more anxious an ora¬
tor appears to raise admiration, he will find those who
hear him the less disposed to bestow it. 2. Several
Funeral Orations, Discourses, and Panegyrics, which
had never been published. 3. Ten discourses, known
by the name of Petit Carcme. 4. 1 he Conferen¬
ces Kcclesiastiques, which he delivered in the seminary
of St Magloire upon his arrival at Paris j those which
he delivered to the curates of his* diocese ; and the
discourses which he pronounced at the head of the
synods which he assembled every year. 5. Paraphrases
on several of the Psalms. The illustrious author of
these excellent tracts wished that they had introduced
into France a practice which prevails in England, of
reading sermons instead of preaching them from me¬
mory •, a custom which is very convenient, but by
which all the warmth and fervour of eloquence are
lost. He, as well as two others of his brethren, had
stopt short in the pulpit exactly on the same day.—
They were all to preach at different ,hours on Good-
Friday, and they went to hear one another in succes¬
sion. The memory of the first failed j which so ter¬
rified the other two, that they experienced the same
fate. When our illustrious orator was asked, what
was his best sermon ? he answered, “ That which I
am most master of.” The same reply is ascribed to
Bourdaloue. •• The celebrated P. la Hue was of the opi¬
nion of Massillon, that getting by heart was a slavery
which deprived the pulpit of a great many orators, and
which was attended with many inconveniences to those
who dedicated themselves to it. The abbe de la Porte
has collected into one vol. 12mo, the most striking ideas,
and the most sublime strokes, which occur in the works
2
Masson.
678 ] MAS
he of the celebrated bishop of Clermont. This collection, jiass;[]Cill
which is made with great judgment, appeared at Paris ||
in 1748, i2mo, and forms the 15th volume of the large
edition in i2mo, and the 13th of the small in 121110.
It is entitled, Pensees stir differens sujets dc morale et
de picte, tirees, &c.
MASSINGER, Philip, an English dramatic poet,
was born at Salisbury about the year 1581, and was
educated at Oxford. He left the ^university without
taking any degree *, and went to London to improve
his poetical genius by polite conversation. There he
wrote many tragedies and comedies, which were recei¬
ved with vast applause, and were greatly admired for
the economy of the plots and the purity of the style.
He was at the same time a person of the most consum¬
mate modesty ; which rendered him extremely beloved
by the poets of his time, particularly by Fletcher, Mid¬
dleton, Rowley, Field, and Decker, who thought it
an honour to write in conjunction with him. He was
as remarkable lor his abilities as his modesty. He died
suddenly at his house on the Bank-side in Southwark,
near the playhouse j and was interred in St Saviour’s
churchyard, in the same grave with Mr Fletcher the poet.
MASSIVE, among builders, an epithet given to
whatever is too heavy and solid : thus a massive co¬
lumn is one too short and thick for the order whose
capital it bears ; and a massive wall is one whose open¬
ings or lights are too small in proportion.
MASSON, Papirius, a French writer, was the
son of a rich merchant, and born in the territory of
Forez, May 1544. After studying the belles lettres
and philosophy, and travelling to different places, he
came to Paris, where he was made librarian to the
chancellor of the duke of Anjou, in which place he
continued ten years. In 1576, he was made an advo¬
cate nf parliament; yet never pleaded but one cause,
which, however, he gained with universal applause.—•
When the troubles of France were at an end,-he mar¬
ried the sister of a counsellor in parliament, with whom
he lived thirty-four years, but had no issue by her.—
The infirmities of age attacked him some time before
his death, which happened Jan. 9. 1611. He wrote
four books of French annals in. Latin, first printed at
Paris 1577, and afterwards in 1598, 4to. The se¬
cond edition, more enlarged than the first, deduces
things from Pharamond to Henry II. Masson consi¬
dered this as his principal performance yet he is now
chiefly known by his Elogia virorum elurissimorum, al¬
though he published several other works.
Masson, John, a reformed minister in Holland
some years ago. He was originally of France, but
fled into England, to enjoy that liberty in religion
which his country refused him. He wrote, 1 • Histoire
critique de la republique des lettres, from 1712 to 1717’
in 15 vols 12mo. 2. Vitce Iloratii, Ovidii, et Plinii
junioris, 3 vols small 8vo, and printed abroad, though
dedicated to Englishmen of rank: the first at Leyden,
1708, to Lord Harvey} the second at Amsterdam,
1708, to Sir Justinian Isham ; the third at Amster¬
dam, 1709, to the bishop of Worcester. These lives
are drawn up in a chronological order, very learnedly
and very critically} and serve to illustrate the history,
not only of those particular persons, but of the times
also in which they lived. 3. Histoire dc Pierre Patjle
et des ses ouvrages; Amsterdam, 1716, in i2mo. This
at
MAS [ 679
Masson, at feast is supposed to be bis, though at first it Was gi-
[Massuah. yen to M. la Monnoye.
_ » Masson, Antony, an eminent French engraver,
who flourished towards the conclusion of the last cen¬
tury, and resided chiefly at Paris. It appears that he
sometimes amused himself with painting portraits from
the life, some of which he also engraved. We have
no account oi the life ot this extraordinary artist j nor
are we even informed from what master he learned the
principles of engraving. He worked entirely with
the graver, and handled that instrument with astonish¬
ing facility. He seems to have had no kind of rule
to direct him with respect to the turning of the
strokes j but twisted and twirled them about, without
the least regard to the different forms he intended to
express, making them entirely subservient to his own
caprice. Yet the effect he has produced in this singu¬
lar manner (Mr Strutt observes), is not only far su¬
perior to what one could have supposed, but is often
very picturesque and beautiful. It was not in histori¬
cal engraving that his greatest strength consisted. He
could not draw the naked parts «f the human figure
so correctly as was necessary j but where the subject
required the figures to be clothed, he succeeded in a
wonderful manner. Among the most esteemed works
by this admirable artist, may be reckoned the followr-
ing : The assumption of the Virgin, a large upright
plate from Ilubens •, a holy family, a middling-sized
plate, lengthwise, from N. Mignard j Christ with the
pilgrims at Emaus, a large plate, lengthwise, from
Titian, the original picture of which is in the ca¬
binet of the king of France. This admirable print
is commonly known by the name of the table cloth :
for the cloth, with which the table is covered, is exe¬
cuted in a very singular style. Also the following
portraits, among others: The Comte de Harcourt, a
large upright plate, reckoned a masterpiece in this
class of subjects ; Guillaume de Brisacier, secretary to
the queen of France j a middling-sized upright plate:
usually known in England by the name of the Gray¬
headed Man, because tbe hair in this print is so finely
executed.
MASSUAH, a small island in the Red sea, near
the coast of Abyssinia, about three quarters of a mile
long, and half as broad, one-third of which is occu¬
pied by houses, another by cisterns for receiving rain¬
water, and one reserved fob a burial place. It has
an excellent harbour, with wrater sufficiently deep
for ships of any size to the very edge of the island j
and so wrell secured, that they may ride in safety, let
the wind blow from what quarter or with what de¬
gree of strength it will. By the ancients it was call¬
ed Sebasticum Os, and was formerly a place of great
consequence on account of its harbour, from whence
a very extensive commerce was carried on, and pos¬
sessed a share of the Indian trade in common with
other ports of the Red sea near the Indian ocean.—
A very considerable quantity of valuable goods w7as
also brought thither from the tract of mountainous
country behind it, which in all ages has been account¬
ed very unhospitable, and almost inaccessible to stran¬
gers. The principal articles of exportation were gold,
Ivory, elephants and buffaloes hides j but above all,
slaves, who, on account of their personal qualifications,
were more esteemed than those from any other quarter.
]
MAS
Pearls of a considerable size, and of a fine water, are Massuah.
likewise found along the coast; from the abundance of
all which valuable commodities, the great defect, a
want of water, was forgot, and the inhabitants cheer¬
fully submitted to such a great inconvenience. The
island ot Massuah fell under the power of the Turks in
the time of the emperor Selim, soon after the con¬
quest of Arabia Felix by Sinan Basha, and was for
some time governed by an officer from Constantinople.
I rom thence the conquest of Abyssinia was for some
time attempted, but always without success. Hence
it began to lose its value as a garrison for troops, as it
had done in the commercial way after the discovery of
the passage to India by the Cape of Good Hope.—
Being thus deprived of its importance in every respect^
the Turks no longer thought it worth while to send a
bashaw thither as formerly, but conferred the govern¬
ment upon the chief of a tribe of Mahometans named*
Belowie, who inhabit the coasts of the Red sea under
the mountains of Habab, in the latitude of about 140
north. On this officer they conferred the title of Naybe;
and on the removal of the bashaw, he remained in fact
master of the place, though, to save appearances, he*
pretended to hold it from the Ottoman Porte, by a fir¬
man from the Grand Signior for that purpose, and the
payment of an annual tribute.
The Turks had originally put into the town of
Massuah a garrison of Janizaries ; who, being left there'
on the withdrawing of the bashaw, and intermarrying'
with the natives* soon became entirely subjected to
the naybe’s influence. The latter finding himself at
a great distance from his protectors the Turks, whose-
garrisons were everywhere falling into decay, and
that in consequence of this he was entirely in the
power of the emperor of Abyssinia, began to think of
taking some method of securing himself on that side.
Accordingly it was agreed that one half of the customs
should be paid to the Abyssinian monarch ; w'ho in re¬
turn was to allow him to enjoy his government unmo¬
lested. Having thus secured the friendship of the
emperor of Abyssinia, the naybe began gradually to
withdraw the tribute he had been accustomed to pay
to the bashaw of Jidda, to whose government Massuah
had been assigned ; and at last to pay as little regard
to the government of Abyssinia; and in this state of
independence he was when Mr Bruce arrived there in
1769 on his w'ay to Abyssinia. This gentleman found
both the prince and bis people extremely unhospitable
and treacherous ; so that he underwent a variety of
dangers during his residence there, nor was it without
great difficulty that he could get away from thence at'
last.
The island of Massuah, as we have said, is entirely
destitute of water ; nor can it be supplied with pro¬
visions of any kind but from the mountainous country
of Abyssinia on the continent. It is consequently in
the power of the emperor of that country, or ot his
officer the baharnagash, to starve Massuah and Ar-
keeko, by prohibiting the passage of any provisions
from the Abyssinian side of the mountains.
The houses of Massuah are generally constructed of
long poles and bent grass, as is usual with other towns-
of Arabia : only about 20 are of stone, and six or>
eight of these two stories high. The stones with
which they are built have been drawn out of the sea ;
a# an.ii
M AS [ 680 ] MAS
Massuali and in them the bed of that curious muscle found em-
H bodied in the solid rock at Mahon is frequently to be
Mast seen. These are called dattoli da mare, or sea dates:
j)Ut our author never saw any of the fish themselves,
though he has no doubt that they may be met with in
the rocky islands of Massuah, if they would take the
trouble of breaking the rocks for them. All the ne¬
cessaries of life are very dear in this place •, and their
quality is also very indiflerent, owing to the distance
from whence they must be brought, and the danger
of carrying them through the desert of Samhar, as
well as to the extortions of the naybe himself, who,
under the name of customs, takes whatever part of the
goods he thinks proper j so the profit left to the mer¬
chant is sometimes little or nothing.
Though Massuah has now lost very much of its com¬
mercial importance, a considerable trade is still carried
on from the place. From the Arabian side are im¬
ported blue cotton and other cloths j some of them
from India being very fine. Other articles are Vene¬
tian beads, crystal, looking and drinking glasses, with
cohol or crude antimony. These three last articles
come in great quantity from Cairo, first in the coffee
ships to Jidda, and then in small barks to the port of
Massuah. Old copper is also a valuable article of com¬
merce. The Galla and all the various tribes to the
westward of Gondar wear bracelets of this metal,
which in some parts of that barbarous country is said
to sell for its weight of gold. Here is also a shell, an
univalve of the species of volutes, which sells at a
high price, and passes for money among the various
tribes of Galla. The Banians were once the principal
merchants of Massuah j but their number is now redu¬
ced to six, who are silversmiths, and subsist by making
ornaments for the women on the continent. They like¬
wise essay gold, but make a poor livelihood.
MASSUET, Rene, or Renatus, a very learned
Benedictine of the congregation of St Maur, was
born at S. Owen de Macelles, in 1665. He is chief¬
ly known for the new edition of St Irenseus, which he
published in 1710. He consulted several manuscripts,
which had never been examined for that purpose,
and made new notes and learned prefaces. He died in
1716, after having written and published several other
works.
MAST, a long round piece of timber, elevated
perpendicularly upon the keel of a ship, to which are
attached the yards, the sails, and the rigging. A mast,
with regard to its length, is either formed of one single
piece, which is called a pole-mast, or composed of se¬
veral pieces joined together, each of which retains the
name of mast separately. The lowest of these is ac-
Plate cordingly named the lower mast, a fig. 1. j the next in
CCCXV height is the top-mast, b, fig. 2. which is erected at
■S’ I> 2> 3- {.|ie head of the former; and the highest is the top-gal¬
lant-mast, c, fig. 3. which is prolonged from the upper
end of the top-mast. Thus the two last are no other
than a continuation of the first upwards.
The lower-mast is fixed in the ship by an apparatus
described in the articles Hulk and Sheers : the foot,
or heel of it rests in a block of timber called the step,
which is fixed upon the kelson: and the top-mast is at¬
tached to the head of it by the cap and the trestle-trees.
The latter of these are two strong bars of timber, sup¬
ported by two prominences, which are as shoulders on
the opposite sides of the mast, a little under its upperv—~
end : athwart these bars are fixed the cross-trees, upon
which the frame of the top is supported. Between the
lower mast head and the foremost of the cross-trees, a
square space remains vacant, the sides of which are
bounded by the two trestle-trees. Perpendicularly
above this is the foremost hole in the cap, whose after
hole is solidly fixed on the head of the lower-mast. The
top-mast is erected by a tackle, whose effort is commu¬
nicated from the head of the lower mast to the foot of
the top-mast ; and the upper end of the latter is ac¬
cordingly guided into and conveyed up through the
holes between the trestle-trees and the cap, as above
mentioned. The machinery by which it is elevated,
or according to the sea phrase, swayed up, is fixed in
the following manner: the top rope r/, fig. 4. passing Fig. 4.
through a block e, which is hooked on one side of the
cap, and afterwards through a hole, furnished with a
sheave or pulley J, on the lower end of the top-mast,
is again brought upwards on the other side of the mast,
where it is at length fastened to an eye-bolt in the cap
g, which is always on the side opposite to the top-
block e. To the lower end of the top-rope is fixed
the top-tackle h, the effort of which being transmit¬
ted to the top-rope d, and thence to the heel of the
top-mast f, necessarily lifts the latter upwards, paral¬
lel to the lower-mast. When the top-mast is raised to
its proper height, the lower end of it becomes firmly
wedged in the square hole above described, between
the trestle-trees. A bar of wood or iron called the fid,
is then thrust through a hole i in the heel of it, across
the trestle-trees, by which the whole weight of the top¬
mast is supported.
In the same manner as the top-mast is retained at the
head of the lower-mast, the top-gallant-mast is erected,
and fixed at the head of the top-mast.
Besides the parts already mentioned in the construc¬
tion of masts, with respect to their length, the lower
masts of the largest ships are composed of several pieces
united into one body. As these are generally the most
substantial parts of various trees, a mast, formed by
this assemblage, is justly esteemed much stronger than
one consisting of any single trunk, whose internal so¬
lidity may be very uncertain. The several pieces are
formed and joined together, as represented in the sec¬
tion of a lower-mast of this sort, fig. 5. where a is Fig. 5.
the shaft, or principal piece into which the rest are fix¬
ed, with their sides or faces close to each other. The
whole is secured by several strong hoops of iron, driven
on the outside of the mast, where they remain at proper
distances.
The principal articles to be considered in equip¬
ping a ship with masts are, 1st, the number 5 2d, their
situation in the vessel j and, 3d, their height above the
water.
The masts being used to extend the sails by means
of their yards, it is evident, that if their number were
multiplied beyond what is necessary, the yards must
be extremely short, that they may not entangle each
other in working the ship, and by consequence their
sails will be very narrow, and receive a small portion
of wind. If, on the contrary, there is not a sufficient
number of masts in the vessel, the yards will be too
Mast.
1'io. 6’,
MAS [ 681
large and heavy, so as not to be managed without dif-
ficulty. There is a mean between these extremes,
which experience and the general practice of the sea
have determined $ by which it appears, that in large
ships every advantage of sailing is retained by three
masts and a bowsprit.
The most advantageous position of the masts is un¬
doubtedly that from whence there results an equilibri¬
um between the resistance of the water on the body of
the ship on the one part, and of the direction of their
effort on the other. By every other position this equi¬
librium is destroyed, and the greatest effort of the masts
will operate to turn the ship horizontally about its di¬
rection j a circumstance which retards her velocity. It
is counterbalanced indeed by the helm ; but the same
inconvenience still continues ; for the force of the wind
having the resistance of the helm to overcome, is not
entirely employed to push the vessel forward. The
axis of the resistance of the water should then be previ¬
ously determined, to discover the place of the main-mast,
in order to suspend the efforts of the water equally, and
place the other masts so as that their particular direc¬
tion wrill coincide with that of the main-mast. The
whole of this would be capable of a solution, if the fi¬
gure of the vessel were regular, because the point, about
which the resistance of the urater w'ould be in equilibrio,
might be discovered by calculation.
But when the real figure of the ship is considered,
these flattering ideas will instantly vanish. This obser¬
vation induced M. Saverien to employ a mechanical
method to discover the axis of resistance of the water,
which he apprehended might be used with success in
the manner following:
When the vessel is launched, before the places of the
masts are determined, extend a rope AB, fig. 6. from
the head to the stern. To the extremities A and B
attach two other ropes, AD, EC, and apply to the
other ends of these ropes two mechanical powers, to
draw the ship according to the direction BC, parallel
to itself. The whole being thus disposed, let a move-
able tube Z, fixed upon the rope AB, have another
rope ZR attached to it, wdiose other end communi¬
cates with a mechanical pow’er R, equal to the two
powers D and C. This last being applied to the same
vessel, in such manner as to take oft the effects of the
two others by sliding upon the rope AB, so as to dis¬
cover some point Z, by the parallelism of the ropes
AD, BC feebly extended with the rope ZRj the line
ZR will be the axis of the equilibrium of the water’s
resistance, and by consequence the main mast should be
planted in the point Z.
The figures E, E, E, are three windlasses on the
shore, by which this experiment is applied.
With regard to the situation of the other masts, it is
necessary, in the same manner, to discover two points;
so that the direction of the two mechanical powers ope¬
rating, will be parallel to the axis of resistance RZ al¬
ready found.
The exact height of the masts, in proportion to the
form and size of the ship, remains yet a problem to be
determined. The more the masts are elevated above
the centre of gravity, the greater will be the surface
ol sail which they are enabled to present to the wind ;
so far an additional height seems to have been advan¬
tageous. But this advantage is diminished by the cir-
Vol. XII. Part II. ' f
] M A S
cular movement of the mast, which operates to make
the vessel stoop to its effort; and this inclination is
increased in proportion to the additional height of
the mast, an inconvenience which it is necessary to
guard against. Thus what is gained upon one hand
is lost upon the other. To reconcile these differences,
it is certain that the height of the mast ought to be
determined by the inclination of the vessel, and that
the point of her greatest inclination should be the term
ol this height above the centre of gravity. See the ar¬
ticle Trim.
With regard to the general practice of determining
the height of the masts, according to the different rates
of the ships in the royal navy, the i-eader is referred to
the article Sail.
In order to secure the masts, and counterbalance the
strain they receive from the effort ot the sails impres¬
sed by the wind, and the agitation of the ship at sea,
they are sustained by several strong ropes, extended
from the upper ends to the outside of the vessel, call¬
ed shrouds, marked 5, 5, 5, in fig. 4. and 5. They
are further supported by other ropes, stretched from
their heads towards the fore part of the vessel.
The mast, which is placed at the middle of the
ship’s length, is called the main-mast; that which is
placed in the fore part, the fore-mast; and that which
is towards the stern, is termed the mvzen-?nast.
N. B. Mizen is applied to this mast by all the na¬
tions ol Europe, except the French, who alone call the
fore-mast misaine.
MASTER, a title given to several officers and
persons of authority and command 5 particularly to
the chiefs of the orders of knighthood, &c.— Thus rve
say the grand master of Malta •, of St Lazarus 5 of the
Golden fleece ; of the Free Masons, &c.
Master Magist erf was a title frequent among the
Romans : they had their master of the people, magi-
ster populi, who was the dictator. Master of the ca¬
valry, magister equitum, who held the second post in
an army after the dictator. Under the later emperors
there were also masters of the infantry, magistripedi-
tvm. A master of the census, magister census, who had
nothing of the charge of a censor, or subcensor, as the
name seems to intimate ; but was the same with the
preepositus frumen tariorum.
Master of the Militia (inagister militia’), was an of¬
ficer in the lower empire, created, as it is said, by
Dioclesian, who had the inspection and government of
all the forces, with power to punish, &c. somewhat
like a constable of France, At first there were two
of these officers instituted, the one for the infantry,
and the other for the cavalry; but the two were united
into one under Constantine. Afterwards, as their power
was increased, so was their number also j and there
was one appointed for the court, another for Thrace,
another for the East, and another for Illyria. They
were afterwards called comites, counts, and clarissimi.
Their power was only a branch of that of the pree-
fectus pratorii, who by that means became a civil of¬
ficer.
Master of Arms (magister armorum), was an offi¬
cer or comptroller under the master of the militia.
Master of the Offices (magister offeiorum), had the
superintendance of all the officers of the court; he was
also called magister oficii palatini, simply magister; and
4 R hia
Mast,
Master.
iVTasttr.
MAS [68
Ins post magistcria.—Tills officer was the same in the
i -western empire with the curopalates in the eastern.
Master at Arms, among us, is an officer appointed
to teach the officers and crew of a ship of war the
exercise of small arms 5 to confine and plant centi-
nels over the prisoners, and superintend whatever re¬
lates to them during their confinement. He is also
to observe that the fire and lights are all extinguished
as soon as the evening gun is fired, except those which
are permitted by proper authority, or under the in¬
spection of centinels. It is likewise his duty to attend
the gangway when any boats arrive aboard, and search
them carefully, together with their rowers, that no
spirituous liquors may be conveyed into the ship unless
by permission of the commanding officers. In these se¬
veral duties he is assisted by proper attendants, called
his corporals, who also relieve the centinels and one
another at certain periods.
Master of Arts, the first degree taken up in foreign
universities, but the second in ours 5 candidates not be¬
ing admitted to it till they have studied iu the universi¬
ty seven years.
^ Master-Attendant, is an officer in the royal dock¬
yards, appointed to hasten and assist at the fitting out
or dismantling, removing, or securing vessels of war,
&c. at the port where he resides. He is particularly
to observe, that his majesty’s ships are securely moor¬
ed, and for this purpose he is expected frequently to
review the moorings which are sunk in the harbour,
and observe that they are kept in proper repair. It
is also his duty to visit all the ships in ordinary, and
see that they are frequently cleaned and kept in or¬
der •, and to attend at the general musters in the dock¬
yards, taking care that all the officers, artificers, and
labourers, registered in the navy-books, are present at
their duty.
Master of the Ceremonies, is an officer instituted by
King James I. for the more solemn and honourable
reception of ambassadors, and strangers of quality,
whom he introduces into the presence.—The badge
of this office is a gold chain and medal, having on one
side an emblem of peace, with King James’s motto \
and on the reverse the emblem of war, with Dieu
et mo7i droit. He is always supposed to be a person of
good address, and a master of languages, and has an
appointment of 300I. a-year : he is constantly attend¬
ing at court, and hath under him an assistant master,
or deputy, at 6s. 8d. a-day, who holds his place during
the king’s pleasure.
There is also a third officer, called marshal of the ce¬
remonies, with loci, a-year, whose business is to receive
and distribute the master’s orders, or the deputy’s, for
the service ; but without their order he can do nothing.
This is the king’s gift.
Masters of Chancery are usually chosen out of the
barristers of the common law j and sit in chancery, or
at the rolls, as assistants to the lord chancellor and
the master of the rolls. All these, so late as the reign
of Queen Elizabeth, were commonly doctors of the
civil law.—To them are also committed interlocutory
reports, examination of bills in chancery, stating of
accounts, taxing costs, &c. and sometimes, by way of
reference, they are empowered to make a final determi¬
nation of causes.
They have, time out of mind, had the honour to sit
2 ] MAS
in the house of lords, though they have neither writs Master,
nor patent to empower them *, but they are received as ^-—v—
assistants to the lord chancellor and master of the rolls.
They had anciently the care of inspecting all writs of
summons, which is now performed by the clerk of the
petty bag. When any message is sent from the lords
to the commons, it is carried by the masters of chan¬
cery. Before them also affidavits are made, and deeds
and recognizances acknowledged.
Besides these, who may be called masters of chancery
ordinary, (being 12 in number, whereof the master of
the rolls is reputed the chief), there are also masters of
chancery extraordinary, appointed to act in the several
counties of England beyond 10 miles distance from
London, by taking affidavits, recognizances, &c. for
the ease of the suitors of the court.
Master of the Faculties, an officer under the arch¬
bishop of Canterbury, who grants licenses and dispen¬
sations : he is mentioned in the statute 22 and 23
Car. II. See Court of Faculties.
Master Gunner. See Gunner.
Master of the Horse is reckoned the third great of¬
ficer of the court, and is an office of great honour and
antiquity, and always (when not put in commission),
filled by noblemen of the highest rank and abilities.
He has the management and disposal of all the king’s
stables and bred horses. He has authority over the
equerries and pages, coachmen, footmen, grooms, ri¬
ders of the great horse, farriers, and smiths. He ap¬
points all the other tradesmen who work for the king’s
stables 5 and by his warrant to the avenor, makes them
give an oath to be true and faithful. In short, he is
intrusted with all the lands and revenues appropriated
for the king’s breed of horses, the expences of the
stable, and of the coaches, litters, &c. He alone has
the privilege of making use of any of the king’s horses,
pages, footmen, &.c.; and at any solemn cavalcade he
rides next the king, and leads a horse of state. His
salary is 1276I. 13s. 4d. per annum. There is also a
master of the horse in the establishment of her majesty’s
household, with a salary of 800I. a-year.
Master of the Household, is an officer under the
treasurer of the household, in the king’s gift ; his bu¬
siness is to survey the accounts ot the household.—He
has 661. 13s. 4d. a-year wages, and 433k 6s. 6d. board
wages.
Master of the Mint, "was anciently the title of him
who is now called warden of the mint; whose office is
to receive the silver and bullion which comes to the
mint to be coined, and to take care thereof. I he
office of master and worker is now distinct : and this
officer is allowed for himself and three clerks 560k
a-year.
Master of the Ordnance. See Ordnance.
Master of the Revels, an officer with an appoint¬
ment of look a-year, whose business is to order all
things relating to the performance of plays, masques,
balls, &c. at court. Formerly he had also a juris¬
diction of granting licenses to all who travel to act
plays, puppet shows, or the like diversions neither
could any new play be acted at either of the two
houses till it had passed his perusal and license ; but
these powers were afterwards much abridged, not to
say annihilated, by a statute for regulating playhouses,
till the licensing plays by the lord chamberlain was
Jljste
“"T
MAS
Master, established. This officer has a yeoman with 46I. I is. 8d.
”*—v""—' a-year.
Master of the Ttolls^ a patent officer for life j who
has the custody of the rolls and patents which pass the
great seal, and of the records of the chancery.
In the absence of the lord chancellor or keeper, he
also sits as judge in the court of chancery 5 and is by
Sir Edward Coke called his assistant.
At other times he hears causes in the rolls chapel,
and makes orders and decrees. He is also the first of
the masters of chancery, and has their assistance at the
rolls: but all hearings before him are appealable to the
lord chancellor.
He has also his writ of summons to parliament, and
sits next to the lord chief justice of England on the se¬
cond woolpack. He has the keeping of the parliament
rolls, and has the rolls-house for his habitation 5 as also
the custody of all charters, patents, commissions, deeds
and recognisances, which being made of rolls of parch¬
ment gave rise to the name. Anciently he was called
clerk of the rolls.
The authority of the master of the rolls to hear and
determine causes, and his general power in the court
of chancery, were the subject of divers questions and
disputes which were very w'armly agitated ; to quiet
which it wras declared by stat. 3 Geo. II. cap. 30. that
all orders and decrees by him made, except such as by
the course of the court were appropriated to the great
seal alone, should be deemed to be valid 5 subject ne¬
vertheless to be discharged or altered by the lord chan¬
cellor, and so as they shall not be enrolled till the same
are signed by his lordship.
In his gift are the six clerks in chancery, the exa-
minei's, three clerks of the petty-bag, and the six
clerks of the rolls chapel where the rolls are kept. See
Rolls, Clerk, &e.
The master of the rolls is always of the privy coun¬
cil j and his office is of great profit, though much short
of what it has been.
Master of a Ship, an officer to whom is committed
the direction of a merchant vessel, who commands
it in chief, and is charged with the merchandises on
abroad.
In the Mediterranean the master is frequently called
patron, and in long voyages captain.
It is the proprietor of the vessel that appoints the
master ; and it is the master who provides the equi¬
page, hires the pilots, sailors, &c. The master is
ebliged to keep a register of the seamen and officers,
the terms of their contract, the receipts and payments,
and, in general, every thing relating to his com-
% mission.
Master of a Ship of War, is an officer appointed by
the commissioners of the navy, to take charge of navi¬
gating a ship from port to port under the direction of
the captain. The management and disposition of the
sails, the working of a ship into her station in the order
of battle, and the direction of her movements in the
time of action, and in other circumstances of danger,
are also more particularly under his inspection. It is
likewise his duty to examine the provisions, and accord¬
ingly to admit none into the ship but such as are sound,
sweet, and wholesome. He is moreover charged with
?he stowage; and for the performance of these services
[ 68.3 ]
MAS
he is allowed several assistants who are properly term¬
ed mates and quartermasters. '
Master of the Temple. The founder of the order of
the templars, and all his successors, were called magni
temph i7iagistn; and ever since the dissolution of
the order, the spiritual guide and director of the
house is called by that name. See Temple and Tem-
PLAR.
There wrere also several other officers under this
denomination, as master ot the wardrobe, with a sa¬
lary ol 2000I. a-year ; master of the harriers, with
2000I. a-year ; master of the staghounds, with 800I.
a-year; master of the jewel-office, &c. all now abo¬
lished.
Master and Servant; a relation founded in con¬
venience, whereby a man is directed to call in the as¬
sistance of others, where his own skill and labour will
not be sufficient to answer the cares incumbent upon
him. For the several sorts of servants, and how that
character is created or destroyed, see the article Ser¬
vant. In the present article, we shall consider, first,
the elfect of this relation with regard to the parties
themselves; and, secondly, its effects with regard to
others.
1. The manner in which this relation affects either
the master or servant. And, first, by hiring and ser¬
vice tor a year, or apprenticeship under indentures, a
person gains a settlement in that parish wherein he last
served 40 days. In the next place, persons serving
seven years as apprentices to any trade have an ex¬
clusive right to exercise that trade in any part of Eng¬
land. This law, with regard to the exclusive part of
it, has by turns been looked upon as a hard law, or as
a beneficial one, according to the prevailing humour
ol the times : which has occasioned a great variety of
resolutions in the courts of law concerning it ; and at¬
tempts have been frequently made for its repeal, though
hitherto without success. At common law every man
might use what trade he pleased; but this statute re¬
strains that liberty to such as have served as ap¬
prentices : the adversaries to which provision say, that
all restrictions (which tend to introduce monopolies^)
are pernicious to trade; the advocates for it allege,
that unskilfulness in trades is equally detrimental to
the public as monopolies. This reason indeed only ex¬
tends to such trades, in the exercise whereof skill is re¬
quired : but another of their arguments goes much
farther ; viz. that apprenticeships are useful to the com¬
monwealth, by employing of youth, and learning them
to be early industrious; but that no one would be in¬
duced to undergo a seven years servitude, if others,
though equally skilful, were allowed the same advan¬
tages without having undergone the same discipline :
and in this there seems to be much reason. However,
the resolutions of the courts have in general rather
confined than extended the restriction. No trades are
held to be within the statute, but such as were in being
at the making of it: for trading in a country village,
apprenticeships are not requisite, and following the
trade seven years is sufficient without any binding; for
tbe statute only says, the person must serve as an ap¬
prentice, and does not require an actual apprenticeship
to have existed.
A master may by law correct his apprentice for ne-
4 E 2 gligence
Master,
M A S
gligence or other misbehaviour,
so it he
moderation: though, if the master or master’s wife
beats any other servant of full age, it is good cause or
departure. But if any servant, workman, or labourer,
assaults his master or dame, he shall sufler one year s
imprisonment, and other open corporal punishment, not
extending to life or limb.
By service all servants and labourers, except appren¬
tices, become entitled to their wages j according to
agreement, it menial servants } or according to the ap¬
pointment of the sheriff or sessions, it labourers or ser¬
vants in husbandry *, for the statutes for regulation
of wages extend to such servants only j it being im¬
possible for any magistrate to be a judge of the em¬
ployment of menial servants, or of course to assess theii
wages#
2. Let us now see how strangers may be affected by
this relation of master and servant; or how a master
may behave towards others on behalf ol his servant, and
what a servant may do on behalf of his master..
And, first, the master may maintain, that is, abet
and assist, his servant in any action at law against a
stranger: whereas, in general, it is an offence against
public justice to encourage suits and animosities, by
helping to bear the expence of them, and is called in
law maintenance. A master also may bring an action
against any man for beating or maiming his servant,
but in such case he must assign, as a special i eason foi
so doing, his own damage by the loss of his service ;
and this loss must he proved upon the trial. A master
likewise may justify an assault in defence of his servant,
and a servant in defence of his master : the master, be¬
cause he has an interest in his servant, not to be de¬
prived of his servicb \ the servant, because it is part of
his duty, for which he receives his wages, to stand by
and defend his master. Also if any person do hire or
retain my servant, being in my service, for which the
servant departeth from me and goeth to serve the other,
I may have an action for damages against both the
new master and the servant, or either of them \ but if
the new master did not know that he is my servant, no
action lies; unless he afterwards refuse to restore him
upon information and demand. Ihe reason and foun¬
dation upon which all this doctrine is built, seem to be
the property that every man has in the service of his
domestics ; accjuired by the contract of hiring, and
purchased by giving them wages.
As for those things which a servant may do on be¬
half of his master, they seem all to proceed upon this
principle, that the master is answerable for the act of
his servant, if done by his command, either expressly
given or implied : nam quifacit per alium, facit per se.
Therefore, if the servant commit a trespass by the
command or encouragement of his master, the master
shall be guilty of it: not that the servant is excused,
for he is only to obey his master in matters that are
honest and lawful. If an innkeeper’s servants rob his
guests, the master is bound to restitution ; for as there
is a confidence reposed in him, that be will take care
to provide honest servants, his negligence is a kind of
implied consent to the robbery ; nam qui non prohibet,
cum prohibere possit, jubet. So likewise if the drawer
at a tavern sells a man bad wine, whereby his health is
injured, he may bring an action against the master ;
for although the master did not expressly order the ser-
[ 684 ] MAS
done with vant to sell it to that person in particular, yet his per- Aaster
mitting him to draw' and sell it at all is implied a ge-' y—
neral command.
In the same manner, whatever a servant is permitted
to do in the usual course of his business, is equivalent
to a general command. If I pay money to a banker’s
servant, the banker is answerable for it: If I pay it
to a clergyman’s or a physician’s servant, whose usual
business it is not to receive money for his master, and
he embezzles it, I must pay it over again. If a steward
lets a lease of a farm, without the owner’s knowledge,
the owner must stand to the bargain : for this is the
steward’s business. A wife, a friend, a relation, that
use to transact business for a man, are quoad hoc his ser¬
vants j and the principal must answer for their con¬
duct : for the law implies, that they act under a ge¬
neral command 5 and without such a doctrine as this
no mutual intercourse between man and man could sub¬
sist with any tolerable convenience. If I usually deal
w ith a tradesman by myself, or constantly pay him
ready money, I am not answerable for what my ser¬
vant takes up upon trust; for here is no implied order
to the tradesman to trust my servant: but if I usually
send him upon trust, or sometimes on trust and some¬
times with ready money', I am answerable foi all he
takes up 5 for the tradesman cannot possibly distinguish
when he comes by my order and when upon his own
authority.
If a servant, lastly, by his negligence does any da¬
mage to a stranger, the master shall answer for his ne¬
glect : if a smith’s servant lames a horse while he is
shoeing him, an action lies against the master, and not
against the servant. But in these cases the damage
must be done while he is actually employed in the
master’s service j otherwise the servant shall answer lor
his own misbehaviour. Upon this principle, by the
common law, if a servant kept his master s fire negli¬
gently, so that his neighbour’s house was burned down
thereby, an action lay against the master 5 because this
negligence happened in his service : otherwise, if the
servant, going along the street with a toich, by ne¬
gligence sets fire to a house } for there he is .ot in his
master’s immediate service, and must himself answer
the damage personally'. But now the common law is,
in the former ease, altered by statute 6 Ann. c. 3*
which ordains, that no action shall be maintained
against any in whose house or chamber any fire shall
accidentally begin ", for their own loss is sufficient pu¬
nishment for their own or their servant’s carelessness.
But if such fire happens through negligence of any
servant (whose loss is commonly very little), such ser¬
vant shall forfeit loci, to be distributed among the
sufferers 5 and, in default of payment, shall be com¬
mitted to some workhouse, and there kept to hard la¬
bour for 18 months. A master is, lastly, chargeable
if any of his family layeth or casteth any thing out of
his house into the street or common highway, to the
damage of any individual, or the common nuisance of
his majesty’s liege people } lor the master hath the su-
• i 1 _ C .11 1. - ^-1 1-ts-tai /-vl /I A T1 fl t ll I S Hi SO-
perintendance of all his household. And this also
agrees with the civil law 3 which holds, that the pat a
familias, in this and similar cases, ob alterius culpuni
tenetur, sive servi, sive liberi.
We may observe, that in all the cases here put, the
master may be frequently a loser by the trust reposed
MAS [ 685 ] M A T
Master w bis servant, but never can be a gainer : he may
|) frequently be answerable for his servant’s misbehaviour,
Mastiff but never can shelter himself from punishment by lay-
ing the blame on his agent. The reason of this is still
uniform and the same j that the wrong done by the
servant is looked upon in law as the wrong of the
master himself; and it is a standing maxim, that no
man shall be allowed to make any advantage of his
own wrong.
Master Load, in mining, a term used to express
the larger vein of a metal, in places where there are
several veins in the same mountain. Thus it happens,
that there are seven, sometimes five, but more usually
three veins or loads, parallel to each other, in the same
mountain. Of these the middle vein is the largest, and
is called the master load.
Master Wort. See Imferatoria, Botany Index.
MATIFICATION, the action of chewing, or of
agitating the solid parts of our food between the teeth,
by the motion of the jaws, the tongue, and the lips,
whereby it is broken into small pieces, impregnated
with saliva, and so fitted for deglutition and a more
easy digestion. See Anatomy, N° 104.
MASTICH, a kind of resin exuding from the len-
ticus tree; and brought from Chio, in small yellowish
transparent grains or tears of an agreeable smell, espe¬
cially when heated or set on fire. See Pistachia.
This resin is recommended in old coughs, dysente¬
ries, hemoptoes, weakness of the stomach, and in ge¬
neral in all debilities and laxity of the fibres. Geof-
froy directs an aqueous decoction of it to be used lor
these purposes : but water extracts little or nothing
from this resin. Rectified spirit almost entirely dissolves
it, and the solution is very warm and pungent. Mas-
tich is to be chosen in drops, clear, well-scented, and
brittle.
We meet with a kind of cement sometimes kept in
the shops under the name of mastich. It is composed
of this gum, and several other ingredients, and is
formed into cakes for use, This is intended for the
service of lapidaries, to fill up cracks in stones, &c.
but is by no means to be used for any medicinal
purposes.
MASTICOT, Massicot, or Yellow Lead, is
the calx or ashes of lead, gently calcined, by which it is
changed to yellow of lighter or deeper tint, according
to the degree of calcination. Masticot is sometimes
used by painters, and it serves medicinally as a drier in
the composition of ointments or plasters. T he masti¬
cot which is used by the Dutch as the ground of their
glazing, is prepared by calcining a mixture of one
hundred weight of clean sand, forty-four pounds of soda
and barilla, and thirty pounds of pearl ashes.
MASTIFF dog, Band Dog, ( cams villaticus, or
catenarius), is a species of great size and strength, and
a very loud barker. Manwood says, that it derives its
name from muse thefese, being supposed to frighten
away robbers by its tremendous voice. Great Britain
was formerly so noted for its mastiffs, that the Roman
emperors appointed an officer in this island, ivith the
title of Procurator Cynegu, whose sole business was to
breed, and transmit from hence to the amphitheatre,
such as would prove equal to the combats of the place.
Strabo, lib. iv. tells us, that the mastiffs of Britain were
trained for war, and used by the Gauls in their battles. Mastiff
See Canis, Mammalia Judex. H
MASTIGADOUR, or Slabbering-bit, in the, Match.
manege, a snaffle of iron, all smooth, and ot a piece,
guarded with paternosters, and composed ot three halfs
of great rings, made into demi-ovuls, of unequal big¬
ness j the lesser being enclosed within the greater, which
ought to be about half a foot high.
MASULAPATAN, a populous town of Asia in
the East Indies, and on the coast of Coromandel, in
the dominions of the Great Mogul. It carried on a
great trade, and most nations in Europe had facbwies
here ; but the English have now left it, and even the
Dutch themselves have not above a dozen people here
to carry on the chintz trade. The inhabitants are
Gentoos, who will not feed on any thing that has,life j
and they had a famous manufacture of chintz, which
is greatly decayed since the English left oft buying.
The Great Mogul has a customhouse hex*e ; and tho
adjacent countries abound in corn, tobacco, and tim¬
ber for building. It is seated on the west side ot the
bay of Bengal, 200 miles north of Fort St George.
E. Long. 81. 25. N. Lat. 16. 30.
MATACA, or M ANT AC A, a commodious bay in
America, on the north coast of the island ot Cuba.
Here the galleons usually come to take in fresh water
in their return to Spain. It is 35 miles from the Ha-
vaunah. W. Long. 85. 6. N. Lat. 25- O-
MATAMAN, a country of Africa, bounded by
Benguela on the north, by Monomotapa on the east,
by Caffraria on the south, and by the Atlantic ocean
on the west. There is no town in it, and the inhabi¬
tants live in miserable huts, it being a desert country,
and but little visited by the Europeans.
MATAN, or Mactan, an island of Asia in the
East Indian sea, and one of the Philippines. The
inhabitants have thrown off the yoke ol Spain j and
it was here that Magellan was killed in April 1521.
Cape MATAPAN, the most southern promontory
of the Morea, between the gull of Coran and that of
Colo-China.
MATARAM, a large town of Asia, formerly the
capital of an empire of that name in the island of Ja¬
va. It is strong by situation, and is seated in a very
fertile, pleasant, and populous country, surrounded with
mountains. E. Long. Hi. 25. S. Lat. 7. 55.
MATARO, a town of Spain, in Catalonia; seated
on the coast of the Mediterranean, 15 miles north-east
of Barcelona, and 35 south-west ol Gironne. It is a
small town, but industrious and well-peopled ; and the
environs abound in vineyards, which produce wine
much famed for its flavour. It likewise contains seve¬
ral manufactories, and is considered as one of the rich¬
est and most active towns in Catalonia. E. Long. 2. 35.
N. Lat. 41.30. .
MATCH, a kind of rope slightly twisted, and pre¬
pared to retain fire for the uses of artillery, mines, file-
works, &.c.
It is made of hempen tow, spun on the wheel like
cord, but very slack j and is composed of three twists,
which are afterwards again covered with tow, so that
the twists do not appear: lastly, it is boiled in the lees
of old wines. This, when once lighted at the end,
burns on gradually and regularly, without ever going
MAT [ 686 ] MAT
Match out till the whole be consumed : the hardest and driest
|| match is generally the best.
Mate. Quick-Match. See Quiac-Match.
~ v MATCHING, in the wine trade, the preparing
vessels to preserve wines and other liquors, without
their growing sour or vapid. The method of doing it
is as follows : Melt brimstone in an iron ladle, and
when thoroughly melted, dip into it slips of coarse li¬
nen cloth j take these out, and let them cool} this the
wine-coopers call a match. Take one of these matches,
set one end of it on fire, and put it into the bung-
hole of a cask ; stop it loosely, and thus sufler the match
to burn nearly out; then drive in the bung tight, and
set the cask aside for an hour or two. At the end of
this time examine the cask, and you will find that the
sulphur has communicated a violent pungent and suf¬
focating scent to the cask, with a considerable degree
of acidity, which is the gas and acid spirit of the sul¬
phur. The cask may after this be filled with a small
wine which has scarce done its fermentation; ami
bunging it down tight, it will be kept good, and will
soon clarify : this is a common and very useful method j
for many poor wines could scarce be kept potable even
a few months -without it.
MATE of a Ship of War, an officer under the di¬
rection of the master, by whose choice he is generally
appointed, to assist him in the several branches of his
duty. Accordingly, be is to be particularly attentive
to the navigation in bis w’atch, &c. to keep the log
regularly, and examine the line and glasses by which
the ship’s course is measured, and to adjust the sails to ]yrato
the wind in the fore part of the ship. He is to have a [|
diligent attention to the cables, seeing that they are Materia
well coiled and kept clean when laid in the tier, and v ~
sufficiently served when employed to ride the ship. Fi¬
nally, he is to superintend and assist at the stowage of
the hold, taking especial care that all the ballast and
provisions are properly stowed therein.
Mate of a Merchant Ship, the officer who com¬
mands in the absence of the master thereof, and shares
the duty with him at sea j being charged with every
thing that regards the internal management of the ship,
the directing her course, and the government of her
crew.
The number of mates allowed to ships of war and
merchantmen is always in proportion to the size of the
vessel. Thus a first-rate man of war has six mates, and
an East-Indiaman the same number", a frigate of xo
guns, and a small merchant ship, but only one mate in
each ", and the intermediate ships have a greater or
smaller number, according to their several sizes, or to
the services on which they are employed.
Dura and pia MATER, the names given by ana¬
tomists to the two membranes which surround the
brain. See Anatomy, N° 129, 130.
MATERA, a considerable town of Italy, in the
kingdom of Naples, and in the Terra d’Otranto, with
a bishop’s see, seated on the river Canapro. E. Lang.
16. 43. N. Lat. 40. 51.
MATERIA MEDICA and PHARMACY.
INTRODUCTION.
Definition rjPHAT department of medical science which treats
of materia of the nature, effects, and uses of those remedies
medica; that are employed for the prevention or removal of dis¬
ease is called Materia Medica. It comprises the
natural history of the articles, or an account of those
circumstances by which they may be distinguished, and
of the means of procuring and preserving them j their
chemical history, or an account of the changes which
they undergo from the action of various reagents, the
mode of analyzing them, of separating their most use¬
ful principles, and of ascertaining their purity ; and
their medical history, or an account of their sensible ef¬
fects on the animal system both in the healthy and
morbid state, with their application to the practice of
medicine.
and of The art of collecting, and preserving the various
pharmacy, substances employed in medicine, and of reducing them
to those forms that are best suited to the various pur¬
poses for which they are exhibited, is called Phar¬
macy. This art is practised by the trading chemist
and the apothecary j and at least the principles of it
form a necessary part of education to every member of
the medical profession.
In the present edition of our Encyclopedia, it is
proposed to treat of these twro subjects together, since
4
they are intimately connected, and when consider¬
ed under the same treatise, ivill occupy much less
room. 3
We shall divide this article into four parts ; in the^rran£e'
• • ^ • nient
first of which we shall briefly treat of those articles
that are employed to support life, or of diet 5 in the
second we shall treat of remedies in general, and shall
arrange them into classes according to their action on
the animal economy ", in the third we shall consider the
methods of preparing them for exhibition, or shall lay
down the general principles of pharmacy j and in the
fourth we shall briefly notice each of the articles em¬
ployed in medicine, whether simple or officinal, and
mention the most important circumstances necessary to
be known respecting them.
As the limits which have been assigned to this article
are extremely confined, it cannot be expected that the
subject will be treated at any great length. Contrary
to usual practice, we shall dwell most on the general
circumstances of materia medica and pharmacy, and
shall be as brief on the individual articles as is consist¬
ent with perspicuity and practical utility. .
We shall not at present enter on a historical account writers on
of the writers on the materia medica and pharmacy. If the materia
we find room for such an account, we shall introduce medica.
it at the end of this article, where we conceive it would
be most properly placed. It will be expected, how¬
ever, that W’e should mention some of the most ap¬
proved
6
ewis’s ex
irimental
.■itory.
7
array’s
iparatus
.'dicami-
aeliti’s
itinua-
u.
9
»nro’s
dical
l Phar-
; ceutical
imistry.
MATERIA
proved works on these subjects, and this we shall here
do very briefly.
As one of the principal modern writers on the ma¬
teria medica, it will be sufficient to mention the name
of Cullen. His work is still considered as classical, and
is in the hands of every medical man. Whatever we
may think of the reasoning and hypothesis which it
contains, and however much we may be fatigued with
the prolixity of some parts of the work, we shall al¬
ways set a just value on the useful facts and practical
remarks with which it abounds. It is to be regretted
that Dr Cullen did not prepare a second edition of the
materia medica before the infirmities of age had render¬
ed him less qualified for the work, as in many respects
the first edition is preferable to the second.
There are three works which Dr Cullen warmly re¬
commended, and which he thought so excellent that
he wished them to be in the hands of all his readers.
These are Dr Lewis’s “ Experimental History of the
Materia Medica,” as published in Bvo by Dr Aikin ;
Bergius’s “ Materia Medica e regno Vegetabili and
the “ Apparatus Medicaminum” of Professor Murray
of Gottingen.
Soon after Dr Cullen published the second edition
of his Materia Medica, a new edition of Lewis by
Aikin appeared, superior to the former chiefly in con¬
taining the improvements made by the London college
in their Pharmacopoeia in 1788. Dr Lewis’s work is
still valuable for the facts which it contains relative to
the natural history of the substances, and the action of
several chemical agents on them ; but from the late
changes that have been made in chemical nomencla¬
ture, the language in which it is written has already
become obsolete.
Professor Murray had published but a small part of
his “ Apparatus Medicaminum,” when the last edi¬
tion of Cullen’s Materia Medica appeared. He, how¬
ever, lived to complete that part of his work which
treats of vegetable substances, of which five volumes
were published during his life, and a sixth after his
death, by Dr Althof. In this last volume an account
is given of columba root, angustura bark, myrrh, and
several other medicines, which could not properly be
introduced into the general arrangement, as the plants
from which they are procured were not certainly
known.
A continuation of Murray’s Apparatus Medicami-
nura in two volumes, containing an account of mineral
substances, was published by Professor Gmelin in 1795.
It is very good, but will scarcely now be consulted
when the improved state of modern chemistry has given
rise to the production of so many excellent works on
the same subject.
In 1788 Dr Donald Munro published a work an
chemistry, pharmacy, and the materia medica, in three
volumes 8vo, under the title of “ Medical and Pharma¬
ceutical Chemistry.” At the time of its publication,
it was the best work of the kind in our language ; and
it is still very valuable, though the late improvements
in chemistry have in some measure diminished the uti¬
lity of the chemical part of the work.
About ten years ago was published the first volume
MEDICA, &c. 687
of a small work, entitled, A Practical Synopsis of the Introduc-
Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica, by an ano- tion.
nymous author, who had also some time before publish- 1 v
ed the Thesaurus Medicaniinum. After an interval of
ten years, this synopsis is at length completed by the pu- Synopsis
blication ot the second part of the second volume ; and and The-
we consider it as one of the most useful works on the ^urus Me-
subjects on which it treats. Both it and the Thesaurus
abound with excellent practical observations, but the
arrangement adopted will in some respects be consider¬
ed as antiquated. Of tins more hereafter. As these
two works are intimately connected, it is to be wished,
that in a subsequent edition they should be united in¬
to one, in which form they would make two moderate
8vo volumes. jj
In 1804 Mr Murray, lecturer on chemistry and ma-Murray’s
teria medica in Edinburgh, published his Elements 0fElcnleuts*
Materia Medica and Pharmacy, in two volumes, of
which the second is chiefly a translation of the new edi¬
tion of the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia, with some use¬
ful remarks. In his first volume, Mr Murray has
made some ingenious observations on the general action
ot medicines, which, independently of the theory he
adopts, wc consider among the most valuable parts of
his work. I2
lew works have had a more extensive circulation Duncan’s
than the Edinburgh New Dispensatory, a work which ^ew E‘s“
was founded on the New Dispensatory of Dr Lewispensatory’
published in 1753' this dispensatory several suc¬
cessive editions were published under the direction of
Dr Webster, Dr Duncan, and Dr Rotheram, till in
1803 a new work, under the same title, was published
by Dr Andrew Duncan, junior. Of this improved
Dispensatory we need say little ; the rapid sale of three
large editions, and the call which has been made for a
fourth, sufficiently evince the opinion which the public
has formed of its utility and execution. It is perhaps
the most complete guide to the pi'actical apothecary
which we have in any language. j.
In 1805 was published a small volume containing Kirby’s
a tabular view of the Materia Medica by Dr Kirby.ta^es‘
This little work is intended as a manual to the young
practitioner, and comprehends all the articles of the ma¬
teria medica that are received into the. Pharmacopoeias
of Edinburgh, London, and Dublin, arranged into
classes 5 and the mode of prescribing them is illustrated
by appropriate formulae. Owing to the indifferent state
of the author’s health when this volume was printed, it
is disfigured by numerous typographical errors ; but
these are in general only literal ; and such as might
mislead the practitioner are corrected in the table of
Errata. ^
Among the best foreign publications on materia me- Late £0-
dica and pharmacy we may enumerate reign
works.
Arnemann’s Therapeia Generalis $
Mirabelli’s Apparatus Medicaminum ;
Bouillon Lagrange Manual de Pharmacien j
Swediaur’s Materia Medica }
Swediaur’s Pharmacopoeia 5 and the foreign Pharmaco¬
poeias referred to in Duncan’s Dispensatory.
PART
MATERIA ME DIG A, &c.
688
Dietetics.
PART I. DIETETICS.
Part I,
Dietetics.
DieJtis THE subject of diet and regimen was much more
attended to by the ancient physicians than it has been
by those of modern times. In the writings of Hippo¬
crates and Celsus we find some excellent remarks both
on diet in general and on the particular diet that is
suitable to sick people j and for many centuries these
authors formed our only guides. Of late, indeed, this
necessary branch of the healing art has been veiy suc¬
cessfully cultivated, and several valuable works have
been published on the subject. Of these we shall here
enumerate a few ot the more respectable.
16
Writers on cuUen’s Materia Medica, vol. i.
Diet' Plenk’s Bromatologia j _
Synopsis of Materia Alimentaria and Materia Medica,
vol. i.
Fordyce on Digestion }
Nisbet on Diet ; • r •
Halle’s Articles on Diet in Encyclopedic Methodique
Dictionary of Medicine j
Beddoes’s Hygeia ;
Sir John Sinclair’s Code of Health and Longevity.
In the brief sketch that we can here give of dietetics,
we shall first treat of food in general, and then mention
most of the animal and vegetable substances that have
been or may be employed to support life.
Of food iu All food is either of an animal or vegetable origin.
general. The former is, no doubt, more allied to our nature,
and most easily assimilated to its nourishment *, the
latter, though digested with more difficulty, is the
foundation of the former, as vegetables are the nou¬
rishment of animals, and all food is therefore properly
derived from this source. In many respects, however,
vegetable and animal food dilTer 5 and this difference
it is proper to remark, according to the various effects
it displays on different parts of the human system. In
the choice of vegetable food, a much nicer selection is
made by man than by any other animal j and his
choice is chiefly confined to those of a mild, bland na¬
ture, and of an agreeable taste. When any other
substances are selected, it is entirely for the purpose of
condiment or medicine. The first difference to be ob¬
served between animal and vegetable food, is with re¬
spect to their effects on the stomach and bowels. In
the stomach, vegetable food always displays a tenden¬
cy to acescency, while animal food, on the contrary,
tends towards putrefaction. Hence the former is apt
to produce symptoms of uneasiness, while the latter in
moderate quantity is almost never felt. In the-same
wav, facility of solution belongs to vegetable food •,
' while from greater firmness of texture, and viscidity,
animal food is apt to oppress. Nor does the latter,
from its oily texture, always mix easily in the stomach
with other matters j while vegetables unite readily, but
frequently continue long on the stomach for want of a
proper stimulus. Similar effects are produced in the
bowels by these different kinds of food, as well as in
the stomach. TL» acescency of vegetable food is at
all times apt to induce looseness •, while the same effect
is never known to arise from animal food, except in a
very advanced state of putrefaction. On the contrary,
the body is generally kept by it in a regular state 5
while vegetables, from the lesser portion of them going
into chyle, produce a larger proportion of feculent
matter, and lie longer in the bowels from their inac¬
tive nature before being expelled.
The nourishment conveyed by both kinds of food is 15
much the same j but the animal product is in greater
quantity, and more easily digested, while the vegetable
retains its more watery nature, with a portion oi unas¬
similating saline matter, which, though introduced, is
again expelled by some of the excretions. I lie animal
blood is then richer, more elaborated and stimulating,
and excites a stronger action of the system than that
produced from vegetables. Both products, however,
equally take on an alkalescent nature in the circula¬
tion ; for the acescency of the vegetable is confined en¬
tirely to its action on the stoma'ch and bowels. Thus,
from animal lood a greater supply of nourishment is re¬
ceived for the wants of the system, depending on its
greater quantity of oil, and its longer retention in the
body than vegetable food. Agreeably to these dif¬
ferent effects of animal and vegetable food, it is far¬
ther to be observed, that the latter is more quickly
perspirable than the former. Hence the tendency to
obesity, which arises from animal food } while part ol
the vegetable aliment is very quickly carried off by
urine.
The combination of a vegetable and animal diet, is jp
certainly best suited to preserve a proper state ol health
and strength. There are few who subsist entirely upon
vegetables, and of these few, the constitutions are ge¬
nerally feeble, sickly, and weak, and they are the con¬
stant victims to complaints of the stomach and bowels.
Where this method of file is at all practised, it is con¬
fined to hot climates, where vegetable diet may no
doubt be carried to a greater extent without injury.
Some nations also have gone to the other extreme, and
live entirely on animal food } and in a very cold at¬
mosphere, this may be indulged beyond what would
otherwise be safe for the health ol the body, so that a
mixture of vegetable and animal nourishment seems
best fitted for the health of man. But the proportion
in which these ought to be used, is a point equally ne¬
cessary to be inquired into. The benefits that attend
animal food are clearly the giving a superior strength
and vigour ', but, in proportion as it carries this to ex¬
cess, it exposes the body to dangerous consequences,
and to the production of various diseases. Hence those
who exceed in the animal, or what we may term the
athletic diet, are soon worn out, and fall the victims
of the over proportion of strength which such living
bestows.
The advantages again of vegetable food, are mostly 20
of the passive kind, and though it is difficult of as¬
similation, yet under certain circumstances, a tolerable
degree of strength and vigour may be acquired from it.
It is more favourable for the appetite than animal food,
and little injury can arise from too much repletion with
it. It has many advantages over animal food, as it in¬
troduces
Part I.
Dietetics, troduces no improper acrimony into the system, and
counteracts the baneful eirects of animal dit t. It is to
this preference of vegetable food that the French owe
their freedom from disease in a greater degree than the
English : and the best rule to secure health, perhaps,
is to confine infancy and youth mostly to a vegetable
diet 5 manhood, and the decay of life, to animal food 5
while near the end of life, the vegetable system should
again be returned to. But, whatever kind of diet we
adopt, a variety in the form of our food, as well as the
nature of it, should be attended to. Thus the con¬
stant use of solid nourishment, however wholesome and
nutritious, by giving the stomach more to do than is
necessary, must be attended with hurtful consequences.
In the same way a perseverance in the liquid aliment,
however fit by its qualities for conveying chyle into
the system, could not fail to prove an improper diet, by
depriving the stomach of that necessary stimulus from
its form, which solid food conveys. A mixture, there¬
fore, of solid and fluent nourishment is absolutely neces¬
sary, whatever the nature of that nourishment may be,
and this proportion must be regulated by the different
situations of different individuals. A man who is sub¬
jected to much bodily exertion, requires certainly the
proportion of solid food to exceed, and likewise to be
taken in the most permanent and nutritive state. A
man again accustomed to little bodily labour, and sub¬
jected to the ease and inactivity of a sedentary life,
should reverse this plan, and the proportion of liquid
Should he increased. In the use of the different kinds
of food, the same regulations are proper. Where,
-along with a sedentary life, the stomach rejects much
vegetable food, and a tendency to acidity renders its
•use improper, the bad consequences of an excess of
animal diet must be corrected by giving it in the most
soluble and diluted form. Thus the use of soups and
broths becomes highly proper, as giving the sufficient
stimulus of animal food to the stomach, and at the same
time presenting it in a form by which a considerable
part quickly passes off, and the excess of nourishment
which constant animal food would produce is greatly
countex-acted, It is to this cause that we may attribute
the little injury which animal food is known to produce
in Scotland, and also in France, where soups are much
ix uset|\
| ;&pe4. With respect to the quantity of food to be actually
lantity oftaken, this must be regulated much by the appetite and
the supply required. The appetite is the great indica¬
tion of healthy and where the stomach is in a healthy
state, it relishes almost every kind of nourishment that
is presented. This being the case, we are entirely to
be regulated in the .quantity taken in by the appetite.
Satiety is the natui’al consequence of repletion, and
before this takes place, the stomach itself gives the
alarm.
Among popular writers it has been a common axiom
that a small quantity of food is most easily digested,
and that we should rise from table with an appetite.
This idea proceeds entirely from the opinion that di¬
gestion is effected by the muscular power of the sto¬
mach. But it Is a truth sufficiently established that this
Is not the case. It depends entirely on the fluid of the
stomach, or gastric secretion, and is performed by the
application of this fluid equally well out of the body as
within the organ. Indeed we mav suppose that a con-
Voi,, XII, Burt II, f
6S9
sidcrable quantity of food, when taken, by producing Dietetics,
a greater stimulus or irritation of the stomach, will in- —y—
crease the gastric fluid, and thus accelerate the process
of digestion. At the same time it must be observed
that there is in infancy a proper foundation for this re¬
striction. The gastric fluid in children is more active,
and their stomach yields more readily to distention j
the appetite, therefore, will continue longer before the
sense of satiety takes place : but even here, as the diet
is mostly of a diluted kind, and soon passes off, we be¬
lieve that more has been attributed to the effects of re¬
pletion, as the cause of disease in children, than what
it deserves. 2,
rI he proper rule, in all cases, is that the body should Bodyshould
be sufficiently nourished, whatever the nature or the *je su®ci-
quantity of the nourishment employed may be, and this no"~
is best determined by the apparent state of the body,
and what is again lost by it, or the quantity of its dif¬
ferent discharges. The body also, we may observe* is
at all times under the influence of habit, and where it
is accustomed to he circumscribed, it is often amazing
to find what small quantities of nourishment will suffice,
and even health be preserved. Of this we have a
number of remarkable instances brought forward by
medical writers. Nor is this confined solely to man j
the inferior animals show that their bodies can accom¬
modate themselves to similar circumstances. This be¬
ing the case, the constitution of man is limited in this
respect less, even in civilized life, than what has been
alleged. The chief point in health is to guard against
exti’emities $ for a uniform mode of life, even where er¬
rors are conspicuous, is always less dangerous than sud¬
den excess, either of one kind or another.
The manner of taking food also requires attention. Manner of
In all solid nourishment a proper chewing should take taking food,
place j this is a preparatory and necessary step to the
action of the fluid in the stomach $ but this chewing
should not be carried, as some have advised, too far.
Something should be left for the stomach to do, and this
organ will be found improved by exercise and by in-
ci'easing its active powers, as well as any other part of
the body. Hence substances rather of difficult diges¬
tion may be at times properly pi’esented to it.
In his choice of food man is not circumscribed like
the other animals. Its respective salubrity or pcrnici-
oasness he can in general judge of only by its taste.
Hence, that his taste may be as little deceived as pos¬
sible, most nourishing substances, we observe, are of a
bland, mild nature, and contain nothing offensive to
this organ. Hence too there is a certain pleasure
conjoined with the gratification of appetite, which is
meant both as an incentive to our taking nourishment,
and also to direct us in the selection of it.
From the constitution, however, of man, experience
shows that any nourishment, however unfit, maybe as¬
similated by habit, and that wholesome and unwhole¬
some are often merely relative terms, regulated by
the existing circumstances in which individuals are
placed.
The desire for solid food, is much seldomer carried
to excess than that for fluids. Both, where they oc-v
cur, are not the effect of a natural appetite, but rather
of that ai'tificial one which is created by the use of sti¬
mulants increasing the relish of food to the palate, or
its stimulant effect on the stomach. This excess be-
4 S comes
M A T E B I A MEDIC A, &e.
690
Dietetics.
* See Nis-
bet on Diet
MATEBIA
comes increased by indulgence ami a habit, of course,
conies to prevail, which distends the stomach, relaxes
its tone, and destroys its elasticity, in consequence 0
which disorders of this organ arise, and a general
fulness and corpulency in the whole system take
place. ,, , ...
The manner of taking food, as well as the quantity
and quality, requires some attention. All extremes in
taking food should be carefully avoided-, it should
pass into the stomach in a slow and regular manner,
blended by the process of chewing with a su&cient
quantity of saliva to promote its dissolution in the sto¬
mach. If hurried over without attention to this, the
difficulty of solution is increased, and the stomach is
suddenly distended, and satiety produced before it is
filled. The meal, therefore, becomes both deficient
in quantity, and the food, from the digestive organs
having more to do, remains longer on the stomach
than is either necessary or proper*.
For more on this subject, see the articles Aliment,
Food, and Drink, in this work, and the article Die¬
tetics, Supplement. .
After these general observations on diet', we shall
take a brief survey of the principal articles employed
as food, under the general heads of Solid Iood,
Drink, and Condiments.
A. SOLID FOOD.
I. FROM THE ANIMAL KINGDOM.
Class I. MAMMALIA. Order 1. Primates.
24
Food deriv¬
ed from
quadru¬
peds.
25
Apes..
ad
Bats.
There are few animals of this order employed as
food. In some countries, however, several species of
the genus simia or ape, are eaten, particularly
Simla inuus, the Barbary ape. S. Beekebul, the
preacher monkey. S. Paniscus, the four-fingered mon¬
key.
Some species of the bat tribe are occasionally eaten
by the natives of warm climates, especially
Vespcrtilio vampyrus, the vampyre bat.
Order 2. Bruta.
27
Ant-eater.
28
Armadillo.
29
Rhino-
.80
Elephant.
31
Walrus.
Several tribes of this order afford nourishment to un¬
civilized nations.
The great ant-eater [rnyrmecophagajuhata) is fre¬
quently eaten by the American Indians $ but its flesh
has a strong and disagreeable flavour.
Most species of dasvpus or armadillo form an article
of diet among the Indians.
The flesh of the rhinoceros bicornis, or two-horned
rhinoceros, is eaten in Abyssinia ; but its flesh is very
sinewy.
The flesh of the elephant is often eaten, both by the
Abyssmians and Hottentots. See Elephant, Mam¬
malia Index.
Several species o£ trichecus, or walrus, are eatable,
especially
Trichecus rosraarus, or arctic walrus.
Order 3. FERAL
From this order mankind have long derived part of
.Seal,
32
their nourishment, especially in the earlier periods of
society.
The flesh of the common spal {plma vitulind) was,
MEDIC A, &c. Parti.
a few centuries ago, served up at the tables of the great Dietetics.
in this country ; and it still forms the principal subsist- 1    
ence of the Greenlanders, Icelanders, and Eamtscha-
dales. . . ,
The brown or black bear {ursus arctos) is eaten by Dear,
the common people in Norway, Russia, and Poland.
It is difficult of digestion, and is generally salted and
dried before being used. 34
Of the dog tribe few species have been employed for Dog.
the food of man, though the common dog is greedily
eaten by the inhabitants of the South-sea islands, and
is sometimes used as food in more civilized societies.
See Dog, Mammalia Index. _ . 35
Of the cat tribe, the flesh of the lion is considered as Lion,
excellent food by several nations of Africa, and Kol-
ben prefers it to most other animal food. _ 36
The common otter {Jutra vulgaris) is eaten in seve-Otter,
ral Roman Catholic countries, and considered as nearly
allied to fish. See Otter, Mammalia Index.
The young of the sea otter {lutra marina) are said
to be delicate eating, not easily to be distinguished from
lamb. 37
Several species of didelphis or opossum are considered Opossum,
by the natives of SoutJi America as equally good food
with the flesh of the hare or rabbit, especially
Didelphis Virginiana, the Virginian opossum. 38
The kanguroo (inacropus major) forms a chief part Kanguroo.
of the animal food used by the natives of New Holland j
but the flesh is very coarse. 39
The common hedgehog (erinaceus europeeus) is oc- Hedgehog,
casionally used as food ) and its flesh is said to be ex¬
tremely delicate.
Order 4. Glires.
. • N • * 40
The common porcupine (Jiystrix enstata) is eaten m Porcupine.
Sicily and Malta, and is frequently introduced to the
politest tables at the Cape of Good Hope. _ 41
Several species of cuvia are used as food in Guiana, Ca\ia.
Brazil, and other parts of South America, especially
Cavia cobaya, the Guinea pig. C. paca, the spotted
cavy. C. aguti, the long-nosed cavy, and C. aperea, the
rock cavy. 42
The flesh of the beaver {castor fiber) is employed as Beaver,
food in America, and is said to be good eating. It is
preserved by drying it in the smoke. 43
The alpine marmot {arctomys marmota) affords nou-Marmot
rishment to the poorer inhabitants of the Tyrol, Savoy,
and other parts of the Alps 5 and, besides this, three
other species are eatable, viz.
Arctomys monax, the Maryland marmot. A bo-
bac, bobak ; and A. citellus, the casan or earless mar¬
mot. _ . 44
Several species of sciurus, or squirrel, may be eaten, Square»
especially the common squirrel {sciurvs vulgaris), which
is much used in Sweden and Norway, and its flesh is
said to resemble that of a barn-door fowl. 45
The common jerboa {dipus jaculus) is eaten by the Jerboa.
Arabs, who esteem its flesh among their greatest deli--
cacies. t ^ ^
Most species of lepns, or the hare tribe, are used as Hare a
,.1 , • rabbit.
common food, especially
Lepus timid us, the common hare, and L. cuniculus,
the rabbit.
Of these the flesh of the rabbit is softer and more di¬
gestible than that of the hare j but it is not so nourish-.
mg.
Pari
Dielf
47
Ctmeli
ktaci
47
Camelus.
Elk.
4S
49
Part I. ' MATERIA
Dietetics, ing. Wild rabbits are both more digestible and more
palatable than such as are domesticated.
Order 5. Pecora.
It is from this order that the principal part of animal
food, in civilized countries, is deiaved. Almost all
the animals contained in this order form excellent
food.
Some species of ramclus, or the camel tribe, are eat¬
en, especially
Camelus dromedarius, the Arabian camel. C. gla-
ma, the glama, whose llesh is said to resemble mutton.
Of the genus cervus, the following species are most
used, viz.
Cervus alces, the elk, eaten in Norway, Lapland,
and Sweden, where its flesh is much esteemed. It is
very nourishing, but lies long on the stomach.
C. elaphus, the common stag. The flesh of this ani¬
mal, when full grown, is well known under the name
of venison, and is very digestible, wholesome, and nou¬
rishing. The animal should not be killed till he is
above four yeai’S old, and the flesh is fattest and best
flavoured in the month of August.
C. tarandus, the rein deer. The flesh of this species
forms the principal nourishment of the Laplanders 5 the
tongues are excellent when salted and smoked, and the
milk is sweet and nourishing.
C. dama, the fallow-deer. The flesh of this species
is a variety of venison, and nearly resembles that of the
stag. The buck is preferred.
C. capreolus, the roebuck. The flesh of the roebuck
is considered as inferior to that of the last species.
Of the genus antilope, almost all the species afford
excellent food ; but the following is most generally em¬
ployed, viz.
Antilope rupicapra, the chamois.
The flesh of the young ibex (copra ibex') is said to
be excellent food.
Of the common goat (copra hirells') only the young
are employed as food j and a roasted kid is a very com¬
mon dish in America and the West Indies. Of goat’s
milk we shall speak hereafter.
Ovis aries, the common sheep. Mutton is well known
to be a highly nutritious and wholesome meat. It is
perhaps more universally used than any other animal
food. Tup-mutton has such a strong smell and disagree¬
able taste, and is, besides, so exceedingly tough and
difficult of digestion, that it is never eaten but by those
who cannot afford to purchase mutton of a better qua¬
lity. Twe mutton, if it be more than between two and
three years old, is likewise tough and coarse. Wedder-
mutton, or the flesh of the castrated animal, is most
esteemed, and is by far the sweetest and most digestible.
Lamb being less heating and less dense, is better suited
to weak stomachs j but this applies only to the flesh of
lambs that have not been robbed of their blood by re¬
peated bleedings, or reared by the hand with milk
adulterated with chalk, in order to make the meat ap¬
pear white. Such practices to render the food pleasing
to the eye, at the expence of its alimentary properties,
cannot be too much reprobated.
Bos taurus, the common bull and cow. The flesh of
the bull has a strong disagreeable smell, and is dry,
tough, and difficult of solution in the stomach. Bull-
beef is rarely eaten. But the flesh of the ox, or cas-
Stdg.
5°
lein deer.
Si
"allow
52
.oebuck.
hamois.
54
oat.
SS
leep.
MEDIC A, &c. 69 r
trated animal, called ox-beej, is a highly nourishing and Dietetics
wholesome food, readily digested hy healthy persons, —-y—
and constituting a principal part of the common diet of
the inhabitants of this and many other countries. It is
the most strengthening of all kinds of animal food.
Cow-beef is not so tender nor so nourishing, nor so di¬
gestible as ox-beef. Veal is tender and nourishing)
but not so easily digested, nor so well suited to weak
stomachs, as is commonly imagined. It is matter of
just complaint, that the same injurious methods are
practised in the rearing and management of calves, as
have been already noticed under the article Lam?.
By such treatment the quality of the flesh is much de¬
praved. What is called beef tea, is prepared by put¬
ting a pound of the lean part of beef, cut into very thin
slices into a quart of water, and boiling it over a quick
fire about five minutes, taking off the scum. The li¬
quor is afterwards poured oft' clear for use. This makes
a light and pleasant article of diet for iveak and deli¬
cate people. On some occasions spices may be advan¬
tageously added to it. Gravy soup is very nourishing,
but is heavy and heating. It is used as a clyster, as
well as taken into the stomach. Calves-feet jelly is
highly nutritious and demulcent.
Besides the common ox, the following species are
employed as food, viz.
Bos americanus, the American bison. B. moschatus,
the musk bull. B. bubal us, the buffalo. B. caffer, the
cape ox, and B. grunniens, the yak.
Order 6. B elude.
The flesh of the horse may be eaten, but is very Horse?
coarse. Mare’s milk is often used medicinally, but is
considered as inferior to that of the ass.
Asses milk is light, and well suited to weak sto¬
machs. It is commonly employed in consumptive cases)
and Hoffman recommends it in gout, rheumatism,
jaundice, debility of the bowels, disorders of the urina¬
ry passages, and in fluor albus.
The flesh of the tapir (taper americanus) is much Tapir,
esteemed by the inhabitants of South America, but is
inferior to our beef. $Q
The flesh of the wild boar is dense, but sufficiently Hog.
tender, very nourishing, and more savoury than that of
the domestic hog. But as the general properties of
both are the same, they will be here noticed to¬
gether. The flesh of the wild boar is in season in
the month of October. The head is esteemed the finest
part. The flesh of the young animal is reckoned a
great delicacy. The common or domestic boar. The
sow. The flesh of the sow is strong, and makes bad
bacon. It is the flesh of the castrated animal that is in
common use, and that is known by the name of pork.
On account of the fat or lard with which it abounds,
it is not very easily digested. It is a very savoury food,
and affords a strong nourishment, suited to persons who
lead an active or laborious life. The too frequent and
long continued use of this meat favours obesity, produ¬
ces foulness of the stomach and bowels, and occasions
disorders of the skin. The flesh of the sucking pig is
reckoned a great delicacy, is very nourishing) but by
reason of the thick and slimy juice with which it
abounds, it is not vexy readily dissolved in the stomach,
and therefore is by no means a proper food for weak
and sickly persons. Bacon is a coarse and heavy, but
4 S 2 nutritive
58
dsses milk.
59
692
Dietetics.
6t
Tood from
birds.
62
Picre.
<^3
Anseres.
MATERIA
nutritive food, only fit to be taken in considerable quan-
' tity bv robust and labouring people. When it consti¬
tutes a principal part of the daily diet, it brings on dis¬
orders similar to those which arise from the immoderate
use of pork. In consequence of the fat or lard with
which it abounds, the flesh of the swine tribe is more
or less laxative. Upon the whole, it may be said of
pork, that the occasional and sparing use of it is suffi¬
ciently salutary ; but that it cannot be made a princi¬
pal part of the daily diet, without producing disorder
in many constitutions, and particularly in those who are
of a melancholic temperament, and lead a sedentary
life. . r 1 •
The flesh of the different species of this genus is
edible, especially that of the sus tajassu and £. baby-
russa.
Class II. BIRDS. Order 2. Pica;.
Of this order only two species are generally used as
Corvus frugilegus, the rook. The young of this bird
is very similar to the pigeon, but is rather infer 101 in
flavour and digestibility.
P. viridis, the green woodpecker. The flesh of this
and some other species is palatable, but of difficult so¬
lution.
64
Grail*.
6S
Gallia*.
M E DI C A, &c. Part I.
common water-hen. F. porphyrio, the purple water- Dietetics.^
hen.
Order 5. Gallina;.
This order furnishes the principal part of the food
which we derive from the class of birds. Ihe follow-
ing species affiard excellent nourishment, viz.
Pavo cristatus, the peacock.
Meleagris gallipavo, the turkey.
Penelope cristata, the quhan.
Crax alector, the crested curassow.
Phasianus gallus, the common fowl.
commo7i pheasant.
Numida meleagrisj the Guinea hen.
Tetrao urogallus, the wood grouse.
Ph. colchicns.
T. tetrix, the
black cock, or black game. 1. lagopus, red game. 1.
perdix, the common partridge. T. coturnix, the quail.
Order 6. PASSERES.
66
Passe re;.
Order 3. Anseres.
Of this order the principal species that are eaten be¬
long to the genus anas, of which all the species may
be used for food } but the following are most generally
employed, viz. anas cygnus, the wild swan. A. oloi,
the tame swan. A. anser, trie goose. A. bernicla, the
brent goose. A. moschata, the Aluscovy duck. A. pe-
nelope, wigeon. A. ferxna, pochard. A. crecca, teal.
A. boschas, wild duck. A. domeatica, the tame or
common duck.
Alca arctica, puffin. A. tarda, the razor-bill. A.
cirrhata, the tufted auk.
Pelicanus bassanus, the solandgoose.
Larus marinus, the black-backed gull.
Of these the swan, the goose, the wigeon, the teal,
the wild and tame duck, are the most digestible the
barnacle, the puffin, the soland goose, and the black-
backed gull, are very fat, heavy, and have generally a
fishy taste.
Order 4. Gralla;.
Of this order most of the genera furnish very good
and savoury food. The following are most commonly
used, viz.
Scolopax rusticola, the woodcock. S. gallinago, the
snipe. S. gallinula, the jack snipe. S. glottis, the great-
plover, or green-shank. S. tetanus, the spotted snipe.
S. limosa, the stone plover. S. lapponica, the red god-
wit.
Tringa pugnax, the ruff and reeve. T. vanellus,
the lapwing or bastard plover. T. cinchus, the purre.
T. squatarrha, the gray plover, or sandpiper.
Charadrius marinellus, the dotterel. C.pluvialis, the
green plover. C. cedicnemus, the thick-kneed bustard.
C. hemantopus, the long-legged plover.
Fulica fusca, the brown gallinidc. F. chloropus, the
Z
The following species of this order may be employed
as food, viz.
Columba domestica, the common pigeon, and C. pa-
lumbus, the ring dove.
Alauda, the lark. All the species.
Turdus viscivorus, the missel thrush. T. pilaris, the
fieldfare. T. merula, the blackbird.
Loxia curvirostra, the shcldapple ox crossbill. L.co-*
cothraustes, the grosbeak or hawfinch. L. chloris, the
green finch.
Emberiza nivalis the snow bunting. E. miliaria, the
bunting. E. hortulana. E. citnnella, or yellow ham¬
mer.
Fringilla celebs, the chaffinch. F. montifringilla, the
brambling, or bramble-finch. I. domestica, the house
sparrow. F. montana, the tree sparrow.
Motacilla modularis, the hedge sparrow. M. fice-
dula,. the epicurean warbler. M. oenanthe, the wheat-
ear. M. rubitra, the whin-chat. M. rubicula, the
stonechattcr. M. phsenicurus, the redstart. M. eri-
thalus, the redtail.
Hirundo esculenta, the esculent swallow.
After this enumeration of birds, we must say some¬
thing respecting the nutritious properties of eggs. 67
It is probable that the eggs of all the birds which we Eggs,
have mentioned, and perhaps of most others, might be
employed as food j but custom and convenience have
given the preference to those of the common hen, the
guinea hen, and the duck. The fluid contents of an
egg consist of the white and the yolk. The former
very much resembles tbs lymph of the blood, or the
coagulable part of milk. The latter, viz. the yolk, is
an animal mucilage, composed of oil, coagulable lymph
and water. It is miscible with cold water, so as to form
an emulsion. The oil is separable from the yolk, boil¬
ed till it becomes hard, by means of pressure *. * See C'm-
The eggs of all granivorous birds, and especially ofmistry-
the domestic fowl, yield a mild demulcent and strength¬
ening aliment, well suited to consumptive persons, and
such as are exhausted by immoderate evacuations. Raw
eggs are gently laxative, and are found to be service¬
able in cases of jaundice and obstructed liver. A nutri¬
tive restorative drink is prepared by rubbing the yolks
of twro or three eggs, and a little white sugar, with a
pint
3art I.
Dietetics.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
6S
i'ood from
eptiles.
69
'rom ser-
ents.
70
! ood from
ihes.
71
podes.
72
ugulares.
pint ox* hvo of cold water, adding to it afterwards a
1 glass of Rhenish or any other light wine, and a little
lemon juice, to give it a flavour. This egg-emulsion
without the wine, is a good remedy in coughs, hoarse¬
nesses, spitting of Wood, costiveness, &c.
Both the white and yolk of eggs are very indigestible
when boiled to hardness. Eggs should he subjected to
as little of the art of cookery as possible. The lightest
as well as the simplest mode of preparing them for the
table, is to boil them only as long as is necessary to
coagulate slightly the greatest part of the white, with¬
out depriving the yolk of its fluidity. This is what is
called poaching them ; and in this way they sit well
upon most stomachs.
Class III. AMPHIBIA. Order 1. Reptiles.
Th is class furnishes but few articles of food, and of
these the following are the most usually employed, viz.
Testudo mydas, the green turtle, T. fex*ox. T. gra>
ca, the land turtle.
Rana esculenta, the edible frog, or green water-frog.
Lacerta agilis, common green lizard. L. scincus, the
scitik.
Order 2. SERPENTS.
Coluber viper, the viper. C. perus, the adder.
Of these the tux-tle is well known as a most nourish¬
ing and palatable food. The esculent frog, though
not very nutritious, tastes much like chicken ; the viper
and adder are chiefly used in soups, which are consider¬
ed as great restoratives.
Class IV. FISHES.
It is probable that almost all the different species of
fish might be employed as food, but the following are
chiefly eaten, viz.
Order 1. Apodes.
Mursena anguilla, the common eel. M. conger, the
conger eel. Ammodytes tobianus, the sand launce, or
sand eel.
693
M. surmulle- Dietetics.
Order 2. Jugulares.
C. dra-
iioraeiei.
Callyonimus lyra, the gemmous dragonet.
cunculus, the sordid dragonet.
Trachinus draco, the weaver.
Gadus seglefinus, the haddock. G. catlarias, the torsk,
G. morrhua, the cod-fish. G. barbatus, the ponL G.
merlangus, the whiting, G. pollachius, the pollack.
G. molva, the ling. G. lota, the burbot.
Order 3. Thoracic 1.
Zeus faber, the dory.
Pleuronectes hippoglossus, the hohbut. P. platessa,
the plaise. P. flesus, the founder. P. limanda, the dab.
P. solea, thv sole. P. maximus, the turbot.
Chsetodon rostratus, the jaculator. C. imperator, the
emperor of Japan.
Sparus mama,
Pex*ea fluviatilis, the perch.
Scomber, the mackerel.
74
Abdomi-
nales.
76 _
Of fish in
Mullus barbatus, the red surmullet.
tus, the striped surmullet.
Trigla lyra, the piper.
Older 4. Abdominales.
Cobitis barbetula, the loach, ox groundling.
Salmo salar, the salmon. S. trutta, the sea trout. S.
fario, the trout. S. alpinus, the charr. S. salvelinus,
the salmon trout. S. umbla. S. eperlanus, the smelt.
S. albula, the whiting. S. thy mall us, the grayling.
Esox lucius, the pike.
Mugil cephalus, the mullet.
Clupea harengus, the herring. C. sprattus, the sprat.
C. alosa, the shad. C. enci-asicolus, the anchovy.
Cyprinus bai*bus, the barbel. C. carpio, the carp.
C. gobio, the gudgeon. C. tinea, the tench. C. cepha¬
lus, the chub. C. leuciscus, the dace. C. rutilus, the
roach. C. erythrophtbalmus, the rud. C. alburnus,
the bleak, and C. brama, the bream.
Order 6. ChondroptERYGII. chondro-
Accipenser sturio, the sturgeon. A. ruthenus, the star- ptcryfeU‘
let. A. huso, the isinglass fish.
Raia batis, the skate.
Petromyzon marinus, the lamprey. P. fluviatilis, the
lesser lamprey. P. branchialis, the lampern ox pride.
The wholesomeness of fish in diet has been much
disputed. According to some, it is the most delicious general,
food of any; and according to others, it is without
strength or substance. It is certainly not adapted to be
the sole diet of the laborious class, but it makes an ex¬
cellent addition to vegetable food ; for instance, with
potatoes, or other roots, what can be more acceptable
than a salted or smoked herring, to give a relish to such
insipid diet ? It is said, indeed, that one barrel of salted
herrings will, in this way, go as far as three barrels of
salted beef. Fresh fish is certainly well calculated fox-
sedentary people, and those who reside in towns ; and
at all events, it is fortunate to have such a resource for
food in a populous counti'y, to be made use of when any
exigency i-equii'es such aid.
The texture of fish, in general, is more tender than
that of flesh. They have nothing of a fibrous struc¬
ture, like flesh ; of course, they are more easily digested
than meat, especially such as are not of a viscid nature.
It is a singular circumstance regarding fish, that,
though we require vegetables with our meat, we hard¬
ly ever take them with fish. Cullen says, that by way
of experiment he has taken apples along with fish, but
found them to disturb digestion.
The objections to fish, however, are numerous. The
nourishment derived from them it is said, is incom¬
plete ; not so stimulating, nor so congenial to the na¬
ture of man, as either birds ol* quadrupeds; some
classes of them also, as shell-fish, salmon, &c. are more
indigestible than meat; and fish, in general, has a
stronger tendency to putrefaction than meat. But the
faults of fish are somewhat eorx*ected by the manner in
which they are commonly eaten. In a fresh state,
sauces and pickles of an acid natux-e are employed with
them, and when dried, the action of the stomach is
promoted by salt and spices. Fish, compared with-
flesh, is less nourishing , and the more viscid sorts hard-
094
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part I,
Dietetics.
er of digestion. Hence many are under the necessity,
after saimon, See. to liave recourse to a dram of some
spirit or other to carry them oft *.
* Code of
Health and
Longevity, Q1ASS V. INSECTS,
vol. i.
p. 407.
77
Food from
insects.
73
Food from
worms.
79
Milk.
Of insects properly so called, none are used in sub¬
stance as food, except various species of cancer, viz.
Cancer mamas, t/ie common crab. C. pagurus, the
black-clawed crab. C. gammarus, the lobster. C. aste-
cus, the craw fish. C. serratus, the 'prawn. C. cran-
gon, the shrimp, and C. squalla, the white shrimp.
Under this class we may rank honey, the produce of
the bee, which in its general elementary properties
agrees with sugar, to be afterwards noticed. It js,
however, rather more heating, and will not agree with
many stomachs. It is best eaten from the comb, as
the wax seems to correct its unpleasant eftects.
Class VI. VERMES. Order 2. Mollusca.
The sepia scpiola, and the echinus esculentus, are the
only edible genera of this order of worms, and even
these are a coarse and by no means a nourishing food.
Order 3. Testacea.
Cardium edule, the common cockle.
Ostrea edulis, the common oyster.
Mytilus edulis, the eatable muscle.
Helix pomatia, the common snail.
Of these, the oyster and the snail are the most whole¬
some and digestible.
As occupying a middle rank between animal and ve¬
getable food, we shall here notice milk and its various
products.
Milk is the proper and natural food of the young
of all animals of the mammalia class ; and cows milk
makes a principal part of the daily diet of a great pro¬
portion of the human race, both in the infant and adult
state. On account of the abundance of oily and cheesy
matter which it contains, cow’s milk is to infants by
no means so well suited as human milk; but as the
mode of living in civilized society often depraves the
quality of woman’s milk, or prevents its secretion, cows
milk in too many instances becomes a necessary substi¬
tute. On such occasions, as it is too heavy to be
given alone, it should be diluted with water : and as it
is disposed to become more acescent than human milk,
and from that cause to produce gripings and other dis¬
orders of the bowels in young children, it will often
be useful to mix with it decoctions of animal substances,
such as chicken or veal broth, or decoction of harts¬
horn shavings 5 of which last two ounces should be
boiled in a quart of water, over a gentle lire, till the
w'hole is reduced to a pint 5 when, after it is become
cold, it will be of the consistence of a light jelly.
This, mixed with about twice its quantity of cows milk,
with the addition of a little sugar, forms for young sub¬
jects a proper aliment, approaching nearly to the nature
of human milk.
Milk is used medicinally in consumptions, especially
in their early stage , in gouty affections, after the pa¬
roxysm is gone off, in smallpox, diluted with water, as
the common drink; in measles, especially the malig¬
nant kind, diluted in the same manner j in gonorrhoea,
lues venerea, and during a mercurial salivation in can- Dietetics,
cerous affections; in cases where mineral and animal y—^
poisons, have been swallowed •, in cases of strangury
and dysury from the absorption of cantharides, &c.}
in floor albus j in many spasmodic and nervous dis¬
orders.
When milk is used medicinally, it is often service¬
able to dilute it with Pyrmont, Seltzer, or some other
proper mineral water } and to prevent acidity, and make
it sit easier on the stomach, lime water, and some ol
the distilled aromatic waters, are occasionally mixed
with it. To obviate costiveness, which milk is apt to
induce, it is often proper to mix brown sugar, or mag¬
nesia with it, to boil it with oatmeal, veal broth, &c.
In general, milk is improper in inflammatory fevers,
unattended with pustulous eruptions } in bilious fevers j
in scrophulous cases j and in rickets.
The following are the principal products and prepa¬
rations of milk in dietetic and medicinal use j cream
and butter are well known ; nor can it be necessary to
notice how much they disorder the stomach and bowels
when taken too freely.
Curds taken in considerable quantity, are highly op¬
pressive to the stomach, and not unfrequently prove the
cause of obstructions and inflammations of the bowels
Cheese varies according to the kind of milk from Cheese,
which it is prepared, according to the quantity of oil
and whey which the coagulable matter contains, and
lastly according to its age. In general, it is an aliment
suited only to strong stomachs, and to such persons as
use great and constant exercise. In the higher orders
of society, it is used chiefly as a condiment. Toasted
cheese is not easily digested by weak stomachs ; and for
those who can be hurt by indigestion, or heated by a
heavy supper, it is a very improper diet *. * See
Butter-milk is milk which has been deprived of its Cheew.
oily matter by churning or agitation. It is nourishing, j?utteJ.
cooling, and diluent. It is used in cachexies, atrophies,
consumptions, &c.
Whey is the watery, saccharine part of milk, freed
in a great measure from the butyraceous and caseous
matter. It is lightly nutritive, diluent, aperient, and
diuretic. It is given in consumptions, dysenteries,
jaundice, &c. alone, or mixed with mineral waters,
and sometimes impregnated with the juices ol medici¬
nal herbs. Wine whey, tartar whey, mustard whey,
will be particularly noticed in their proper places.
Sugar ofimilk is a saline substance, obtained from the
whey by evaporation. It has been properly called the
essential salt of milk. It has been much extolled by
some writers as a remedy in consumptions; but as it is
contained in whey, it is evident that preparation must
possess all its virtues, and therefore that the trouble of
obtaining it separate must be unnecessaryf.
II. FROM THE VEGETABLE KINGDOM.
vol. i-
Vegetable food is more ancient than any other. As 82
forming the food of animals, it is the foundation of all ^Yfood
our nourishment, for by it those animals are nourished, genersi.
which in turn afford sustenance to man. Indeed there
are no circumstances under which a diet of animal food
should be solely employed. This has been confirmed
by every experiment made-, and the confinement of a
person only for a few days to this mode of living, has
induce h.
MATERIA MEDICA, &o.
i'art I
Oietetics. induced such symptoms as obliged him to desist. Be-
4 sides this, by stimulating to an extreme degree, the
springs of life are by animal diet urged on too fast j and
preternatural, and of course weakening exertions of the
system ensue, which induce, from their excess, an ear¬
ly decay. Thus childhood is prematurely ushered by
it into manhood j and the powers of manhood, soon ex¬
hausted display the infirmities and progress of age, at
a period when vigour and strength should still be in per¬
fection. A diet of vegetable food is, on the contrary,
conducive to long life. It neither accelerates the vital
energy, nor ripens the fruit before its time, but with a
siow and regular step brings forwards the different
stages in their due season, and with all the advantages
which their proper maturity ought to confer on them.
At the same time, while we thus point out the good
effects of a vegetable diet, in arresting the progress of
life, and giving a greater permanence to existence, we
by no means approve of it as a diet to be entirely trust¬
ed to.
Declaimers on the exclusive use of vegetable diet
have not taken into view the various and new circum¬
stances of situation in which man is now placed. He
is no longer the child of nature, nor the passive inha¬
bitant of one genial spot, as when he was first formed.
He is now a citizen of the world at large ; exertion
and toil are his constant attendants, and he requires a
more ready and assimilated nourishment than vegetable
food can convey. In many situations also, the vigour
of his system is weakened by extremes of temperature,
which demand, to counteract them, the most stimulant
and invigorating food he is capable of acquiring. The
excellence of vegetable food used alone is therefore
confined to a mild temperature and a passive state, and
there it certainly deserves that preference which hu¬
manity and philosophy have bestowed upon it. Con¬
sidering vegetable food as conveying a nourishment in¬
sufficient for our present civilized situation, we shall
next state the inconveniences that attend its being used
in excess. The first inconvenience of vegetable food
already noticed, is its constant tendency to acescency j
but this is hurtful only when it takes place to a morbid
degree. If a natural tendency to acescency prevails
in the stomach, as a step towards assimilation, it can¬
not fail to be noxiously increased by the sole use of ve¬
getables j and the counteracting of this state, or check¬
ing the tendency to fermentation, must be the great
secret in the regulation of vegetable diet. This secret
no doubt depends on the preventing, by our choice of
vegetables, excess in the proportion of fermentable or
saccharine matter, and in exciting the action of the sto¬
mach, so that the vegetable food may, not be too long
retained upon it.
The next inconvenience alleged against vegetable
diet is its difficulty of assimilation. That vegetable ali¬
ment is more difficult in being reduced to nourishment,
seems generally admitted, and in the end it produces
a greater quantity of faeces. When received into the
stomach it is likewise specifically lighter than the gas¬
tric fluids. Hence it floats near the top of the stomach,
and causes irritations. This uneasiness is not felt for
some time after its reception, but afterwards it begins
to operate on the upper orifice of the stomach. The
difficulty, however, of assimilation that attends vege¬
table food, may be got the better of by a proper se¬
lection of it *, and it will also be chiefly felt in weak Dietetics,
stomachs, and will by no means affect the vigorous and ’
robust.
A third inconvenience of vegetable food is its extri¬
cation of a considerable quantity of air, by which the
stomach becomes distended, often to an enormous de¬
gree, and much uneasiness is produced in the adjacent
organs. This extrication of air is common to all ve¬
getables j it varies, however, extremely in different
kinds of them ; and it is from this circumstance that
the flatulence and torpor is experienced, which suc¬
ceeds a full meal of them. Hence all vegetables that
contain much of it should undergo a previous prepara¬
tion before being used as food.
These, then, are the chief inconveniences attending
a vegetable regimen : while on the contrary, to counter¬
balance them, this species of diet is always found to pro¬
mote or sharpen the appetite, and to keep the stomach
in an active state. Neither are any.constitutional dis¬
orders the consequence of it, as happens from animal
food, for whatever morbid symptoms arise under its use
are confined almost entirely to the stomach and bowels,
and seldom carry any hurtful effects to the system at .
large. Neither do any evils arise from occasional ex¬
cesses in its use ; and the mischiefs of repletion or ovcr-
fulness are avoided by it, unless in cases of extreme in¬
dolence, or where a continued course of intemperance
is pursued as to the quantity taken. By its moderate
stimulus it counteracts the disposition to an inflammato¬
ry state, and in many cases proves highly serviceable,
in checking the violence, and arresting the progress of
many constitutional diseases. Independently of its na¬
ture, it is of great importance to the stomach, by giving
that proper distention which this organ requires in or¬
der to its healthy action.
The wisdom of nature has provided that the extent
of vegetable food should be much greater than that of
animal food, as the former is the foundation of nourish¬
ment for all the animated creation. Hence we find
that there is scarcely any vegetable that does not afford
nourishment to some animal ; and there are many -
which, though naturally of a deleterious quality, can,
by proper preparation, he converted into nourishment
to man. Man, more than any other animal, is di-.
stinguished as to the choice of food which he makes ^
and in this selection he is generally determined by his
taste, between which and the stomach nature has esta¬
blished such a sympathy, that what is disagreeable to
the one, is seldom very digestible by the other. Hence
inclination is to be particularly studied in .every case of
weakness of the stomach. .
Among the other properties of vegetable food, it.
has been especially considered by all authors as having
most influence on the powers of the mind, and in pre¬
serving a delicacy of feeling, a liveliness of imagina¬
tion, and an activencss of judgment; but in propor¬
tion to these superior qualities, it must be observed, this
state of body is equally the attendant ot timidity, fluc¬
tuation, and , doubt. Animal food, in the other ex¬
treme, gives a strong vigour and firmness of purpose,
fitted for the most active exertions of life. By a mix-,
ture of diet these two extremes come to be counter¬
acted 3 the body possesses a proper share of vigour 3 and,
correspondent to it, the mind displays a firmness and
capacity suited to every valuable purpose. The diet,
then, ,
696
MATERIA M E D I C A, &e
Dietetics, then producing this state may be properly called tern-
^ nerance, without limiting the individual to an exact
portion of either kind of food, or tying him up by the
absurd and sickly system of Cornaro 5 and this state will
be properly regulated by the experience and feelings ot
each individual, both in regard to the quantity and qua¬
lity of his nourishment.
In the use of vegetable food, as well as animal, at’
tention must be paid both to the proportion of it taken,
and also to the state in which it is used. The first of
these must be regulated by the three circumstances 01
season, way of life, and climate. With respect to the
first in summer the quantity of vegetable food should
be always increased, whatever our habits may be j
the propriety of this is evidently pointed out by nature,
from its abundance at this period. Ibis increase of
vegetable food is also the more necessary if the ap¬
petite is naturally keen and healthy, as a more strong¬
ly nourishing aliment would at this time expose to
all the effects of putrescency, which the increase of
the vegetable diet will, on the contrary, counteract.
The3way of life must also regulate a good deal the
proportion of vegetable nourishment. An essential cir¬
cumstance in the use of all diet, as we formerly remark¬
ed, is the production of such a distention of the stomach
and bowels as may enable them to act properly on their
contents. In the sedative and inactive, it is particular¬
ly desirable that this distention should be produced by
food of a less nourishing kind, and that no more nou¬
rishment be received than what the wants of the system
require. Hence in these cases, a vegetable diet is to be
preferred, while, in the active and laborious, the plan
should be reversed.
It is fact sufficiently established, that the proportion
of vegetable food should be in a great measure regulated
by the climate, as there is no doubt that the mortality
of warm climates is aggravated by the use of too much
animal food; and that a diet of a vegetable and aces¬
cent nature with a large proportion of .condiment, such
as we find used by the inhabitants-of those countries,
is best suited to the preservation of health ; for by this
excess of condiment, the morbid effects on the stomach
and bowels, natural to vegetable food, are counteract¬
ed, and the chyle formed from them passes into the cir¬
culation in a proper state for supporting the body in
such a situation. On the other hand, in a colder region
a permanence of nourishment is required, which animal
food particularly conveys 5 and as this nourishment is
less apt to disorder the stomach or bowels, no great por¬
tion of condiment is necessary either as a stimulus
to the organ, or in order to -avoid any hurtful con¬
sequences that may arise. The proportion, there¬
fore, of vegetable food is clearly pointed out to he
small, and chiefly of the farinaceous or least acescent
kind.
The state in which vegetable food is used is of equal
importance with the proportion of it taken. Thus ve¬
getable food particularly requires to be used in a fresh
state *, for, by being kept, many kinds of vegetable lose
their peculiar flavour, their taste and smell, and in con¬
sequence of this become indigestible ; this is particular¬
ly the case with the pulses, with herbs, and with
* See Nis- fruits *.
.bet on Diet. To these general remarks we shall subjoin a catalogue
of esculent plants from Bryant’s Flora Dietetica, distri¬
buted according to the method of that author, into
roots, shoots, stalks, leaves, flowers, berries, stone fruit,
apples, legumens, grain, nuts, and funguses,
I. ESCULENT ROOTS.
Sect. 1. Roots now
Bread.
or formerly made use of as
Part I.
Dietetics
e euim
root?,
Arum colocasia, Egyptian arum. A. esculentum,
eatable arum. A. peregrinum, edders.
Cal la palustris, water dragons.
Convolvulus batatas, Spanish potatoes,
Dioscorea sativa. I). alata. D. bulhifera, Indian
yajns.
Jatropba maniot, Indian bread.
Nymphsea lotus, Egyptian lotus.
Sagittaria sagittifolia, common arrowhead.
Solanum tuberosum, common potatoes.
Yucca gloriosa, Adam's needle.
Polygonum divaricatum, eastern buckwheat.
Sect. 2. Roots occasionally eaten as, Condiments, or
for other family purposes,
Amomum zingiber, common ginger.
Allium cepa, common onion. A. ascalonicurn, shallot,
A. scordoprasum, rokambole.
Apium petroselmum, common parsley.
Bunium bulhocastanum, earth-nut ox pig-nut.
Beta rubra, red beet.
Brassica rapa, common turnip. B. rapa punicea,p«r*
pie-rooted turnip. B. rapa flavescens, yellow-rooted tuv*
nip. B. rapa oblonga, long-rooted turnip.
Campanula rapunculus, rampion.
Cochlearia urmoracia, horse-radish,
Carum carui, caraway.
Cyperns esculentus, rush nut.
Daucus carota, carrot.
Eryngium maritimum, sea holly, or eryngo root,
Guilandina maringa, Ceylon guilandina.
Hejianthus tuberosus, Jerusalem artichoke,
Ixia chinensis, spotted iscia. X. bulbifera, bulb-hear
ing ixia.
Lathyrus tuberosus, earth nut.
Orobus tuberosus, heath peas.
Orchis mascula, male orchis.
Pastinaca sativa, the parsnip.
Raphanus sativus, the radish.
Scorzomra hispanica, viper's grass.
Slum sisarum, skirrets.
Lilimn martagan, rnartagan lily,
Tulipa gesneriana, common tulip,
Tragopogon pratense, yellow goat's-heard. T» porn*
folium, purple goats-bcard.
II. ESCULENT SHOOTS, STALKS, SPROUTS,
AND PITHS.
Sect. 1. Shoots and Stalks.
Asparagus officinalis, asparagus,
Anethum azoricum, sweet amrian fennel,
Angelica archangelica, angelica,
Arctium lappa, burdock.
Asclepias syriaca, greater Syrian dogsbane,
Apium graveolens, smallage. A. dulce, garden
celery.
Campanula
54
Esculent
shoots,
stalks,
Parti. MATERIA
Dietetics. Campanula pentagonia, Thracian hell-flower,
  ' Cynara cardunculus, cardoon, or char 'doon.
Carduus marianus, milk thistle.
Cnicus cernuus, Siberian nodding cnicus.
Chenopodium bonus henricus, English mercury.
Convolvulus soldanella, sea bindweed.
Cucubalus beben, spalling poppy.
Epilobium angustilblium, rosebay willow herb.
Humulus lupulus, wild hops.
Onoperdum acanthium, cotton thistle.
Rheum rhaponticum, rhapontic rhubarb.
Smyrnium olusatrum, common alcxanders. S. perfo-
liatum, round-leaved alexandcrs.
Saccharum officinarum, sugar-cane.
Sonchu’s alpinus, mountain sow-thistle.
Tamus communis, black briony.
Tragopogon pratense, yellow goatys-beard. T. porri-
folium, purple goat's-beard.
Sect. 2. Sprouts and Piths.
Areca oleracea, cabbage-tree.
Arundo bambos, bamboo-cane.
Brassica oleracea, common cabbage. B. O. viridis,
green savoy cabbage. B. O. sabacida, white savoy cab¬
bage. B. botrytis, cauliflower. B. B. alba, white cau¬
liflower. B. B. nigra, black cauliflower. B. sabellica,
Siberian brocoh. B. preecox, early battersea cabbage.
B. rapa, common turnip.
Cyperus papyrus, paper rush.
Cyrcas circinalis, sago palm-tree.
Portulaca o\er&cea., purslane. P. latifolia, broad¬
leaved garden purslane.
Smilax aspera, red berry, rough pine-weed.
_ s5
Esculent m. ESCULENT LEAVES,
leaves.
Sect. i. Cold Salads.
MEDIC A, &c. <s97
Scandixeerefolium.romwonc/KTMZ. S.oJorata,sweet Dietetic!
cicely. ■
Sedum reflexum, yellow stonecrop. S. rupestre, St
Vincent's rock stonecrop.
Sisymbrium nasturtium, water-cresS.
Sinapis alba, white mustard.
lanacetum balsamita, costmary.
Valeriana locusta, lamb's lettuce.
V eronica beccabunga, bi'ooklime.
Ulva lactuca, green lover.
Sect. 2. Boiling Salads.
Amaranthus oleraceus, esculent amaranth.
Arum esculentum, Indian kale.
Atriplex hortensis, garden orach. A. bortensis nigri¬
cans, dark green garden orach. A. hortensis rubra, red
garden orach.
Anethum feniculum, common fennel. A. dulce, sweet
fennel.
Brassica oleracea, cabbages. B. napus, colewort.
Chenopodium bonus henricus, English mercury.
Cnicus oleraceus, round-leaved meadow thistle.
Corchorus olitorius, common Jews mallow.
Crambe maritima, sea colewort.
Jatropha maniot, cassava.
Malva rotundilblia, dwarf mallow.
Mentha viridis, spearmint. See Sect. i.
Phytolacca decandra, American nightshade.
Ranunculus ficaria, pilewort.
Raphanus sativus, common radish.
Salvia sclarea, garden clary.
Spiuacia oleracea, common spinach. S. O. glabra*
smooth spinach.
Che a bohea, bohea tea. T. viridis, green tea.
Urtica dioica, common stinging nettle. S(5
Sect. 3. Pot Herbs. Pot herbs.
Apium petroselinum, parsley. A. crispum, curled¬
leaved parsley.
Allium cepa, common onion. A. schtenoprasum, cives.
A. oleraceum, wild garlic.
Artemisia dracunculus, taragon.
Alsine media, common chick-weed.
Borago officinalis, borage.
Cacalia ficoides,y/o- marigold-leaved cacalia.
Cichorium endivia, endive. C. endivia crispa, curled¬
leaved endive. *»•
Cochlearia officinalis, scurvy grass.
Erysimum alliaria, Jack by the hedge. E. barbarea,
/ winter cress or rocket.
Fucus saccharinus, sweet fucus or sea belts. F. pal-
niatus, handed fucus.. F. fingeredfucus. F.
esculentus, edible fucus.
Hypochasris maculata, spotted hawk-weed.
Lactuca sativa, lettuce. ''
Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion.
Lepidium sativum, garden cress. L. virginicum,
Virginian sciatic cress.
Mentha sativa, curled mint. M. viridis, spearmint.
Oxalis acetosella, wood sorrel.
Poterium sanguisorba, garden burnet.
Primula veris, common cowslips, or paigles.
Rumex scutatus, round-leaved sorrel. R. acetosa,
common sorrel.
Salicornia europea, jointed glasswort. or saltwort.
Vol. XII. Part II.
Apium graveolens, celery. A. petroselinum, par¬
sley.
Allium perrum, leeks.
Brassica oleracea, cabbages.
Beta vulgaris alba, white beet.
Crithmum maritimum, rock samphire.
Ilyssopus officinalis, common hyssop.
Oxalis acetosella, wood sorrel.
Ozymum basilicum, sweet-scented basil.
Origanum marjorana, common marjoram. O. urar-
jorana tenuifolia, fine-leaved sweet marjoram. O. he-
racleoticum, winter sweet maijoram. O. onites, pot
marjoram.
Picris echioides, common ox-tongue.
Rosmarinus officinalis, common rosemary. R. hor¬
tensis, garden rosemary.
Salvia officinalis, green and red sage. S. minor, tea
sage.
Satureja hortensis, summer savory. S. montana, win¬
ter savory.
Scandix cerefolium, common chervil. S. odorata,
sweet cicely.
Sonchus oleraceus, common sow-thistle.
Thymus vulgaris, common thyme. T. mastichinus,
mastic thyme.
IV. ESCULENT FLOWERS.
Calendula officinalis, common marigold,
f 4T
„ 87
Esculent
flowers.
Caltha
698
Dietetics.
S3 -
Esculent
berries.
MATERIA
Caltiia palustris, marsh marigold.
Capparis spinosa, caper bush.
Carthamus tinctorius, safflower.
Carlina acaulis, dwarf carline thistle.
Cynara cardunculus, cardoon.
Cynara scolymus,green or French artichoke. C. hor-
tensis, globe artichoke.
Ceres siliquastrum, common Judas-tree.
Helianthos annuus, annual sunflower.
Onopordum acanthium, cotton thistle.
Tropseolum majus, Indian cress. T. minus, smaller
Indian cress.
Y. ESCULENT BERRIES.
Sect. I. Indigenous or Native BERRIES.
Arbutus uva ursi, bear-berry. A. alpina, mountain
strawberry. A. unedo, common strawberry.
Berberis vulgaris, common barberry.
Cratcegus aira, white beam tree. C. terminalis, maple¬
leaved service or sorb.
Fragaria vesca vel sylvestris, wood strawberry. I.
nortbumbriensis, Northumberland strawberry. F. im-
perialis, royal wood strawberry. F. granulosa, minion
wood st! awberry. F. pratensis, Swedish green straw¬
berry. F. moschata, hautboy strawberry. F. moscha-
ta rubra, red-blossomed strawberry. F. mosebata her-
maphrodita, royal hautboy. F. chineusis, Chinese straw*
berry. F. virginiana, Virginian scarlet strawberry.
F. V. coccinea, Virginian scarlet-blossomed strawberry.
F. V. campestris, wild Virginian strawberry. F. chi-
loensis, Chili strawberry. F. C. devanensis, Devon¬
shire strawberry.
Juniperus communis, common or English juniper. J.
arbor, Swedish juniper.
Ribes rubrum et album, red and white currants.
R. nigrum, black currants. R. grossularia, gooseber¬
ries.
Rosa canina, dog's rose, or hep-bush.
Rubus idseus, raspberry. R. I. albus, white rasp¬
berry. R. I. laevis, smooth-stalked raspberry. R. cse-
sius, dewberry. R. fruticosus, common bramble. R.
chamsemorus, cloudberry. R. arcticus, shrubby straw¬
berry.
Vaccinium myrtillus, blackworts, or bilbcmy. V.
vitis idaea, redworts. V. oxycoccos, cranberry.
Sect. 2. Foreign Berries, often raised in gardens
and stoves.
A. reticulata, custard
M E D I C A, &c. Part I.
Crateva marmelos, Bengal quince. . Dietetics.
Diospyros lotus, Indian date plum. D. virginiana,1 y—J
pishamin plum.
Ficus carica, common fig. F. humilis, dwarf fig.
F. caprificus, hermaphrodite-fruited fig. F. fructu fusco,
brown-fruited jig. F. Fructu violaceo, purple-fruited
fig. F. sycamorus, sycamore, or Pharaoh's fig.
" Garcinia mangostana, mangosteen.
Morns nigra, black-fruited midberry. M. rubra, red-
fruited mulberry. M. alba, white-fruited mulberry.
Musa paradisaica, plantain tree. M. sapientum, ba¬
nana, or small-fruited plantain.
Mespilus germanica, medlar.
Mammea americana, the mamm.ee.
Malpighia glabra, smooth-leaved Barbado'es cherry.
M. punicifolia, pomegranate-leaved malpighia.
Fassillora maliformis, apple-shaped granadilla. P.
laurifolia, bay-leaved passion-flower.
Psidium pyriferum, pear guava, or bay plum. P.
pomiferum, apple guava.
Solanum lycopersicum, love apple. S. melongena,
mad apple. S sanctum, Palestine nightshade.
Sorbus domestica, true service apple.
Trophis americana, red-fruited bucephalon.
Vitis vinifera, common grapes. V. apyrena, Corin¬
thian currants.
B. ananas pyramida-
B. karatas, the p&n-
C. triangularis, truje
Annona muricata, sour sop.
apple. A. squamosa, sweet sop.
Bromelia ananas, pine apple.
to fructu, sugar-loaf pine-apple,
gain.
Cactus prickly pear,
prickly pear.
Capsicum annuum, annual Guinea pepper. C. fru-
tescens, perennial Guinea pepper.
Carica papaya, the pap aw or popo. C. posoposa,
shaped papaw.
Chrysophyllum caineto, star-apple. C. glabrum, sa-
padillo, or Mexican medlar.
Citrus medica, common citron. C. limon, common
lemon. C. americana, the lime tree. C. aurantium,
common orange, C. decumanus, shaddock orange..
VI. ESCULENT STONE FRUIT.
Sect. 1. Stone Fruit of Europe.
Amygdalus persica, the peach. A. nucipersica, the
nectarine.
Cornus mascula, male cornel, or cornelian cherr'y.
Olea Europea, manured olive. O. sylvestris, wild
olive.
Prunus armeniaea, the apricot. P. cerasus, wild red
cherry. P. domestica, the plum tree. P. insititia, the
bullace tree.
Rhamnus zizyphus, common jujube.
Sect. 2. Stone Fruit exotic.
Chrysobalanus icaco, cocoa plum.
Coccoloba uvifera, seaside grape.
Cordiamyxa, clustered sebesten, or Assyrian plum.
C. sebestena, rough-leaved sebesten.
Corypha umbraculifera, umbrella palm.
Elais guineensis, oil palm.
Eugenia jambos, Malabar plum.
Grias caulifiora, anchovy pear.
Laurus persea, avigato pear.
Mangifera indica, mango tree.
Phoenix dactylifera, common date.
Rhamnus jujuba, Indian jujube.
Spondias lutea, yellow Jamaica plum.
VII. ESCULENT APPLES.
Sect. 1. Apples of Herbaceous Plants.
Cucumis melo, musk melon. C. melo albus, Spanish
white melon. C. M. Isevis, smooth green-fleshed me¬
lon. C. M. flavus, yellow white melon. C. M. par¬
vus, small Portugal musk melon. C. M. pilosus, hairy-
skinned melon. C. M. reticulatus, netted-skinned melon.
C. M. striatus, late small striated melon. C. M. tube-
89
Esculent
stone-fruit.
Esculeut
apples.
Part I.
MATERIA
9i ,
Legumin¬
ous plants.
Dietetics rosus, wartcd cantaloupe. C. M. turbinatus, top-shaped
~v   melon. C. M. virens, green-rinded melon.
Cucumis cl)ale, Egyptian melon. C. sativus, common
prickly cucumber. C. sativus albus, white prickly cu¬
cumber. C. S. longus, long prickly cucumber. C.
flexuosus, green Turkey cucumber.
Cucurbita lagenaria, bottle gourd. C. citrullus, wa¬
ter melon. C. pepo, common pompion. C. P. oblon-
gus, long pompion. C. verrucosa, wanted gourd. C.
melopepo, Spanish melon.
Melothria pendula, small creeping cucumber.
Sect. 2. Apples of Trees.
Achras sapota, oval-fruited sapota.
Averrhoa carambola, goa apple. A. bilimbi, bi/im-
bia.
Punica granatum, pomegranate tree.
Pyrus communis, pear-tree. P. malus, the crab-tree.
P. cydonia, quince-tree.
VIII. LEGUMINOUS PLANTS.
Sect. 1. Pods and Seeds of Herbaceous Plants.
Arrachis hypogaea, American ground nut.
Cicer arietinum, the chick pea.
Dolichos soja, East India kidney bean.
Ervum lens, lentil.
Lotus edulis, incurved podded bird's foot trefoil. L.
tetragonolobus, square-podded crimson pea.
Lupinus albus, white flowering lupine.
Phaseolus vulgaris, common kidney bean. P. V. coc-
cineus, scarlet-flowering kidney bean. P. albus, white-
flowering kidney bean.
Pisum sativum, common garden pea. P. umbella-
tum, crown pea. P. quadratum, angular-stalked pea.
P. maritimum, sea pea.
Vicia faba, common garden bean.
Sect. 2. Pods and Seeds of Trees.
Cassia fistula, sweet cassia, or pudding-pipe tree.
Ceratonia siliqua, carob, or St John's bread.
Coffea Arabica, Arabian coffee. C. occidental is,
American C.
Cytisus cajan, pigeon pea.
Epidfcndrum vanilla, sweet-scented vanilla.
Hymenaea courbaril, bastard locust tree.
Tamarindus indica, the tamarind.
IX. ESCULENT GRAINS AND SEEDS.
Triticum sestivum, summer or spring wheat. T. hy-
bernum, winter or common wheat. T. turgidum, short
thick-spiked wheat. T. polonicum, Poland wheat. T.
spelta, German or spelt wheat. T. monococcum, St
Peter's corn.
Avena sativa, manured black oat. A. nuda, ?iakcd
oat.
Hordeum vnlgare, common barley. H. disticbon,
long-eared barley. H. hexastichon, square barley. H.
zeocriton, battledore or sprat barley.
Secale cercale. Common rye.
Coix lachryma jebi, Job's tears.
Cynosurus cerocanus, Indian cock's-foot grass.
Festuca fluitans, fescue grass.
Holcus sorghum, Guinea corn, or Indian millet.
92
Esculent
grains and
seeds.
M E D I C A, &c. 699
Nymphaca nelumbo, Egyptian bean. Dietetics.
Oryza sativa, rice.
Panicum miliaceum, common millet. P. Italicum,
Italian millet.
Phalaris canariensis, canary gi'ass or canary seed.
Polygonum fagopyrum, buck wheat.
Quercus esculus, cut-leaved Italian oak. Q. phellos,
carolinean willow-leaved oak.
Sesamum orientale, eastern sesamum. S. Indicum,
Indian sesamum.
Sinapis nigra, black mustard. S. arvensis, wild mus¬
tard or charlock.
Zea mays, Mai%e, or Indian wheat.
Zezanea aquatica, water z.e'Xiania.
X. ESCULENT NUTS. Escuknt
Amygdalus communis, sweet and bitter almond.
Anacardium occidentale, cashew nut.
Avicenna tomentosa, eastern anacardium, or Malac¬
ca bean.
Corylus avellana, hazel nut.
Cocos nucifera, cocoa nut.
Fagus castanea, common chesnut.
Juglans regia, common walnut. J. nigra, black Vir¬
ginian walnut.
Jatropha curcas, Indian physic nut. J. multifida,
French physic nut.
Pinus pinea, stone or manured pine.
Pistacia vera, pistachia nut. P. narbonensis, trifo
Hate-leaved turpentine tree.
Theobroma cacao, chocolate nut.
Trapa natans, Jesuit's nut.
XI. ESCULENT FUNGUSES.
Agaricus campestris, common mushroom. A. praten-
sis, the champignion. A. chantarellus, chantarelle aga¬
ric. A. deliciosus, orange agaric. A. cinnamomeus,
brown mushroom. A. violaceus, violet mushroom.
Lycoperdon tuber, the truffle.
Phallus esculentus, the morel.
For the botanical arrangement and characters of
these plants, see the article Botany. For a particular
account of the individuals as articles of diet, we must
refer our readers to Bryant’s Flora Dietetica, Cullen’s
Materia Medica, vol. i. the synopsis of Materia Ali-
mentaria and Materia Medica, and Sir John Sinclair’s
Code of Health and Longevity, vol. i. The prepa¬
ration and use of bread have already been treated of
at considerable length under that article. The use
and best methods of preparing potatoes are given under
Agriculture, N° 288, &c.
94
Esculent
funguses.
B. DRINKS.
.95
Drinks.
Drinks may be divided into common water, vege¬
table infusions or decoctions, fermented liquors, animal
fluids, and animal infusions or decoctions. The two
last have been already spoken of, and water will be
considered hereafter. We shall here only make a few
observations on the second and third heads.
The vegetables employed for infusions or decoctions
used as drink, are chiefly tea, coffee, and choco¬
late.
All the various kinds of tea imported into this coun- Tea.'
4 T 2 try,
yoo
Dietetics.
MATEJtl A
try, come tinder the denominations of bohca and gicen j
and even these are supposed to be the produce ot the
same species of plant *, though Linnaeus has described
them as specifically different, founding the distinction
on the number of their petals. Others have observed a
difference in the leaves. Still, however, it is uncertain
whether these are not merely accidental differences,
occasioned by diversity of soil, situation, and culture.
While the present narrow and jealous policy of the Chi¬
nese continues, many interesting particulars respecting
the natural history of this plant must remain unknown
to Europeans. .
It had been well for the inhabitants of Great Bri¬
tain, if the tea-leaf had never found its way to this
country ; they would not then have been tormented,
as thousands of them now are, with an incurable train
of nervous symptoms, with stomachic and bowel com¬
plaints, with headach, &c. T o the abuse of tea¬
drinking may be ascribed, in a great measure, the in¬
creased frequency of consumptions •, and many of the
disorders of children, and especially hydrocephalus,
tabes mesenterica, rickets, &c. may be traced to the
same source.
The tea-leaf, when fresh from the tree, is evidently
poisonous. It is true that it loses some of its acrimony
by drying : but even in the state in which it is sent to
ibis country, it retains much of its narcotic nature.
What serious mischief, then, are they bringing upon
themselves, who, as is the case with too many of the
lower class of society, make it a principal part of their
daily subsistence ! The money which should go to pur¬
chase wholesome and substantial food, is squandered
away in procuring what of itself affords no nourishment
at all 5 for whatever nourishment is derived from the
infusion of tea, is owing to the sugar and milk which
are added to it *, and were it not for these additions, its
deleterious effects would be much sooner and much
more powerfully felt.
The time, it is to be hoped, is not far distant, when
the poor shall be enlightened upon this important point.
The next generation will hardly believe that their pre¬
decessors lavished away so much money, and took such
extraordinary delight in defrauding their bodies of
their proper and natural aliment, and in bringing upon
themselves infirmity and disease. Let the rich and the
intemperate indulge, if they choose, in the narcotic
draught ; to their heated and oppressed stomachs it
may not do harm •, it may even afford momentary re¬
lief. But let the poor abstain from it. They are not
surcharged with high-seasoned food. They have ho
feverish thirst, no feverish heat to allay, after their
noon-day repast. To them it is totally unnecessary as a
help to digestion, and as an article of sustenance it is
worthless and improper. They would^ therefore, be
better, infinitely better, without it.
Besides its narcotic quality, there is another proper¬
ty of the tea-leaf which renders its continued use inju¬
rious to the constitution ; we mean its astringency. Add
to these the warm water, and we have, in this unna-
MEDIC A, &c. Parti.
tural beverage, the infusion of tea, three different powers Dietetics,
concurring to disorder first the organs of digestion, and y——
ultimately the whole system.
If it be asked, what are they who have been long
accustomed to tea to substitute in its place j we answer
milk, milk-porridge, gruel, broth, cocoa, or the like
for, breakfast; and in the afternoon, milk and water,
orgeat, or lemonade in the summer, and coffee in the
winter.
It should be understood, that the preceding remarks
apply to the general abuse of tea as an article of suste¬
nance ; for its occasional employment in a dietetical
and medicinal way in some kinds of sickness, is often of
use. Thus, the simple infusion, without sugar or milk,
is a good diluent and sedative in ardent fevers 5 and as
it promotes perspiration and urine, it is frequently
drunk with advantage in colds, catarrhs, rheumatism,
headach, &c. It is also serviceable in cases of surfeit * Synopsis
and indigestion*. of Materia
For the use and abuse of coffee, see the article Cof-
na.
FEE- . . . . 97
Chocolate is more nourishing and less heating than chocolate.
coffee. It is commonly made too thick, but when of
a proper degree of strength, it is a very palatable and
wholesome beverage, though on account of its oily qua¬
lity it proves oppressive and cloying to some stomachs.
See Chocolate. pg
Cocoa is in fact only a weak chocolate j and being Cocoa,
less pure than the former, weak chocolate might pro¬
perly be substituted for it.
Of fermented liquors we shall mention only malt li¬
quors, wine, and ardent spirits. ^
Well fermented malt liquors, whether from harleyMalt
or other grain, provided they he not too strong, are liquors,
wholesome, refreshing, and strengthening drinks. As
these liquors are very nutritious, they are chiefly suit¬
ed to persons who lead a busy and active life. With
sedentary and bilious persons they do not agree so well;
and they arc improper for the corpulent and asthmatic,
and those who are liable to giddiness or other com¬
plaints of the head. They are better when of a mid¬
dle age, than when kept very long. Beer made from
the infusion of malted groats, or malted rye, is lighter
and more diuretic than the common barley beer.
Spruce beer is a pmverful diuretic and antiscorbutic ;
it is, however, too cold for some constitutions. Bottled-
beer is, on account of the fixed air which it contains,
more refreshing than the barrelled. It is frequently
prescribed as an antiseptic and restorative in low fevers
and convalescencies *, but care njust be taken, during
the use of it, that it do not operate too freely by stool.
London porter, with the common properties of malt-
liquor, possess such stomachic and'diuretic qualities, as
give it a preference over common beer and ale, in
many cases. Being strongly impregnated with bitters
ol a narcotic kind, it is apt to induce drowsiness, and
consequently is improper wherever there is a tendency
to cephalagia, apoplexy, or other affections of the
head (a).
A
(a) We cannot pretend to decide whether the prejudices that have for some time prevailed against the whole¬
someness ot London porter are well founded or not j but if its composition be such as given under the article
Brewing, we are decidedly of opinion that it ia a liquor quite unfit for constant drink.
Part I.
Dietetics.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
too
Wine.
A temperate use of wine is conducive to the health.
All the functions, both of body and mind, are roused
and facilitated by it. It has a powerful effect upon the
organs of digestion, upon the circulation, and upon the
nervous system, promoting digestion, strengthening the
action of the heart and arteries, and raising the spirits.
Such is its beneficial operation, when taken sparingly.
In excessive quantities it has opposite effects, destroying
the stomach,,inducing emaciation and debility, and oc¬
casioning inflammation and obstruction in the liver,
lungs, &c. whence gout, palsy, dropsy, consumptions,
diabetes, &c.
In a dietetical view, wines are to be considered as
they are, either acid or sweet, soft or austere. The
acid wines, of which the Rhenish and Hock are the most
i-oted, are the least heating, and the most diuretic.
The sweet, such as the Frontiniac, Malaga, Tent,
Cape, are heating and sudorific. The soft, or acido-
dulcescent wines, such as Champagne, Claret, Burgun¬
dy, Madeira, &c. are less stimulating than the sweet,
and more cordial than the acid wines. Of the austere
and astringent, that which is most used in this country
is the red Port, which, when it has not been mixed
with too large a proportion of brandv, is a generous
and stomachic wine, well suited to the generality of
British constitutions.
Perry and cyder hold a middle place between wrine
and malt liquor. They are less nutritious than the
latter, and less cordial than the former.
In small quantities ardent spirits are a powerful cor¬
dial and corroborant, raising the pulse, strengthening
the stomach, promoting digestion, and preventing fla¬
tulence. Taken sparingly, and diluted with water,
they supply the place of wine, and with some constitu¬
tions agree better, as they are not like wine, disposed,
to create acidity. The abuse of them is productive of
the same pernicious effects as those which arise from an
excessive indulgence in wine, but in a greater degree.
French brandy is the most bracing and stomachic y gin
and rum the most diuretic and sudorific. Arrak, which
is distilled from rice, is more heating than the two last.
Whisky is considered as a lighter spirit than any of the
former, from its containing less essential oil, and it
therefore agrees better with most stomachs. The qua-
* Pmcti- lities of all these several sorts of spirits are improved
cal Synopsis by long keeping*.
of the \fa- On the general subject of drink, see the article
f.Ct'td All- T'v
Drink.
Dietetics.
Perry and
cyder.
*02.
Ardent
spirits.
mntaria.
103
Condi-
mems.
Salt.
104
C. CONDIMENTS.
Condiments are those substances which are taken
with our food, to promote digestion, or to correct
some hurtful property in the food taken. They are
usually divided into saline, saccharine, aromatic, and
oleaginous.
Of the saline condiments, the principal are common
salt and vinegar.
Common salt, by its stimulant action on the throat,
gullet, and stomach, seems to promote the secretion of
saliva and of the gastric juice, and thereby facilitates
digestion. It also appears, when taken in small quan¬
tity, to increase the solubility of most foods, but when
taken too plentifully, it renders the food hard and dif¬
4
ficult of solution. Salted meats and fish are unwhole¬
some Avhen made a constant article of diet.
Vinegar in small quantities is a grateful and salutary 105
stimulus to the stomach, correcting the putrescency of^xneSar<
animal food, and the flatulency of vegetable. Its use
is improper in many valetudinary cases, especially for
calculous and gouty persons j in consumption and chlo¬
rosis ; to rickety patients and young children.
Pickles may be considered as merely receptacles for
vinegar, except in as far as the vegetables of which
they are composed are in their nature warm and aro¬
matic, as the onion.
Sugar is nutritious, antiseptic and laxative, and is Sugar."
considered as promoting the solution of fat in the sto¬
mach j but as it is very fermentable, it is apt, in many con¬
stitutions, to produce flatulence, heat, and thirst. Its
unlimited use seems to be one cause of the increased
and increasing frequency of bilious and hypochondria¬
cal disorders. Chlorotic girls, rickety children, hys-.
terical women, and all who are troubled with acidity
in the stomach and bowels, should abstain from it 5 and
those who are anxious to preserve their teeth white and
sound, should not make free with it. To these obser¬
vations, however, there are some constitutions which
furnish exceptions. Thus we are told that one of the
dukes of Beaufort took, for the space of 40 years,
nearly a pound of sugar every day ; yet it neither dis¬
ordered any of the viscera, nor injured the teeth, and
he lived to attain the age of 70.
The aromatic condiments consist chiefly of the fo-SpiCesT
reign spices, as pepper, Cayenne pepper, cinnamon,i
nutmeg, cloves, ginger, and a few garden roots and
seeds, such as garlick, leek, onion, horse-radish, and
mustard. Of these we shall take notice under their
proper heads in the Materia Medica.
The oleaginous condiments consist merely of olive
oil and butter. iog
Oil when used as a seasoning to raw vegetables, oil.
checks their fermentation in the stomach, and thereby
prevents them from proving too flatulent, Used in
this manner, in small quantities, it proves a help to di¬
gestion j but when taken in considerable quantities, it
has an opposite effect, and lays the foundation for bili¬
ous complaints.
The moderate use of melted butter with boiled vege-
tables, is, in general, by no means unwholesome 5 but butter,
it frequently disagrees with bilious and hypochondriacal
people.
The proper method of preparing food, constitutes,
the art of cookery, on which we shall present our
readers with the following general remarks, taken
from Sir John Sinclair’s Code of Health and Longe-.
vit7; ... . * w.
The primeval inhabitants of the earth certainly ate Cooker-.-
both their vegetable and animal food raw; and to this
day some of the African nations, the Esquimaux In¬
dians, the Patagonians and Samoeides, devour raw flesh
and fish, and drink the blood of the animals. Raw
flesh produces great bodily vigour, ferocity of mind,
and love of liberty.
In general, however, animal food undergoes some
preparation before it is consumed. It is hardly to be
credited the shifts which some tribes have been put to,-
in order to obtain that object, as putting heated stones
7OI,
702
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
Dietetics.
HI
Simple
cookery.
na
Roasting.
in the bellies of-pigs to roast them, or burning the straw
in order to parch the grain. from these humble
attempts, the great refinements of cookery, which is
properly a branch of chemistry, originated.
It is certain that cookery is an useful art. Dy it
many articles are rendered wholesome, which could
not otherwise have been eaten j but by it, at the same
time, it must be acknowledged, that some articles are
rendered unwholesome, which would otherwise have
produced nourishing food.
By cookery, our foods are rendered more palata ile
and digestible, and when prepared in a simple manner,
more conducive to health.
Cookery may be considered under two general heads,
the simple, and the refined or compound.
The first, though apparently easy, requires a con¬
siderable degree of attention and experience ; and the
second is an art of so diversified and extensive a nature,
that it is rarely carried to any considerable degree ot
perfection, and it would have been no loss to human
nature if it had never been invented.
Simple cookery includes the following modes of dres¬
sing meat: I. Roasting. 2. Boiling. 3. Stewing.
4. Broiling. 5. Frying. 6. Baking j and, 7. Digest-
ing. ^ .
1. Roasting was certainly the first mode invented to
prepare animal food 5 for boiling is a more complicated
process, and required the art of manufacturing vessels
that could withstand the effect of heat. Roasting, it is
well known, requires a greater proportion of heat than
boiling, and more skill in the preparation. By the
application of fire, a considerable proportion of watery
substance is exhaled from the meat. In order to be
done properly, the roasting should be conducted in a
gradual manner, and the heat moderately but steadily
applied, otherwise exsiccation rather than roasting,
takes place. Roasted meat is certainly the best means
of consuming the flesh and tasting the natural juices of
the meat. It is also peculiarly calculated for birds of
every sort, and for young and tender meat, taking oft
its viscidity, and giving it a firmness and dryness that
otherwise it would not possess.
Roasted meat, at least of the larger kinds, as beef,
mutton, and venison, is preferred in England, and boil¬
ed or baked meat in France. The meat of England
has not, perhaps, the same flavour as that of France,
but it is larger, richer, and fatter, and appears to more
advantage in a roasted state. Besides, coal fires are
better adapted for that process of cookery than wood or
peat. It is found, indeed, that meat, roasted by a fire
of peat or turf, is more sodden than when coal is em¬
ployed for that purpose.
Our meat in England (Cadogan asserts) is generally
over-done, and particularly over-roasted. In regard to
over-roasting, the action of fire, if continued too long,
has a tendency to change mild animal flesh into some¬
thing of another quality 5 the fat in particular, be¬
comes bitter and rancid. The less, therefore, that all
flesh meat undergoes the power of the fire, the milder
and wholesomer it is. This doctrine, however, is de¬
nied by Falconer. He admits, that meat little done
is the most soluble, but at the same time contends, that
it is exceedingly alkalescent, and runs quickly into
putrefaction. Hence the French, who live in a warm
climate, find it necessary not only to eat a great quan-
Part I,
tity of bread, to prevent the putrefying effect of animal Dietetics.
food, but also to have their meat thoroughly boiled and —
roasted.
2. Boiling is also an excellent mode of preparing 3
animal food, rendering it more soluble, without de- ollI1S'
stroying, if properly done, its nutritious qualities, and
being peculiarly calculated for weak stomachs. But
however useful moderate boiling may be in these re¬
spects, yet, when carried to an extreme, every thing
soluble is extracted, the nutritious parts are conveyed
to the liquor, and the meat itself is left behind insipid,
dense, and unfit for nourishment.
Young and viscid food, as veal, chickens, partridges,
&c. ai-e more wholesome when roasted than boiled, and
easier digested 5 but beef and mutton are easier digested
when boiled than roasted ’, consequently boiling such
meat is better calculated for weak stomachs. Boiling
is particularly applicable to vegetables, rendering them
more soluble, in the stomach,' and depriving them of
a considerable quantity of air, so injurious to weak
stomachs.
The usual mode of preparing fish for the table is by
boiling, roasting rendering them more indigestible.
It Is proper to observe, that those who are trained
to athletic exercises, have their meat roasted or broiled,
and not boiled ; as it is supposed, that, when boiled, a
great part of the nutritive juices of the meat is lost in
the water. 114
3. Stewing is reckoned the mode by which the great- Stewing,
est quantity of nourishment is derived from the meat.
By this plan the texture of the meat is rendered more
tender, its soluble parts are not fully extracted, and it
is left in a state abundantly sapid and nourishing, while
the soup also, or fluid, contains a sufficient proportion
of the animal extract. 115
4. Broiling, consists in exposing meat to the near ap-Broiling,
plication of a naked fire, by which means its outer sur¬
face immediately hardens, before the heat has penetra¬
ted the whole. This prevents any excess of exhala¬
tion ; and the meat, when done, is rendered sufficient¬
ly tender. It is peculiarly suited for steaks, which are,
comparatively speaking, eaten in a juicy and almost in
a raw state. ri6
5. Frying is a process that renders meat more indi-Frying,
gestible than any other, and indeed, might be included
under the head of compound cookery. It is performed
by cutting meat into thin slices, and putting it into a
vessel over the naked fire. As the lower surface of the
meat would thus be burnt or hardened, some fluid mat¬
ter, generally of an oily nature, is introduced, which
acquires, from the heat, a burnt or empyreumatic taste,
and becomes hardly miscible with the fluids in the
stomach. It requires, therefore, the addition of stimu¬
lants to enable the stomach to digest it.
6. Baking consists in the application of heat in a dry Baking,
form, but in a vessel covered with a paste instead of its
being exposed to the open air. Any considerable ex¬
halation is thus prevented, and the meat, by the reten¬
tion of all its juices, is rendered more sapid and tender.
But baked meat sits heavy on some stomachs, from the
greater retention of its oils, which are in a burnt state.
It requires, therefore, the additional stimulus of spices
and aromatics, to render it lighter, and to increase the
power of the stomach to digest it.
118
7. Digesting is the last discovered process of simple Digesting.
cookery.
Part I.
MATE III A MEJDICA, &c.
XI9
Jellies.
120
Compound
cookery.
Dietetics, cookery. It is performed in a close vessel, and resem-
■—v~“—' bles boiling, being conducted in a very high tempera¬
ture, while, from the closeness of the vessel, the advan¬
tages of stewing are procured. It is not, however, much
in use.
Besides these various simple modes of preparing ani¬
mal food, there is another, which it may here be pro¬
per to take notice of, namely, when animal food is dis¬
solved in water, and formed into a gelatinous solution
or jelly. This substance is of a viscid nature, and
though it contains much nourishment, yet is difficult of
digestion, and of course less calculated for diseased or
weak stomachs than is commonly imagined. Nor are
those jellies, which are the mucilaginous extracts of
certain parts of animals, as hartshorn, very digestible $
indeed, a too liberal use of them has often proved inju¬
rious. They can only be recommended for the sick, ac¬
companied with a quantity of stale bread. To those who
require an arficle of that sort, more especially if their
stomachs are weak, simple beef tea, properly prepar¬
ed, is the most nutritive balsam that can be administer¬
ed.
It may also be proper to observe, that even after pro¬
visions have been dressed in the kitchen, they have of¬
ten to undergo some operations of cookery at the table ;
this is principally by the addition of some of the various
sorts of seasoning or condiments.
One would imagine that all the various modes of
preparing food above enumerated, might satisfy the most
luxurious appetite *, but, instead thereof, the ingenuity*
of man has been exerted to discover a number of other
preparations. Hence, a system of refined or compound
cookery has been invented, more flattering to the pa¬
late than favourable to the health.
It would he improper to touch upon processes which
it is impossible for any writer on dietetics to mention
witii any degree of approbation. Some dishes may be
prepared, variously compounded, which may occasionally
be tasted, and plain sauces may be a useful addition to
fish and vegetables ■, but the generality of ragouts,
made dishes, and the like, are of a poisonous quality,
and cannot be too anxiously avoided by those who
entertain any anxiety for the preservation of their
* Code of health *.
Health and The foregoing observations on diet are adapted chief-
Longevity, jy to per.ons in health •, but it is of great importance
for a medical man to known what is the most proper diet
for the sick and for convalescents. To treat this sub¬
ject properly would occupy more room than we can al¬
lot to it) we shall, therefore, only insert here the follow¬
ing remarks by the late Dr Heberden, with which we
shall conclude this part of the article.
“ Many physicians appear to be too strict and par¬
ticular in the rules of diet and regimen, which they
deliver as proper to be observed by all who are solicit¬
ous either to preserve or recover their health. The
common experience of mankind will sufficiently ac¬
quaint any one with the sorts of food which are whole¬
some to the generality of men ; and his own experience
will teach him which of these agrees best with lus par¬
ticular constitution. Scarcely any other directions be¬
sides these are wanted, except that, as variety of food
at the same meal, and poignant sauces, will tempt most
persons to eat more than they can well digest’, they ought
therefore to be avoided by all who are afflicted with
3
vol. i.
I2X
Diet of
sick and
convales¬
cent per¬
sons.
7uo
any chronical disorders, or wish to keep from them. Dietetics.
But whether meat should he boiled or roasted, or dres- ~~y—
sed in any other plain way, and what sort of vegetables
should he eaten with it, we never yet met with any per¬
son of common sense who did not appear fitter to choose
for himself than we could direct him. Small beer, where
it agrees, or water alone, are the properest liquors at
meals. Wine or spirits mixed with water have gradu¬
ally led on several to he sots, and have ruined more
constitutions than ever were hurt by small beer from its
first invention.
“ In fevers a little more restraint is necessary, but
not so much as is often enjoined. The stronger sorts
of meat and fish are most usually loathed by the sick
themselves, nor could they be eaten without offending
the stomach, and increasing the distemper, while it is
at all considerable ; but in its decline the sick are often
desirous of some of the milder sorts of meat, and no
harm follows from indulging their desire. The Eng¬
lish are said to eat more meat when they are well than
most other nations; but were remarkable, so long ago
as the time of Erasmus, for avoiding it more scrupulous¬
ly when they are sick than any other people. How
high soever the fever be, the sick may he safely nourish¬
ed with weak broths and jellies, and with any vegeta¬
ble substances, if we except the acid and aromatic, or
with the infusions or decoctions prepared from them j
and we know no reason for preferring any of these to
the rest. Eggs and milk have been, we know not by
what authority, forbidden in all levers ; but as far as
our experience goes, they both afford innocent food in
the worst, where they are grateful to the patients.
“ The feverish thirst is best allayed by pure water,
which may he drunk either warm or cold, at the option
of the sick person, and he may drink as much as he
pleases •, but we see no advantage in persuading him to
gorge himself with liquids, as is often done, against his
inclination and stomach. If water be deemed too insi¬
pid, currant jelly, and a variety of syrups, may be dis¬
solved in it; or apples sliced or roasted, tamarinds,
sage, or baum, or toasted bread, may be infused in it j
or decoctions may be made of oatmeal, barley, or rice j
or the water may be made into an emulsion with the
oily seeds j all which, with a variety of similar substan¬
ces, merely correct its insipidness, but in other respects
leave it just what it was.
“ There is scarcely any distemper, in every stage of
which it may not he safely left to the patient’s own
choice, if he be perfectly in his senses, whether he will
sit up or keep his bed. His strength and his ease are
chiefly to he attended to in settling this point j and who
can tell so well as himself, what his ease requires, and
what his strength will bear P
“ Doubts are tiften raised about the propriety of
changing the linen in sickness, just as there have been
about changing the foul air of the sick chamber by any
of the means which could purify and refresh it There
can be very little reason to fear any mischief from the
cold which the sick may feel while their clean linen is
putting on *, for their attendants, with common care,
will do this as safely as many other things which must
necessarily he done for them. But some have a strange
opinion of harm from the smell of the soap perceivable
in linen after It lias been washed, and therefore allow
not their patients, when they change their linen, even
4
7°4
Theraneu- to put on fre«l»r but such only as have been worn, or
‘ tics. lain in, by other persons. By this contrivance indeed
-v-—'the smell of the soap might be taken oft; but tew
cleanly people would think they gained any advantage
by the change. Now, if a faint smell ot soap were
noxious, then soap-makers and laundry servants must be
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c. Part II.
remarkably unhealthy, which is contrary to experience; Therapeu..
nor is it less so, that the sick are injured by the clean-, tlcs-
ness of what they wear; on the contrary, the removing
of their foul things has often diffused over them a sense
of ease and comfort, which has soon lulled them into a
quiet and refreshing sleep * ”
merit caries.
PART II OF THE GENERAL ACTION OF REMEDIES AND THEIR
CLASSIFICATION.
Actbnof WE shall not attempt any new or original disquisi-
remedies. tion on the action of remedies, but shall merely state
the most generally received opinions on the subject.
We shall begin with the doctrine of the disciples of
Cullen, which has been well expressed by Dr Percival
in the following propositions.
Medicines 1 • Medicines may act on the human body by an imme-
act by an diatc and peculiar impression on the stomach and bowels,
immediate either in their proper form, in a state of decomposition, or
and pecu- a cil(rflgc {n the arrangement of their parts.—The sym-
sion*on the pathy of the stomach with the whole animated system is
alimentary so obvious to our daily experience, that it cannot re¬
canal. quire much illustration. After fasting and fatigue, we
feel that a moderate quantity of wine instantly exhila¬
rates the spirits, and gives energy to all the muscular
fibres of the body. It has been known even to pro¬
duce a sudden and large augmentation of weight, after
much depletion, by rousing the absorbent system to vi¬
gorous action. Such power is peculiar to living me¬
chanism ; and is properly denominated by physicians,
the vis medicatrix naturce. But apparent as is the sym¬
pathy of the stomach, the laws by which it is governed
are very insufficiently understood; and we have hitherto
learned only from a loose induction of facts, that the
nerves of this delicate organ seem to be endowed with
diversified sensibilities ; that impressions made by the
same or different substances, have their appropriate in¬
fluence on different and distant parts; and that the sto¬
mach itself undergoes frequent variations in its states of
Irritability. A few grains of sulphate of copper, taken
internally, excite instantly the most violent contractions
of the abdominal and other muscles concerned in vo¬
miting. A dose of ipecacuanha, as soon as it produces
nausea, abates both the force and velocity of the heart,
in its vital motion ; and affects the whole series of blood
vessels, from their origin to their minutest ramifications,
as is evident by the paleness of the skin under such cir¬
cumstances, and by the efficacy of emetics in stopping
hcemorrhages. The head, when disordered with ver¬
tigo, sometimes derives sudden relief from a tea-spoon¬
ful of ether, administered in a glass of water. An in¬
cessant cough has been known to attack the lungs, in
consequence of the stimulus of a pin, which had been
unwarily swallowed. Of the action of medicines on the
stomach, under decomposition or recomposition, we
have an example familiar to every one, in carbonate of
magnesia. For this earth, by neutralizing the acid in
the primes vies, acquires a purgative quality, and at
the same time yields a gas of great salubrity, as an
antiemetic, tonic, and antiseptic.
2. Medicines may pass into the course of circidation in
one or other of the states above described, and being con-
124
veyed to different and distant parts, may there produce Medicines
certain appropriate effects.—Chemistry furnishes us with F^uce el-
numberless cases in which substances undergo changes,
and take new forms more remarkable than can be effect- trough
ed by digestion, retaining still the materia pinna, and the circu-
being capable of resuming the original arrangement oflatiou.
their particles, and consequently their original qualities.
Now, a body altered in its texture by digestion, and
carried into the system with aliment, may acquire spe¬
cific powers of acting on particular sound or diseased
parts. Thus, if wc suppose cautharides to be changed
in form and texture, when mixed with the chyle, the
lymph, or the blood, they may still, in that form and
texture, he peculiarly adapted to excite strangury in
the urinary passages, or, we may conceive that this
new modification of their particles may again be alter¬
ed, and their original composition restored by a subse¬
quent chemical change in the kidneys. The sensible
qualities of any body are no certain marks of its medi¬
cinal action. Peruvian bark does not owe its efficacy in
fevers to its bitterness, for stronger bitters are not pos¬
sessed of its febrifuge powers. Antimony, though insi¬
pid, produces a violent action on the nerves of the sto¬
mach, and yet if applied to the eye, an organ equally
sensible, it is altogether inert. To what perceptible pro¬
perty in opium are we to ascribe its narcotic powers? or
is there in the sweet taste of acetate of lead, any indi¬
cation of a deadly poison ? Numberless instances may
be adduced to prove the uncertainty of reasoning other¬
wise than from observation, concerning the action of
medicines, and the peculiar sensibility of different parts
of our system to their impression. Following experience,
therefore, as our guide, let us notice a few facts that
may elucidate the subject before us. It is well known
that madder root, when taken by an animal, carries its
tinging qualities to the bones, aftecting neither the skin,
the muscles, the ligaments, nor the fat. Consequently
this tinging quality is left unchanged by digestion ; or
perhaps it is again recovered, when arrived at the
hones, by some new arrangement of parts produced by
the chemistry of nature. Extract ot logwood, taken
internally, sometimes gives a bloody hue to the urine.
But the astringeucy of it does not seem to accompany
its colouring matter. We recollect no instance where¬
in the milk either of a nurse, or ot an animal, was
tinged with madder or logwood. This affords some
presumption, that the pigment does not subsist in its
proper form, in the blood ; but that it is recovered by
a subsequent change in the disposition of its constituent
particles. And if one substance stain the bones, by
being carried into contact with them, another may, m
an analogous manner, produce in them fragility or dis-
Part II.
Therapeu- solution. In the disease termed by the French ergot,
, t^s’ and which, with some probability is ascribed to the use
of a species of unsound corn, the bones lose the earthy
matter that enters into their texture ; the gums become
soft, and are easily broken. This effect is gradual, and
probably arises from some unknown quality in the corn,
which is either not taken away by digestion, or is re¬
sumed in the juices that circulate through the osseous
vessels. A change in the process of vegetation may
communicate a solvent power to an esculent seed. Mu¬
stard acquires this by its natural growth, and is capa¬
ble of rendering even ivory soft and fragile. How
far it would produce such an effect on the bones of a
living body, if used as the chief article of diet, we have
no experience on which to ground any satisfactory con¬
clusion.
Sulphur, whether externally or internally used, pro¬
duces a cure in the itch. In each way, therefore, we
may presume its operation to be similar. But when ta¬
ken into the stomach, there can be no doubt that it un¬
dergoes a change in the modification of its parts, and
that it does not circulate through the blood vessels
either in the form or with the properties of sulphur.
Yet when conveyed to the surface of the body, it evi¬
dently appears to recover its original powers, communi¬
cating its peculiar odour to the perspiration, tinging
silver, and curing cutaneous defoedations. The same
holds true of the sulphuric acid, when administered in
large doses. It seems to lose oxygen in the animal
body, and to pass off by the pores, as hepatic air, or as
volatilized sulphur. Even when given to nurses, it
proves an effectual remedy for the itch, both in them
and the children whom they suckle. Mercury com¬
bined with sulphur into the black sulphuret, has fre¬
quently been regarded as inert. Instances, however,
have occurred in which, under this form, though accu¬
rately prepared, it has produced salivation 5 an evident
proof, according to Dr Percival, of a chemical change
in the sulphuret, by which the mercury was restored to
its original powers. That mercury is capable of being
reduced to the metallic form, and of collecting in con¬
siderable quantity in the human body, is proved by the
concurrent testimony of many authors, who inform us
that fluid mercury has been found in the carious bones
of venereal patients. A salivation is sometimes produced
by antimony. Dr James assured Sir George Baker,
that he knew six instances of its being produced by his
lebrile powder, though he had left mercury out of its
composition long before they occurred. Indeed, as the
patients thus aftected had neither their teeth loosened,
nor their breath rendered offensive, there is no reason
to suppose that the salivation was owing to a mixture of
mercury in the powder.
Most persons have experienced the effects of aspara¬
gus on the urine. This takes place very speedily and
strongly, though only a small quantity has been eaten.
The smell is much more disagreeable than asparagus it¬
self; and as the odorous particles conveyed to the kid¬
neys must be greatly diluted in their passage, it is pro¬
bable that a new combination of particles takes place in
the urinary organs ; and that the odorous part of the
secretion difl’ers in its form and quality from what sub¬
sisted both in the chyle and in the blood.
There are certain medicines which, when swallowed,
quickly manifest themselves in the discharges, with
Vql. XII. Part II. f
„ . . . 7°5
some of their original qualities. A strong solution of Therapeu-
potash, when taken in considerable quantities, renders lies,
the urine alkaline and lithontriptic, and the same ex-
cretion becomes impregnated with carbonic acid, if
water impregnated with that acid be drunk freely. Dr
Percival speaks of a patient to whom six grains of bal¬
sam of Tolu were given thrice a day, and whose urine
was strongly scented by this small quantity. Garlick
affects the breath, though it be applied only about the
wrists; and the milk of a nurse is easily tainted with it.
A purgative given to a woman that suckles will some¬
times produce no effect on her bowels, but will operate
strongly on those of her infant. A still more convin¬
cing proof that there may be a renovation of the origi¬
nal qualities of a body, after it has undergone the pro¬
cess of digestion, and other subsequent changes, is de-
ducible from these facts; that butter is often impreg¬
nated with the taste and smell of certain vegetables on
which the cows have pastured ; that the milk of such
cows discovers no disagreeable flavour, any more than
the whey or cheese prepared from it. Now, butter is
formed, first by a spontaneous separation of cream, and
secondly, by a fermentation of it; that is, by a twofold
and successive new arrangement of its elementary parts.
By these changes, the originally offensive materials in
the food of the cow seem to reassume their proper form
and nature.
After venesection the serum of the blood has some¬
times appeared as white as milk, while the crass«men-
tum retained its natural colour. This whiteness has
been shewn to arise from oleaginous particles floating in
the circulating fluids, and may serve to explain a fact
recorded by a writer of good authority, on the natural
history of Aleppo, that in certain seasons when oil is
plentifully taken, the people become disposed to fevers,
and infarctions of the lungs, which symptoms wear oft’
by retrenching this indulgence. Some years ago cod-
liver oil was annually dispensed amongst the sick of the
Manchester hospital, to the amount of 50 or 60 gal¬
lons. The taste and smell are extremely nauseous, and
it leaves upon the palate a savour like that of putrid
fish. This remedy is more salutary when it operates
by perspiration ; and the sweat of those to whom it is
administered, always becomes strongly tainted with it.
An oil of the same kind forms no inconsiderable part of
the food of many northern nations ; and it is said to
penetrate and imbue the deepest recesses of the bodv.
Dr Wright relates an experiment to prove that cha-
lybeates do not enter the blood. He forced a dog
that had fasted 66 hours, to swallow a pound of bread
and milk, W'ith which had been mixed an ounce and a
half of sulphate of iron. An hour aftex-wards he open¬
ed the dog, and collected from the thoracic duct about
half an ounce of chyle, which assumed no change of
colour when tincture of galls was dropped into it,
though it acquired from the same tincture a deep pur¬
ple, when a quarter of a grain of sulphate of iron was
dissolved in it. This experiment is usually deemed de¬
cisive in support of the opinion that chalybeates exert
their operation solely on the stomach, and that the vi¬
gour they communicate to the system arises exclusively
from their tonic powers on the alimentary canal, and
from the sympathy of the stomach with various other
parts of the body. Dr Percival was of opinion, that
the tonic action and sympathy above mentioned, did
4 U not
MATERIA ME DIG A, &c,
706
MATERIA
Therapeu
tics
not preclude the immediate agency of the steel on the
remote parts of the human frame, as this remedy, m
'other forms capable of being introduced into the cir¬
culation, may exert considerable energy as a stimu¬
lant or astringent; and in his opinion, the experiment
adduced proves that the iron did not exist in the chyle,
in the state of a salt capable ot striking a black colour
with galls. Neither does the oxide of iron, nor the
glass of iron, possess this power, yet, though changed,
they are both capable of being restored to the metallic
state. Perhaps with equal reason it might be presumed
hy one ignorant of chemistry, that the sulphate of lion
contains no iron, because it is not acted on by the
magnet. ^
With the foregoing experiments of Dr >\ right, Ur
Percival contrasts those made by the celebrated Dr
Musgrave, who injected into the jejunum of a dog that
had, for a day before, but little meat, about 12 ounces
of a solution of indigo in fountain water, and, after
three hours, opening the dog a second time, he obser¬
ved several of the lacteals of a bluish colour, which on
stretching the mesentery, did several times disappear,
but vyas most easily discerned when the mesentery lay
loose $ an argument that the bluish colour was not pro¬
perly of the vessels, but of the liquors contained in it.
A few days after this, repeating the experiment in an¬
other company, with a solution of stone blue in foun¬
tain water, and on a dog that had been kept fasting
36 hours, he saw several of the lacteals become of a
perfect blue colour, within very few minutes after the
injection. For they appeared before he could sew up
the gut.
About the beginning of March following, having
kept a spaniel fasting 36 hours, and then syringing a
pint of deep decoction of stone blue with common wa¬
ter, into one of the small guts j and after three hours,
opening the dog again, he saw many of the lacteals of
a deep blue colour: several of them were cut, and af¬
forded a blue liquor, some of the decoction running
forth on the mesentery. After this he examined the
ductus tkoracicus, and saw the receptaculum chyli, and
that ductus, of a bluish colour; not so blue indeed as
the lacteals, from the solution mixing, in or near the
rcceptaculum, with lympha, but much bluer than the
ductus used to be, or than the lymphatics under the
liver -were, with which he compared it.
Stone blue is a preparation of cobalt, potash, and
white lead, which being converted into glass, is ground
into fine powder. If such a substance can pervade
the lacteals, we may conclude that they are permeable
to other bodies, besides those designed for nutrition,
and capable of assimilation, with the blood. This argu¬
ment from analogy, receives great additional force from
the known fact, that mercury, and various other active
remedies, may be conveyed into the body through the
absorbents of the skin, a system of vessels similar to
those above mentioned, in their structure, uses, and
termination. In a case of hydrocephalus internus, on
which Dr Percival was consulted, a child under one year
of age, received, by successive frictions, 4 ounces 6
drams and 2 scruples of strong mercurial ointment be¬
tween the 8th of February and the 7th of April 1786.
One scruple was administered each time; the operation
took up more than half an hour, and the part to which
the ointment was applied, was always previously bathed
* l
MEDICA, &c.
with warm water; precautions which seemed to secure Theraprvs,
the full absorption of the mercury. The child reco- _ tics-
vered without any symptoms of salivation, and conti¬
nued perfectly well. The doctor repeatedly observed,
that very large quantities of mercurial ointment may
be used in infancy and childhood, without affecting the
gums, notwithstanding the predisposition to a flux of sa¬
liva, at a period of life incident to dentition.
Whence is it that a medicine so irritating as mercury,
can be conveyed into the course of circulation, when
even milk, or the mildest liquors, if transfused into the
blood vessels, have been found to produce convulsions
and death ? Is it that what passes by the lymphatics and
lacteals is earned into the thoracic duct, and there
mixed with a large portion of the chyle and lymph, by
which its acrimony is sheathed and diluted, or its che¬
mical properties changed, before it enters the mass of
blood?. For the absorbents of the skin, and of the in¬
testines, seem to require a capacity to bear the stimu¬
lus of these extraneous bodies to which, in both situar
tions-, they are exposed. #
3. Medicines introduced into the course of circidation Medicines
may affect the general constitution of the fluids; produce act on fiu-
changcs in their particular qualities ; superadd new ones; 1^s‘
or counteract the morbific matter with which they may
be occasionally charged.—By observations on the hae¬
morrhages which have been sustained without destruc¬
tion to life; from experiments made on animals, by
drawing forth all their blood j and by a computation
of the bulk of the arteries and veins, the mass of circu¬
lating fluids has been estimated at 50 pounds in a mid¬
dle-sized man, of which 28 pounds are supposed to be
red blood. Fluids bearing so large a proportion to the
weight of the whole body, have assuredly very import¬
ant offices in the animal economy. Endued with the
common properties of other fluids, they are subject to
mechanical laws; being variously compounded, they
are incident to chemical changes ; and, as they are
contained in a living vascular system, their motions be¬
come subject to the influence ol nervous energy ** * See Prr-
The followers of Dr Brown explain the operation oirival s
medicines on the principle of their all acting as stimu-V0-B'
lants in a greater or less degree. This doctrine, with
some modification, is thus detailed by Mr Murray.
“Medicines, in general, operate by stimulating the I2<^
living fibre, or exciting it to motion. This proposition ac^Yt ot
has even been stated as universal, and was received astjie ^0^
an axiom, in a system superior, perhaps, to any, in con-of medi-
veying just and precise ideas on the nature ol life, and chics,
the affections to which it is subject. Medicines, in
common with all external agents, are, according to this
system, incapable of directly altering the state of the
vital power : they can only excite the parts possessed of
that power to action •, and how'ever diversified their
effects may appear to be, such diversities are to be re-
feri’ed merely to the different degrees of force in
which they exert the general stimulant power they
possess.
“ This proposition cannot, however, be received in
an unlimited sense. From the exhibition of different
medicines,!’very different effects are produced, which
cannot be satisfactorily explained from the cause assign¬
ed,—the difference in the degree of stimulant operation..
They differ in kind so far, that even in the greater num¬
ber of cases, one remedy cannot by any management of
dose
Part II.
Tlierapcu- dose or administration, be made to produce the effects
tics. which result from the action of another.
“ It is therefore necessary to admit of some modifi¬
cations of the general principles above stated, and the
following are perhaps sufficient to afford grounds for
explaining the operation of remedies, and for establish¬
ing a classification of them sufficiently just and compre¬
hensive.
“ i. Stimulants are not to be regarded as differing
merely in the degree of the stimulant operation which
they exert. An important distinction exists between
them, as they are more or less diffusible and permanent
in their action. A stimulus is termed diffusible, which,
whenever it is applied, or at least in a very short time
after, extends its action over the whole system, and
quickly produces its full exciting effect. A diffusible
stimulus is generally also transient in its action ; in
other words, the effect, though soon produced, quickly
-Ceases. There are others, on the contrary, which,
though equally powerful stimulants, are slow and per¬
manent. These varieties, which are sufficiently esta¬
blished, serve to explain the difl'erences in the power of
a number of the most important medicines j and they
lay the foundation for the distinction of two great classes,
narcotics and tonics, with their subordinate divisions of
antispasmodics and astringents, both consisting of power¬
ful stimulants j the one diffusible and transient, the other
slow and permanent in their operations.
u There is a difference between stimulants, in their
actions being directed to particular parts. Some, when
received into the stomach, quickly act upon the general
system-; others have their action confined to the sto¬
mach itself, or at least, any farther stimulant effect they
may occasion, is slow and inconsiderable ; while a third
class consists of those which operate on one part, often
without producing any sensible effect on the stomach or
general system. Some thus act on the intestinal canal,
others on the kidneys, bladder, vessels of the skin, and
other parts ; the affection they excite in these, being
the consequence, not of any stimulant operation equally
extended over every part, but of one more particularly-
determined. This difference in the action of stimuli
is the principal foundation of the distinctions of medi¬
cines into particular classes. Cathartics, for instance,
are those medicines which, as stimuli, act peculiarly on
the intestinal -canal; diuretics, those which act on the
secreting vessels of the kidneys ; emmenagognes, those
which act on the uterine system; diaphoretics, those
which exert a stimulant action on the vessels ofthe skin.
With these operations, medicines, at the same time, act
more or less as general stimulants, by which each indi¬
vidual belonging to any class is thus rendered capable
of producing peculiar effects ; and many of them, by a
peculiarity of constitution in the patient, or from the
mode in which they are administered, frequently act on
more than one part of the system, by which their effects
are still farther diversified. Medicines, when thus de¬
termined to particular parts, are sometimes conveyed to
those parts in the course of the circulation ; more gene¬
rally their action is extended from the stomach, or part
'Elements*'0 which they are applied, by the medium of the ner-
'fMateria vous system
tedica Whatever medical system we may adopt, it is obvi-
j ul Phar- aus tiiat medicines can act on the human system only
i ’ V°*1 i*1 two general modes; either as it is composed of inert
7°7
matter, or as it forms a living organised system. In the Thcrapew-
first mode, medicines may act either mechanically or tic*,
chemically ; in the second, they act entirely through ' " - v
the medium of the vital principle. l2y
The order in which the several subjects of the mate-Arrange-
ria medica have been considered, is very different in ment of re-
different writers ; and which is the most proper, hasme<hcs'
been disputed about, while many are of opinion that it
is of little consequence which of them is followed. It
has been generally thought proper to follow a plan, in
which the subjects are, according to a certain affinity,
brought together, so that a number of them might be,
for the purpose of medicines, considered under the sams
view. Thus, Dr Boerhaave considered them in the
order of the botanical system he had formed, and Lin-
nams in the order of his own system, in which he is fol¬
lowed by Bergius. i2s
It has been thought proper to follow the botanical Botanical
affinities, in so far only as they can be thrown into na- arranSe-
tural orders ; and, this, therefore, has been attempted BHllt
by the learned Professor Murray of Gottingen : but from
the imperfection of the botanical affinities in pointing
out a similarity of medicinal virtues, this plan will not
always unite subjects in the latter point of view ; and
when we consider that there are yet many plants which
do not enter into any natural order, these must be dis¬
posed of in an arbitrary manner, and probably in an
unconnected state. It must be owned, however, that
though the scheme of botanical affinities does not en¬
tirely answer the purpose, yet it will still go a certain
length, and ought not to be neglected in the subdivision
of any general plan that may be assumed.
It has been supposed by some to be a more eligible Arrange-
plan to unite the several substances, as they happen to n,t“D* ac*
be related by their sensible qualities; this method Car-to
theuser and Gleditsch have attempted. This certainly qualities,
may have its use ; but from what is said above respect¬
ing the imperfection of this scheme for investigating
virtues, it will appear that it will not always unite sub¬
jects that ought to be united under the same view; and
it will be found, that in the authors mentioned, who
have executed it in the best manner possible, the desired
.effect is by no means produced.
From the difficulty of rendering any of those plans Alphabcti-
tolerably exact and perfect, some writers have deserted c t^ ar_
all of them, and thought it best to throw the several 1‘iU&emcnt'
articles into an alphabetical order, as Newmann and
Lewis have done. If, however, there can be any ad¬
vantage from bringing subjects of some affinity toge¬
ther, this alphabetical order is the most unfit for the
purpose, as by separating similar substances, it must be
perpetually distracting to the student. It can therefore
have no advantage but that of a dictionary, in referring
readily to any particular subject that may be inquired
after-; but this advantage can be obtained in every
plan by means of an index, which cannot be saved
even in an alphabetical woi’k, as the difl’erent names
under which the same substances are known neces¬
sarily requires an index comprehending all those differ¬
ent names.
Similar to those of the alphabetical order, are those
plans which, after arranging the several articles of the
materia medica according to the part of the plant em¬
ployed, as roots, leaves, &c. have thrown these again
into an alphabetical order, as Alston and Vogel have
4 U 2 done ;
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
708
MATERIA
I31
Arrange¬
ment ac¬
cording to
medical
effects.
Theraneu- done j Lut it is obvious that this establishes no con-
tics. nexion between the subjects that follow one another*
-—V ' and can have no advantage over the alphabetical or¬
der. Further, by separating the consideration of the
several parts of vegetables, it will both separate sub¬
jects that ought to be considered together, and will oc¬
casion unnecessary repetition.
Dr Cullen was of opinion that, as the study of the
materia medica is truly the study of the medicinal
virtues, so the plan that arranges the several substances
according to their agreeing in some general virtues,
will be the best adapted to acquiring the knowledge of
these, and will most readily inform the practitioner
what different means he can employ for his general
purpose. It will also inform him how far the several
similar substances may differ in their degree of power,
or how far, from the particular qualities assigned to
each, he may be directed or limited in his choice.
As it seems proper that every practitioner ought, as
far as possible, to practise upon general indications j so
it is evident that his study of the materia medica is
especially to know the several means that can answer
these. Such a plan, therefore, must be the most proper
for giving a student instruction •, and if, while medicines
are arranged according as they answer general indica¬
tions, the particulars be likewise thrown together as
far as possible according to their sensible qualities and
botanical affinities, this plan will have the advantage
of any other that has been proposed for presenting toge¬
ther the subjects that ought to be considered at one and
the same time, and give the best means of recollecting
every thing that relates to them.
Dr Cullen’s plan of arrangement is as follows.
He first divides all the substances contained in the
materia medica into two general heads, the first com¬
prising alimentary substances, or meats, drinks, and
condiments ; the second comprising medicines properly
so called. These latter he considers as they act on the
solids or the fluids. Those which act on the solids he
distinguishes into such as act on the simple solids, under
which he ranks astringents, tonics, emollients, and
escharotics 5 and those which act on the living solids,
under which he classes stimulants, sedatives, including
narcotics, refrigerants, and antispasmodics. Of those
medicines which act on the fluids, he conceives that
some operate by producing a change on their fluidity,
as attenuants and inspissants; or, on the mixture of
their component parts, by correcting acrimony, either
in general, as demulcents, or in particular as antacids,
antalkalines, and antiseptics. Others he supposes to
act by producing an evacuation of superabundant fluids 5
and under this head he includes errhines, sialagogues,
expectorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, diaphore¬
tics, and emmenagogues.
In his general classification, Dr Cullen has been fol¬
lowed by several writers on the materia medica and
therapeutics. Some of the titles of his classes have
indeed become obsolete, and" his order has been almost
totally changed by succeeding writers.
Of those who have copied Dr Cullen’s arrangement
with some modification, there is perhaps none that de¬
serves more attention than the anonymous author of the
“ Thesaurus Medicaminum,” and a “ Practical synopsis
of the materia alimentaria and materia medica.” This
132
Cullen’s ar¬
rangement.
MEDICA, &c. Part II,
author distributes the articles of the materia mcdica in- Thenapeu-
to 12 classes j I Evacuants, comprising errhines, siala- ties,
gogues, expectorants, emetics, cathartics, diuretics, dia- -v—
phoretics, emmenagogues 3 2. Emolients, comprising
diluents and emulcents 3 Absorbents 3 4’ Pcirige- nient oi the
rants 3 5. Antiseptics 3 6. Astringents 3 7. Tonics 3 8. practical
Stimulants 3 9. Antispasmodics 3 10. Narcotics j 11. synopsis.
Anthelmintics ; and, 12. Heteroclites : this last being
formed to include those articles that could not properly
he reduced under the former heads.
On this classification we may remark, that the gene¬
ral term of evacuants might have been omitted, and
its subdivisions might have properly been made distinct
classes, as the articles they contain frequently act a more
important part, than merely producing an evacuation of
fluids. The class of absorbents includes those which
Cullen calls antacids, and perhaps this latter term is to
be preferred, as it is more explicit and better under¬
stood. The class antiseptics might also have been omit¬
ted, and the substances it contains might more properly
have been arranged under other heads. ^
Mr Murray’s arrangement, which is very ingenious, m,. Mur-
is founded principally on the doctrine of universal sti* ray’s ar-
mulus, and he thus explains the principles on which itrangemeB{*
is established.
“ Those stimulants, which exert a general action on
the system, may first be considered. Of these there
are two well-marked subdivisions, the diffusible and
the permanent 3 the former corresponding to the usual
classes of narcotics and antispasmodics 3 the latter, in¬
cluding likewise two classes, tonics and astringents.
In these there is a gradual transition passing into the
one from the other, from the most diffusible and least
durable stimulus, to the most slow and permanent in
its action.
“ The next general division is that comprising local
stimulants 3 such are the classes of emetics, cathartics,
expectorants, sialagogues, errhines, and epispastics.
These all occasion evacuation of one kind or other, and
their effects are in general to be ascribed, not to any
operation exerted on the whole system, but to changes
of action induced in particular parts.
“ After these, those few medicines may be considered
whose action is merely mechanical or chemical. To
the former belong diluents, demulcents, and emollients.
Anthelmintics may perhaps be referred with propriety
to the same division. To the latter, or those which
act chemically, belong antacids or absorbents, lithon-
triptics, escharotics, and perhaps refrigerants.
“ Under these classes may be comprehended all those
substances capable of producing salutary changes in the
human system. Several classes are indeed excluded
which have sometimes been admitted 3 but these have
been rejected, either as not being sufficiently precise
or comprehensive, or as being established only on er¬
roneous theory.
“ The subdivisions of these classes may sometimes be
established on the natural affinities existing among the
substances arranged under each 3 on their chemical com¬
position 3 their resemblance in sensible qualities 3 or,
lastly, on distinctions in their medicinal virtues, mere
minute than those which form the characters of the
class. In different classes one of these methods will fre¬
quently he found preferable to any of the others.”
Mr
Fart II.
Therapeu¬
tics.
* Murray's
Elements.
r. I3.5,
Darwin s
arrange¬
ment.
136
Niitrientia.
Mr Murray’s arrangement will be best understood
from bis own table.
A. General Stimulants.
a. Diffusible, t Narcotics.
£ Antispas mod ics,
b. Permanent.-^ ^'°’1\cs*
Astringents.
B. Local Stimulants. Emetics.
Cathartics.
Emmenagogues.
Diuretics.
Diaphoretics.
Expectorants.
Sialagogues.
Errhines.
Epispastics.
C. Chemical Remedies. Refrigerants.
Antacids.
Lithontriptics.
Escharotics.
D. Mechanical Remedies. Anthelmintics.
Demulcents.
Diluents.
Emollients *.
It would be improper here to omit the classification
of the ingenious Dr Darwin, which was published in
his Tioonomia. He distributes the articles of the mate¬
ria medica under seven heads, according to his opinion
of their mode of operation. They are as follows,
1. Nutrientia, or those things which preserve in their
natural state the due exertions of all the irritative mo¬
tions.
2. Incitantia, or those things which increase the ex¬
ertions of all the irritative motions.
3. Secernentia, or those things which increase the ir¬
ritative motions which constitute secretion.
4. Sorbentia, or those things which increase the irri¬
tative motions which constitute absorption.
5. Invertentia, or those things which invert the na¬
tural order of the successive irritative motions.
6. Revertentia, or those things which restore the na¬
tural order of the inverted irritative motions.
7. Torpentia, those things which diminish the exer¬
tions of all the in-itative motions.
The nutrientia he thus enumerates according to what
he conceives to be their degree of nourishing power.
1. 1. Venison, beef, mutton, hare, goose, duck,
woodcock, snipe, moor-game.
2. Oysters, lobsters, crabs, shrimps, mushrooms, eel,
tench, barbolt, smelt, turbot, sole, turtle.
3. Lamb, veal, sucking-pig.
4. Turkey, partridge, pheasant, fowl, eggs.
5. Pike, perch, gudgeon, trout, grayling.
II. Milk, cream, butter, butter-milk, whey, cheese.
III. Wheat, barley, oats, pease, potatoes, turnips,
carrots, cabbage, asparagus, artichoke, spinach, beet,
apple, pear, plum, apricot, nectarine, peach, straw¬
berry, grape, orange, melon, cucumber, dried figs,
raisins, sugar, honey. With a great variety of other
roots, seeds, leaves, and fruits.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c,
709
calcareous Therapeu¬
tics.
137
IV. Water, river-water, spring-water,
earth.
V. Air, oxygen, azote, carbonic acid gas.
VI. Nutritive baths and clysters, transfusion of
blood.
VII. Condiments.
Under incitantia (or stimulants) he ranks the follow7- Incitantia.
ing articles.
I. Papaver somniferum, poppy, opium.
Alcohol, wine, beer, cyder.
Prunus lauro-cerasus, laureli distilled water from the
leaves.
Prunus cerasus, black cherry; distilled water from the
kernels.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco?- the essential oil, decoc¬
tion of the leaf.
Atropa belladonna, deadly nightshade ; the berries.
Datura stramonium, thorn applet the. fruit boiled in
milk.
Hyoscyamus reticulatus, henbane; the seeds and
leaves.
Cynoglossum, hounds-tongue,
Menispermum, cocculus, Indian berry.
Amygdalus amarus, bitter almond.
Cicuta, hemlock. Conium maculatum ?
Strychnos nux vomica ?
Delphinium staphisagria ?
II. Externally, heat, electricity.
III. Ether, essential oils.
IV. Oxygen gas.
V. Passions of love, joy, anger.
VI. Labour, play, agitation, friction.
138
The scccrnentia he distinguishes into diaphoretics, Secernent
sialagogues, mild diuretics, mild cathartics, mild er-tu¬
rbines, which, as they will be enumerated presently, it
is unnecessary to mention here j and besides these, he
enumerates the following circumstanees acting on the
other secretions.
Secretion of mucus of the rectum is increased by can-
tharides, by spirit of turpentine.
Secretion of subcutaneous mucus is increased by
blisters of cantharides, by application of a thin slice
of the fresh root of white briony, by sinapisms, by
root of horse-radish, cochlearia armoracia, volatile al¬
kali.
Secretion of tears is increased by vapour of sliced
onion, of volatile alkali. By pity, or ideas of hopeless
distress.
Secretion of sensorial power in the brain is probably
increased by opium, by wine, and perhaps by oxygen
gas added to the common air in respiration. ^
The sorbentia he divides into those which affect the Sorbeatia,
skin, as sulphuric or muriatic acids, various acid fruits,
and opium ; and the oxides of lead, zinc, and mercury,
applied externally.
II. Such as afiect the mucous membranes, as the juice
of sloes and crab-apples, cinchona, and opium, internal¬
ly ; and externally the sulphate of copper.
III. 1. Suoh as affect the cellular membrane, as Pe¬
ruvian bark ; wormwood, artcmisia maritima, artcmisia
absynthium ; worm-seed, artemisia santonicum ; chamo¬
mile, anthemis nobilis; tansey, tanacetum; bogbean, 7ne-
nyanthes trifoliata; centaury, gentian a centaurum; gen¬
tian
MATERIA MEDICA, &e.
710
Therapeu- Um, gentiana lutea; artichoke leaves, cynara scolymus ;
tics. hop, humulus lupulus.
* 2. Orange peel, cinnamon, nutmegs, mace*
. q. Vomits, squill, digitalis, tobacco.
4. Bath of warm air, of steam.
IV. Such as affect the veins, as water-cress, sinym-
brium nasturtium aquaticum; mustard, sinapis; scurvy-
grass, cochlearia hortetisis; horse radish, cochlearia ar*
moracia ; cuckoo flower, cardamine ; dog’s grass *, dan¬
delion, leontodon taraxacon ; celery, opium; cabbage,
brassica. Chalybeates, bitters, opium, after sufficient tity of two or three pounds
evacuation j anil externally vinegar, friction, and elec- The torpentia he divides into 13 general heads
Part R
140
i Invertea-
3 tia.
141
Revertcn-
tia.
tncxty.
V; Such as affect the intestines, including several
astringents, and oPthe antacid earths,
VI. Such as affect the liver, stomach, and other vis¬
cera, as oxide of iron, filings of iron, sulphate of
iron, sulphate of copper, sulphate of zinc, calomel, tar¬
trate of antimony and potash, acetate of lead, and
tvhite arsenic.
VII. Such as affect venereal ulcers, including vari¬
ous preparations of mercury.
VIII. Such as affect the whole system, as evacua¬
tions by venesection and cathartics, followed by the ex¬
hibition of opium.
IX. External sorbentia, as solutions of mercury, zinc,
lead, copper, iron, arsenic, or metallic oxides applied
in dry powder. Bitter vegetables in decoctions and in
dry powers, applied externally j as Peruvian bark,
oak bark, leaves of wormwood, of tansey, chamomile
flowers or leaves. Electric sparks or shocks.
X. Bandage spread with emplastrum e minioy or
with carpenter’s glue mixed with one-twentieth part of
honey.
XI. Portland’s powder, and the use of hops in beer,
both of which, when continued, are pernicious.
Under the class of invertentia Hr Darwin ranks the
-ordinary emetics, violent cathartics, violent errhines
and sialagogues 5 violent diuretics, and cold sudorifics,
.such as poisons, fear, and approaching-death.
His catalogue of revertentia is as follows :
I. Inverted motions which attend.the hysteric disease,
are reclaimed, I. By musk, castor. - 2. By asafoetida,
galbanum, sagapenum, ammcniacum, valerian. 3. Es¬
sential oils of cinnamon, nutmeg, cloves,’, infusion of
pennyroyal, menthu pulcgium, peppermint, mentha pi¬
perita, ether, camphor. 4. Spirit ofi hartshorn, oleum
animate, sponge burnt to charcoal,- black snuffs of can¬
dles, which consist principally of animal charcoal, wood-
soot, oil of amber. 5. Ii\\e4ncitantia, as opium, alcohol,
vinegar. 6. Externally the smoke of burnt feathers,
oil of amber, volatile salt applied to the nostrils, blis¬
ters, sinapisms.
II. Inverted motions of the stomach are reclaimed
by opium,, alcohol, blisters, crude mercury, sinapism,
camphor and opium externally, clysters with asafoe-
4ida.
Ill* Inverted motions of. the intestinal lymphatics
are reclaimed by mucilaginous diluents, and by intes-
. tinal sorbentia, as rhubarb, logwood, calcined harts-
- horn, Armenian bole j and, lastly, by incitantia, as
-4 opium.
IV. Inverted motions of the urinary lymphatics are
, reclaimed by cantharides, turpentine, rosin, the sorben¬
tia, and opium, with calcareous earth, and earth ofTherapcu-
alum, by oil externally, warm bath. ties.
V. Inverted motions of the intestinal canal are re-—y-—>
claimed by calomel, aloe, crude mercury, blisters, warm
- bath, clysters with asafeetida, clysters of ice waters : or
of spring water further cooled by salt dissolved in water
contained in an exterior vessel ? Where there exists an
introsusception of the bowel in children, could the pa¬
tient be held up for a time with his head downwards,,
and crude mercury be injected as a clyster to the quan-
142
I. Torpentia.
Venesection and arteriotoray ; 2. Cold water, cold air,
and the respiration of air with a diminished proportion
of oxygen-, 3. Vegetable mucilages4 4. Vegetable
acids; 5. Animal mucus, hartshorn jelly,-veal and
chicken broth, and perhaps oil, faband cream ? 6. Mi¬
neral acids ; 7. Silence and darkness; 8. Invei’tentia
in small doses, as nitre, emetic tartax-, and ipecacuanlia,
given so as to induce nausea y -9. Antacids, as soap,
alkalies, and earths ; 10. Medicines, preventive of fer¬
mentation, as sulphuric acid ; 11. Anthelmintics ; 12.
Lithontriptics; and, 13. Various external remedies, as
the warm bath, poultices, oil, fat, wax, plasters, oiled
silk, and carbonic acid gas on cancers and other ul¬
cers.
We were for some-time at a loss what arrangement
we should follow in the present article. It was evidently
necessary to adopt one that should, as much as possible,
prevent repetition; and it therefore appeared improper
to ti’eat particularly of the articles ot the materia medica
under the usual classes. The alphabetical order would
prevent repetition ; but it seemed little adapted to the
plan of a systematic treatise. On the whole, we have
judged it besttc anartge tht individual articles in two
methods ; 1st, Into classes accoi*ding to their supposed
operation on the system ; and in this view consider their
genex-al uses; and, 2dly, To treat of them more parti¬
cularly under an .arrangement similar to that of Lin¬
naeus. In the remainder of this part of the article, we
shall therefore consider the general action and use of
the vax-ious classes of remedies, adopting, with the ex¬
clusion of emmenagogues, the. arrangement followed in
Dr Kirby’s Tables of the Materia Medica -, and in a
succeeding pai’t we shall consider the individual articles
: under the four heads of animal, vegetable, mineral, and
gaseous substances.
Class l. EMETICS.
Emetics are such medicines as are calculated to ex-j)ej;nihQn
•cite vomiting, and thus dischai’ge the contents of the of emetics,
stomach.
Table of Emetics.
I. Animal Products.
144
Table of
emetics.
Murias ammonite, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua carhonatis ammonite, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers.
Asarum europeum, asarabacca.
Centaiirea benedicta, holy thistle.
Cephaclis
Part II.
Therapeu¬
tics.
„ I45 ,
Effects and
uses of
emetics.
MATERIA
Cephaelis ipecawianlia, ipecacuanha.
^ mum ipecacuanha:, ipecacuanha wine,
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco in clysters.
Olea europea, olive oil.
Scilla maritima, squill.
Acetum scillse maritimse, vinegar of squills.
Sinapis alba, mustard.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper.
Sulphuretum antimonh, sulphurct of antimony.
Oxklum antimonii cum sulphure vitrificatum, vitri¬
fied oxide of antimony with sulphur.
Vinum antimonii, antimonial wine, L.
Tartris antimonii, tartrite of antimony.
Vinum tartritis antimonii, wine of tartarised anti¬
mony.
Sulphas zinci, sulphate of zinc.
The general effects produced by emetics are, a sen¬
sation of uneasiness in the stomach, followed by sick¬
ness, retching and vomiting. During the nausea, the
pulse is feeble, quick, and sometimes irregular, and the
countenance is pale; but when the vomiting comes on,
the pulse grows quicker, and the face flushed. After
the vomiting has ceased, the sickness or nausea com¬
monly goes off entirely, though it sometimes remains in
a distressing degree. The patient feels languid, heavy,
and disposed to sleep. The skin usually feels moist, and
the pulse continues weak for some time, but gradually
grows fuller and slower.
To consider emetics merely as evacuants of the sto¬
mach, would be to take a very contracted and imper¬
fect view of their effects ; for if traced through the
whole of their operation in the various diseases in which
they are employed, their influence over the human bo¬
dy appears so manifold and extensive, that they may be
justly reckoned amongst the most powerful instruments
which the Materia Medica affords. Hence, besides
their use as cleansers of the alimentary canal, they serve
to induce sweating in fevers ; to favour expectoration in
disorders of the lungs ; to promote absorption in cases
of dropsy; and to remove certain obstructed conditions
of the viscera, such as jaundice and suppression of the
menses j also in cases of glandular and lymphatic ob¬
structions, and in some cases of pulmonary consump¬
tion. By means of their peculiar action on the ner¬
vous and vascular system, they allay the spasms' in
asthma, and check the discharge of blood in hsemor-
rhages from the lungs and uterus. In the first of these,
viz. in spitting ol blood, they have been given with
advantage by Dr Robinson, and still more lately by
Dr Stoll of Vienna j who says, that in such cases ipe¬
cacuanha sometimes acts like a charm, seeming to close
the open vessels of the lungs sooner and more effectual¬
ly than any other remedy. In the other, viz. in ute¬
rine hemorrhagy, small doses only of these medicines,
so as to excite sickness, but not vomiting, are found to
answer best. But in both these instances they should
be administered with caution, since it sometimes hap¬
pens that they do more harm than good. Dt Cullen
once met with an accident of this kind, in which the
vomiting increased the hemorrhagy to a great and dan¬
gerous degree.
M E IC A, &g. 71 r
Dysentery is to be added to the number of diseases Therapeu-
in which emetics have a peculiarly beneficial effect. tics.
When there is much visceral inflammation $ where » (
there are symptoms of great accumulation in the vessels
of the bead ; in the advanced stages of pregnancy, and
in eases of intestinal hernia, medicines of this class are
to be avoided. And, in general, persons who have
weak and delicate stomachs should be cautious of em¬
ploying them too freely, since, as Dr Cullen has re¬
marked, frequent vomiting renders the stomach less fit
to retain what is thrown into it, and even weakens its * Thetau-
powers of digestion *. rm Medi-
caminum.
Class II. EXPECTORANTS. ^editio^
Those medicines are called expectorants, that are
employed to promote the excretion of pus or mucus
from the windpipe and lungs. In general they are
emetics given in smaller doses, though there are several
medicines, especially some of the gum resins, that are
considered to act in this way, without any tendency to-
excite vomiting.
The following articles are usually employed in this^J4^
country as expectorants. expecto¬
rants.
I. Vegetable Products.
Cephaelis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Scilla maritima, squill.
Acetum scillse maritimse, vinegar of squill.
Syrupus scillae maritimae, syrup of squills.
Oxymel scillae, o.vymel of squill.
Tinctura scillae, tincture of squill.
Pilulae scilliticae, squill pills.
Conserva scillae, conserve of squillii
Allium sativum, garlic.
Syrupus allii, syrup of garlic.
Ammoniacum, gum ammoniac.
Lac ammoniac!, milk of ammoniac-.'
Arum maculatum, wake-robin.
Conserva ari, conser ve of arum.
Colchicum autumnale, meadow saffron.
Syrupus colchici autumnalis, syrup of colchicum.
Oxymel colchici, oxymel of colchicum.
Ferula asafeetidae, asafztida.
Lac asafoetida, milk of asafoctida.
Hyssopus officinalis, hyssop.
Marrubium vulgare, horehound. -
Myrrha, myrrh.
Pimpinella anisum, aniseseed.
Oleum volatile pimpinellae anisi, oil of aniseseed.
Polygala senega, seneka root.
Decoctum polygalae senegae, decoction of seneka.
Styrax benzoin, benjamin.
Acidum benzoicum, benzoic acid.
Tinctura benzoes composita, compound tincture of
benjamin.
Alcohol, spirit of wine.
./Ether sulphuricus, sulphuric eeth'er.
II. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony.
Tartris
712
Therapeu¬
tics.
Tartris antimonii, tarlrite of antimony. _
Yinura tartritis antimonii, wine of tartrite of anti-
^Sulphuretum antimonii precipitatum, precipitated
sulphuret of antimony.
Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur.
Sulphur sublimatum lotum, ivashed flowers of sul¬
phur.
Oleum sulphuratum, sulphurated oil.
Petroleum sulphuratum, sulphurated petroleum.
Trochisci sulphuris, sulphur lozenges.
III. Gaseous Products.
Gas hydrogenium, hydrogen gas.
Gas hydrogenium carbonatum, carbonated hydro¬
gen gas.
Vaporis aquae calidse inhalatio, inhaling the steams
of warm water.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Fart II.
The definition of these remedies points out the cases Therapeu-
to which they are applicable, viz. those in which an tics,
accumulation of pus or mucus takes place in the bron- ' * _
chial cells, as catarrh, pneumonia in its suppurative
stage, peripneumonia notha, asthma, and phthisis pul-
monalis or consumption.
14S
149
Class III. DIAPHORETICS.
Diaphoretics are those remedies that are intended toDefinitioR
promote, keep up, or restore the excretion of perspir-^P^
able matter from the skin } and of these some act but
feebly, and only increase the insensible perspiration,
while others act more powerfully, and under favourable
circumstances, excite sweating. Hence we may divide
them into two orders.
Effects and The mode in which expectorants promote the excre-
uses of ex- t*lon Qf pus or muCus from the lungs, does not appear
peetorants. to ^ we]j understood. Some suppose that those which
are properly emetic, operate by the sympathy that ex¬
ists between the stomach and lungs, and that the rest
operate by some specific action. Mr Murray supposes
that there are various modes of operation by which cer¬
tain remedies will appear to promote expectoration, and
‘which will give them a claim to the title of expecto¬
rants. . L
Thus, in certain diseases the exhalant vessels in the
lungs seem to be in that state, by which the exhala-
lation of fluid is lessened, or nearly stopped, and in
such cases expectoration must be diminished. Any me¬
dicine capable of removing that constricted state, will
appear to promote expectoration, and will at least re¬
lieve some of the symptoms of the disease. It is appa¬
rently by such a mode of operation, that antimony, ipe¬
cacuanha, squill, and some others, promote expectora¬
tion in pneumonia, catarrh, and asthma, the principal
diseases in which expectorants are employed.
There is a case of an opposite kind, that in which
there is a redundance of mucus in the lungs, as occurs
in humoral asthma, and catarrhus senilis. In these af¬
fections, certain expectorants are supposed to prove use-
fill. If they do so, it is probably by being determined
more particularly in their action to the pulmonary ves¬
sels, and by their moderate stimulus diminishing the
secretion, or increasing the absorption., thus lessening
the quantity of fluid, and thereby rendering the expec¬
toration of the remainder more easy. The determina¬
tion of these substances to the lungs is often perceptible
by their odour in the air expired. A similar diminu¬
tion of fluid in the lungs may be effected by determin¬
ing to the surface of the body; and those expectorants
which belong to the class of diaphoretics probably act
in this manner.
Expectorants, then, are to be regarded, not as me¬
dicines which directly assist the rejection of a fluid al¬
ready secreted, but rather as either increasing the na¬
tural exhalation where it is deficient, or diminishing the
quantity of fluid where it is too copious, either by sti-
* Murray'smulating the pulmonary vessels, or by determining to
Elements, surface> in foot}, cases expectoration will appear to
p. 326. Ae promoted or facilitated*.
■ l
A. THE MILDER DIAPHORETICS.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammonise.
Aqua carbonatis ammoniae.
Carbonas ammoniac, carbonate of ammonia.
Alcohol ammoniatum, ammoniated alcohol.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile tea.
Centaurea benedicta, holy thistle tea.
Myrrha.
Allium sativum.
Acidum acetosum, ocetoMS acid or vinegar.
Acidum acetum destillatwm, distilled vinegar.
Aqua acetitis ammoniac, water of acetated am¬
monia.
Arctium lappa, burdock decoction.
Artemisia abrotanum, southern-wood tea.
Aristolochia serpentaria, snake-root.
Tinctura aristolochiae serpentariae, tincture of
snake-root.
Daphne mezereum, mezereum.
Decoctum daphnes mezerei, decoction of mezereum.
Dorstenia contrayerva, contrayerva.
Pulvis contrayervae compositus, compound powder
of contrayerva.
Fumaria officinalis,yttwzfory.
Laurus sassafras, sassafras tea.
Salvia officinalis, sage tea.
Sambucus nigra, elder.
Succus bacci sambuci spissatus, inspissated juice of
elder.
Smilax sarsaparilla, sarsaparilla.
Decoctum smilacis sarsaparillae, decoction of sar¬
saparilla.
Solanum dulcamara, bitter sweet decoction.
Supertartras potasste, supertartrate of potash or cream
of tai'tar.
B. STRONGER DIAPHORETICS, OR SU-
DORIFICS.
I. Animal Products.
150
Table of di-<
aphoretics.
Moschus moschiferus, musk.
Mistura moschata, musk mixture.
II. Vegetable
Part II.
Therapeu¬
tics.
MATERIA
II. Vegetable Products.
Aconitum neomontanum, aconite.
Succus spissatus aconiti napelii, inspissated juice of
aconite.
Guaiacum officinale, guaiacum wood and resin.
Decoctum guaiaci officinalis compositum, com¬
pound decoction of guaiacum.
Xinctura guaiaci officinalis, tincture of guaia¬
cum.
Tinctura guaiaci ammoniata, ammoniated tincture
of guaiacum.
Laurus camphora, camphor.
Mistura camphorata, camphorated mixture.
Emulsio camphorata, camphorated emulsion.
Papaver somniferum, opium.
Tinctura opii, tincture of opium.
Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tincture of
opium.
Tinctura opii ammoniata, ammoniated tincture of
opium.
Pulvis ipecacuanhse et opii, powder of ipecacuan
and opium.
llhododendron chrysanthum, yellow-flowered rhodo¬
dendron.
tics.
MEDIC A, &c. ,
crease the action of the absorbents, and thus remove the Therapeu-
spasmodic constriction of the subcutaneous vessels.
I he cases to which diaphoretic medicines are best
adapted, are inflammatory fevers, rheumatism, asthma,
dyspepsia, obstinate diarrhoea, and protracted dysentery.
Ihey are injurious in typhus fever, especially towards
its commencement.
W here the force of the circulation is very great, it
is proper, before the exhibition of diaphoretics, to pre¬
mise the use of some other evacuation, as bleeding or
purging.
Class IV. DIURETICS.
*52
These are such medicines as promote or increase the
excretion of urine. °* diuretics.
The principal diuretics are these.
I. Animal Products.
Lytta vesicatoria, canlharides.
I inctura meloes vesicatorii, tincture of cantharidcs.
Oniscus asellus, millepedes, or wood-lice.
II. Vegetable Products.
_ XS3
Table of
diuretics.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony.
Tartris antimonii, in small doses.
Vinum tartritis antimonii.
Sulphuretum antimonii praeparatum.
Sulphur stibii fuscum, brown sulphuret of anti¬
mony.
Oxidum antimonii cum phosphate calcis, oxide of
antimony with phosphate of lime, or James's powder.
Antimonium calcinatum, white oxide of anti¬
mony.
Calx stibii prsecipitatum. D. Precipitated oxide
of antimony, or powder of Algaroth.
Sulphur sublimatum, /forcers of sulphur.
Sulphur sublimatum lotum.
Sulphur ■prx.cxfiX.'aXvxn, precipitated sulphur, ox milk
of sulphur.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Hydrargyrum purificatum, purified mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, vel calomelas, submuriate
of mercury, or calomel.
Balneum calidum, hot bath.
Balneum vaporis, vapour bath.
j fses of'dia- Diaphoretics act in one of ttvo ways ; some by ex-
j [»horetics. citing an increased action of the exhalant vessels of the
skin immediately, or by sympathy with other parts, as
the application of heat, the warm bath, friction, &c. $
while others promote perspiration, by increasing the ge¬
neral force of the circulating system, and thus acting
on the exhalant vessels of the skin.
The action of diaphoretics is assisted by moderate
warmth and by tepid diluent liquors frequently taken.
The immediate effects of these medicines are partly
a diminution of the quantity of fluids in the body, but
principally a change of the determination of blood
from other parts to the surface. They perhaps also in-
Vol. XII. Part II.
Asarum europaeum, asarabacca.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Scilla maritima, squill.
Tinctura scilla;, tincture of squill.
Colchicum autumnale, meadow saffron.
Syrupus colchici, syrup of colchicum.
Oxymel colchici, ovymel of colchicum. |
Acetum colchici, vinegar of colchicum.
Polygala senega, seneka root.
Decoctum polygahe senegae, decoction of seneka.
Acetum acetosum, acetous acid.
Acetas potassse, acetate of potash.
Daphne mezereum, me%ereum.
Decoctum daphnes mezerei, decoctionof me'zereum.
Smilax sarsaparillae, sarsaparilla.
Decoctum sarsaparillae compositum, compound de¬
coction of sarsaparilla.
Solanum dulcamara, bittersweet.
Supertartras potassae, supertartrate of potash.
Allium cepa, onion.
Cissampelos pareira, pareira brava.
Cochlearia armoracia, horse-radish.
Copaifera officinalis, balsam of Copaiba.
Cynara scolymus, artichoke.
Digitalis pupurea,/cwg/oir.
Juniperus communis,
Spiritus juniperi communis compositus, compound
spirit of juniper.
Oleum juniperi communis, oil of juniper.
Juniperus lycia, olibanum.
Leontodon taraxacum, dandelion.
Pinus sylvestris, common turpentine.
Oleum volatile pini purissimum, purified oil of tur¬
pentine.
Pinus larix, Venice turpentine.
Spartium scoparium, green broom.
Ulmus campestris, elm bark.
Decoctum ulmi, decoction of elm bark.
4 X HI.
f
III. Mineral Products
Hydrargyrum, mercury. .
Murias hydrargyri, corrosive muriate of mer-
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Partll.
Diuretics are now seldom employed, except in cases Therapeu,
of dropsy, and here they not unfrequently fail of suc¬
cess. They are, however, occasionally used in calcu¬
lous or gravelly complaints, in gonorrhcea,
plethora, or check profuse perspiration.
tics.
to diminish
154 ,
Effects and
cury.
Nitras potassoe, nitrate of potash.
Nitrum purificatum, purified nitre.
Acidum nitrosum, nitrous acid.
Spiritus yetheris nitrosi, spirit of nitrous (Ether.
     The operation of diuretics is greatly promoted by
uses of diu- p]entiful dilution, which should by no means be with-
retics. from dropsical patients, though, for many years
past, the contrary method has too much prevailed.
The medical world is much indebted to Sir F. Mil-
man, for the pains he has taken to show the propriety
of indulging such patients in the free use ot liquids.
In confirmation of the propriety of this method, the
observation of the late Dr Cullen may be added. He
has remarked that he always thought it absurd in phy¬
sicians to employ diuretics while they enjoined an ab¬
stinence from drink, which is almost the only means of
conveying these diuretics to the kidneys. Whenever,
therefore, he employed diuretics, he at the same time
advised drinking freely $ and he was persuaded that
drinking largely often contributed to the cures he
made. _ #
It is obvious, says Mr Murray, that a diuretic effect
will be produced by any substance capable of stimulat¬
ing the secreting vessels of the kidneys. All the saline
diuretics seem to act in this manner. They are receiv¬
ed into the circulation, and passing off with the urine,
stimulate the vessels, and increase the quantity secreted.
There are other diuretics, the effect of which ap¬
pears to arise not from direct application, but from an
action excited in the stomach, and propagated by nerv¬
ous communication to the secreting urinary vessels.
The diuretic operation of squill, and of several other
vegetables, appears to be of this kind.
There is still, perhaps, another mode in which certain
substances produce a diuretic effect, that is, by promo¬
ting absorption. When a large quantity of watery fluid
is introduced into the circulating mass, it stimulates the
secreting vessels of the kidneys, and is carried off by the
urine. If, therefore, absorption be promoted, and if a
portion of serous fluid, perhaps previously effused, be
taken up, the quantity of fluid secreted by the kidneys
will be increased. In this way digitalis seems to act.
Its diuretic effect, it has been said, is greater when
exhibited in dropsy, than it is in health.
On the same principle may probably be explained
the utility of mercury in promoting the action of several
diuretics.
The action of these remedies is promoted by drink¬
ing freely of mild diluents. It is also influenced by
the state of the surface of the body. If external beat
be applied, diuresis is frequently prevented, and dia¬
phoresis produced. Hence the doses of them should be
given in the course of the day, and the patient, if pos¬
sible, be kept out of bed.
The direct effects of diuretics are sufficiently evident.
They discharge the watery part of the blood, and by
* Murray’s that discharge they indirectly promote absorption over
Elements, the whole system *.
IS5.
Class V. CATHARTICS.
Cathartics are those medicines which promote or in-Definition
crease the evacuation of excrementitious matter, or of^athar*
serous fluids, from the bowels.
There are two principal objects which modern phy¬
sicians have in view in the administration of cathartics j
one is, merely to empty the bowels, and bring oft the
excrementitious matter contained in them, which is al¬
ready out of the course of circulation j the other, to
stimulate the exhalant vessels of the bowels, and thus
promote an increased secretion of serous fluids which
they pour into the alimentary canal *, in this way,
diminishing the general mass of fluids in the body.
Hence these medicines are naturally divided into laxa¬
tives and purgatives, the latter of which are often term¬
ed drastic purgatives. It is true that these orders of
cathartics differ only in degree of power, as such a quan¬
tity of a laxative may be given as to induce purging,
while the dose of a purgative may be so diminished as
to prove only gently laxative. As, however, the di¬
vision is useful in some respects, we shall here preserve
it, and shall distribute our list of cathartics into laxa¬
tives and purgatives.
A. Laxatives.
I. Animal Products.
Mel, honey.
Mel despumatum, clarified honey.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, clysters of chamomile decoction.
Olea europsea, olive oil.
Supertartras potassse, supertartrate of potash.
Tartras potassae, tartrate of potash.
Tartras potassae et sodae, tartrate of potash and
soda, or Rochelle salt.
Cassia fistula.
Electuarium cassiae, electuary of cassia.
Cassia senna, senna.
Pulvis sennae compositus, compound powder of
senna.
Electuarium cassiae sennae, electuary of senna.
Infusum sennae simplex, simple infusion of senna.
Infusum sennae tartarisatum, tartarised infusion of
senna.
Infusum tamarindi cum senna, infusion of tama¬
rinds with senna.
Tinctura sennae composita, compound tincture of
senna.
Ficus earicaj^/igvsv
Fraxinus ornus, manna.
Syrupus mannee, syrup of manna.
Primus domestica, prune.
Rosa damascena, damask rose.
Syrupus vosae centifolife, syrup of damask roses.
Saccharum officinarum, brown sugar.
Tamarind us
Table of
cathartics.
Part ll.
Therapeu¬
tics.
MATEHIA MEDICA, &c.
Taniarlndus mctica, tamarinds.
Vioia odorata, sweet violet.
Syrupus violae odoratse, syrup of violets.
III. Mineral Products.
Tinctura rhei ct gentianae, tincture of rhubarb
and gentiafi.
Ricinus communis, castor oil.
Stalagmitis cambogioides, gamboge.
7X5
Therapeu
tics.
Sulphur sublimatum, flowers of sulphur.
Sulphur subliinatum lotum.
Sapo hispanus, Castile soap.
B. Purgatives.
I. Animal Products.
Cervus elaphus, hartshorn.
Phospbas sodae, phosphate of soda.
II. Vegetable Products.
Nicotiana tabacum, clysters of tobacco, or of tobacco
smoke.
Sambucus nigra, elder.
Pinus aylvustris, 7 > . r.
larix \ ctyste1's °J turpentine.
Aloe perfoliata, soccotrine aloes.
Pulvis aloes cum canella, powder of ahes with
sanella.
Pilulse aloeticae, aloetic pills.
Pilulae aloes cum colocynthide, pills of aloes with
colocynth.
Vinum aloes soccotrinae, aloes wine.
Tinctura aloes soccotrinae, tincture of soccotrine
aloes.
Bryonia alba, bryony.
Convolvulus jalapa, jalap.
Pulvis jalapae compositus, compound powder <f
jalap.
Extractuna jalapae, extract of jalap.
Tinctura convolvuli jalapae, tincture of jalap.
Convolvulus scammonia, scammony.
Pulvis scammonii compositus, compound powder
of scammony.
Pulvis scammonii cum aloe, powder of scammony
with aloes.
Electuarium scammonii, electuary of scammony.
Cucumis colocynthis, colocynth, or bitter apple.
Extractum colocynthidis compositum, compound
extract of colocynth.
Gratiola officinalis, hedge hyssop.
Helleborus niger, black hellebore.
Extractum hellebori nigri, extract of black helle¬
bore.
Helleborus foetidus, stinking hellebore.
Iris pseudacorus, common flag.
Linum catharticUm, purging flax.
Momordica elaterium, wild cucumber.
Succus spissatus momordici elaterii, elaterium.
Rhamnus catharticus, buckthorn.
Syrupus rhamni cathartici, syrup of buckthorn.
Rheum palmatum, rhubarb.
Infusum rhei palmati, infusion of rhubarb.
Vinum rhei palmati, rhubarb wine.
Tinctura rhei palmati, tincture of rhubarb.
Tinctura rbabarbari composita, compound tincture
ef rhubarb.
Tinctura rhei et aloes, tincture of rhubarb and
vlves*
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphuret of antimony,
Tartris antimonii, in very small doses.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, submuriate of mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus, precipitated sub-
muriate of mercury.
Pilulae hydrargyri, mercurial pills.
Nitras potassae.
Sulphas potassae, sulphate of potash.
Murias sodm, sea salt.
Sulphas sodae, sulphate of soda, or Glauber's
salt.
Sulphas magnesiae, sulphate of magnesia, or Ep¬
som salt.
_ . ... *57
The operation of a purgative medicine on the intes- Effects and
tinal canal, may be considered as threefold : First, itu*es?f ca*
stimulates the muscular fibres of the intestines, quickens ^ ai 10
their action, and thus increases the natural peristaltic
motion of the bowels, in consequence of which their
contents are more quickly discharged. Secondly, the
exhalant vessels are stimulated by it, which terminate in
the inner coat of the intestines, and it excites them to
pour forth a greater discharge of fluids, as well as the
mouths of the excretory ducts of the mucous glands, by
which the natural mucus of the intestines is greatly
augmented j and hence the evacuations by stool are not
only quicker, blit the excrementitious matter is thinner
and more copious. Thirdly, the stools are rendered
still more abundant, by an additional portion of the
fluids furnished by the neighbouring viscera, the liver
pancreas, &c. to which the stimulus of a purgative, of
the more active sort in particular, extends. It is pro¬
bable that these effects are communicated to the whole
range of the intestinal canal, from the upper orifice of
the stomach to the lower extremity of the rectum, or
anuSi
From the view We have now taken of the pri¬
mary effects of cathartics on the bowels, we may easi¬
ly understand how far they may prove useful in some
diseases, and injurious in others j and how we may vary
the degree of their activity under different circum¬
stances.
When we consider the great length of the alimenta*
ry canal, with the numerous Vessels and mucous folli¬
cles, as well as the hepatic and pancreatic ducts, which
open on its internal surface, it will be evident that pur¬
gatives, even though they be not very stimulant, may
occasion a great general evacuation, and consequent di¬
minution of the mass of fluids, by opening at once all
those outlets. From this it appears, that, next to blood¬
letting, purging will form one of the most active reme¬
dies in acute inflammatory diseases, where we wish to
avoid an over distension of the vessels, and restrain the
preternatural increase of the powers of the circulating
system. Accordingly, purging constitutes a principal
part of what is termed the cooling regimen. In these
cases the more drastic purgatives are to be avoided, as
4X2 their
/
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
their tise would be attended with so much stimulating
effect on the system in general, as to counterbalance
the advantage we should derive from their diminishing
the mass of fluids. Again, the change in the distribu¬
tion of the blood from other parts of the system to the
bowels, is another circumstance attending the use of
purgatives, which renders them of considerable impor¬
tance in several diseases. It seems to follow, that if an
evacuation be made from one set of vessels, the afflux
of fluids to these will be increased in order to supply it,
and, consequently, the afflux to other parts of the sys¬
tem will be diminished. Upon this principle, Dr Cul¬
len explains the utility of purgatives in disorders of the
head, which originate from over-fulness or over-activity,
and in mental affections, mania, phrensy, headach, &c.
The afflux of fluids in the vessels of the abdomen, which
supply the intestines, being increased by purging, the
afflux will be proportionally diminished in the vessels
which carry blood to the head, and both the quantity
and impetus of the blood in the head will thus be les¬
sened.
The good effects of cathartics in the small pox, and
some other inflammatory affections of the skin, are
probably to be attributed chiefly to their removing local
irritation, and producing a considerable depletion, and
thus diminishing the general fever that usually attends
those diseases.
When the contents of the bowels are morbidly retain¬
ed, either in consequence of their peristaltic motion be¬
ing unusually slow from a torpid state of the muscular
fibres, or from a relaxed state of the bowels, favouring
an accumulation of ficces, from a deficiency of bile, or
from habitual neglect, the use of cathartics is indicated,
to prevent more serious complaints that may be the con¬
sequence of this costivoness. The kind of cathartics to
be employed depends on the nature of the cause produ¬
cing the constipation, or particular circumstances at¬
tending it. If, for example, the costiveness be attend¬
ed with a debilitated habit, with symptoms of great
nervous mobility, flatulence, or other signs of a debili¬
tated state of the alimentary canal, some of the warmer
aromatic cathartics will be proper, as aloes, rhubarb, or
such preparations of these as contain an aromatic in
their composition. If the costiveness seems to arise from
a deficiency of bile, the aloetic and mercurial purgatives
are indicated.
In cases where the costiveness has arisen from some
accidental cause, as in colic, dysentery, enteritis, it
will be necessary to vary the cathartics according to the
nature of the aflection, or the cause by which it has been
produced. See Coeic, Dysentery, and Enteritis,
Medicine Index.
Cathartics exert a particular action on the absor¬
bent vessels, by which these are enabled to take up a
greater quantity of fluid than in their natural state.
Hence the use of drastic purgatives in dropsy. The ac¬
tion of cathartics in this way does not appear to be well
understood. Dr Cullen, treating of this subject, observes
that, as in every cavity of the body there is an inhala¬
tion and exhalation constantly going on, it is presumed
that there is some balance constantly preserved between
the secretory and absorbent powers j so that if the for¬
mer are increased, the latter will be also ; and, there¬
fore, that when the secretions are, upon occasion, much
4
Part II.
increased, the action of the absorbents may be parti- Therapeu-
cularly excited. This explains, why purging often ex- Acs.
cites the action of the absorbents, to take up more co- v 1
piously the fluids that were otherwise stagnant in the
adipose membrane, or other cavities of the body, and
thereby often proves a cure of dropsy. This explana¬
tion is perhaps little more than an implicit statement of
the fact. It is certain, however, that ascites, or dropsv
of the abdomen, has been often affected by means of
acrid drastic purgatives, such as gamboge, scammony,
&c. when diuretic remedies have failed. But it is ob¬
vious that these remedies can only be administered to
those who retain considerable strength of constitution,
debilitated neither by inveterate intemperance, old age,
nor a long disease.
The attention of practitioners has been lately particu¬
larly directed to the use of purgatives in several diseases,
in which they were formerly either not employed at all,
or not used to any extent, in consequence of a valuable
publication by Dr James Hamilton, senior physician of
the Edinburgh infirmary. Dr Hamilton having ob¬
served that in several spasmodic diseases, especially in
chorea, or St Vitus’s dance, there was commonly a con¬
siderable collection of black offensive faeces in the
bow'els, was led to conceive that this must prove a very
powerful irritating cause in protracting these diseases ;
and as, in common with other practitioners, he had ex¬
perienced great want of success from the usual admini¬
stration of tonic medicines in these affections, he was
led to try the effect of purgatives given to such an ex¬
tent as to produce complete evacuation of the bowels.
The plan succeeded entirely to bis satisfaction, and by
this treatment he finds chorea is speedily cured, general¬
ly in 10 days or a fortnight. Besides chorea, Dr Ha¬
milton has been very successful in the administration of
purgatives in cases of typhus, scarlatina, fever, maras¬
mus, chlorosis, hematesmus, hysteria, tetanus, and seve¬
ral other chronic affections. He was originally in¬
duced to pursue his new method of treating typhus, by
observing that the antimonials, which were formerly so
largely employed in this disease, appeared to be most
serviceable when they operated upon the bowels. This
led him to suspect, that any purgative medicine might
be substituted in their place, and that the debilitating
effect of vomiting and sweating might thus be avoided.
Experience has fully confirmed these conjectures, and
after a trial of some years he is thoroughly persuaded,
that the full and regular evacuation of the bowels re¬
lieves the oppression of the stomach, and mitigates the
other symptoms of fever. He has accordingly almost
entirely given up the administration of other remedies,
and trusts to the exhibition of frequent and copious pur¬
gatives. It might have been apprehended, that this
plan of treatment would have aggravated the debility,
which constitutes a striking symptom of typhus but
ample experience has proved that this is not the case.
The purgatives which Dr Hamilton * has employed in* See Ha-
fever are calomel, calomel and jalap, jalap and crystalsmilton on
of tartar, aloes, solutions of mild neutral salts, infusion Purgative
senna, and sometimes the two last medicines conjoined.1
Cathartics are among the most efficacious remedies
that are employed with a view to promote or restore
the menstrual evacuation; and accordingly they form
the chief part of those remedies that are commonly call¬
ed
Part II.
Tberapeu- ed emmcnagogues. With this view the drastic purga-
tics tives are chiefly given, as aloes, bryony, black helle-
' v bore, and some of the preparations of mercury.
There is another use of cathartics that may be re¬
ferred to a mechanical operation, viz. their expelling
worms from the bowels. See Anthelmintics.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
that our errhines may have been of use in preventing
apoplexy and palsy j which at least is to be attended
to so far, that whenever any approach to these diseases
is suspected, the drying up of the mucous discharge
should be attended to, and if possible restored.*
717
Class VI. ERRHINES.
158
Definition Those medicines are termed errhines that are employ-
of errhines. ed to promote an increased discharge of mucus from
- the nostrils. The principal errhines are the following.
r59
Table of
errhines.
160
Effects and
uses of
errhines.
I. Vegetable Products.
Asarum europteum, asarabacca.
Pulvis asari europtei compositus, compound pow¬
der of asarabacca.
Cephalic snuff.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
The ordinary snuffs.
Iris florentina, Florentine orris.
Lavandula spica, lavender flowers.
Origanum majorana, sweet marjoram.
Rosmarinus officinalis, rosemary.
Teucrium marum, mastich.
Veratrum album, white hellebore.
II. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Subsulphas hydrargyri flavus, yellow subsulphate
of mercury, or turbeth mineral.
The evacuation produced by the action of errhines
is sometimes procured without any sneezing, but fre¬
quently attended with it. This, however, implies no
difference, but merely that of stronger or weaker sti¬
mulus in the medicine employed. The sneezing that
occurs may have particular effects by the concussion it
occasions ; but it does not vary the evacuation induced
by the medicine, excepting that with sneezing there is
commonly a larger evacuation produced.
This evacuation often goes no further than to restore
the natural evacuation when interrupted ; but it com¬
monly goes farther, and increases the evacuation be¬
yond its usual measure j and that not only for some
time after the medicine has been applied, but also for
some following days.
This evacuation not only empties, but also produces
a larger excretion from the mucous follicles of the
Schneiderian membrane •, but, agreeably to the laws of
the circulation, this must produce an affiux of fluids
from the neighbouring vessels, and in some measure em¬
pty these. By this it often removes rheumatic conge¬
stions in the neighbouring vessels, and particularly those
in which the toothach often consists.
But not only the more nearly adjoining vessels are
thus relieved, but the effect may extend further to the
whole of the branches of the external carotid ; and we
have known instances of headachs, pains of the ear,
and ophthalmias, cured or relieved by the use of er¬
rhines. How far their effects may extend, cannot be
exactly determined 5 but it is probable that they may
operate more or less on the whole vessels of the head,
as even a branch of the internal carotid passes into the
nose 3 and independent of this, it is not improbable
Therapeu¬
tics.
* Cullen's
Materia
Medica,
vol. ii.
P- 35-
161
Definition
of siala-
gogues.
162
Table of
sialagogues.
Class VII. SIALAGOGUES.
These are employed either to promote an increased
flow of saliva, or to produce such an action on the gums,
as shall indicate their having been received in sufficient
quantity into the circulation. Under the former division
are ranked several vegetable substances ; under the lat¬
ter are included only mercury and its preparations.
I. Vegetable Products.
Daphne mezereum, me%ereum.
Amomum zinziber, ginger.
Anthemis pyrethrum, pellitory of Spain.
Pistacia lentiscus, mastich.
II. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Hydrargyrum purificatum, purified mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, submuriate of mercury.
Murias hydrargyri, muriate of mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri praecipitatus, precipitated
submuriate.
Pilulse hydrargyree, mercurial pills.
Oxidum hydrargyri cinereum, cinereous oxide of
mercury.
Unguentum hydrargyrum, mercurial ointment.
Hydrargyrus calcinatus, red oxide of mercury.
Acetis hydrargyri, acetate of mercury.
Hydrargyrus sulphuratus ruber, red sulphurate of
mercury.
Sulphuretum hydrargyri nigrum, black sulphuret
of mercury.
The vegetable sialagogues are commonly called ma-•
• ^ 1 | 0 1 . . ft? . 01 si«
sticatones, because they produce their enect by being lagogues.
chewed in the mouth. They are employed in similar
cases with the errhines, more especially in toothach.
The use of the mercurial sialagogues will be explained
hereafter in our account of mercury.
Class VIII. EMOLLIENTS.
164
The medicines commonly called emollients consist ei-Definition
ther of diluting liquors, formed of simple water, or cer-of emol-
tain vegetable infusions, or mucilaginous and oily mat-^ents*
ters that have the mechanical property of defending the
parts to which they are applied, from the action of ac-
crimonious substances that passover them 3 or of soften¬
ing and relaxing the skin and other external parts. The
first of these are commonly called diluents, the second
demulcents, and the third simply emollients. We shall
enumerate them together under the general term of
emollients, reserving an account of their particular uses
for the individual articles.
I. Animal Products.
Accipenser huso, sturio, &c. isinglass.
Ovis aries, mutton suet.
Physeter macrocephalus, spermaceti.
Sus scrofa, hogs-lard.
m I(J5
Table of
emollieati'
Linimentum
718
matehia medtca, &c.
Part II.
Therapea-
tics.
x66
Uses of
esiollieuts.
iS'f
Definition
of reffiffc-
raats.
Lxnirticnfum simplex, simple liniment.
Unguentum simplex, simple ointment.
Unguentum adipis suillxe, ointment of hog s-lard.
Unguentum spermatis ceti, spermaceti ointment.
Unguentum cerae, wax ointment.
Ceratum simplex, simple cerate.
Ceratum spermatis ceti, spermaceti cerate.
II. Vegetable Products.
Cera alba et flava, white and yellow wax.
Olea Europasa*
Althea officinalis, marshmallow. <
Decoctum althcae officinalis, decoction of marsh-
■tnallow.
Syrupus altheae, syrup of marshmallow.
Amygdalus communis, almonds and oil of almonds.
Emulsio amygdali communis, almond emulsion.
Oleum amygdali communis, oil of almonds.
Astragalus tragacantha, gum tragacanth.
Mucilago astragali tragacanthi, mucilage of tra¬
gacanth.
Pul vis tragacanthi compositus, compound poieder
of tragacanth.
Avena sativa, oat meal.
Cocos butyracea, palm oil.
Eryngium maritimum, eryngo root.
Glycyrrhiza glabra, liquorice root, and extract.
Trochisci glycyrrhizae, liquorice lozenges.
Hordeum distichon, barley.
Decoctum hordei distichi, barley water.
Decoctum hordei compositum, compound decoction
nf barley.
Eilium candidum, white lily root.
Linum usitatissimum, lintseed.
Oleum lini usitatissimi, lintseed oil.
Malva sylvestris, common mallow.
Decoctum pro enetnate, decoction for clysters.
Melissa officinalis, balm.
Mimosa nilotica, gum arable.
Mucilago mimosse niloticae, mucilage of gum arabic.
Emulsio mimosse niloticse, common emulsion.
Trochisci gummosi, gum lozenges.
Penaea sarcocolla, sarcocolla.
Pyrus cydonia, quince seed.
Mucilago seminis cydonii mali, mucilage of quince
seed.
Triticum hibernum, wheat and starch.
Mucilago amyli j mucilage of starch.
Trochisci amyli, starch lozenges.
Vitis vinifera, raisins.
Diluents are chiefly employed to abate thirst in fe¬
ver and inflammatory affections, or to promote the ac¬
tion of other remedies, particularly diaphoretics and
diuretics. Demulcents are chiefly used in catarrh,
pneumonia, dysentery, diarrhoea, gonorrhoea } and ex¬
ternal emollients are employed chiefly in case of sprains
and bruises, or to defend the surface of ulcers from the
dressings and bandages.
Class IX. REFRIGERANTS.
Under this term are comprehended those remedies
which are employed with a view to diminish the pre-
ternaturally increased heat that takes place in the body
during fevers and several inflammatory affections;
The following are the principal refrigerants enume- Therapeu-
rated by the various writers on the materia medica.
tics.
I. Vegetable Products.
Acidum acetosum, acetous acid.
Acetis potassse, acetate of potash.
Aqua acetitis ammonise, water of acetate of ammo¬
nia.
Supertartras potassse, supertartrate of potash.
Tamarindus indica, tamarinds.
Berberis vulgaris, barberry.
Citrus medica, lemon.
Syrupus citri medicae, syrup of lemon juice.
. Citrus aurantia, orange.
Cochlearia officinalis, scurvy grass.
Succus cochleariee compositus, compound juice of
scurvy-grass.
Morus nigra, mulberry.
Syrupus fructus mori, syrup of mulberry juice.
Oxalis acetosella, wood sorrel.
Conserva acetosellse, conserve of sorrel.
Ribes nigrum, black currants.
Succus spissatus ribis nigri, inspissated juice oj
black currants.
Syrupus succi ribis nigri, syrup of black currant
juice.
Ribes rubrum, red currants.
Rosa canina, dog rose or hips.
Conserva rosae caniiue, conserve of hips.
Rubus idaeus, raspberry.
Syrupus fructus rubi idtei, syrup of raspberry juice.
Rumex acetosa, common sorrel.
Veronica beccabunga, brooklime.
,\
II. Mineral Products.
Sulphas zinci, sulphate of zinc.
Nitras potassae, nitrate of potash.
Acidum nitrosuM, nitrous acid.
Spiritus aetheris nitrosi, spirit of nitrous ether*.
Trochisci nitratis potassae, nitre lozenges.
Murias sodae, muriate of soda.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid.
Acidum sulphuricum, sulphuric acid.
Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, diluted sulphuric
acid.
Plumbum, lead.
Superacetas plutftbi, superacetate or sugar of lead.
Aqua lithargyri acetati, ivatcr of acetated litharge,
or Goulard's extract.
Aqua lithargyri acetati cotnposita, compound wa¬
ter of acetated litharge.
Unguentum acetitis plumbi, ointment of acetate of
lead.
Ceratum lithargyri acetati compositum, compound
cerate of acetated litharge.
Affusion of cold water.
168
Table of
refrige¬
rants.
169
Refrigerants appear to act chemically, but in what Effects and
precise manner they diminish the heat of the human bo-uses of re-
dy, is not well understood. On this subject Mr Mur-fr’8eiant '’
ray expresses himself in the following manner.
“ Keeping in view the very inconsiderable action of
those remedies, it may perhaps be possible from the
consideration of the mode in which animal temperature
is *
Part II.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Therapeu- is generated, to point out how their trivial refrigerant
tics. effects may be produced.
‘’“■’"V"-”*’ “ It has been sufficiently established, that the con¬
sumption of oxygen in the lungs is materially influenced
by the nature of the ingesta received into the stomach j
that it is increased by animal food and spirituous liquors,
and in general by whatever substances contain a small
quantity of oxygen in their composition. But the tem¬
perature of animals is derived from the consumption of
oxygen by respiration. An increase of that must occa¬
sion a great evolution of caloric in the system, and in¬
crease of temperature, while a diminution in the con¬
sumption of oxygen must have an opposite effect. If,
therefore, when the temperature of the body is mor¬
bidly increased, substances be introduced into the sto¬
mach containing a large proportion of oxygen, especial¬
ly in a State of loose combination, and capable of being
assimilated by the digestive powers, the nutritious mat¬
ter received into the blood must contain a larger por¬
tion of oxygen than usual j less of that principle will
be consumed in the lungs, by which means less calorie
being evolved, the temperature of the body must be re¬
duced j and this operating as a reduction of stimulus,
will diminish the number and force of the contractions
ef the heart.
“ It might be supposed that any effect of this kind
must be trivial, and it actually is so. It is, as Cullen
has remarked, not very evident to our senses, nor easily
subjected to experiment, and is found only in conse-
*Mwmn/'squence of frequent repetitions*.”
Refrigerants are considered by Mr Murray as acting
chemically, but we are not certain how far his opinion
is correct. That some of them do operate in cooling the
human body, merely as chemical agents, cannot be de¬
nied j but several seem to produce this effect by some
particular action on the nervous system, that is not well
understood.
719
Therapeu¬
tics.
Elements.
170 I
Definition
•f astrin¬
gents.
Table of
astringents,
Class X. ASTRINGENTS.
Astringents are defined by Dr Cullen to be such sub¬
stances as when applied to the human body produce a
condensation and contraction of the soft solids, and
thereby increase their density and force of cohesion. If
they are applied to longitudinal fibres, the contraction
is made in the length of these; but if applied to circu¬
lar fibres, the diameters of tire vessels, or the cavities
which these surround, are diminished.
The principal substances that act in this way are
taken from vegetables, and consist of the barks of se¬
veral trees, certain roots and inspissated juices j but a
few of them are derived from minerals, especially the
stronger mineral acids, a few metallic and earthy salts,
and, according to some writers, alcohol. We shall enu¬
merate the following.
I. Vegetable Products.
Haematoxylum campechianum, logwood.
Extractum ligni haematoxyli campechiani, extract
of logwoad.
Juglans regia, walnut.
Eucalyptus resinifera, kino.
Tinctura kino, tincture of kino.
Mimosa catechu, catechu^ or Japan earth.
Infusum mimosse catechu, infusion of catechu,
3
Tinctura mimosae catechu, tincture of catechu.
Electuarium catechu, electuary of catechu.
Polygonum bistorta, bistort. v ,
Potentilla reptans, potentillti.
Prunus spinosa, sloe.
Conserva pruni sylvestris, conserve of sloes*,
Pterocarpus draco, dragon'’s blood.
Punica granatum, pomcgi'anate, balaustines,
Quercus cerris, gull nut.
Quercus robur, common oak.
Rosa gallica, red rose.
Infusum rosce gallicae, infusion of roses.
Conserva rosae gallicae, conserve of red roses,
Syrupus rosae gallicae, syrup of red roses.
Mel rosae, honey of roses.
Tormentilla erecta, tormentil root.
Vitis vinifera, red Port wine.
II. Mineral Products.
Acidum sulphuricum, sulphuric acid.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid.
Ferrum, iron,
Tinctura muriatis ferri, tincture of muriated iron.
Plumbum, lead.
Superacetas plumbi, superacetate of lead.
Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper.
Solutio sulphatis eupri, solution of sulphate of cop¬
per.
Liquor cupri ammoniati, liquor of ammoniated cop¬
per.
Sulphas zinci, sulphate of ssiric.
Aqua zinci vitriolati cum camphora, water of
vitriolated %inc with camphor.
Solutio acetitis zinci, solution of acetate of zinc.
Super-sulphas aluminaeetpotassae, supersulphate ofalur
mina and potash, or alum.
Sulphas aluminae exsiccatus, dried sulphate of alu¬
mina.
Pulvis sulphatis aluminae compositus, compoundpotv-
der of sulphate of alumina.
Aqua aluminis composita, compound alum water.
Cataplasma aluminis,. cataplasm rf alum.
It is of some consequence that the precise meaning of
the term astringent, used as a medicine, should be un¬
derstood.
The usual method .of detecting astringency is, by the Nature of
corrugating ol the tongue, and the peculiar rough and astringents'
harsh sensation communicated to the palate by the touch
of an astringent substance j and in general, all bodies
may be called astringents, that have the property of
communicating these sensations. Most of the vegetable
astringents have besides the property of striking a black
colour when mixed with a solution of sulphate of iron,
and this property has been constantly considered as one
of the surest tests of astringency in vegetable substances.
Now modern chemistry lias shewn, that this property
is owing to a peculiar acid, viz. the gallic, and not to
tannin or the astringent principle properly so called.
It so happens that in most vegetable astringents the gal¬
lic acid and tannin are foundunited; but in a few, espe¬
cially catechu, the astringent principle exists without the
gallic acid, and consequently no black colour is pro¬
duced when a solution of catechu is mixed with a solu¬
tion of iron.. Hence the pharmaceutic chemist should
he
720
MATERIA
Therapeu- be aware that the above property is not a sure test of
tics. vegetable astringency. A move certain chemical test is
animal jelly j for, when a solution of tins is added to a
solution of vegetable astringent, a copious precipitate is
produced, which in fact is leather.
Astringents appear to act nearly in a similar manner
on the dead animal fibre as on the living solid, in both
cases thickening and hardening : when applied to the
living solid, they produce increase of tone and strength,
restrain inordinate actions, and check excessive dis¬
charges from any of the vessels or cavities ; and to
the dead fibre occasion density, toughness, impervious¬
ness to water in a greater or less degree, and insuscep¬
tibility to the common causes of putrefaction. See
,73 Tanning.
Effects and Astringents are largely employed in medicine, and
Therapeu¬
tics.
I74
Definition
of tonics.
_ I75
Table of
tonics.
their use is attended with considerable advantage. The
cases in which they are most beneficial, and in which
their effect seems most unequivocally owing to the
astringent principle, are diarrhoeas, leucorhoea, and
gleets. They have also been employed with success
for restraining profuse evacuations where they could
not be immediately applied to the affected part, as
in the above cases j for example, in hemoptysis and
epistaxis j but here their operation seems to be less
attributable to their astringency than to their tonic
power.
Such astringents as are employed externally to check
hemorrhage from divided vessels, are usually called
styptics.
Class IX. TONICS.
Tonics are those medicines which are suited to coun¬
teract debility, or to give strength and energy to the
moving fibres. They are taken partly from vegetables,
and partly from minerals.
I. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers*
Centaurea benedicta, holy thistle.
Marrubium vulgare, horehound.
Myrrha, myrrh.
Pulvis myrrhte compositus, compound powder of
myrrh.
JDorstenia contrayerva, contrayerva.
Pulvis contrayerva; compositus, compound powder
of contrayerva.
Vitis vinifera.
Vinum rubrum lusitanum, red port wine.
iEsculus hippocastanum, horse-chesnut hark.
Angustura, angustura bark.
Chironea centaureum, lesser centaury.
Cinchona officinalis, Peruvian bark.
Infusum cinchona; officinalis, infusion of cin¬
chona.
Decoctum cinchonse officinalis, decoction of cin¬
chona.
Tinctura cinchonse officinalis, tincture of cin¬
chona.
Tinctura cinchonse composita, compound tincture
of cinchona.
Tinctura cinchonse ammoniata, ammoniated tinc-
'ture of cinchona.
ME DIG A, &c. Part II.
Extractum cinchonse officinalis, extract oj cin
chona. (
Cinchona caribaea, Caribean cinchona.
Colomba, colomba root.
Tinctura colombse, tincture of colomba.
Croton eleutheria, cascarilla bark.
Tinctura cascarillse, tincture of cascarilla.
Extractum cascarillse, extract of cascarilla.
Gentiana lutea, gentian root.
Infusum gentianse compositum, compound infusion
of gentian.
Tinctura gentianse composita, compound tincture
of gentian.
Vinum gentianse compositum, compound wine of
gentian.
Extractum gentianse, extract of gentian.
Menyanthes trifoliata, ?narsh trefoil.
Quassia excelsa, quassia.
Quassia simaruba, simarouba.
Salix fragilis, /rG§'z7<? willow bark.
Salix alba, white willow bark.
Swietenia mahagoni, mahogany tree bark.
Swietenia febrifuge swietenia.
Tanacetum vulgare, common tansey.
II. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper.
Ammoniaretum cupri, ammoniaret of copper.
Pilulse ammoniareti cupri, pills of ammoniaret of
copper.
Zincum, •zinc.
Sulphas zinci, sulphate of %inc.
Solutio sulphatis zinci, solution of sulphate of
•zinc.
Oxidum zinci, oxide or flowers of zinc.
Nitras potassse, nitrate of potash.
Acidum nitrosum, nitrous acid.
Ferrum, iron.
Carbonas ferri, carbonate of iron.
Carbonas ferri prsecipitatus, precipitated carbonate
of iron.
Aqua ferri aerati, water of aerated iron.
Sulphas ferri, sulphate of iron.
Vinum ferri, wine of iron.
Tinctura muriatis ferri, tincture of muriate oj
iron.
Sulphas ferri exsiccatus, dried sulphate of iron.
Oxidum ferri rubrum, red oxide of iron.
Emplastrum oxidi ferri rubri, plaster of red oxide
of iron.
Ferri limaturse purificatsC, purified flings of
iron.
Oxidum feri'i nigrum purificatum, purified black
oxide of iron.
Murias ammonise et ferri, muriate of ammonia
and iron.
Tinctura ferri ammoniacalis, tincture of ammo-
niacal ii'on.
Tartras ferri et potassae, tartrate of iron and
potash.
Tinctura ferri acetati, tincture of acetated iron.
Acidum sulphuricum, sulphuric acid.
Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, diluted sulphurit
acid.
A'cidura
Part II.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
721
Therapeu- Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum, aromatic sul-
, tlcs' , phuric acid.
Argentum, silver.
Nitras argenti, nitrate of silver, or lunar caustic.
Arsenicum, arsenic.
Carbonas barytse, carbonate of baryta.
Carbonas calcis, carbonate of lime or chalk.
Solutio muriatis calcis, solution of 'muriate of
lime.
Sulphas barytas, sulphate of baryta.
Murias barytae, muriate of baryta.
Solutio muriatis barytse, solution of muriate of
baryta.
Aquae minerales ferrum continentes, chalybeate mi¬
neral waters.
III. Gaseous Products.
Gas oxigenium, oxygen gas.
Balneum frigidum, cold bath.
Equitatio, riding on horseback.
Effects and Most tonics act immediately on the stomach, and
uses of to- jience on tjjg SyStem at large. They increase the appe¬
tite, quicken digestion, and add vigour to the body.
Hence they are useful in most cases of debility j but
when used improperly or for too long a time, they
predispose to apoplectic and paralytic disorders. >
Carbonas ammoniac, carbonate of ammonia.
Aqua carbonatis ammoniac, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
Oleum ammoniatum, ammoniated oil.
Linimentum ammoniee, liniment of ammonia.
Linimentum volatile, volatile liniment.
Alcohol ammoniatum aromaticum, aromatic am¬
moniated alcohol.
Spiritus ammoniae succinatus, succinated spirit of
ammonia.
Moschus moschiferus, musk.
Mistura moschata, musk mixture.
Cervus elaphus, hartshorn.
Liquor volatilis cornu cervi, volatile liquor of
hartshorn.
Sal cornu cervi, salt of hartshorn.
Lytta vesicatoria, cantharides.
Tinctura meloes vesicatorii, tincture of cantha¬
rides.
Ungucntum infusi meloes vesicatorii, ointment oj
infusion of cantharides.
Unguentum pulveris meloes vesicatorii, ointment
of powder of cantharides.
Ceratum cantharidis, cerate of cantharides.
Emplastrum meloes vesicatorii, plaster of cantha¬
rides.
Therapeu¬
tics.
II. Vegetable Products.
Class XII. STIMULANTS.
I??
Definition Most of the articles of the Materia Medica might,
and effects in an extended sense, be called stimulants; but this
hats"111' ternj is, by the general consent of physicians, restric-
tively applied to those medicines which possess the
power of sustaining or increasing the vital energies—-of
raising and invigorating the action of the heart and ar¬
teries—and of restoring to the musuclar fibre, when af¬
fected with torpor, its lost sensibility and power of mo¬
tion. Hence the use, under proper regulations, of the
various articles belonging to this class in cases of gout,
palsy, and malignant typhoid fever: but let it be re¬
peated, under proper regulations j for rve cannot but
remark that medicines which give additional activity to
the circulation, and which augment the heat and sensi¬
bility of the system throughout, are often abusively em¬
ployed, being administered too early, as well as too
freely in tbe above-mentioned and some other similar
disorders. In the beginning of typhus fever, in particu¬
lar, it cannot be doubted that a hasty and lavish exhi¬
bition of such medicines has, in numerous instances, ag¬
gravated every symptom, and brought the patient, who
would otherwise have had the disease in its mildest
form, into considerable danger *.
*fMat>S^ The class of stimulants is exceedingly numerous, and
Medica m might, perhaps, with advantage, be subdivided into
vol.ii. ’ sections1, but as this subdivision would admit oi much
$• I54- dispute from the different acceptation of the term sti¬
mulant, we shall here only give a table ol stimulants
distributed as usual, into animal, vegetable, and mine¬
ral products.
I. Animal Products.
178
Table of
stimulants.
Murias ammoniae, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua ammoniae, water of ammonia.
Alcohol ammoniatum, ammoniated alcohol.
VoL. XII. Part II.
f
Sinapis alba, mustard seed.
Cataplasma sinapios, mustard cataplasm.
Allium sativum, garlic.
Arum maculatum, wake-robin.
Conserva ari, conserve of arum.
Pimpinella anisum, anise seed.
Oleum volatile pimpinellae aniai, volatile oil of
anise seed.
Styrax benzoin, benjamin.
Acidum benzoicum, benzoic acid.
Tinctura benzoes composita, compound tincture
of benjamin.
Alcohol.
/Ether sulphuricus, sulphuric cether.
/Ether sulphuricus cum alcohole, sulphuric tether
with alcohol.
/Ether sulphuricus cum alcohole compositus, com¬
pound sulphuric tether with alcohol.
Oleum vini, oil of wine.
Acidum acetosum, vinegar.
Acidum acetosum forte, strong acetous acid.
Acidum acetosum camphoratum, camphorated ace¬
tous acid.
Acetum aromaticum, aromatic vinegar.
Aristolochia serpentaria, snake-root.
Tinctura aristolochite serpentariae, tincture of
snake-root.
Daphne mezereum, mezereum.
Decoctum daphnes mezerei, decoction of mezer-
eum.
Guaiacum officinale, guaiacum.
Decoctum guaiaci officinalis, decoction of guai¬
acum.
Tinctura guaiaci officinalis, tincture of guaiacum.
Tinctura guaiaci ammoniata, ammoniated tincture
of guaiacum.
Papaver somniferum, opium in small doses.
4 Y Tinctura
MATERIA M E D I C A, &c.
Tinctura opii, tincture of opium.
Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tincture
of opium. . . c
Tinctura opii aramoniata, ammoniated tincture oj
opium. .
Confectio opiata, opiate confection.
Cochlearia armoracia, horse radish.
Copaifera officinalis, balsam of copaiba.
Tinus sylyestris, 1 turpentine and rosin.
Pinus lanx, $ . .
Oleum volatile pirn punssimum, purified oil oj tur¬
pentine. . . r n
Unguentum resini flavi, ointment oj yellow 10-
sin. . r ,1 •
Ceratum resini flavi, cerate oj yellow rosin.
Emplastrum cerae, wax plaster.
Unguentum fchs, pitch plaster.
Unguentum picis burgundicse, ointment of bin -
gundy pitch.
- Arnica montana, leopard's bane.
'' Buflon galbanum, galbanum.
Pilulae galbani compositae, compound pills of gal¬
banum.
Emplastrum galbani compositum, compound plaster
of galbanum.
Juniperus sabina, savine.
Oleum juniper! sabinae, oil of savine.
Juniperus Lycia, olibanum.
Pastinaca opoponax, opoponax.
Veratrum album, white hellebore.
Unguentum hellebori albi, ointment of white hel¬
lebore.
Decoctum hellebori albi, decoction of white helle¬
bore.
Acorus calamus, calamus aromaticus, or street
faS
Amomum zingiber, ginger.
Syrupus amomi zingiberis, syrup of ginger.
Tinctura amomi zingiberis, tincture of ginger.
Amomum repens, lesser cardamom seeds.
Tinctura amomi repentis, tincture of carda¬
mom.
Tinctura cardamomi composita, compound tinc¬
ture of cardamom.
Amyris gileadensis, balm of gilead.
Amyris elemifera, gum elemi.
Unguentum elemi, elemi ointment.
Anethum foeniculum, sweet fennel seed.
Oleum volatile foeniculi dulcis, oil of fennel.
Aqua foeniculi dulcis, fennel water.
Anethum graveolens, dill seed.
Aqua anethi, dill water.
Angelica archangelica, angelica.
Apium petroselinum, parsley root and seed.
Arbutus uva ursi, whortle berry.
Artemisia maritima, sea wormwood.
Conserva absinthii maritimi, conserve of sea tcorm-
wood.
Decoctum pro fomento, decoction for fomenta¬
tion.
Canella alba, white canella.
Capsicum annuum, capsicum, Cayenne pepper.
i'arum carvi, caraway seeds.
Oleum carvi, oil of caraway.
Spiritus cari carvi, spirit of caraway.
Cistus creticus, ladaiium.
Emplastrum ladani, ladanumplaster.
Citrus aurantium, Seville orange-peel.
Oleum volatile citri aurantii, essence of orange-
peel.
Aqua citri aurantii, orange-peel water.
Tinctura aurantii corticis, tincture of orange-
peel.
Syrupus citri aurantii, syrup of orange-peel.
Conserva citri aurantii, conserve of orange-peel.
Coriandrum sativum, coriander seed.
Crocus sativum, saffron.
Syrupus croci, syrup of saffron.
Tinctura croci, tincture of saffron.
Cuminum cyminum, cummin seed.
Cataplasma cumini, cummin cataplasm.
Emplastrum cumini, cummin plaster.
Curcuma longa, turmeric.
Daucus carota, wild carrot seed, carrot root.
Dianthus caryophyllus, clove Julyflower.
Syrupus caryophylli rubri, syrup of cloves.
Eugenia caryophyllata, cloves.
Oleum volatile caryophylli aromatic!, oil of
cloves.
Hypericum perforatum, St John's wort.
Inula helenium, elecampane root.
Koempferia rotunda, %edoary.
Lavandula spica, lavender flowers.
Oleum volatile lavandulse spicte, oil of laven¬
der.
Spiritus lavandulse spicse, spirit of lavender.
Spiritus lavandulae compositus, compound spirit of
lavender.
Laurus cinnamomum, cinnamon.
Oleum volatile lauri cinnamomi, oil of cinna¬
mon.
Aqua lauri cinnamomi, cinnamon water.
Spiritus lauri cinnamomi, spirit of cinnamon.
Tinctura lauri cinnamomi, tincture of cinna¬
mon.
Tinctura cinnamomi composita, compound tinc¬
ture of cinnamon.
Pulvis aromaticus, aromatic powder.
Electuarium aromaticum, aromatic electuary.
Laurus cassia, cassia bark.
Aqua lauri cassise, cassia water.
Laurus nobilis, bay tree.
Lobelia syphilitica, blue cardinalffoiver.
Melaleuca leucadendron, cajeput oil.
Mentha viridis, spearmint.
Oleum menthae sativae, oil of mint.
Aqua menthae sativae, mint water.
Spiritus menthae sativae, spirit of mint.
Mentha piperita, peppermint.
Oleum volatile menthae piperitae, oil of pepper¬
mint.
Aqua menthae piperitae, peppermint water.
Spiritus menthae piperitae, spirit of peppermint.
Mentha pulegium, pennyroyal.
Oleum volatile menthae pulegii, oil of penny¬
royal.
Aqua menthae pulegii, pennyroyal water.
Spiritus menthae pulegii, spirit of pennyroyal.
Myristien
Part IT.
Therapeu¬
tics.
Part II. MATERIA
Therapeu- Myristica moschata, nutmeg.
tics. Spiritus myristica; moschata;, spirit of nutmeg.
'V"—' Myroxylon Peruiferum, balsam of Peru.
Tinctura balsami Peruviani, tincture of balsam
of Peru.
Myrtus pimenta, pimento, or Jamaica pepper.
Oleum volatile myrti pimentae, oil of pimento.
Aqua myrti pimenta;, pimento icater.
Spiritus myrti pimentoe, spirit of pimento.
Origanum vulgare, origanum.
Oleum origani, oil of origanum.
Panax quinquefolium, ginseng.
Parietaria officinalis, pcllitonj of the wall.
Pinus balsamea, balsam of Canada.
Piper nigrum, black pepper.
Piper cubeba, cubebs.
Piper longum, long pepper.
Pistacia terebinthus, Chio turpentine.
Rhus toxicodendron, poison oak.
Styrax officinale, storax.
Styrax puriticata, strained storax.
Toluifera balsamum, balsam of Tolu.
Tinctura toluiferas balsami, tincture of balsam of
Tolu.
Syrupus toluifene balsami, syrup of balsam of
Tolu.
Trigonella foenum gextcwm, foznugreck seed.
Urtica dioica, stinging nettle.
Wintera aromatica, winter'1 s bark.
III. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Unguentum oxidi hydrargyri rubri, ointment of
red oxide of mercury.
Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri, ointment of ni¬
trate of mercury.
Unguentum nitratis hydrargyri mitius, milder oint¬
ment of nitrate of mercury.
Nitras potassee, nitrate of potash.
Acidum nitrosum, nitrous acid.
Acidum nitricum, nitric acid.
Unguentum acidi nitrosi, ointment of nitrous a-
cid.
Sapo Hispanus, Castile soap.
Tinctura saponis, tincture of soap.
Tinctura saponis et opii, tincture of soap and
opium.
Ceratum saponis, soap cerate.
Emplastrum saponis, soap plaster.
Murias sodae, muriate of soda.
Murias soda; exsiccatus, dried muriate of soda.
Acidum sulphuricum, sulphuric acid.
Acidum arseniosum, arsenious acid.
Bitumen petroleum, petroleum.
Oleum petrolei, oil of petroleum.
Subboras sodse, subborate of soda, or borax.
Subacetas cupri, subacetate of copper, or verdigrise.
Oxymel teruginis, oxymel of verdigrise.
Unguentum acetitis cupri, ointment of subacetate
of copper.
Calx, quicklime.
Linimentum aquae calcis, liniment of lime tea-
ter.
MEDIC A, (See,
IV. Gaseous Products,
Gas oxygenium, oxygen gas.
Gas oxidum azotii, gaseous oxide of azote.
Electrisatio et galvanisatio, electricity and galvanism.
Balneum calidum, tiic hot bath.
The substances enumerated in the above table have
been variously denominated, according to their real or
supposed medical virtues. Of the internal stimulants,
most have been called cordials, from the ed’cct they
have in raising the spirits ; some have been termed car¬
minatives, (see carminatives), under which head rank
most ol the aromatic herbs, roots, and seeds. Of the
external stimulants many are called rubefacients, from
the effect they have in irritating and consequently red¬
dening the skin ; and of these the principal are mustard,
cantharides, and the stinging nettle.
Class XIII. ANTISPASMODICS.
Those medicines which have been found by experi- Definitio*
ence to put a stop to convulsive motions, or spasmodic‘it antispas-
contractions of the muscular fibres, are called antispas-moi*cs-
modics. Most of them are stimulants, some narcotics,
and some are considered as specific antispasmodics.
Table of Antispasmodics.
I. Animal Products.
xr • • r8°
Murias ammonue, muriate of ammonia. See table Table of
of Stimulants. antispae-
Moschus moschiferus, musk. modics.
Mistura moschata, musk mixture.
Cervus elaphus.
Oleum animale, animal oil.
Castor fiber, castor.
Tinctura castorei, tincture of castor.
Tinctura castorei composita, compound tincture of
castor.
II. Vegetable Products.
Cephaelis ipecacuanha, ipecacuanha.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco smoke.
Ferula asafoetida, asafetida.
Alcohol ammoniatum foetid um, fetid ammoniated
alcohol.
Pilulse asafoetida; composita;, compound pills of
asafetida.
Emplastrum asafoetidae, asafetida plaster.
Alcohol.
iEther sulphuricus, sulphuric cether.
Laurus camphora, camphor.
Emulsio camphorata, camphorated emulsion.
Mistura camphorata, camphorated mixture.
Tinctura camphorae, tincture of camphor.
Linimentum camphoric compositum, compound li¬
niment of camphor .
Papaver somniferum, opium.
Tinctura opii, tincture of opium.
Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tincture of
opium.
4 Y 2 Tinctura
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
724 . , . „
Therapeu- Tinctura opii ammonlata, ammomated tincture of
tics. opium. . . ,
    ' Electuarium opiatum, opiate electuary.
Pilulae opii, opium pills.
Bubon ealbanum, galbanum.
Tinctura galbani, tincture of galbanum.
Pilule galbani composite, compound pills of gal¬
banum.
Vitis vinifera.
VInnm rubrum lusitanum, red 1 ort wine.
   Part II.
as are best adapted to the particular form of spasm Tlierapeu-
which it is our business to cure. tlcs'
182
Class XIV. NARCOTICS.
AO 4
This term has been usually applied to those remedies Definition
which are calculated to relieve pain and procure sleep.ofnarco-
Thev have also been termed anodynes and hypnotics,
and most of them were formerly ranked in the class of
sedatives.
Citrus aurantium, orange leaves.
Artemisia absynthium, common wormwood.
Sub-carbonas potassse impurus, impure subcarbonate
of potash. ,
Aqua potassse, ivater of potash, or soap ley.
Cardamine pratensis, ladies smock.
Conium maculatum, hemlock. ^ ^
Succus spissatus conii maculati, inspissated juice oj
hemlock.
Fuligo ligni combust!, wood soot.
Hyoscyamus niger, henbane.  , .
Succus spissatus hyoscyami nigri, inspissated juice
of henbane.
Valeriana officinalis, valerian.
Tinctura valerianse, tincture of valerian.
Tinctura valerianse ammoniata, ammoniated tinc¬
ture of valerian.
Extractum valerianse sylvestris resinosum, resinous
extract of wild valerian.
III. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
For most preparations of mercury, see table of Siala-
gogues.
Bitumen petroleum, petroleum.
Oleum petrolei, oil of petroleum.
Succinum, amber.
Oleum succini, oil of amber.
Oleum succini purissimum, purifed oil of am¬
ber.
Sal succini, salt of amber.
Spiritus ammonise succinatus, succinated spirit oj
ammonia.
181 . .
Effects and All those substances which, whether introduced into
uses of anti-tjjg body or applied to its surface, have been found by
spasmodics. eXperience to put a stop to convulsive movements or
rigid contractions of the muscular fibres, are termed
antispasmodics. Of these substances there are many
which differ from each other very widely, both in re¬
spect of sensible qualities and chemical composition j
which indeed is not surprising, when it is considered
that spasmodic affections occur in various and even op¬
posite states of the body *, a circumstance which calls
for nice discrimination on the part of the practitioner
in the use of these remedies. Some of them being con¬
siderably stimulant in their operation, aggravate rather
than alleviate spasm, when associated with plethora or
obstruction. It is therefore of great importance to at¬
tend carefully to the state of the patient’s body, previ¬
ously to the exhibition of these medicines 5 to premise
and accompany their use in epilepsy, chorea, and hy¬
steria, by proper evacuations •, and to select from the
great variety of articles which this class contains, such
Table of Narcotics.
I. Vegetable Products.
i83
Table of
narcotics.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco.
Vinum nicotian-* tabaci, tobacco wine.
Aconitum neomontanum, aconite.
Succus spissatus aconiti napelli, inspissated juice of
QCOIlltC •
Papaver somniferum, opium ; white poppy heads.
Tinctura opii, tincture oj opium.
Tinctura opii camphorata, camphorated tincture oj
opium.
Syrupus opii, syrup of opium. .
Extractum papaveris somniferi, extract of white
poppy heads.
Pulvis opiatus, opiate powder.
Electuarium opiatum, opiate electuary.
Pilulte opii, opium pills.
Rhododendron chrysanthum, yellow flowered rhodo¬
dendron.
Digitalis purpurea,/o-rg/oue.
Tinctura digitalis purpurea;, tincture ojjoxglove.
Arnica montana, leopard?s banc.
Rhus toxicodendron, poison oak.
Conium maculatum, hemlock. _
Succus spissatus conii maculati, inspissated juice
of hemlock.
Hyoscyamus niger, henbane. 
Succus spissatus hyoscyami nigl’i, inspissated juice
of henbane.
Tinctura hyoscyami nigri, tincture of henbane.
Atropa belladonna, deadly nightshade.
Datura stramonium, thorn-apple.
Humulus lupulus, hop.
Eactuca virosa, wild lettuce.
Papaver rhoeas, wild poppy.
Syrupus papaveris erratic!, syrup of tvild pop-
2nJ‘
Sium nodifiorum, creeping skernt.
1S4
There is no class of medicines in the administration Effects and
of which more judgment and discrimination are requi-use^ot nar-
site than in the administration ol those which are termed0
narcotics. When given in lull doses, much good or
much mischief is sure to follow, according as they are
prudently or mistakingly prescribed. W hat a common
practice it is to give them whenever a patient complains
of pain, without duly investigating the cause of that
pain whether it be the consequence of high inflam¬
matory action, of a plethoric condition, or of a suppres¬
sion of some periodical or habitual discharge ! In these
cases to prescribe any ol the medicines belonging to this
class.
Part II. MATERIA
class, iii a full or considerable dose, before the remedies
suited to remove inflammation, plethora, and obstruction,
had been resorted to, would only serve to aggravate the
disease. And even where there is no condition of the
body which contraindicates the use of narcotics, it is of
great importance to adapt the doses not only to the age
and constitution of the patients, but likewise to the par¬
ticular form of the disease. For instance, in tetanus,
hemicrania, and colica pictonum, opium, and other
narcotic medicines, may be given in large doses with
excellent eftect j but in phthisis pulmonalis, typhus fe¬
ver, and some other states of debility, small doses, re¬
peated at proper intervals, are found to answer best.
In the administration of narcotics, it is moreover pro¬
per to consider whether in the particular case in which
they appear to be indicated, they should be prescribed
alone, or in combination with other medicines j and if
in the manner last mentioned, with what sort of ad¬
juncts. Thus, in cases of synochus, acute rheumatism,
and the early stage of dysentery, they should be given
in combination with calomel and antimonials; in cases
of asthma and phthisis pulmonalis, with ammoniacum,
squill, and other expectorants j in cases of cholera, with
diluents and demulcents j in cases of diarrhoea, with
astringents and aromatics j in hemorrhagic cases, with
sulphate of zinc and other styptics ; in hysteria, with
the volatile alkali, ether, and foetids j in convulsive af¬
fections, especially such as occur in children, with mag¬
nesia and other antacids *.
Class XV. ANTHELMINTICS.
Those medicines which are employed with a view to
expel worms from the bowels, are called anthelmin¬
tics.
Table o f Anthelmintics.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammonise, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua carbonatis ammoniac, water of carbonate of
ammonia.
II. Vegetable Products.
Anthemis nobilis, chamomile flowers.
Extractum anthemidis nobilis, extract of chamo¬
mile.
Nicotiana tabacum, tobacco in clysters.
Olea europsea, olive oil in clysters.
Allium sativum, garlic.
Ferula asafoetida, asafetida in clysters.
Convolvulus jalapa,yc/ap.
Convolvulus scammonia, scammony.
Pulvis scammonii ce>xirp<A'-i\\.xis,compound powder of
scammony.
Helleborus feetidus, stinking hellebore.
Rheum palmatum, rhubarb in small doses.
Ricinus communis, castor oil.
Stalagmitis cambogioides, gamboge.
Ruta graveolens, rue.
Oleum volatile rutae, oil oj rue.
Juglans regia, walnut rind.
Tanacetum vulgare, tansey.
Valeriana officinalis, valerian.
Artemisia santonica, worm-seed.
3
MEDICA, &c.
Dolichos pruriens, cowhage.
Geoffroea inermis, cabbage-trce bark.
Polypodium filix mas, male fern root.
Spigelia marilandica, Carolina pink.
III. Mineral Products.
Hydrargyrum, mercury.
Submurias hydrargyri, submuriate of mercury.
Murias sodas, muriate of soda.
Ferrum, iron.
Carbonas ferri, carbonate of iron.
Sulphas ferri, sulphate of won.
Ferri limaturte purificatse, purified iron filings.
Tartris ferri et potass®, tartrate of iron and
potash.
Calx, lime.
Aqua calcis, lime water in clysters.
Stannum, tin.
Stanni pulvis, powder of tin.
I2 5
Therapeu¬
tics.
* Synopsis
of Materia
Medica,
vol. ii.
p. «S.
Definition
of anthel¬
mintics.
186
Table of
anthelmin¬
tics.
Of the medicines which belong to this class, some Effects7asd
destroy the different species of worms which breed in uses of an-
the alimentary canal, by their chemical, others by their thelmintics.
mechanical action upon those animals 5 but by far the
greater number of anthelmintic or vermifuge medi¬
cines operate in no other manner than as drastic purges,
bringing away the morbid accumulation of slime from
the intestines, and with the slime, the worms which
were lodged in it. After the worms have been brought
away by these remedies, the bowels should be strength¬
ened by bitters and other tonic medicines $ and the use
of green vegetables, or much garden stuff of any kind,
and of malt liquor, should be forbidden.
Class XVI. CHEMICAL REMEDIES.
Several of the substances that have been enumerated chemical
in the foregoing tables, act also on the animal system remedies,
merely as chemical re-agents, either by counteracting
acidity, dissolving calculous concretions, destroying fun¬
gous excrescences, &c. We shall here enumerate all
the substances that may be considered as chemical reme¬
dies, and shall afterwards class them according to their
particular action.
Table of Chemical Remedies.
I. Animal Products.
Murias ammonite, muriate of ammonia.
Aqua ammonite, tenter of ammonia.
Carbonas ammonite, carbonate of ammonia.
Aqua carbonatis ammonite, water oj carbonate of
ammonia.
Sal cornu cervi, salt of hartshorn.
Cervus elaphus, hartshorn.
Phosphas calcis, phosphate of lime.
Cornu cervi ustum prteparatum, burnt hartshorn.
Cancer astacus, crabs eyes.
Cancer pagurus, crabs claws.
Chelte cancrorum prreparatae, prepared crabs
claws.
Pulvis e chelis cancrorum compositus, compound
powder of crabs clatus.
Gorgonia nobilis, red coral.
Corallium rubrum prteparatum, prepared red co¬
ral.
189
Table of
chemical
remedies.
Ostrea
726
Thcrape\i-
tics.
MATERIA
Ostrea edulis, oyster shells.
Testa; ostreie prxparata;, prepared oyster shells.
Spongia officinalis, sponge.
Spongia usta, burnt sponge.
II. Vegetable Products.
Carbonaspotassce, carbonate of potash.
Aqua potassae, water of potash, or caustic ley.
Potassa, potash.
Potassa cum calce, potash with lime.
Carbonas potassa’, carbonate oj potash.
Carbonas potassa; purissimus, pui'ifitd carbonate of
potash.
Aqua carbonatis potassce, water of carbonate of
potash.
Aqua supercarbonatis potassa;, xvatcr of carbonate
ofpotash.
III. Mineral Products.
Sulphas cupri, sulphate of copper.
Sulphuretum antimonii, sulphurate of antimony.
Murias antimonii, muriate of antimony.
Sulphur sublimatum,yZou’crs of sulphur.
Sulphuretum potassae, sulphuret of potash.
Hydrosulphuretum ammonia, hydrosulphuret of
ammonia.
Nitras potassae, nitrate of potash.
Acidum nitrosum, nitrous acid.
Acidum nitricum, nitric acid.
Sapo hispanus, Castile soap.
Murias sodae, muriate of soda.
Acidum muriaticum, muriatic acid.
Sulphas magnesia;, sulphate of magnesia.
Carbon as magnesite, carbonate of magnesia.
Magnesia, magnesia.
Trochisci magnesiae, lozenges of magnesia.
Acidum sulphuricum, sulphuric acid.
Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, diluted sulphuric
ai id.
Supersulphas aluminse et potassae, supersulphate of
alumina and potash, or alum.
Sulphas alumina; exsiccatus, dried sulphate of alum.
Argentum, silver.
Nitras argenti, nitrate of silver.
Oxidum arseniosum, arsenious acid.
Calx, quicklime.
Aqua calcis, lime water.
Bolus gallicus, French bole.
Carbonas calcis, carbonate of lime, chalk.
Carbonas calcis praeparatus, jortpora/ carbonate of
lime.
Pulvis carbonatis calcis compositus, compound
powder of carbonate of lime.
Trochisci carbonatis calcis, lozenges of carbonate
of lime.
Potio carbonatis cd\c\s,potion of carbonate of lime.
Aqua aeris Hxi, water of fixed air.
Carbonas sodte impurus, impure carbonate of soda.
Carbonas soda;, carbonate of soda.
Aqua super-carbonatis sodse, tvater of supercarbo¬
nate of soda.
ME DIG A, &c. Part II.
Of the substances above enumerated, some act as ant- Therapeu-
acids, correcting morbid acidity in the stomach and tics
bowels } as most of the preparations of ammonia, burnt —v—*-
hartshorn, crabs eyes and claws, coral, egg shel,s> Usesofche-
carbonates of potash and soda with their preparations, inicalremj;.,
magnesia, lime, and carbonate of lime. These have dies,
been often called absorbents i9i
Several of the chemical remedies act in a greater or Antacids,
less degree as lithontriptics, or such medicines as are 192 .
capable of dissolving urinary calculi. The principal ^ ontnp-
lithontriptics are, solutions of caustic potash, soap, sul¬
phuric and muriatic acids, and carbonate of soda.
“ From the exhibition of alkaline remedies,” says
Mr Murray, “ the symptoms arising from a stone in the
bladder are very generally alleviated j and they can be
given to such an extent that the urine becomes sensi¬
bly alkaline, and is even capable of exerting a solvent
power on these concretions. Their administration can¬
not, however, be continued to this extent for any con¬
siderable length of time, from the strong irritation they
produce on the stomach and urinary organs. The use,
therefore, of the alkalies as solvents, or lithontriptics, is
now scarcely ever attempted } they are employed mere¬
ly to prevent the increase of the concretion, and to pal¬
liate the painful symptoms, which they do, apparently
by preventing the generation of lithic acid, or the se¬
paration of it by the kidneys j the urine is thus render¬
ed less irritating, and the surface of the calculus is al¬
lowed to become smooth.
“ When the alkalies are employed with this view,
they are generally given saturated, or even super-satu¬
rated with carbonic acid. This renders them much less
irritating. It at the same time diminishes, indeed, their
solvent power; for the alkaline carbonates exert no ac¬
tion on the urinary calculi j but they are still equally
capable of correcting that acidity in the primal vice,
which is the cause of the deposition of lithic acid from
the urine, and therefore serve equally to palliate the
disease. And when their acrimony is thus lessened,
their use can be continued for any length of time *” * Murray's
From the inconsiderable action -which most of the li- Elements,
thontriptics can Avith safety be made to exert, whenv°bb
given by the mouth, it was some years ago proposed to ? ’
apply them directly to the calculus, by injecting them
through the urethra into the bladder f. In this way Successful
it is evident that their action must be much greater, Practice of
and when the substances are used in a state of sufficient
dilution, the practice is said to be perfectly safe.
Several of the chemical remedies are employed ex- Escharo-
ternally as caustics or escharotics, to destroy fungous tics,
or callous parts of the body ; to open an ulcer, or to
change the diseased surface of a sore. The principal
escharotics are, sulphuric and muriatic acid when con¬
centrated j pure potash, nitrate of silver, muriate of an¬
timony, sulphate and subacetate of copper, corrosive
muriate of mercury, and arsenious acid.
A few are employed both externally and internally,
to check putrefaction, or to correct the unpleasant smell
of particular secretions, or of ulcers. The principal of
these are charcoal and carbonic acid, though the mi¬
neral acids have also this effect.
PART
MATERIA ME DIG A, See.
Part III.
Principles
of Phar¬
macy.
PART III. PRINCIPLES OF PHARMACY.
727
Principles
of Phar-
Chap. I. General Operations of Pharmacy.
THE operations of pharmacy are either mechanical
or chemical. By the first the various articles employed
in medicine are reduced to a proper state for exhibition,
bv cutting, rasping, grinding, pounding, &c. 5 and by
the second they are subjected to various complex opera¬
tions, which produce certain chemical changes in their
nature and properties.
To the first of these heads we may refer the collec¬
tion and preservation of simples. This chiefly refers to
those articles that are of a vegetable nature, and which.
194 are either used fresh, or in a dried state.
Collection Vegetables should be gathered chiefly from those
and preser- sojjs Ju -which they naturally delight, or in which they
simples. are i°una most commonly to rise spontaneously 5 tor
though many of them may be raised, and made to grow
with vigour in very different soils, their virtue general¬
ly suffers by the change. A variation of seasons occa¬
sions also differences considerable enough to require
often an allowance to be made in the quantity; plants
in general proving weaker, though more luxuriant, in
rainy than in dry seasons. Herbs and flowers are to be
gathered in a clear dry day, after the morning dew is
gone off from them. Leaves, for the most part, are in
their greatest perfection, when come to their full growth,
just before the flowers appear: flowers, when moderate¬
ly expanded *, seeds, when they begin to grow dry, be¬
fore they fall spontaneously ; woods and barks, as is
supposed, in the winter; annual roots, before the stalks
begin to rise *, biennial roots, in the autumn of the first
year: perennial roots, in the autumn alter the leaves
have fallen, or early in the spring before they begin to
vegetate.
Of the vegetables which lose their virtue in being
dried, the greater number, perhaps all, may be preser¬
ved for a considerable length of time, by impeding the
exhalation of their natural moisture 5 for so long as they
retain this, they seem to retain also their medical acti¬
vity. Thus, roots have their virtue preserved by being
buried in sand, which should be dry, that they may not
vegetate ; leaves and flowers, of a more corruptible na¬
ture than roots, by being beaten with about thrice their
weight of fine sugar to prevent their corruption, and
kept in a close vessel.
Plants which bear drying, are commonly hung in a
warm airy place, defended from the sun. The colours
of herbs and flowers are for the most part changed or
destroyed in drying, by the sun’s beams j but that their
medicinal virtue suffers a like diminution, does not ap¬
pear. This much is certain, that the heat of a culinary
fire, equal to that of the sun in summer, does them no
injury in either respect 5 and that both flowers and
leaves, when thus hastily dried by fire, preserve the
liveliness of their colour, and their smell and taste, more
perfectly than by slow drying. The leaves of mode¬
rately juicy plants are reduced, by drying, to about
one-fourth of their original weight.
Some roots, and some other parts of vegetables, Low
thoroughly soever they have been dried, are liable, in
keeping, to grow mouldy and carious. This inconve¬
nience might probably be obviated by dipping them,
when dried, in boiling spirit of wine, or exposing them
to its vapour in a close vessel. It is said, that some of
the oriental spices are made less perishable, by being
dipt in a mixture of lime and water*. * Lewis's
The drawers in which vegetable drugs are kept,
should be made of such materials as are not likely to‘x
impart to them any unpleasant taste or smell; and the
better to avoid this, they should be lined with paper.
Such matters as are volatile, or which are likely to suf¬
fer from exposure to the air, or from insects, should be
kept in glass vessels well stopped. Such fruits and oily
seeds as are liable to become rancid, by being too
warm, should be preserved in a dry cool jflace.
As most vegetable substances lose much of their sen¬
sible properties by long keeping, or acquire others
which render them less proper for being used as inter¬
nal medicines, they should be frequently replaced.
One of the most common operations to which dry Pulveiizar
drugs are subjected, is that of being reduced to pow- ff°n*
der, by which they are rendered more efficacious, and
are more conveniently exhibited. The pulverization
of these matters is usually performed by means of pestles
and mortars. These should be made of such materials
as are not likely to impart to the powdered substance
anv noxious properties, and should at the same time be
sufficiently hard, not to be broken or worn away during
the operation. For the powdering of barks, mots, and
similar substances, cast-iron mortars are the most conve¬
nient ; and for such articles as are of a more brittle na¬
ture, mortars of glass or marble are commonly employ¬
ed. All those made of copper, or any of its alloys,
should be carefully avoided, as when the substance is
very hard, or of such a nature as to act chemically on
the metal, some portion of copper may be mixed with
the medicine, and render it a virulent poison. For ma¬
ny purposes mortars made of common stoneware answer
very well j but the best mortars of this kind are those
made of well-baked clay, commonly called Wedgewood's
mortars. The bottom of all these mortars should be
hollow on the inside, and flat on the outside, and their
sides should be moderately inclined. Those which are
employed for reducing to powder such substances as pro¬
duce much dust, should be provided with covers, both
to prevent the lighter parts of the powder from being
lost, and to defend the operator from being injured by
such substances as are of a corrosive or poisonous nature.
In general, wooden covers that have a rim to prevent
their sliding off, and a hole sufficiently large to admit
of the introduction of the pestle, answer very well; but
where it is of consequence that no part of the article
should escape, it is better to tie round the mouth of the
mortar, and round the pestle, a piece of pliable leather,
sufficiently large to admit of the free motion of the lat¬
ter. Where this is not done, it will be proper for the
operator to cover his mouth and nose with a handker¬
chief
728
MATERIA
Part III
Principles
of Phar¬
macy.
196
Sifting.
197
Tritnra-
198
LeTiiiation
chief or wet cloth, and to stand in such a situation as
that a current of air shall direct the acrid powder from
hl To avoid losing much of these light dry powders, a
little spirit of wine, or oil, is sometimes put into the
mortar, to prevent the lighter parts of the powder irom
rising. Care should, however, be taken, that the sub¬
stance is of such a nature as not to be dissolved by the
spirit, nor injured by the rancidity that the oil »s likely
to acquire and in every case, as little as possible ol.
•either should be employed.
It is obvious that in reducing drugs to powder, too
much of the article should not be put at once into the
mortar. . . ,
Several substances require previous preparation be¬
fore powdering barks, woods, roots, should be perfect¬
ly dry, and should be either sliced or rasped before put¬
ting into the mortar) and such roots as are covered
with a very fibrous bark, should be shaved aftei this
has been removed, to take away such hairy filaments as
are usually found between the bark and the. wood.
Gummy resinous substances, such as myrrh, which are
liable to become soft when heated, should be powdered
fn very cold weather 5 and it is better, first to reduce
them to a coarse powder, and expose this to the air lor
a day or two, before completing the pulveriz-ation,
which will then'be more easily efiected. Some substan¬
ces cannot be reduced to powder without the addition
of some other matter j thus, camphor requires a little
alcohol or oil •, the emulsive seeds require the addition
of some dry powder, and for aromatic oily substances,
the addition of a little sugar is proper.
In order to separate the finer powder from the rest
of the substance, apothecaries employ sieves of various
forms. For such articles as require to be kept close,
the sieve is composed of three parts ^ a middle part,
which is properly the sieve for separating the finer part
of the powder, a bottom for receiving the powder, and
a top for preventing the escape of the finer dust.
When as much of the powder as is sufficiently fine,
has passed through the sieve, the rest is to be returned
into the mortar, and the pulverization continued and
I’epeated, till as much as possible has passed the sieve.
All the parcels of powder are then to be intimately
mixed together, by rubbing them for a considerable time
in the mortar.
Trituration consists in rubbing dry substances that are
already pretty small in order to reduce them to a very
fine powder, or to mix them intimately together. In
the small way it is performed in the usual mortars} in
the large way by means of a roller moved by water or
by horses.
When it is required to reduce dry substances to a
very fine, or what is called an impalpable powder, re¬
course is had to the operation called levigation, which
is nothing more than rubbing the substance for a long
time in a broad flat mortar, or upon a hard stone, with
a muller, adding from time to time a little water or al¬
cohol, so as to reduce the substance operated on to a
kind of paste. This paste is rubbed till it is as smooth
as possible, and is then spread on a stone or flat cake of
chalk, till it is sufficiently dried. Sometimes levigated
powders are made up into little conical lumps, and
dried in that form. The substances -on which levi-
MEDICA, &C.
(ration is performed are chiefly earths and metallic Principles
oxides. ...
For tire purpose of reducing metals into minute par-, mi*cy- ^
tides, they are either filed or granulated. It would
not be improper that apothecaries should always prepare Granula-
their own iron filings, as those procured from a smith’s tion.
shop are generally very impure. The granulation of
metals is eflected by melting the metal, and either stir¬
ring it briskly with an iron rod till it is cold, or pour¬
ing it into water and stirring it as before i or lastly, by
pouring it into a covered box, having its inside well
rubbed with chalk, in which it is well shaken till cold,
when the adhering chalk is to be washed away.. 200
Another inode of procuring the finest particles ofElutria-
such substances as are not soluble in water, is by what dou.
is termed elutriation, which is performed by diffusing
in water the powder or paste to which they have been
reduced by pulverization or levigation, and after the
coarser particles have subsided, pouring oil the water
that holds in suspension the finer parts. T. he operation
of levigation and subsequent diffusion is repeated, till
as much as is required of the fine powder is obtained.
This is afterwards to be separated from the water, ei¬
ther by decantation or filtration. 20I
When the powder is so heavy as readily to fall to theFiRratjoni
bottom of the vessel, it is most conveniently separated
by decanting off the water, either by pouring it gently
off’ as long as it comes over clear, or by means of a
crooked glass syphon fixed in a board that goes over
the mouth of the vessel to keep it steady, as represent¬
ed at fig. . ....
When the powder does not readily subside, it is best
separated by filtration, which is performed by means of
a cone of common blotting paper, inserted into a fun¬
nel, or by means of a cloth or flannel bag. After all
the fluid has passed through the filter, the powder that
remains on the paper is to be carefully dried.
Decantation and filtration are more commonly em¬
ployed to obtain any liquor clear from the powdery or
other matters with which it is mixed. . 203
For obtaining the juices of vegetables or fruits, or Expression,
the oils of seeds, &c. recourse is had to expression.
The plants or fruits are put into bags or wrappers made
of haircloth, and subjected to strong pressure by means
of a screw press, the plates of which should be made of
wood or tin, and by no means of lead. I he pressuic
employed should at first be gentle, and should be in¬
creased gradually. The oily seeds or nuts are pressed
between iron plates, which are usually warmed ; but
when used cold, the oil is milder and not so liable to
become rancid.
Besides the mortars mentioned above, there are seve¬
ral other instruments employed in the operations of
pharmacy, on which it is proper to make a few re¬
marks. . 1 . 20f
Funnels ought to be made of tinned iron, or of glass 5 Funnels.
or of the same sort of baked earth or clay as the mor¬
tars, or of silver, or of block tin. 2?5
Vessels used for preparing infusions, or for evaporat-Infusing
ing liquors, or for putting decoctions or other liquors>c
into, to cool, ought to be made either of porcelain, or
of stoneware, or of baked clay, or of earth such as
the mortars are made of, or of glass 5 or such vessels as
are not acted upon either by acid or alkaline liquors
For
20<J
Measures
and
weights.
Part III. MATERIA
Principles For the same reasons, measures of all sorts, from the
dram to a quart, ought to be made of tinned iron, or
of stoneware, or of the baked earth or clay, or of
glass •, silver might be employed for the smaller mea¬
sures of drams and ounces, and if taken care of, would
in the end prove cheaper than the others ; if other me¬
tallic vessels are used, the metal ought to be of such a
sort as not to be affected by acid or alkaline, or other
liquors j and they ought at all times to be kept ex¬
tremely clean.
In distilling, in melting, and in calcining different
bodejs, no vessels ought to be employed which may be
acted upon by, and give a noxious quality to, the sub¬
stances to be prepared.
Most colleges of physicians in Europe formerly di¬
rected, that both weights and measures should be em¬
ployed for dispensing medicines, ordering solid substan¬
ces to be prepared by weight, fluid by measure ; and
they gave tables of the weights and measures they wish¬
ed should be used, in the beginning of their different
dispensatories : but it having been found that the pro¬
miscuous use of weights and measures gave sometimes
occasion to mistakes, the colleges of Edinburgh and of
Stockholm have, in the last edition of their pharmaco¬
poeias, rejected entirely the use of measures, and order¬
ed both fluid and solid substances to be prepared by
weight. It is to be wished that all the colleges in Eu¬
rope would follow their example.
Measures made to contain a certain determined
weight of water are certainly very useful in pharmacy;
but if such are allowed they ought to be employed only
for measuring watery liquors, as the specific gravities
of other fluids differ so much from one another.
In every country, all weights and measures used for the
preparation of medicines ought to be made according to
the directions of the college of physicians ; standards of
them ought to be kept in proper places, and all those
ought to be stamped, to shew that they were made ac¬
cording to the standard.
The principal chemical operations of pharmacy may
be arranged under the following heads.
1. The infusing certain substances in cold or in hot
water, or in wine, to extract their saline or light gum¬
my parts, together with some of their fine volatile prin¬
ciples, which are miscible with water.
2. The boiling them in water to extract the same
principles, together with others that are more fixed, or
which are capable of being dissolved by heat, and after¬
wards of being kept suspended by the gummy and
mucilaginous parts which have been dissolved in the
water ; thus a certain proportion of resin is found to be
suspended in decoctions of the bark, of opium, and of
other drugs.
3. The evaporating watery infusions and decoctions,
and the expressed juices of many vegetables, to obtain
their fixed parts which have been dissolved in a watery
menstruum. In this manner jellies, r»bs, and extracts,
are prepared.
4. The infusing or digesting certain vegetable sub¬
stances in pure vinous spirit to extract their fine volatile
oils and their resinous parts ; or in spirit mixed with
water, called proof-spirit, to extract, along with those
principles, some of their gummy parts.
5. The evaporating of such tinctures to obtain their
resinous and more fixed parts ; in which way resinous
Vol. XII. Part II.
o?
Infusing.
208
Boiling.
209
Evapora¬
ting.
210
Digesting.
ME DIC A, &c. 729
extracts are got from bark, jalap, from opium, and Principles
from other substances. ' of Phar-
6. The distilling fragrant vegetable substances with . I11^(,y- a
water, in order to procure their fine volatile principles, 2II
which come over with the water into the vessels placed Distillu-
to receive it. In this manner the simple distilled waters tiou.
(as they are called), which have the flavour and taste of
the substances from which they are distilled, are pre¬
pared ; and the fine essential oils of the plants which
have been distilled are found either floating on the top
of the water, or sunk to the bottom of it, according
as they are specifically lighter or heavier than water.
7. The distilling of the same substances in vinous
spirit to obtain the same fragrant volatile parts, inti¬
mately united with the spirit; in which manner arc
made the spirituous liquors improperly called spirituous
waters.
In distilling, care ought to be taken to make the
vapours which arise condense properly in the vessels set
to receive them when they have assumed the form of a .
liquor; which is to be effected, 1. By regulating the
fire, and never raising the degree of heat beyond what
is necessary ; and, 2. By making the vapours pass
through such a cool medium, as will condense them in¬
to a liquid.
1. The degree of heat is regulated by the figure of
the furnace in which the fire is placed, and by the
quantity of wood or of coal that is used. Where a
great degree of heat is wanted, the vessels are put in
an open fire, placed in a reverberatory furnace. W here
a less degree of heat is sufficient, they are put into sand
contained in an iron pot, below which the fire is light¬
ed in a common furnace. Wrhere a still smaller degree is
required, the vessel is put into a pot with sand, and a
lamp in place of coals fixed below it. At other times
the retort, or vessel with the liquor to be distilled, is
put into a vessel full of water or other liquor, set over
a fire, so that it cannot he heated beyond a certain de¬
gree.
2. The condensation of vapours arising from sub¬
stances subjected to distillation is effected, as before
observed, by making the vapour pass through such a
cool medium, as will condense it into a liquor before it
reaches the bottom of the vessels set to receive it.
In distilling medicated waters or spirits, the herbs or
other vegetable substances, and the water or the spirit,
are put into a still placed in a proper furnace, on which
is fixed a large head, with a long crane-necked or cur¬
ved tube coming from the top of it, which after descend¬
ing and going off a little to one side, enters into the
upper end of a long spiral pipe, called a worm, which
is fixed in a large cask, called the worm-tub or re¬
frigeratory, with its two ends piercing the cask ; and to
its lower end is fixed a proper vessel for receiving the
distilled liquor. The worm-tub, which has a cock at
the lower part of it for letting out water occasionally,
is filled with cold water before the distillation begins,
and is renewed in the course of the distillation if it be¬
gins to heat, by drawing it off by means of the cock,
and pouring fresh cold water into the worm-tub. After
every thing is fitted, the fire is lighted, and the distil¬
lation is continued so long as the water comes over suf¬
ficiently impregnated with the vegetable substances put
into the still.
In the dislillatioa of vegetable or animal substances
t 4 Z with
73°
Principles
of Phar¬
macy.
MATERIA M E D I C A, &c.
Part III,
with water, or with spirit, it ought to be observed,
i. That there ought to be put into the still such an ad¬
ditional quantity of w ater as will prevent the solid sub¬
stances which are subject to the distillation from being
burnt, as this additional water does not at all weaken
the produce •, for the most volatile parts of the subject
rise first, and impregnate the liquor which first comes
over, and the water remains behind in the still. 2.
a gentle fire, such as is just capable of keeping the li¬
quor boiling, is preferable to a strong fire, particularly
towards the end of the process. 3. That the distilla¬
tion is to be continued so long as the liquor comes over
fully impregnated with the volatile parts ot the vege¬
table substances which are the subjects ol the distilla¬
tion 5 but is to be put an end to, so soon as it is per¬
ceived to become weak, which is known by tasting
from time to time the liquor which comes over.
8. The distilling of vegetables or animal substances
in retorts without water, in order to make them use,
and bring over by the force of fire, their watery parts,
an acid,°or volatile alkaline salt, according to what
nature the substances are of, and an empyreumatic oil,
into the receiver 5 and to get the more fixed, earthy,
and oily part^, which are left behind in the retort.
In distilling substances which require a greater de¬
gree of heat to raise their volatile parts, than the li¬
quors above mentioned, or winch are ot such a nature
as to act upon, and corrode the vessels employed in
these processes just mentioned, it is necessary to use the
vessels made of glass or of earth, which have been call¬
ed retorts, from their neck being bent on one side.
Such retorts are employed in pharmacy for distilling
the mineral and the vegetable acids, and the prepara¬
tions made from them; in distilling animal and vege¬
table substances by themselves to procure their watery,
saline, or oily parts j for purifying quicksilver, and pre¬
paring the muriate of antimony, &c. and they may be
used as subliming glasses for making mercurial and
other preparations.
In distilling with retorts, the matter to be distilled is
put into the retort which is commonly placed in sand,
contained in an iron pot, fixed above a furnace, into
which the fire is put*, but on some particular occasions,
where only a small degree of heat, not exceeding that
of boiling water, is wanted, the retort is placed in a
water bath.
After the retort containing the matter to be distilled
is fixed, the end of it is either put immediately into the
mouth of another long-necked vessel called a receiver
(from its being placed to receive the distilled liquor), and
the two vessels are luted together by means of a proper
cement; or it is first put into the end of a long glass
tube called an adopter, which is luted to it, and the
other end of the tube is put into the -mouth of the re¬
ceiver, and fixed to it by means of a cement.
The receivers are either made round like a decanter,
without any other opening than the mouth •, or they are
made with a tube coming out from their bottom, or
from the side near it, to which another receiver may be
fixed, and when they are thus made they are called
tubulated receivers, and are very convenient for per¬
forming processes where the matter put into the retort
yields products of difi'erent kinds, as in the distillation
of spirit with the mineral acids *, for the receiver or
bcttle fixed to the tube may be changed as the differ¬
ent products come over, so that each ol them may be principles
obtained separately. And in distilling substances which of Phar-
yiekl very volatile products, one tubulated retort may, inacy- ,
be put after another so as to enlarge the space for the v
condension of vapours ; and in distilling these very vo¬
latile substances it is sometimes necessary to make a
small puncture into the lutes between the retort and
the receiver, to allow some of the vapour to escape to
prevent its bursting the vessels.
The use of the long intervening tube called an adopt¬
er, which is put often between the retort and the re¬
ceiver, is to increase the distance from the retort (that
is immediately exposed to heat) to the receiver; so
that the receiver may be in less danger of being heat¬
ed, and that the vapour may be cooled in its passage
through this tube, and condense more readily in the
receiver. It is likewise of another use, which is to
give us an opportunity of seeing the vapour in its pas¬
sage from the retort to the receiver, so that we may
know how the distillation is going forward, and when
it is proper to change the receivers, when the difierent
liquors come over from materials which yield products
of different kinds. 212
9. The burning vegetable substances in an open ves- incjnera.
sel to obtain a fixt alkaline salt. tiou.
10. The burning the bones of animals, or the shells
of fishes, to procure their earthy parts j in which man¬
ner the calcined hartshorn, the powder of crabs clawrs,
and of oyster shells, are procured. 21.^
11. The mixing acid and alkaline salts in a fluklNeiitiali-
state, to form the neutral salts, which may be separa-zaUou*
ted from the water either by evaporating, with a slow'
heat, such a quantity of the water as to allow the salts
to shoot into crystals when set in a cool place, or by
continuing the e vaporation till the salts become dry.
12. The dissolving certain metallic substances, or
certain earths, in acid liquors, for obtaining metallic
and earthy salts, which may be got in a solid torm in
the same manner as the neutral salts. 2I^
13. The evaporating the purified expressed juices cryStaiii_
of certain vegetable substances to the consistence of azation.
cream, and then setting them by for months, in a cool
place, to allow the essential acid salts to concrete into
crystals. See Crystallization.
iq. The distilling in proper vessels vitriol or other
substances which contain the sulphuric acid, in order to
get it separate from them ; and the burning of sulphur
mixed with a small portion of nitre, under particular
vessels, so contrived, and so placed, as to collect the
same acid.
15. The distilling nitre, or sea salt, mixed with a
certain portion of the sulphuric acid, in order to obtain
pure the nitric or muriatic acid. 215
16. The subliming certain substances that become Sublima-
volatile by the application of heat, into proper vessels ;tion.
and either to unite two of them together for the forma¬
tion of a third, as is done in the preparation of the cor¬
rosive sublimate of mercury, when the muriatic acid is
united to the quicksilver, or to separate the volatile
parts of any substance from the fixt, as is done in the
sublimation of volatile alkaline salts and of the acid of
benjamin. 216
17. The melting by the force of fire such substances Melting,
as become fluid by the application of heat, so that they
may be separated from or united to other bodies. Thus
by
Part III.
MATERIA
Principles by particular management amt the addition of certain
-of Pliar- substances, metals are separated from their ores. And
rosin and bees-wax are intimately united together ; or
they are dissolved in fluid oils, for the preparation of
plasters, ointments, liniments, &c. And sulphur is
united to quicksilver for the making of a black or red
sulphuret,
18. The applying of heat to metals, either to oxidate
them, or to separate certain volatile substances with
which they are combined, or to purify them from more
oxidable metals with which they are alloyed. Thus
mercury is reduced to a red oxide merely by the con¬
tinued application of heat and air; the sulphuret of an¬
timony is deprived of its sulphur by roasting, and silver
is separated from lead by being exposed to such a heat,
as, while it only fuses the silver, reduces the lead to an
oxide. See Chemistry.
maev.
117
Oxidation.
218
ftoasting.
Chap. II, Of the principal fot'ms in which Medicines
■ are exhibited.
irp
Officinal The principal officinal preparations of the simple me-
forais. dicines, for the making of which directions are given in
the Pharmacopoeias, consist of powders, pills, troches,
electuaries, inspissated juices, extracts, infusions, decoc¬
tions, mucilages, emulsions and mixtures, syrups, tinc¬
tures, wines, for internal exhibition; and cataplasms,
liniments, ointments, cerates, and plasters, for external
220 application.
Powdtr. The form of powder is one of the most simple, and
very convenient for the exhibition of a variety of me¬
dicines. It is of course adapted only to such substances
as are easily reduced to powder, and such as are not
too bulky to be taken in a moderate dose. Hence
emollient and mucilaginous herbs and roots are impro¬
perly ordered in the state of powder, as they are too
bulky ; alkaline salts, whether fixed or volatile, are im¬
proper, as they in general either deliquesce in the air,
or evaporate. Such articles as are of a very disagree¬
able taste, or ofiensive odour, are also more convenient¬
ly given in some other form.
In preparing compound powders, care should he
taken that the several ingredients should be intimately
mixed together. Some of them may in general be
most properly powdered separately, but it is often of
advantage to powder them together. They should be
kept in a closely stopped phial, and such as are apt to
lose part of their virtue by long keeping, should be
prepared in small quantities.
The dose of powders should he so regulated as sel¬
dom to exceed a dram. The substance in which they
are to be taken should be of such a nature as to mix
properly with them, so that they neither float at the
top, nor sink too rapidly to the bottom of the vessel.
HU.2 * ^0l>m pm *s moH^ convenient for such articles
as do not require to be given in a large dose, and are
so unpleasant in taste or smell, that they cannot be
conveniently given in the form of a powder. As many
patients can swallow pills, who cannot take medicines
in a less solid form, those substances which are usually
ordered in poweer, are not unfrequently formed into
pills, when their bulk is not so great as to render the
pills too numerous for a single dose.
The most usual substances that enter into the com¬
position of pills are resins, gum-resins* extracts, and
MEBICA, &c. 731
similar medicines. Deliquescent salts are usually im- Principles
proper except in small quantity, and then they should of Phar-
be combined with some gummy powder. Such salts as , mac:y* t
are efflorescent, as carbonate of soda, may enter into the
composition of pills: hut they should be previously ex¬
posed to the air* so as to fall into powder. The li¬
quid substances employed to form the pills into a proper
mass, must he varied according to the nature of the
more solid ingredients. Powders require syrup, muci¬
lage, balsams, soap, conserve, or honey. Gum resins
and extracts are sometimes sufficiently soft without any
addition ; but when this is required, a little spix-it or
wine is the most proper. When the mass is to be com¬
posed of a mixture of gum resins and powders, the form-1
er should he fii*st moistened with the prescribed liquid,
then the powders added, and the whole beaten well to¬
gether, till they ax'e x’educed into a uniform plastic
mass.
A dram of the pilular mass is generally divided intd
about twelve pills, so that each pill may weigh about
five grains.
The masses for pills should be kept in bladders*
these should be moistened now and then, either with a
little wine, or with some of the same liquid that was
employed in forming the mass.
Troches or lozenges are hard, round, flat cakes* Troches,
formed of such substances as are intended to be gra¬
dually dissolved in the mouth, and thus pass by degrees
into the stomach, or in their passage thither act on the
throat or larynx. They should be formed of such sub¬
stances as ax-e soluble in the saliva, and ai’e not of a
disagi’eeable taste. They usually contain a great deal
of sugai-, and some gummy matter to render them co¬
herent. ’ 22^
Electuaries arc less solid than pills, being of such a Electtxu-
consistence that they may be I’otled up into a bolus, so1'*05-
as to be easily swallowed. They are chiefly composed
of powders mixed up with syrup or honey. The sub¬
stances that enter into the composition of electuaries are
chiefly the milder altei'ative medicines, or gentle laxa¬
tives. The stronger cathartics, emetics, and such sub¬
stances as are of an unpleasant taste, such xxs bitters, the
fetid gum-resins, and very heavy powders, are impx-o-
per. The liquid employed to form electuaries is usually
syrup or honey, the proportion of which is regulated by
the nature of the mox-e solid ingredients, hut is usually
of nearly equal weight. 72^
Confections are now considered as synonymous with Confec-
electuaxles, as they differ from ordinaxy electuaries int*0115-
nothing but being composed of more aromatic ingre-
dients. ^
Conserves may be considered as electuaries formed of Conserves,
only two ingredients, -one of which is sugar, and the
other the pulp of some fruit, the petals of flowers, or
the outer rind of Seville oranges. 22(j
Extracts and resins are pharmaceutical prepax*ations, Extracts
the J’atioxmle of which is very little understood.. Dr and resins.
Andrew Duncan, junr. has given an excellent aepount
of them, which we shall here copy.
“ Extx’act in pharmacy has long been used, in the
common and true acceptation of the term, to express a
thing extracted, and therefore it was applied to sub¬
stances of all kinds which were extracted from hetero¬
geneous bodies, by the action of any menstruum, and
again reduced to a consistent form, by the evaporation
4 Z 2 of
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. Part HI.
Principles of that menstruum. Lately, however, extract has been
of Phar- used in a different and much more limited sense, as the
macy. name f0r a peculiar principle, which is often indeed
contained in extracts, and which before had no proper
appellation. It is in the former sense that we employ
it here, and in which we wish it to be only used, while
a new word should be invented as the name of the new
substance. Till a better be proposed, we shall call it
extractive. _ .
“ Extracts are of various kinds, according to the na¬
ture of the substances from which they are obtained,
and the menstruum employed j but they commonly
consist of gum, sugar, extractive, tannin, cinchonin,
gallic acid, or resin, or several of them mixed in vari¬
ous proportions. The menstrua most commonly em¬
ployed are water and alcohol. The former is capable
of extracting all the substances enumerated, except the
resin, and the latter all except the gum. Wine is also
sometimes employed, but very improperly ; for as a
solvent it can only act as a mixture of alcohol and wa¬
ter, and the principles which it leaves behind on eva¬
poration are rather injurious than of advantage to the
extract.
“ Water is the menstruum most commonly employed
in making extracts, as it is capable of dissolving all
the active principles except resin, and can have its sol¬
vent powers assisted by a considerable degree of heat.
“ Watery extracts are prepared by boiling the sub¬
ject in water, and evaporating the strained decoction
to a thick consistence.
“ It is indifferent with regard to the medicine, whe¬
ther the subject be used fresh or drysince nothing
that can be preserved in this process will be lost by dry¬
ing. With regard to the facility of extraction, how¬
ever, there is a very considerable difference; vege¬
tables in general giving out their virtues more readily
when moderately dried than when fresh.
“ Very compact dry substances should be reduced
into exceedingly small parts, previous to the affusion ot
the menstruum.
“ The quantity of water ought to be no greater than
is necessary for extracting the virtues of the subject.
This point, however, is not very easily ascertained ; for
although some of the common principles of extracts be
soluble in a very small proportion of water, there are
others, such as tannin, of which water can dissolve only
a small proportion, and cannot be made to take up
more by any length of boiling \ besides we have no
very good method of knowing when we have used a
sufficient quantity of water *, for vegetable substances
will continue to colour deeply successive portions of wa¬
ter boiled with them, long after they are yielding no¬
thing to it but colouring matter. Perhaps one of the
best methods is to boil the subject in successive quanti¬
ties of water, as long as the decoctions form a consider¬
able precipitate with the test which is proper for detec¬
ting the substance we are extracting, such as a solution
of gelatin for tannin, of alum for extractive, &.G.
The decoctions are to be depurated by colature, and
afterwards suffered to stand for a day on two,, when a
considerable quantity of sediment is usually found at the
bottom. If the liquor poured off clear be boiled down
a little, and afterwards suffered to cool again, it will
deposit a fresh sediment, from which it may be decanted
before you proceed to finish, the evaporation. The de-
4.
coctions of very resinous substances do not require this
treatment, and are rather injured by it, the resin sub- ofPhar-
eiding along with the active dregs. macy.
“ We would advise the decoctions to he evaporated ' v-—J
after they have been filtered boiling hot, without any
further depuration ; because some ot the most active
principles of vegetable substances, such as tannin, are
much more soluble in boiling than in cold water, and
because almost all of them are very quickly affected by
exposure to the atmosphere. I herefore, if a boiling
decoction, saturated with tannin, be allowed to cool,
the greatest part of the very principle on which the ac¬
tivity of the substance depends will separate to the bot¬
tom, and according to the above directions, will be
thrown away as sediment. The same objection applies
more strongly to allowing the decoction to cool, and
deposit fresh sediment, after it has been partially eva¬
porated. Besides, by allowing the decoctions to stand
several days before we proceed to their evaporation,
we are in fact allowing the active principles contained
in the decoction to be altered by the action ol the air,
and to be converted into substances, perhaps inactive,
which also are thrown away as sediment.
“ The evaporation is most conveniently performed in
broad shallow vessels j the larger the surface of the li¬
quor, the sooner will the aqueous parts exhale. Ibis
effect may likewise be promoted by agitation.
“ When the matter begins to grow thick, great care
is necessary to prevent its burning. This accident, al¬
most unavoidable if the quantity be large, and the fire
applied as usual under the evaporating bason, may be
effectually prevented, by carrying on the inspissation,
after the common manner, no further than to the con¬
sistence of a syrup, when the matter is to he poured in¬
to shallow tin or earthen pans, and placed in an oven,
with its door open, moderately heated 5 which acting
uniformly on every part of the liquid, will soon reduce
it to any consistence required. This may likewise be
done, and more securely, by setting the evaporating
vessel in boiling water } but the evaporation is in this
w7ay very tedious.
“ Alcohol is by far too expensive to be employed as
a menstruum for obtaining extracts, except in those
cases where water is totally inadequate to the purpose.
These cases are,
“ 1. When the nature of the extract is very perish¬
able when dissolved in water, so that it is liable to be
decomposed before the evaporation can be completed,
especially if we cannot proceed immediately to the eva¬
poration.
“ 2. When water is totally incapable of dissolving
the substance to be extracted, and
“ 3. When the substance extracted can bear the heat
of boiling alcohol without being evaporated, but would
be dissipated by that of boiling water $ that is, when it
requires a heat greater than 176°, and less than 212®,
for its evaporization.
“ In the last case, the alcohol must be perfectly free
from water, because the heat necessary to evaporate it
at the end of the process would frustrate the whole ope¬
ration. Hence, also, the subject itself ought always to
be dry j those substances which lose their virtue by
drying, lose it equally on being submitted to this treat¬
ment with the purest alcohol.
“ In this way the alcoholic extract of some aromatic
substances*.
Part III.
MATERIA
Principles substances, as cinnamon, lavender, rosemary, retain a
of Phar- considerable degree of’ their fine flavour.
. , “ In the second case, the alcohol need not be so very
strong, because it is still capable of dissolving resinous
substances, although diluted with a considerable pro¬
portion of water.
“ In the first case, the alcohol may be still much
weaker, or rather, the addition of a small proportion
of alcohol to water will be sufficient to retard or pre¬
vent the decomposition of the decoction.
“ The alcohol employed in all these cases should be
perfectly free from any unpleasant flavour, lest it be
communicated to the extract.
“ The inspissation should be performed, from the be¬
ginning, in the gentle heat of a water-bath. We need
not suffer the alcohol to evaporate in the air ; the great¬
est part of it may be recovered by collecting the va¬
pour in common distilling vessels. If the distilled spi¬
rit be found to have brought over any flavour from the
subject, it may be advantageously reserved for the same
purposes again.
“ When diluted alcohol is employed, the distillation
should only be continued as long as alcohol comes over •,
and the evaporation should be finished in wide open
vessels.
“ Pure resins are prepared, by adding to spirituous
tinctures of resinous vegetables, a large quantity of wa¬
ter. The resin, incapable of remaining dissolved in the
watery liquor, separates and falls to the bottom 5 leav¬
ing in the menstruum such other principles of the plant
as the spirit might have extracted at first along with it.
* But this is only practised for the purpose of analysis
New Dis- Of infusions and decoctions it is unnecessary for us
chan*xxxv ma^e an>' fartlici' remarks, after what was observed
in N° 200 and 201.
Mucilages are solutions of the pure gums, or of simi¬
lar substances, in water. They should not be made too
thin, as they are then more readily decomposed on ex¬
posure to the air.
Mixtures are liquid preparations composed of sub¬
stances that are not soluble in water, as various powders,
barks, roots, &c. Emulsions differ from mixtures in
being composed of oily or resinous ingredients, suspend¬
ed in water by means of yolk of egg, honey, or muci¬
lage. Both these preparations should be made as they
are required, as few of them keep well.
Syrups are solutions of sugar, either in plain water,
in the juice of some fruit, or in some vegetable infusion
or decoction. They are employed chiefly to render
mixtures or other liquid medicines more palatable, or
to mix up powders and other solid ingredients into pills,
electuaries, or troches. The proportion of sugar em¬
ployed in the making of syrups should be so regulated,
as to preserve the syrup in the same state as when first
made. If too little sugar has been employed, the sy¬
rup will suffer decomposition, and ferment j if too much,
part of the sugar will separate in crystals, leaving the
remainder too weak.
Formerly the term tincture was employed, to denote
any transparent solution, whether in water or spirit, that
was coloured. At present it is commonly applied to
solutions made by digestion in alcohol, or in proof spirit,
though it is frequently extended to solutions in ether,;
chap. xxxv.
227
Mucilages.
228
Mixtures
and emul
sions.
229
Syrups.
| _ 230
Tinctures.
MEDIC A, &c. 733'
or in ammoniated alcohol. For the action of alcohol Principles
as a menstruum, see Chemistry.
In making alcoholic tinctures, we must observe that
the virtues of recent vegetable matters are very imper¬
fectly extracted by spuituous menstrua. They must
therefore be previously carefully dried, and as we can¬
not assist the solution by means of heat, we must facili¬
tate it by reducing the solvend to a state of as minute
mechanical division as possible. To prevent loss, the
solution is commonly made in a close vessel, and the
heat applied must he veiy gentle, lest it he broken by
the expansion of vapour.
The action of tinctures on the living system is alw ays
compounded of the action of the menstruum and of the.
matters dissolved in it. Now, these actions may either
coincide with, or oppose each other 5 and as alcohol is
at all times a powerful agent, it is evident that no sub¬
stance should be exhibited in the form of a tincture,
whose action is different from that of alcohol, unless
it be capable of operating in so small a dose, that
the quantity of alcohol taken along with it is inconsi¬
derable.
Tinctures are not liable to spoil, as it is called, but
they must nevertheless be kept in well closed phials,
especially when they contain active ingredients, to pre¬
vent the evaporation of the menstruum.
They generally operate in doses so small, that they
are rarely exhibited by themselves, but commonly com¬
bined with some vehicle. In choosing the latter, we
must select some substance which does not decompose
the tincture, or at least separate nothing from it in a
palatable form.
The London college directs all tinctures, except that
of muriate of iron, to he prepared in close phials.
The Dublin college explain, that when any other
substances are to be digested, they mean, it to be done
with a low degree of heat j and when they are to be
jtuiccrated, it is to he done with a degree of heat be¬
tween 6o° and 90° *. * Duncan's-
Medicated wines and medicated vinegars differ from Dispcrisa-
tinctures in nothing but the menstruum. c 1JI>‘
Of the external applications, the preparations of 25I
which are given in the Pharmacopoeias, cataplasms or Catap-
poultiees may be considered as extemporaneous,, being lasms*
never kept ready made. 232
Liniments, ointments, and cerates, are compositions laments,
of fatty matters, either animal or vegetable, or both, °^tI^ents,>
employed as external emollients. They differ only in rates>
consistence, liniments being very soft, or nearly fluid $
ointments sufficiently hard not to melt in the ordinary
temperature of the atmosphere y and cerates being of
such a consistence as to be readily spread on cloth, &c.
without the assistance of heat. These last commonly
contain a considerable proportion of wax, whence their
name. ^
Plasters are more solid than cerates, and usually re- Piaster^.,
quire the aid of heat to spread them on the proper sub¬
stance for application, which is usually leather. Plas¬
ters sometimes contain powders in their composition,
and in preparing these it is proper first to melt the fatty
ingredients, and sprinkle in the powder when the melt¬
ed matter is beginning to cool.
PAKT
734-
M A T E H I A M E D I C A, &c.
Part IV.
History of
History of Simple and
Ss£;r1 PART IV. A BRIEF ACCOUNT OF THE ARTICLES OF THE MATERIA
MEDIC A, WITH THEIR OFFICINAL PREPARATIONS. '
X
Chap. I. Animal Substances.
234
Pliospho-
-.xus.
i. Phosphorus, see Chemistry Index.
Some daring practitioners have lately ventured to
recommend the internal use of tins active inflammable
in the advanced state of typhus, in palsy and other cases
of great debility. Taken into the stomach in a mode¬
rate quantity (below a grain) it produces heat in that
organ, accelerates the pulse, promotes perspiration, and
is said to give unusual vigour to the body. In larger
quantity it produces inflammation of the stomach and
bowels/ followed by gangrene and death. Dose one-
eighth to one-fourth of a grain in ether, or incorporated
with mucilage.
The internal use of this substance appears to ns to be
more than doubtful; but we think we have experienced
some benefit from it externally, when dissolved in oil,
in paralytic and rheumatic cases.
f 2. Murias Ammonite, E. SAL AMMONIA-
l“ot CUS, L. D. Muriate of ammonia. Sal ammoniac (b).
The purest muriate of ammonia ol commerce is that
prepared by sublimation, and which is formed of large
convexo concave cakes, firm and elastic, not easily
broken, and difficult to be* cut. It is of a yellowish
white colour, of little smell, and of a very sharp saline
taste.
It is found native in the neighbourhood of volcanoes j
but is usually prepared for medical purposes either from
the dung of animals that feed on salt marshes j or by*
decomposing sulphate of ammonia by muriate of soda,
or by immediately combining ammonia with muriatic
acid.
Internally it is sometimes given as a stimulant in
typhus fevers in doses of 20 or 30 grains mixed with
camphorated mixture 5 but it is principally employed
externally in lotions and embrocations, either as a re¬
frigerant to cool the surface in sprains and inflamma¬
tions, or as a stimulant to disperse tumors or morbid
accumulations of fluids, or to quicken the circulation,
as in chilblains, &c.
236
Water of
ammonia.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Ammonite, E. AQUA AMMONITE
PURiE, L. LIQUOR ALKALI VOLATILIS
CAUSTICUS, D. Water of Ammonia. Water of Pure
ammonia. Caustic solution of volatile alkali. Strong
spirit of sal ammoniac.
This is prepared by decomposing muriate of ammo¬
nia by means of quicklime with the addition of water,
and afterwards distilling off the strongest portion with a
gentle heat. The preparations of the different colleges
vary a little,; the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia ordering
one pound of muriate of ammonia to one pound and
a half of quicklime ; the London one pound to two
pounds; and the Dublin 16 ounces to two pounds. No
great quantity of water is necessary. The lime is first
slaked with part of the water, and after it is cold, the
salt and rest of the water are added, and the distillation
carried on in well closed vessels. The Edinburgh col¬
lege directs Woolf’s apparatus to be employed as a re¬
ceiver, and orders all the separate liquors to be mixed
together.
'['he solution of ammonia should be perfectly limpid
and transparent, should have an extremely pungent
odour, should not effervesce with acids, and should pro¬
duce no precipitate on the addition of alcohol or lime
wrater. It should be kept in small bottles well stopt
with ground stoppers, and should stand in a very cool
place.
This preparation is a very powerful stimulant, irri¬
tating and inflaming the skin and nostrils, when applied
externally °r snuffed up the nose. Hence its use as a
rubefacient in rheumatism, cynanche, paralysis, and as
a general stimulus in syncope, hysteria, &c. It is
scarcely used internally. See below. ^
b. Alcohol ammoniatum, E. SPIRITUS AM-Ammoniat.
MONIyE, L. SPIRITUS ALKALI VOLATILIS, edakoM.
D. Ammoniated alcohol. Sjnnt oj Ammonia. Spirit
of volatile alkali.
This, as prepared by the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia,
is merely a solution of ammonia in alcohol, and is pre¬
pared by decomposing eight ounces of muriate of am¬
monia by 12 ounces of quicklime, with the addition ot
eight ounces of water, and 32 ounces of alcohol, and
distilling oft the alcohol. The preparation of the Lon¬
don and Dublin colleges is made by mixing four ounces
of muriate with six ounces of potashes and three pints of
alcohol. The latter therefore contains much carbonate
of ammonia, and is not so strong as the former. „, ^
c. Carbonas Ammonia?., E. AMMON I /E PRE- Carbonate
PARATA, L. ALKALI VOLATILE MITE, D.
Carbonate of ammonia. Prepared ammonia. Mild
volatile alkali.
This is prepared by mixing together one pound of
muriate of ammonia, and twelve pounds of pure carbo¬
nate of lime or chalk, after being reduced to powder
separately, and afterwards subliming.
This preparation, as it occurs in the shops, is compo¬
sed of irregular masses of a very white, nearly opaque
salt, of a strong pungent odour, and sharp alkaline
taste. It requires to lie kept closely stopped from the
air, by the action of which it crumbles into powder,
and its volatile part is dissipated. When pure, it should
he entirely volatilizable by heat, but if any thing re¬
mains,
(d) The letters E. L. D. affixed to the articles in this part denote that they are articles of the Edinburgh,
London, or Dublin Pharmacopoeias.
PartIV. MATERIA ME DIG A, &c. 735
Hist ry o mains, there is reason to suppose that carbonate of pot-
Simple and' ash or of lime is mixed with it} and those impurities are
O tiit'in a 1 most Jikelv to be pre sentif it is purchased in the form
Medicines, x- r
. ot a powder.
Carbonate of ammonia in its medical properties re¬
sembles the solution of ammonia, but it is not so strong.
It is chiefly employed for smelling bottles, which are
used in cases of hysteria or syncope, and is often formed
into a neutral salt with the juice of lemons [citrate of
ammonia), and given as a gentle diaphoretic. It is
sometimes given alone, or mixed with aromatics, in the
form of a bolus, as a diaphoretic or stimulant. Dose
five to ten grains.^
239 d. Aqua Carbonatis Ammonia, E. AQUA AM-
Waterof MONI/E, L. LIQUOR ALKALI VOLATILIS
carbonate MITIS, D. Water of carbonate of ammonia. Liquor
-rw °f mild volatile alkali.
This is merely a solution of carbonate of ammonia in
water, and might be properly prepared by dissolving a
certain proportion ol that salt in distilled water. The
colleges of Edinburgh and Dublin direct it to be made
by mixing together 16 ounces of muriate of ammonia,
and the same quantity of carbonate of potash, pouring
upon them two pounds of water, and distilling to dryness.
In the London Pharmacopoeia, the proportions are one
pound of the muriate, a pound and a half of potashes,
and four pints of water, drawing off two pints by dis¬
tillation with a slow fire.
This solution should be transparent and colourless •,
should produce a strong coagulum on the addition of
alcohol, and should effervesce with acids.
It is often employed in medicine, both internally
and externally. Internally it is given, first as an eme¬
tic, in a dose of from i to 2 drams : secondly, as a dia¬
phoretic } dose about 50 drops: thirdly, as a stimulant,
20 drops to a dram : fourthly, as an antispasmodic, in a
similar dose : fifthly, as an antacid : and sixthly, as an
anthelmintic combined with oil into an emulsion.
240
Water of e. Aqua Acetitis Ammonite, E. AQUA AM-
acetate of MONItE acetate, l. liquor alkali
ammonia. VOL ATILIS ACETATI, D. SPIRITUS MIN-
DERERI. Water of acetite of ammonia. Water of
acetated ammonia. Liquor of acetated volatile alkali.
Mindererus1 s spirit.
This is a secondary salt, formed by neutralizing car¬
bonate of ammonia with distilled acetous acid.
It forms a tolerably transparent solution, commonly
of a greenish cast, of little smell, and of a weak sa¬
line taste. It should shew no signs of effervescence on
the addition of either acetous acid or carbonate of am¬
monia.
Ibis medicine acts as a gentle diaphoretic, of consi¬
derable use in low fevers, and several inflammatory com¬
plaints. It may be given in a dose of 3—6 drams, in
the form of a draught or julep. It should be assisted by
warm clothing, and warm diluent liquors.
Hydrosul- / Hydrosulphuretum Ammonhe, E. Hydrosul-
phuret of phuret of ammonia,
ammonia. .
Ibis preparation has been newly introduced into
medical practice, by the Edinburgh college, -who direct
it to be prepared by subjecting 4 ounces of water of
ammonia to a stream of gas arising from a mixture of
4 ounces of sulphuret of iron, and 8 ounces of muriatic History of
acid, previously diluted with ik pounds of water. Simple and
This preparation forms a solution of a dark green co- Officinal
lour and very fetid odour. It should more properly
be called sulphureted hydi-ogenet of ammonia. It acts
powerfully on the living system. It induces vertigo,
drowsiness, nausea, and vomiting, and lessens the ac¬
tion of the heart and arteries. It therefore seems to be
a direct sedative. According to the doctrine of the
chemical physiologists, it is a powerful disoxygenizing
remedy. It has only been used in diabetes by Dr
Hollo and others, under the name of hepatized ammo¬
nia, in doses of five or ten drops twice or thrice a.-*Duncan's
day *. Dispensa¬
tory.
g. Oleum ammoniatum, E. LINIMENTUM ' 242
AMMONDE, L. D. LINIMENTUM VOL A- Ammoniat-
TILE. Ammoniated oil. Liniment of ammonia. Vola-e<l 01*‘
tile liniment.
Ammoniated oil is properly a soap, formed by com¬
bining a solution of ammonia, or of carbonate of am¬
monia, with olive oil. The Edinburgh college directs
it to be prepared by mixing together two ounces of
olive oil and two drams of water of ammonia. The
London college has two preparations of this kind j a
stronger, formed of one ounce of water of pure am¬
monia, mixed with two ounces of olive oil ; and a
weaker, of half an ounce of water of ammonia and one
ounce and a half of oil.
This preparation is seldom kept ready made, as by
standing it becomes thick, and is diminished in strength.
It is of a light yellow colour.
Ammoniated oil is a useful external application in.
cases of cynanche and rheumatism, being either rub¬
bed on the affected part, or applied to it spread on flan¬
nel, and changed occasionally.
//. Alcohol ammoniatum aromaticum, E. SPI- Aromatic
RITUS AMMONIA COMPOS ITUS, L. SFIRI-ammoniat-
TUS ALKALI VOLATILIS AROMATICUS, D _ ed alcohol.
Aromatic ammoniated alcohol. Compound spirit of am¬
monia. Aromatic spirit of volatile alkali. Sal volatile.
This is a composition of ammoniated alcohol with va¬
rious aromatic oils. In the Edinburgh Pharmocopoeia
it is prepared by dissolving one dram and a half of oil
of rosemary, and one dram of oil of lemon peel, in eight
ounces of ammoniated alcohol: by the London college
we are directed to prepare it of two pints of spirit of
ammonia, and two drams of oil of lemon, and of oil of
cloves *, and by that of Dublin, of two pounds of spirit,
and of oil of lemon and oil of nutmeg, each two drams.
It is of a light amber colour, and of a very fragrant
smell. It is more palatable and less acrimonious than
the other preparations of ammonia, and is well suit¬
ed to spasmodic complaints, faintness, and weak¬
ness of the stomach. Dose from twenty drops to a
dram.
i. Linimentum volatile, D. Volatile Liniment o/Voktllt
the Dublin college. liniment.
A compound of one part of the above preparation
and two parts of the Dublin soap liniment, of which
hereafter. A stimulating external application. 245
Succinated
k. Spiritus Ammonite succinatus, L. Succinated spirit of
spirit of ammonia. ammonia.
This
73$ materia
History of 'l itis is prepared Ity dissolving a scruple of rectified
Simple and oil of amber, and ten grains of soap, in an ounce weigh
• • four measured ounces or
Officinal
Medicines
246
Fetid am-
moniated
alcohol.
grains
of alcohol, and then adding
water of pure ammonia.
It is at first of a milky colour, but gradually be-
comes more or less transparent by standing. t is con
sidcrcd as much the same with the Irench eau dc
It is an useful antispasmodic, whether snuffed up the
nose or rubbed on the temples.
/. Alcohol ammoniatum fqettdum, E. SPI-
RITUS AMMONITE FCETIDUS, L. bPIRITUS
ALKALI VOLATILIS FOETIDUS, D. Fetid
ammoniated alcohol. Fetid spirit of volatile alkali.
A solution of asafoetida in spirit of ammonia, which
is prepared, according to the Edinburgh college, by di¬
gesting half an ounce of asafoetida in eight ounces of
spirit of ammonia for 12 hours, and distilling off the
spirit The London college directs six pints of proof
spirits, a pound of sal ammoniac, four ounces of asa¬
foetida, and a pound and a half of potash, to be mixed
together, and five pints to be distilled off with a slow
An excellent antispasmodic, particularly suited to
hysterical cases. Dose from 3® drops to a dram.
Particular Animal Substances.
Class MAMMALIA. Order Glires.
Castor! 3. Castor fiber, E. The beaver. CASTOR-
EUM, L. D. Castor.
This is a substance secreted in a follicle situated near
the anus of the beaver, perhaps the inguinal gland.
It is of a dark brown colour, friable, of a pungent bit¬
ter taste, and a very strong unpleasant smell. It is con¬
tained in a roundish or flattened membranous bag.
Bouillon la Grange lias found by analysis, that it con¬
sists of mucilage, bitter extract, resin, a peculiar volatile
oil, and a flaky crystalline substance resembling adipo-
cire. Its volatile parts come over by distillation with
water, and great part of the substance is soluble in al¬
cohol.
The best castor comes from Russia, but a great deal
is brought from Canada. The Russian castor is in lar¬
ger rounder bags, and is of a much strongei smell than
the Canadian.
Castor is one of our most established antispasmodics,
and was much esteemed and extolled by Dr Cullen.
It is chiefly prescribed in hysteria, but seldom alone
or in substance. Dose from 10 to 30 grains in a
bolus.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Castorei. Tincture of castor.
The London and Dublin colleges direct two ounces
of powdered Russian castor to be digested ten or seven
days in two pints (London), or two pounds (Dublin),
of proof spirit. According to the Edinburgh formula,
an ounce and a half of Russian castor is to be digested
for seven days in a pound of alcohol, and the tincture
strained through paper.
This tincture is of a dark brown colour, and possesses
all the valuable properties of the simple drug. Dose
M E D I C A, &c. Part IV.
from 30 drops to a dram. It is sometimes used as an History of
external application in ear-ach ; equal parts of this and Simple and
tincture of opium being dropped into the ear.
250
248
Tincture of
castor.
Officinal
Medicines.
b Tinctura Castorei composita, E. Compound ‘ '
tincture ot castor. ^ Compound
This is prepared by digesting an ounce of powdered tmetme ci
Russian castor, and half an ounce of asaleetida, in a
pound of ammoniated alcohol, for seven days, filtering
the liquor through paper.
A more powerful antispasmodic than the former }
dose from 20 to 40 drops.
4. Moschus moschiferus, E. The musk animal. Musk
MOSCHUS, L. D. Musk.
Musk is a resinous matter secreted in a receptacle
situated near the navel of the musk animal. See Mam¬
malia Index.
This substance is, when dry, of a reddish brown or
rusty black colour, somewhat unctuous, and of a more
or less granulated appearance it has a bitterish and
rather acrid taste; a fragrant smell, agreeable at a
distance, but so strong as to be highly unpleasant when
smelt near to. So violent indeed is the smell of musk,
when fresh taken from the animal, or from quantities
put up by the merchants for sale, that it has been known
to force the blood from the nose, eyes, and ears, of
those who have imprudently inhaled its vapours j and
we are assured by Chardin, that whene\er he engaged
in the purchase of musk, he found it always necessary to
cover his face with several folds of a handkerchief, in
order to be sufficiently secure against the sudden eftects
of the smell.
As musk is an expensive drug, it is frequently adul¬
terated by various substances : and we are assured that
pieces of lead have been found in some of the receptacles,
inserted in order to increase the weight. The most usuai
mode of adulterating it is by taking the musk from the
bag, and mixing it with dried blood coarsely powdered.
This may in general be detected by observing that the
bag has been opened j by the fetid smell which the
substance emits when heated, and by the smell of am-
moniacal gas which is perceived when the adulterated
musk is rubbed with potash.
This substance is particularly efficacious, and there
is scarcely any substitute for it in particular cases.
When properly administered it sometimes succeeds in
the most desperate cases. It raises the pulse without
producing much heat j it removes spasmodic affections,
and is found to have considerable effect on the nervous
system, increasing the powers of thought, sensation, and
voluntary motion.
It may be employed in all cases of typhus fevers*,
in particular, where there is much delirium, subsultus
tendinum, &c. It is also employed in febrile eruptions,
and in many spasmodic diseases, as the chincough, epi¬
lepsy, tetanus, &c.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Moschje, D. Tincture of musk.
This is prepared by macerating two drams of musk
in a pound of rectified spirit of wine for seven days, and
straining the liquor.
The tincture of musk may be given in doses of a
dram
35I
Tincture 01
musk.
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of dram or two. It is best mixed with honey or syrup, as
Simple and the addition of water renders it turbid.
Officinal
Medicines. b. Mistura MOSCHATA, L. Musk mixture.
252 This is directed by the London college to be made
Musk mix- by rubbing two scruples of musk, first with one dram
ture. 0t- double refined sugar, then with the addition of the
same quantity of powdered gum arable, and six ounces
of rose water, added by degrees.
The musk must be well rubbed with the sugar and
gum, before the rose water be added, otherwise a se¬
paration will take place. It is best to make this
preparation only when required, as it does not keep
well.
Musk mixture is given in most of the cases in which
the simple drug is indicated. Dose, an ounce or an
ounce and a half.
Hartshorn. 5* Cervus Elaphus, E. the Stag. CORNU CER-
VINUM, L. D. Hartshorn.
The horn of the stag differs little from bone, except
in containing more cartilage. It was formerly employ¬
ed in the preparation of ammonia, whence that alkali
was denominated hartshorn, and at present there are
two or three modifications of ammonia that are directed
to be prepared from this substance. It is also burnt to
form pure phosphate of lime.
Officinal Preparations.
Phosphate a. Phosphas Caixis, E. CORNU CERVI, VEL
of lime. CERVINUM USTUM, L. D. Phosphate of lime.
Burnt hartshorn.
The Edinburgh college directs this to be pre¬
pared by burning pieces of hartshorn till they be¬
come perfectly white, and then reducing them to a fine
powder.
Burnt hartshorn was formerly given as an antacid}
but its efficacy in that way appears to be trifling, as the
phosphoric acid is not easily separated from the lime,
and of course the latter will not neutralise the acid mor¬
bidly secreted in the alimentary canal. Of late pure
phosphate of lime has been recommended as a remedy
for rickets, with the view of supplying Solid matter to
the bones. Dose about ten grains.
M E DIC A, &c. 7 27
carbonate, except in containing a quantity of empyreu- History of
matic oil. They are in fact less pure than the above-Simple anl
mentioned preparations of ammonia, and might be en- °ft;cinal
tirely set aside. They are chiefly used to smell to in
cases of fainting or hysteria.
These preparations may be made from the bones or
horns of any animal, where hartshorn cannot be conve¬
niently procured. g
c. Oleum animale, L. OLEUM CORNU Animal oil.
CERVINI RECTIFICATUM, D. Animal oil. Pec-
tjied oil oj hartshorn. Hippel's oil.
This is made by distilling the oil of hartshorn that
rises in the preceding operation, twice or three times,
either by itself, or with the addition of water.
Animal oil was formerly much employed as a power¬
ful antispasmodic. Dose 15—30 drops. When given
six hours before the accession of a paroxysm of an inter¬
mitting fever, on an empty stomach, it is said to have
kept off the paroxysm.
6. Ovis Aries, E. the Sheep. SEVUM O'VIL- Muttort
LUM, L. D. Mutton suet.
a55
Volatile
liquor of
hartshorn.
256
Salt of
hartshorn.
257
M of
lartshorn.
b. Liquor volatilis Cornu Cervi, L. D. Vo¬
latile liquor of hartshorn. Spirit of hartshorn.
c. Sal Cornu Cervi, L. D. Salt of hartshorn.
d. Oleum Cornu Cervi, L. D. Oil of harts¬
horn.
These are all made from one chemical operation. A
quantity of hartshorn is put into a retort, and submit¬
ted to a heat that is gradually increased. First the
volatile liquor comes over, then the salt, and lastly the
oil. After the salt and oil are separated from the
liquor, this is distilled again two or three times
with a moderate heat, by which it is rendered more
pure.
The salt is purified by mixing it with an equal weight
of prepared chalk, and then subliming.
The volatile liquor and salt of hartshorn differ little
from the water of carbonate of ammonia, and the solid
Vol. XII. Part II. +
suet.
26b
Mutton suet is employed in Che preparation of several
ointments and cerates, which will be mentioned here¬
after.
Order 6. BellUjE.
7. Sus scrofa, E. the Hog. ADEPS SUILLUS,Hogs lar^.
L. D. Hogs lard.
Used also in the preparation of liniments, ointments,
&c. and sometimes employed alone as an external
emollient.
Order 7. Cete.
8. Physeter malrocephalus, E.
Whale. Sperma Ceti, L. D.
This is a white flakey substance, that is found in
certain cells in the head of the spermaceti whale. See
Cetology, N° 66, and Chemistry, N° 2860.
As an emollient, spermaceti is employed both inter¬
nally and externally. Internally it is given in the
form of emulsion mixed with mucilage or yolk of egg,
or mixed with syrup into a linctus, in cases of catarrh,
ardor urince, &c. As an external application, it enters
into the composition of the following
Officinal Preparations.
a. Unguentum Spermatis Ceti, L. D.
261
Spermaceti Spermaceti.
Sper- Ointment
maceti ointment. of sperma-
ceti.
This ointment is prepared by melting together six
drams of spermaceti, two drams of white wax, and three
ounces of olive oil, over a slow fire, stirring them con¬
stantly till they are cold.
253
b. Ceratum Spermatis Ceti, L. D. CERA-Spermaceti
TUM SIMPLEX, E. Spermaceti cerate. Simple cerate.
Cerate. White Cerate.
In the preparations of this cerate, the proportions of
the Edinburgh pharmacopoeia differ from these directed
by the colleges of London and Dublin. The former
orders six parts of olive oil, three of white wax, and
one of spermaceti} the two latter, half an ounce of
spermaceti, two ounces of white wax, and four ounces
5 A oi
73»
MATERIA
They are made in a similar manner with the
MEDIC A, 8cc.
PartiL
History of °^*
bimple and ointment.
Officinal These preparations are used principally for dressing
Medicines. u]cers> or to form more compounded ointments or ce-
' ' v rates.
264
Goose-
grease.
Egg-
265
Class II. BIRDS. Order 1. Anseres.
9. Anas Anser, the goose. ADEPS ANSERIN-
US, D. Goose grease.
This fat is now rarely used in medicine, as it seems
to possess no superior properties to hog’s lard, which is
more conveniently procured.
Order 2. Galling.
10. Phasianus Gallus, the domestic fowl. OVUM
EJUSQUE PUTAMEN. Egg, and egg-shells.
The yolk of egg is employed in pharmacy for ren¬
dering oils and resins miscible in water. lor this
purpose it is scarcely preferable to common vegetable
mucilage, and has the disadvantage oi sooner becoming
putrid, and the white is used in making alum cataplasm.
Egg-shells prepared, i. e. levigated, are sometimes em¬
ployed as an antacid, but they do not seem better in
that respect than common carbonate of lime, or mag¬
nesia.
Class IV. FISHES. Order 6. Chondropterygii.
. 11. Accipenser Huso, E. Isinglass fish. Tchthyo-
^ ‘ag aSi” cOLLA, L. D.Isinglass. See the article ICHTHYOCOLLA.
Employed as an emollient, and said to be the prin¬
cipal substance used in making court plaster.
Order I. Coleoftera.
MELOE VESICA-
mities, but also in that which is occasioned by an over- History of
distention of the bladder, these Hies have been admini-Simple and
stered internally with evident relief. The same benefi- 0<?.ci.nal
cial effects have followed their use in ischuria vesicalis,, e ^incV
or suppression of urine from over-distension of the blad¬
der. They are recommended as an excellent remedy
in gleets by Mead and Werlhof, and the last-mentioned
physician prescribed them in cases of hydrophobia.
The internal use of cantharides in gleets and leucor-
rhoea has oi' late been much extended by Dr John Ro¬
bertson j but for an account of the circumstances which
led him to such a free use of this medicine, and for his
mode of exhibiting it, we must refer to his late work
on the subject, and a paper published by him in the se¬
cond volume of the Edinburgh Medical Journal.
When these stimulants are administered internally,
they are prescribed either ih poivdcr or in tincture.
The dose in substance (which is the most certain form
of internal exhibition) is from half a grain to one ox-
two grains every sixth hour, made into pills. Of the
tincture, the dose is from 10 to 30 drops. During the
use of either, the patient should be directed to drink
of mucilaginous decoctions, emulsions, &c. Camphor
is thought by some practitioners to moderate the too
stimulating action of canthax-ides, and is accordingly
combined with them or their tinctures whenever they
are given internally. Others join nitre with them, as
well as camphor.
Of the external use of cantharides by w-ay of blister,
we shall speak presently under the preparations that are
employed for that purpose.
Officinal Preparations.
268
Class V. INSECTS.
Canthari 1 2- LYTTA VESICATORIA.
des. ’ TORIES, E. CANTHARIS, L. D. Canthandes.
Spanish flies.
For the natural history of this insect, see Entomo¬
logy, p. 169 } and for its chemical analysis, see Che¬
mistry, N° 2875.
Cantharides are stimulant and virulent to so great a
degree, that their internal exhibition requires to be
conducted with the utmost caution, otherwise inflamma¬
tion in the stomach, intestines, or urinary passages, may
be the consequence. W hen taken in considerable quan¬
tity, they produce inflammation and ulceration of the
stomach and bowels, attended with mucous or purulent
stools, fetid bx-eatb, violent pains in the belly; and these
symptoms, if not timely relieved, are followed by faint¬
ness, giddiness, and death. Applied externally, they
inflame and excoriate the skin, and if continued for a
sufficient time, produce a large vesication, filled with
acrid serum. Their external application is not unfre-
quently followed by distressing strangury.
Internally they have been exhibited as a diuretic in
dropsical cases, in a dose from half a grain to a grain.
They are frequently employed in weakness of the uri¬
nary organs : in incontinence of urine proceeding from
paralysis vesicse, in gleets, fluor albus, diabetes, and
other diseases of the urinary passages, originating in, or
connected with debility. Not only in the incontinency
of urine which accompanies a palsy of the lower extre-
1
a. TlNCTURA MeloES VES1CATORII, E. TINCTU-Tincture of
RA CANTHARIDIS, L. T. CANTHARIDUM,£“than*
D. Tincture of cantharides.
The Edinburgh tincture is directed to be made, by
digesting for seven days a dram of powdered cantha¬
rides in a pound of diluted alcohol; and that of the
Dublin college is prepared with the same proportions.
The London tincture is made by digesting two drams
of bruised cantharides, and half a pound of powdered
cochineal, in a pint and a half of proof spirit for eight
days.
These tinctures differ a little in point of strength.
W hen given internally, the dose of the Edinburgh or
Dublin tincture may be from 20 to 30 drops ; that of
the London tincture from 10 to 20 drops. I hey are
employed externally as a rubefacient in cases of palsy,
angina, gastritis, $tc.
b. Ceratum CanthariDIS, L. D. Cerate of can- Cerate of
tn ancles. (jes#
This cerate is prepared by mixing a dram, or four
scruples, of powdered cantharides, with six drams, or
an ounce, of spermaceti cerate.
It is chiefly employed to promote the running of is¬
sues. 270
c. Emplastrum Meloes vesicatorii, E. EM-^^ri.
PLASTRUM CANTHARIDIS, L. EMP. CAN-des.
THARIDUM, D. Plaster of cantharides. Blistering
plaster.
According to the Edinburgh college, this plaster is
to
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
271
Compound
plaster of
canthari-
des.
272
Ointment
>f cantha-
ides.
. 273
lintment
f infusion
f cantha-
ides.
274
intment
fcantha-
(ies pow-
tr.
to be prepared by first melting together equal weights
of mutton suet, yellow wax, and white rosin j and
when these are removed from the fire, sprinkling in an
equal proportion of powdered cantharides. The propor¬
tions ot the London and Dublin colleges are 1 pound of
finely powdered cantharides, 2 pounds of wax plaster,
and half a pound of hog’s lard, and the ingredients are
mixed in a similar manner.
cl Emplastrum Merges Vesicatorii Composi-
tum, E. Compound plaster of cantharides.
This is made of Burgundy pitch, Venice turpentine,
cantharides, each 12 parts ; yellow wax, 4 parts ; sub¬
acetate of copper, 2 parts ; mustard seed and black pep¬
per, each 1 part. Having first melted the pitch and
wax, the turpentine is to be added, and while these in¬
gredients are still fluid, the other articles in fine powder
are to be mixed with them, and the whole constantly
stirred till cold.
This last-mentioned plaster of Spanish flies is too
compound, and being of a corrosive quality, is rarely
prescribed. The other more simple forms of canthari¬
des plaster are in frequent use for exciting vesications in
various acute and chronic diseases, particularly in inter¬
nal inflammations and pains, as well as in many spas¬
modic affections. Blistering has been recommended by
some physicians in the advanced and sinking stage of
typhus fever j but the propriety of such a practice is
extremely questionable. We would further remark,
that in the febrile disorders of children, a good deal of
caution is requisite in the application of blisters j a
spreading erythematous inflammation, and even gan¬
grene, being sometimes the consequence. In some of
the above-mentioned disorders much benefit is obtained
by keeping the blistered part open, or in an ulcerated
state for a considerable length of time. This is done by
any ot the following ointments.
r. Unguentum Cantharidis, L. UNG. CAN-
THAMDUM, D. Ointment of cantharides.
This is prepared by taking pulverized Spanish flies,
two ounces 5 distilled water, eight ounces j ointment of
yellow resin, eight ounces. The Spanish flies being
boiled in the water, this is reduced to half the original
quantity, the liquor is strained, and the ointment of
yellow resin added. The mixture is then placed in a
water bath, saturated with sea salt, and evaporated to
the consistence of an ointment.
f Unguentum Infusi Merges vesicatorii, E.
Ointment of infusion of cantharides.
To prepare this ointment, the Edinburgh college di¬
rects one part of cantharides to be macerated for a
night in four parts of boiling w’ater j the exprest and
strained liquor to be boiled with two parts of hogs lard
till the water is evaporated, then one part of yellow
wax, and the same proportion of white rosin to be add¬
ed } and when the whole is melted, and removed from
the fire, two parts of Venice turpentine are to be mixed
with it, and the whole stirred till cold.
g. Unguentum Purveris Merges vesicatorii,
E. Ointment of cantharides powder.
This is prepared by mixing together seven parts of
M E D IC A, &c. 7 c’q
resinous ointment, and one part of powdered canthari- History of
des. Simple and
All these ointments, besides being used for keeping 0®pinal
open blisters, are occasionally employed for issue oint- ^ dLiius-
ments.
For more on the subject of blisters, the reader is re¬
ferred to Percival’s Essays, vol. i. and Withers on the
use and abuse of Medicines.
Order 2. Hemiptera.
275
13. Coccus Cacti, E. COCCINELLA, L. D. Cochineal.
Cochineal. See Entomorogy Inder.
I his is employed in medicine merely as a colouring
matter.
Order 5. Hymenoptera.
Apis Merrifica. The bee.
14. MEL. Honey.
276
Honey
277
Clarified
honey.
Besides being used as an article of diet, honey is
often employed medicinally, either for the preparation
of electuaries, or for making a kind of syrups, called
oxymels or medicated honeys. It generally proves gent¬
ly laxative, hut is apt to disagree with the stomach,
producing sickness and griping. It might probably
be entirely superseded by sugar, which is not attended
with those unpleasant effects.
Ojficinal Preparations.
a. Mer despumatum. Clarified honey.
For the purpose of clarifying honey, the colleges of
London and Dublin direct that it should be melted in
a water bath, removing the scum as it rises.
In this way the honey is rendered more beautiful to
the eye, but is scarcely less liable to disagree with weak
stomachs.
27S
b. Mer acetatum, L. OXYMEL SIMPLEX. Acctated
Acetated honey. Simple oxymel. honey.
Two pounds of clarified honey are boiled in a glass
vessel over a gentle fire, with one pound of distilled
vinegar, till they are reduced to the consistence of a
syrup.
This is a useful remedy, diluted with water and em¬
ployed as a gargle, in coughs and sore throats.
Order 7. Aptera.
15. Oniscus aserrus, E.
D. Millepedes or Woodlice.
I ormerly employed as a diuretic in the form of pills,
that were made either of the living animals, or of these
killed by spirit of wine and powdered.
16. Cancer astacus, E. The craw-fish.
cromm lapilli. Crabs eyes. See Chemistry. N°
2882.
279
MILLEPEDA, L. Millepedes.
280
Crabs eves-
OJjicinal Preparation.
a. Cancrorum rafirli przeparati, E. Prepared Prepared
crabs eyes. crabs eyes.
5 A 2 Formerly
74°
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
28a
Crabs
claws.
283
Prepared
crabs claws.
284
Compound
powder of
crabs claws.
285
Leeches.
2S6
Oyster
shells.
287
Prepared
oyster
shells.
MATERIA
Formerly much employed as an antacid, though not
at all superior to common carbonate of lime.
17. Cancer pagurus, E. The black-clawed crab.
CHELiE CANCRORUM, L. Crabs claws.
Officinal Preparations..
a. Chelae Cancrorum PR^EPARATiE, L. Prepared
crabs claws.
Reduced to powder like the former, by levigation,
diffusion, filtration, and drying. Of similar properties.
b. Pulvis Chelarum Cancri compositus, L.
Compound powder of crabs claws.
A mixture of one pound of prepared crabs claws,
with three ounces of prepared chalk, and the same pro¬
portion of prepared red coral.
Class VI. WORMS.
18. Hirudo medicinalis.
Helminthology Index.
Order 3. Testacea.
Order 2. Mollusc A.
Medicinal leech. See
MEDIC A, &c. Partly.
Burnt sponge has been long employed as a remedy History of
in scrophulous affections. It seems to owe its beneficial
operation (mostly slight and uncertain) in these dis- ^edidnes.
orders, partly to its alkaline and partly to its carbona-
ceous nature. Perhaps the first-mentioned may contri¬
bute to the solution and diflusion (in the human body)
of its coaly matter. It is given (made into a bolus, or
lozenge) in doses of a scruple, or half a dram, twice
a-day.
It is likewise said to be a remedy for the bronchocele,
in which cases it has been administered with success in
the following manner. The stomach and bowels ha¬
ving been duly cleansed by a vomit and purge taken
two days before, the patient, on going to bed, is to
place a bolus consisting of half a dram of burnt sponge,
and as much honey as is necessary, in the mouth, under
the tongue, and^as it gradually dissolves to swallow it.
This bolus is to be repeated for six nights. A bitter
powder made of five grains of chamomile flowers, gen¬
tian root, and the lesser centaury tops, is to be taken
every seventh day during the use of the bolus, and on
the eighth day the purge is to be repeated. Others
have employed sponge in these cases in the form of a
lozenge, which is certainly more conveniently held in
the mouth than a bolus *. *
rus Medu
in. Ostrea edulis, E. OSTREA, L. D. Oy¬
ster. See Conchology Index. TESTTE OSTRE-
ARUM. Oyster shells. See Chemistry, N° 2883.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Ostrearum TestjE ER-EPARATiE, L. Prepared
oyster shells.
Chap. II. Vegetable Substances.
Sect. I. Vegetable products that are procured from
plants in general, or from such as are imperfectly
known.
eammum.
22. Carbo Ligni, E.
QTP V 1 mrlw_
Charcoal. See
392
ChemI- Charcoak
Prepared in the same way as crabs claws, possessing
similar properties.
Order 4. Zoophyte.
288
Red coral. 20. GoRGONIA NOBILIS. Isis NOBILIS, E. CORAL-
LIUM RUBRUM, L. D. Red coral. See Che¬
mistry, N° 2886.
Officinal Preparation.
For medical purposes charcoal should be fresh burned,
or should be kept carefully excluded from the air. Its
chief use is as an antiseptic, correcting putridity ; hence
it is employed as a tooth-powder, either alone or mixed
with astringents and aromatics, and is sometimes given
internally in diarrhoea and dysentery, where the matters
evacuated are very offensive. It is also said to act as
a gentle laxative.
6 293
23. Fuligo Ligni combusti. Wood soot. Wood soot.
289
Prepared
red coral.
290
Spouge.
291
Burnt
sponge.
a. Corallium rubrum Pr.eparatum, Prepared
red coral.
As above.
21. Spongia officinalis, E. SPONGIA, L. D.
Sponge. See Helminthology Index.
In its natural state, sponge is employed by surgeons,
for cleansing wounds and ulcers, for making tents, and
for stopping hemorrhagies from small divided blood
vessels.
Oficinal Preparation.
a. Spongia usta, L. D. Burnt sponge.
Sponge is burnt in a close iron vessel, after being
cut into small pieces and bruised to free it from earthy
and stony matter. The burning is continued till the
sponge becomes black and friable, and it is then reduced
to a fine powder.
This differs from charcoal in containing a considerable
quantity of empyreumatic oil, to which the properties
attributed to it as an antispasmodic are to be ascribed.
It is now seldom used.
294
24. Alcohol, E. SPIRITUS VINOSUS REC-Common
TIFICATUS, L. SPIRITUS YINI RECTIFI-alcoho1
CATUS, D. Alcohol. Rectified spirit of wine.
For the usual preparation, history, and chemical pro¬
perties of alcohol, see Chemistry, Chap. xi. sect. i.
The only certain mode of ascertaining the purity of
alcohol and its preparations is by taking their specific
gravity, for the manner of doing which see Hydrody¬
namics. The specific gravity of rectified spirit should
be 835.
Alcohol is one of the most violent stimuli with which
we are acquainted. Applied externally it corrugates
the solid parts of the body, and coagulates all the
albuminous and gelatinous fluids with which it comes in
contact. By violently contracting the smaller vessels, it
checks
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of checks passive hemorrhagies, and by destroying the sen-
Simple andsihility of the extremities of nerves it alleviates pain,
Medicines ani^ m some cases removes spasm. Taken undiluted in-
. ^ . i to the stomach, it acts in a similar manner, contracting
the solids and destroying nervous sensibility. If the
quantity is considerable, it brings on apoplexy and
palsy, followed by death. Sufficiently diluted alcohol
acts as a tonic and gentle stimulus, exhilarating the spi¬
rits, increasing the appetite, and promoting digestion j
but a too frequent use of ardent spirits is attended with
dangerous consequences. See N° 102. It is a useful
application to recent burns and scalds, preventing vesi¬
cation.
It must be remarked, that what the Edinburgh col¬
lege have called alcohol is not pure alcohol.
295
Pure alco¬
hol.
296
Vitriolic
ethereal
liquor.
. 297
Spirit of
vitriolic
ether.
29S
Sulphuric
ether.
OJjicinal 1* reparations.
a. Alcohol, L. D. Alcohol.
The process for obtaining pure alcohol given by the
London college is somewhat different from that of the
Dublin college. The former directs a gallon of recti¬
fied spirit of wine to be mixed with an ounce of pure
kali, and afterwards a pound of hot prepared kali to be
added. The mixture is to be well shaken and set by
for 24 hours, when the spirit is to be poured off, mix¬
ed with half a pound more prepared kali, and distilled
in a water bath. The distilled alcohol should have the
specific gravity of 815.
The process of the Dublin pharmacopoeia is as fol¬
lows. Five pounds of rectified spirit are mixed with
one ounce of caustic vegetable alkali, and then with one
pound of pearl ashes dried over the fire and still warm.
This mixture is digested for three days, shaking it fre¬
quently ; and then the spirit is poured off, and distilled
till three pounds have come over. The Dublin alcohol
has the specific gravity of 820, and is consequently
weaker than that of the London pharmacopoeia.
Pure alcohol is not employed in medicine, and there¬
fore the college of Edinburgh have given no formula
for its preparation.
b. Liquor jethereus vitriolicus, D. Vitriolic
ethereal liquor.
This is prepared by putting 32 ounces of rectified
spirit of wine into a retort that is capable of supporting
a sudden heat, and pouring on it in a continued stream
32 ounces of sulphuric acid, mixing them gradually *,
then placing the retort in heated sand, and distilling off
16 ounces into a cool receiver, taking care so to regu¬
late the heat that the mixture may boil as soon as pos¬
sible. The specific gravity should be about 753.
In a similar manner is prepared the
Spiritus ^etheris vitriolici, L. Spirit of vitri¬
olic ether.
This preparation is an impure ether, and, when pu¬
rified, as directed below, it forms the officinal sulphu¬
ric ether.
It is employed as a stimulant in low fevers and fe¬
brile eruptions. Dose from 60 to 100 drops.
c. ./Ether sulphuricus, E. iETHER VITRI¬
OLICUS, L. D. Sulphuric ether. Vitriolic ether. .
M E D 1 C A, &c. 741
The colleges of London and Dublin direct their sul- History of
phuric ether to be prepared by rectifying the former Simple and
preparation by means of potash. According to the Officinal
former, two pounds of spirit of vitriolic ether are to be Medlcme!!-
mixed with one measured ounce of water of pure kali,
and the mixture distilled with a gentle heat, till 14
measured ounces have come over. In the Dublin for¬
mula 16 ounces of vitriolic ethereal liquor are mixed
with two drams of powdered caustic vegetable alkali j
and 10 ounces are distilled off.
The Edinburgh college direct 32 ounces of alcohol,
and the same quantity of sulphuric acid, to be mixed
together in a proper retort, and 16 ounces to be distil¬
led over from a sand heat suddenly applied. To the
distilled liquor are. then to be added twTo drachms of
potash, and from a very high retort 10 ounces are to
be distilled with a gentle fire.
On the chemical nature and properties of sulphuric
ether, see Chemistry, Chap. XI. Sect. II. Its spe¬
cific gravity should be about 739.
The medical uses of ether are thus described by Dr
Duncan. “ As a medicine taken internally, it is an
excellent antispasmodic, cordial, and stimulant. In
catarrhal and asthmatic complaints, its vapour is inhaled
with advantage, by holding in the mouth a piece of su¬
gar, on which ether has been dropt. It is given as a
cordial in nausea, and in febrile diseases of the typhoid
type, as an antispasmodic in hysteria, and in other
spasmodic and painful diseases j and as a stimulus in so¬
porose and apoplectic affections. Regular practitioners
seldom give so much as half an ounce, much more fre¬
quently only a few drops, for a dose} but empirics
have sometimes ventured upon much larger quantities,
and with incredible benefit. When applied externally,
it is capable of producing two very opposite effects, ac¬
cording to its management; for if it be prevented from
evaporating, by covering the place to which it is ap¬
plied closely with the hand, it proves a powerful stimu¬
lant and rubefacient, and excites a sensation of burning
heat. In this way it is frequently used for removing
pains in the head or teeth. On the contrary, if it be
dropt on any part of the body exposed freely to the
contact of the air, its rapid evaporation produces an in¬
tense degree of cold ; and this is attended with a pro¬
portional diminution of bulk in the part to which it Duncan's
applied: in this way it has frequently facilitated the
reduction of strangulated hernia t°ry-
299
d. ./Ether sulphuricus cum Alcohole, E. Sul-Sulphuric
phuric ether with alcohol. ether with
alcohol.
This is prepared by mixing together one part of sul¬
phuric ether, and two parts of alcohol. In nature and
properties, it agrees with the spiritus cetheris vitriolici
of the London Pharmacopoeia.
c. Oleum Vini, L. Oil of wine.
300
This preparation is made by mixing together one Oil of wine,
part of alcohol, and the same quantity of sulphuric
acid, and distilling, taking care that no black froth
pass into the receiver. The oily part of the distilled
liquor is to be separated from the volatile acid j and to
the former is to be added as much water and pure kali,
as is sufficient to correct the sulphureous smell. Then
a gentle heat is to be applied to distil off the little ether
that
742
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
301
Compound
spirit of vi¬
triolic
ether.
3 02
Oily ethe¬
real liquor.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
3°3
Aromatic
sulphuric
ether with
alcohol.
304
"Diluted al¬
cohol.
305
Common
acetous
acid.
that the liquor contains ; and the oil that floats on the
remaining fluid is to he separated and preserved for
use.
This is employed chiefly as an ingredient in the fol¬
lowing preparation ; though it is sometimes given alone
as a stimulus, in a dose from ro to 20 drops.
/. SpIRITUS iETHF.RIS V1TRI0LICI COMPOSITUS, L.
Compound spirit of vitriolic ether.
Prepared by mixing two pounds of spirit of vitriolic
ether, and three drams of the oil of wine.
It is employed as an antispasmodic in similar cases, and
doses, as sulphuric ether.
Liquor aithereus oeeosus, D. LIQUOR
HOFFMANNI AN0DYNU8. Oily ethereal li¬
quor. Hoffman's anodyne liquor.
Made by distilling to one half the liquor that re¬
mains after preparing the Dublin vitriolic ether.
Similar in its properties to ether, but weaker. It is
much the same as the former.
A. j^Ether sulphuricus cum Alcohole aromati-
CUS, E. Aromatic sulphuric ether with alcohol.
This is prepared by digesting, for seven days, an
ounce of bruised cinnamon, an ounce of bruised lesser
cardamom seeds, and two drams of powdered long pep¬
per, in two pounds and a half of sulphuric ether with
alcohol.
A powerful stimulant and tonic. Dose 30 drops to
a dram.
25. Alcohol dilutum, E. SPIRITUS VINO-
SUS TENUIOR, L. SPIRITUS VINI TE-
NUIOR, D. Diluted alcohol. Weaker spirit of wine.
Pi'oqf spirit.
This is rectified spirit lowered with water to what is
called proof strength, having a specific gravity of about
935. In all its essential properties it resembles com¬
mon spirits, and either whisky or British spirit may btf
used for it. The proof spirit of commerce is usually
distilled either from molasses or grain.
In pharmacy it is employed as a menstruum for mak¬
ing various tinctures.
26. Acidum acetosum impurum. ACETUM
VINI, D. ACETUM, L. Impure acetous acid.
Vinegar.
As the vinegar commonly met with is made from
other fermented liquors besides the juice of the grape,
we have inserted it here among the vegetable princi¬
ples. On the production and properties of vinegar,
see Chemistry, N° 649 and 2310. Common vinegar,
besides diluted acetous acid, contains tartaric acid, tar¬
trate of potash, supertartrate of potash, and mucilage.
It should be transparent, of a pale yellow colour, fra¬
grant pungent smell, and an agreeable sharp taste. It
is seldom employed in medicine before it is purified by
distillation or other processes to be immediately men¬
tioned. Vinegar is a good family remedy as a refrige¬
rant in fevers, as a stimulant external application in
bruises, sprains, Stc. and vinegar whey made by coa¬
gulating warm milk by means of good vinegar, is one
ol the best auxiliary diaphoretics with which we are ac¬
quainted.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Acidum acetosum desttllatum, E
TUM DISTILL AT UM, L. D.
ACE
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
3°6
The Edinburgh college directs eight pounds of com-acetous'
mon acetous acid to be distilled in a glass vessel with a acid,
gentle heat, setting aside the first two pounds that come
over, and preserving the next four pounds. The Dub¬
lin college directs 10 pounds of vinegar to be put into
the still, and six pounds to be drawn off at once ; and
the London college, from five pounds, directs that there
should be distilled off as much as comes over free from
empyruma.
Distilled vinegar is freed from the salts and mucilage
contained in common vinegar, and therefore is purer
and keeps better 5 but it is much weaker than good
vinegar. If it has been distilled in glaes vessels it can
have acquired no metallic impregnation j but it is
sometimes, as well as common vinegar, adulterated
with sulphuric acid to make it appear stronger. This
fraud may be detected by adding muriate of baryta,
which will produce a white precipitate if sulphuric acid
be present.
It is employed for gargles, for preparing various ace¬
tates, and other officinal medicines. It is also given as
a refrigerant diluted with water in feverish disorders,
and is applied externally.
3°7
b. Acidum acetosum forte, E. ACIDUM Strong
ACETOSUM, L. Strong acetous acid. Radical vi- ^j^ous
negar. Acetic acid.
By the Edinburgh process, a pound of dried sul¬
phate of iron is to be rubbed with 10 ounces of ace¬
tate of lead ; the mixture is then to be put into a re¬
tort, and distilled as long as any acid comes over.
The London college directs two pounds of coarsely-
powdered verdigris, well dried by means of a water
bath, saturated with sea salt, to be put into a retort
and distilled, repeating the distillation with the liquor
that comes over.
On the production and properties of this acid, see
Chemistry, N° 652, et seq. Its specific gravity
should be about 1060. It is sometimes contaminated
with sulphurous acid or with lead. The former may
be discovered by the unpleasant tickling cough it then
occasions when snuffed up the nose } and the latter by
adding sulpburet of ammonia, by which, if lead be pre¬
sent, the liquor will be tinged of a dark brown.
This preparation is employed chiefly as a stimulant to
be snuffed up the nose in syncope, hystoia, and similar
affections : externally it acts as a rubefacient. Both
this and the two following may be used as fumigations
to correct the bad smell of sick rooms.
1°S
Aromatic vinegar. Aromatic
vinegar.
c. Acetum aromaticum, E.
Vinegar of the four thieves.
Made by macerating four ounces of dried rosemary
tops, four ounces of dried sage leaves, two ounces of
dried lavender flowers, and two drams of cloves, in
eight pounds of distilled acetous acid for seven days,
and straining.
Sometimes given as a stimulus, diluted with water in
typhus.
d. Acidum
Part IV.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
d. AciDUM ACETOSUM CAMFHOltATUM, E.
phorated acetous acid.
3°9
Campho¬
rated ace¬
tous acid.
310
Syrup of
acetous
acid.
Prepared by dissolving half an ounce of camphor, re¬
duced to powder by being rubbed with alcohol, in six
ounces of strong acetous acid.
Xliis should be kept in glass phials with ground stop¬
pers. It is an excellent stimulus for snuffinsr up the no¬
strils. 0
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 743
Cam- lowing it to stand till cold, when most of the sulphate History of
of potash is separated in crystals. Simple and
This alkaline carbonate is employed as a diuretic, Officinal
mixed with infusion of chamomile and spirit of juniper,
in a dose of about a scruple repeated occasionally j and
as an antacid. It is also employed in combination
with citric acid, to relieve nausea and check vomit-
e. Syrupus Acidi acetosi, E. Syrup of acetous
acid.
This is prepared by boiling together two pounds and
a half of acetous acid (rommon vinegar'), and three
pounds and a half of double refined sugar.
Used in the same cases as acetated honey, (see N°
277.) to which it is preferable.
ing.
b. Aqua Kali prteparati, L.
MITE, D. Water of prepared kali.
LIXIVIUM Water'of
Mild leu. prepared
kali.
This is made by allowing subcarbonate of potash to
deliquesce in a moist atmosphere, and straining it 5 or,
by dissolving it in an equal weight of water.
It possesses the same properties as the dry carbo¬
nate, and is employed chiefly for decomposing other
salts.
Aceiate of / Acetas Potassal, E. KALI ACETATUM,
potash. L. ALKALI VEGETABILE ACETATUM,
D. SAL DIURETICUS. Acetate of potash. A-
cetated kali. Acetated vegetable alkali. Diuretic salt.
Impure sub¬
carbonate
of potash.
This salt is made by boiling any quantity of subcar¬
bonate of potash with distilled acetous acid, first using
about five times its weight, and, during the boiling,
gradually adding more till all effervescence ceases,
slowly evaporating to dryness, fusing the dry salt, then
dissolving it in water, and slowly evaporating the solu¬
tion till there remains a dry white saline mass, which is
to be kept well stopt from the air, in which it deli¬
quesces. See Chemistry, N° 987.
Acetate of potash is employed as a diuretic in a dose
of from one to four scruples, and in a dilute solution as
a refrigerant in fevers, &c.
27. SUBCARBOXAS PoTASSjE IMPURUS. CARBO-
NAS POTASSiE IMPURUS, E. CINERES
CLAVELLATI, L. ALKALI FIXUM VE¬
GETABILE, 13. Impure subcarbonate of potash.
Potashes. Pearl ashes. Fixed vegetable alkali.
For the production and nature of this alkaline sub¬
stance, see Chemistry, Chap. XII. Sect. I. It is sel¬
dom employed in pharmacy, except as the basis of some
officinal preparations.
3X3
Subcarbo- a. SuBCARBONAS PoTASSAE. CARBONAS POT-
nateofpot-ASSiE, E. KALI PRyEPARATUM, L. AL-
ash- KALI VEGETABILE MITE, D. Subcarbonate
of potash. Carbonate of potash. Prepared kali. Mild
vegetable alkali.
c. Aq.ua Carbonatis Potass^. AQUA SUPER-Water of
CARBONATIS POTASS^E, E. LIQUOR AL - carbonate
KALI VEGETABILIS MITISSIMI, D. Water °f potash
of carbonate of potash. Solution of mildest vegetable
alkali.
This is properly a neutral salt, and is prepared by dis¬
solving subcarhonate of potash in water, and saturating
it with carbonic acid, by passing through it a stream of
this gas, arising from the decomposition of carbonate of
lime, by diluted sulphuric acid.
On the nature of this salt, see Chemistry, N° 109,
174.
By this means the alkaline carbonate is better adapt¬
ed for internal use, as it is rendered not only more plea
sant to the taste, but is less apt to offend the stomach.
Indeed it is the only form in which we can exhibit
potash in sufficient doses, and for a sufficient length of
time, to derive much benefit from its use in calculous
complaints. It has certainly been frequently of advan¬
tage in these affections, but probably only in those in¬
stances in which the stone consists of uric acid, or urate
of ammonia j for though supersaturated with carbonic
acid, yet the affinity of that acid for potash is so weak,
that it really operates as an alkali.
Six or eight ounces may be taken two or three times
a-day. It in general proves powerfully diuretic, and
sometimes produces inebriation. This last effect is
ascribed to the carbonic acid.
d. Aqua Potassae, E. AQUA KALI PURI, L.
LIXIVIUM CAUSTICUM, D. Water of potash, petal
Water of pure kali. Caustic ley.
This is usually prepared from the former substance,
which is purified by burning it in a crucible, then dis¬
solving it in water, filtering and evaporating to dryness
in a clean iron pot, stirring the mass as it dries, to pre¬
vent its coalescing into one cake.
This salt appears in small white grains of scarcely
any perceptible smell, but of a hot alkaline taste.
When pure, it should dissolve entirely in cold water,
and should deliquesce in moist air into a limpid transpa¬
rent fluid.
As usually made, it contains a considerable propor¬
tion of sulphate of potash, which may be separated from
it by mixing it with its own weight of water, and al-
The following is the Edinburgh process for obtain¬
ing a solution of pure potash.
Take of newly prepared lime, eight ounces ; carbo¬
nate of potash, six ounces. Put the lime into an iron
or earthen vessel, with 28 ounces of warm water. Af¬
ter the ebullition is finished, instantly add the salt, and
having thoroughly mixed them, cover the vessel till
they cool. When the mixture has cooled, agitate it
well, and pour it into a glass funnel, whose throat must
be obstructed with a piece of clean linen. Cover the
upper orifice of the funnel, and insert its tube into an¬
other glass vessel, so that the water of potash may gra¬
dually drop through the rag into the lower vessel. As
soon
Officinal
Medicines.
3^7
Potash.
74+ MATERIA
History of soon as it ceases to ilrop, pour into the funnel some
Simple and ounces water, hut cautiously, so that it may swim
above the matter. The water ot potash will again be¬
gin to drop, and the allusion of water is to be repeated
in the same manner, until three pounds have dropped,
which will happen in the space of two or three days ;
then mix the superior and inferior parts of the liquor
together by agitation, and keep it in a well-stopped
phial.
From this process those of the London and Dublin
colleges do not materially differ. I' or other methods
of procuring pure potash, see Chemistry, In 9°5>
et seq.
This preparation was formerly much employed in
calculous disorders. From 10 to 40 drops were given
in gruel, ,nnlk, or broth, twice or thrice a-day 5. but
even in these doses it has often proved highly injurious,
when long continued, to the organs of digestion. Hence
it has been justly superseded by the solution of carbo¬
nate of potash above mentioned.
e. Potassa, E. KALI PURUM, L. ALKALI
VEGETABILE CAUSTICUM, D. LAPIS IN-
FERNALIS. Potash. Pure kali. Caustic vegetable
alkali. Common stronger caustic.
This is made by evaporating any quantity of the so¬
lution of potash in a very clean covered iron vessel, till
on the ebullition ceasing, the saline matter flows like
oil, which happens before the vessel becomes red. The
mass is then to be poured out on a smooth iron plate,
till it be divided into small pieces before it hardens,
when it must he deposited in a well-stopt phial.
This has been long employed by surgeons as a caus¬
tic ; but its use in this way is inconvenient, as from its
rapid deliquescence it is not easily confined.
f. Potassa cum Calce, E. CALX CUM KALI
PURO, L. CAUSTICUM MITIUS, D. Potash
with lime. Lime with pure kali. Milder caustic.
Made by evaporating in a covered iron vessel any
quantity of solution of potash till it is reduced to a
third, and then gradually adding as much newly slaked
or powdered lime as is sufficient to form a thick mass,
which is to be kept in a closely stopped vessel. This is
employed as a caustic, and is milder in its operation,
and more manageable than the last.
28. Cera. Bees wax.
Though wax is generally obtained from honey-combs,
we have here introduced it as a vegetable principle,
since modern chemistry has shown that it may be ob¬
tained by certain processes from most vegetables. See
Chemistry, N° 2432.
Two varieties of wax are employed in medicine, cera
flava, yellow wax, which is the wax as it is naturally
procured from the comb, and cera alba, white wax,
bleached by art. They do not differ in their sensible
pi'operties, and the white wax is only preferable to the
yellow, from its making ointments, &c. of a more de¬
licate colour.
Wax is seldom employed internally, though it is
sometimes administered as an emollient by way of
emulsion in diarrhoea and dysentery. It is used chief¬
ly for preparing ointments, liniments, and cerates.
3
MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
Officinal Preparations.
a. LiNIMENTUM SIMPLEX, E. Simple liniment.
Made by melting together one part of white wax, and
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
3r8
Potash with
lime.
319
Bees wax.
3*4.
Ammonia.
32°
four of olive oil. Simple lini-
b. Unguentum simplex, E. Simple ointment. men^ r
This differs from the last, only in its proportions, ^mpleomt-
being composed of two parts of white wax, and four of
olive oil.
322
c. Unguentum cereum, L. D. Wax ointment. Wax oint¬
ment.
Made by melting together four ounces of white wax,
three ounces of spermaceti, and a pint of olive oil. ^
d. Emplastrum simplex, E. EMPLASTRUM Simple
CERiE, D. EMPLASTRUM CERiE COMPO-Plaster‘
SITUM. L. Simple plaster. Wax plaster. Com¬
pound wax plaster.
The Edinburgh preparation is composed of three
parts of yellow wax, and of mutton suet and white ro¬
sin each two parts } that of the London and Dublin col¬
leges is formed from yellow wax and mutton suet, each
three pounds, and yellow rosin one pound.
20. Ammoniacum. Gum ammoniac.
y cum.
This is a common concrete, gummy, resinous juice
from the East Indies, generally in large masses, com¬
posed of little lumps or tears, of a milky whiteness:
the external parts of the mass are commonly yellowish
or brownish, and the white tears change to the same
colour on being exposed for some time to the air. Of
the plant from which it is extracted, we have no further
knowledge, than what is learnt from the seeds found
among the tears, which resemble those of dill, except
that they are larger, and apparently belong to a plant
of the umbelliferous kind.
Ammoniacum has a strong smell, and a nauseous
sweetish taste, which is followed by a bitter one. It is
frequently made use of in asthmas, in menstrual sup¬
pressions, and cachectic indispositions. In obstructions
of the breast it is accounted the most effectual of the
aperient gums : in hysteric cases, some of the others are
preferred or joined to it, on account, chiefly, of their
more powerful smell. It is most commodiously taken
in the form of pills j the dose is a scruple or half a dram
every night or oftener; in larger’ does, as a dram, it
generally lessens the belly. Applied externally, it is
supposed to discuss hard indolent tumours.
Officinal Preparations. ^.
a. Ammoniacum purificatum. Purified gum am-Purified
• cum ammo-
momac. . ^iac.
Ammoniacum is purified by melting it in hot water,
squeezing it through linen, and evaporating to a proper
consistence.
320
b. Lac Ammoniaci, L. D. Emulsion of gum am-Emulsion of
monia. gum am-
Made by triturating two drams of ammoniac with
half a pint of distilled water till an emulsion is formed.
Given in most cases where ammoniac is used as an
expectorant. Dose an ounce or two, repeated occa¬
sionally.
c. Emplastrum
moniao.
PartIV. MATERIA
History of
Simple and c. EmPLASTRUM GUJVIMOSUM, E. Gum plaster.
Officinal _ 1
Medicines. Made by melting together eight parts of plaster of
'' » semi vitrified oxide of lead, one part of gum ammoniac,
and the same proportion of galbanum and yellow wax.
Employed to form adhesive plasters.
327 30 Myrrha. Myrrh.
Myrrh.
Myrrh is a gum resin brought from the East Indies,
or from Abyssinia. The best myrrh is in the form of
tears. It should be of a yellow, or reddish yellow co¬
lour, becoming redder when breathed on, light, brittle,
of an unctuous feel, pellucid, shining, presenting white
semicircular striae in its fracture j of a very bitter aro¬
matic taste, and a strong, peculiar, not unpleasant
odour. It is not good if whitish, dark coloured, black,
resinous, ill smelled, or mixed with impurities, which
is too commonly the case.
Neumann ascertained that water and alcohol are both
of them capable of taking up the whole of the taste and
smell of the myrrh, the extract made by either after the
other being insipid. The alcohol distilled from the
tincture elevated none of the flavour of the myrrh j but
during the inspissation of the decoction a volatile oil a-
rose, containing the whole of the flavour of the myrrh,
and heavier than water, while the extract was merely
bitter. From 7680 parts of myrrh he got 6000 watery
extract, 180 volatile oil, and 720 alcoholic j and in¬
versely, 2400 alcoholic, and 4200 watery. Dr Duncan
junior has observed that the tincture is transparent, and
when poured into water, forms a yellow opaque fluid,
but lets fall no precipitate, while the watery solution is
always yellow and opaque } and that myrrh is not fusi¬
ble, and is difficultly inflammable. Mr Hatchett found
it soluble in alkalies.
Myrrh is a heating stimulating medicine.' It fre¬
quently occasions a mild diaphoresis, and promotes the
fluid secretions in general. Hence it proves service¬
able in cachectic diseases, arising from inactivity of the
system, and is supposed to act especially upon the
uterine system, and to resist putrefaction.
It is exhibited in substance j in the form of powder,
or made up into pills, in doses of 10 to 60 grains j
dissolved in water, as in Griffith’s famous, but un-
* y)wrecaH’schemical, myrrh mixture j and dissolved in alcohol *.
Dispensa¬
tory- O fficinal Preparations.
328
Tincture of
| myrrh.
a. Tinctura Myrrha:. Tincture of myrrh.
This tincture is made by digesting three ounces of
powdered myrrh in about 20 ounces of alcohol, mixed
with 10 ounces of water, according to the Edinburgh
process j half a pint of alcohol, with a pint and a half
of proof spirit, according to the London college j or
two pounds of alcohol according to that of Dublin, for
seven or eight days.
Tincture of myrrh is seldom given internally, its prin¬
cipal use being as an external application, either as a
gargle, or as a lotion for cleansing foul ulcers, and pro¬
moting the exfoliation of carious bones.
Compound
powder of
nyrrh.
b. Pulvis Myrrha: compositus, L. Compound
powder of myrrh.
Made by rubbing together into a powrder equal
Vol. 'XII. Part II.
MEDICA, &c.
745
parts of myrrh, dried savine, dried rue, and Russian
castor.
Given as a stimulus in uterine obstructions. Dose
from a scruple to a dram several times in the day.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
31. Sagapenum. See Chemistry, N° 2495. Sagaje5
Sagapenum is employed as a stimulant and antispas- num.
modic, chiefly in combination with other gum resins, to
be mentioned hereafter.
32. Angustura. CORTEX ANGUSTURiE. Angustura.
Angustura bark.
This bark was some years ago introduced into this
country from the West Indies. It is not certainly
known of what tree it is the produce, but it is probable
that it is a species of cinchona. It is thus described by
Mr Braude. “ There is a considerable variety in the
external appearance of the angustura bark, owing, how¬
ever, probably, to its having been taken from trees of
ditt’erent sizes and ages, or from various parts of the same
tree, as the taste and other properties perfectly agree.
Some parcels (says Mr Brande), which I have ex¬
amined, consist chiefly of slips torn from branches which
could not have exceeded the thickness of a finger.
These are often smooth, three feet or more in length,
and rolled up into small bundles. In others, the pieces
have evidently been, for the greater part, taken from
the trunk of a large tree, and are nearly flat, with quills
of all sizes intermixed.
“ The outer surface of the angustura bark, when good,
is in general more or less wrinkled, and covered with a
coat of a grayish-white, below which it is brown, with
a yellow cast: the inner surface is of a dull brownish-
yellow colour. It breaks short and resinous. The smell
is singular and unpleasant, but not very powerful j the
taste intensely bitter, and slightly aromatic •, in some
degree resembling bitter almonds, but very lasting,
and leaving a sense of heat and pungency in the throat.
This bark, when powdered, is not unlike the powder
of Indian rhubarb. It burns pretty freely, but with¬
out any particular smell*.” * See
It is employed as a tonic, generally in substance } f™7*?6 °n
dose from 15 to 30 grains. It may also be given in st^ra
the form of infusion, decoction, tincture, or extract.
It is well adapted to cases of debility of the alimentary
canal.
33. Colomba. RADIX COLOMByE. Columbo Columbo
root. root.
This root is brought from Columbo, a town in the
island of Ceylon, to which it was originally transplanted
from the continent of India. It is called by the Portu¬
guese liaijs de Mosambigite. We are as yet unac¬
quainted with the vegetable of which it is a part.
Columbo root comes to us in circular pieces, which
are from half an inch to three inches in diameter, and from
two inches to a quarter of an inch in length. The sides
are covered with a thick wrinkled bark, of a dark
brown colour externally, but of a light colour within.
The surfaces of the transverse sections appear very un¬
equal, highest at the edges, with a concavity towards
the centre. On paring ofl' this rough surface, the root
is seen to consist of three laminae, the cortical, ligneous,
and medullary. This last is much the softest, and,,
when chewed, seems very mucilaginous. A number of
small fibres run longitudinally through it, and appear
+ 5 B ou
74-6
MATERIA
History of on the surface. The cortical and ligneous parts are di-
Simple andvided by a circular black line. All the thicker pieces
officinal }iave sma]l holes drilled through them, for the conve-
.M^es-.nience of drying.
This root has an aromatic smell, hut is disagreeably
bitter and pungent to the taste, resembling mustard seed
long kept. .
This is an excellent bitter tonic, useful in debilities
of the stomach and intestinal canal, in bilious diar-
hoeas, in bilious fevers, in which it sometimes agrees
when Peruvian bark fails 5 in the nausea and vomiting
attending pregnancy. It is usually given in substance,
in a dose from 15 grains to half a dram, or by way ot
infusion.
ME DIG A, &c. PartIV.
30 grains. It has sometimes been used with advantage History of
as a masticatory in strumous affections of the tonsils. It Simple and
is often prescribed in the form of a watery infusion, tiiiminal
made by steeping two ounces of the bruised root in one \ ^1IH j
pint of boiling water. A small wine-glass-full of such
an infusion, taken warm three or four times a day, has
afforded great relief in many cases of gouty dys¬
pepsia.
333
OJjicinal Preparation.
Tincture of TlNCTURA COLOMBO, E. L. Tincture of Columbo.
eolumbo.
The Edinburgh college direct this tincture to be
made, by digesting for eight days two ounces of columbo
root in two pounds of diluted alcohol. rl he London
tincture is stronger than this, being made with two
ounces and a half of the root to two pints of proof
spirit. This tincture may be given in a dose of a dram
or two.
For some valuable observations on the nature and
use of columbo root, see PercivaVs Essays, vol. ii.
335
Turmeric
root.
336
Ginger.
Sect. II. Medicinal Vegetables, arranged
to the System of Linnaeus.
according
334
Round ze-
doary.
Class I. MONANDMA. Order 1. Monogynia.
34. Kjempferia rotunda. ZEDOARIA, L.
Round zedoary root.
This is a spicy root brought from the East Indies, in
pieces about an inch long, rather rough on the surface,
and commonly terminating in a point. It is seldom
employed except as an ingredient in an aromatic elec¬
tuary to be afterwards mentioned.
35. Curcuma longa. CURCUMA, L. Turme¬
ric root.
This is brought from the East Indies, where it is
employed as a spice. The roots are tuberous, long,
knotty, and wrinkled ; of a pale yellow colour exter¬
nally, and a shining saffron brown within ; of a weak
aromatic smell, and a warm, slightly bitter taste.
Seldom employed in this country as a remedy, but
much used in the composition of curry powder.
36. Amomum zingiber, E. ZINGIBER, L. D*
Ginger root. See Botany, p. 76.
This is the least acrimonious of all the foreign aro¬
matics. It may be taken in considerable quantities, ei¬
ther with food or as a medicine. It as an excellent sti¬
mulant, peculiarly suited to the constitutions of those
whose stomachs are subject to flatulency, atonic gout,
and other disorders marked by want of energy in the
organs of digestion. In these cases it may be given
either by itself, or combined with bitters and other tonics,
ft is also joined with antacids. It is a common and
useful addition to cathartic medicines, particularly to
infusions and tinctures of the vegetable cathartics, serv¬
ing to moderate their irritating action on the bowels.
I he pulverized root may be given in doses from 10 to
Officinal Preparations.
^ 37
a. Tinctura Zingiberis, L. Tincture of ginger. Tincture of
gingeiv
This is made by digesting two ounces of powdered 0
ginger in two pounds of proof spirit for eight days.
It may be given in a dose of two or three drams, mixed
■with water. _
33°
b. Syrupus Amomi Zingiberis, E. SYRUPUSsyruP°f
ZINGIBERIS, L. Syrup of ginger. b™ge‘-
The Edinburgh syrup is made by macerating three
ounces of beaten ginger in four pounds of boiling water
for 24 hours in a covered vessel, and then forming the
syrup by adding seven pounds and a half of double re¬
fined sugar. The syrup of the London college is made
with four ounces of bruised ginger to three pints of
boiling distilled water, adding a sufficient quantity of
double refined sugar to make a syrup.
A useful addition to stimulating mixtures, and em¬
ployed in pharmacy as a constituent in several electua¬
ries and pills.
339
37. Amomum Zedoaria, D. Long zedoary root. Tong zedo-
A spicy root brought from the East Indies, especially arjr*
from Ceylon, much resembling the ksempferia in pro¬
perties, but rather stronger.
38. Amomum Cardamomum. AMOMUM
PENS, E. CARDAMOMUM MINUS, L. D. damom
Lesser cardamom seeds. seeds.
It is uncertain whether these seeds are the produce
of the amomum cardamomum or repens. They are
brought from the East Indies, and form a very grateful
aromatic, frequently employed in practice as a stimu¬
lant. They are brought to us in little whitish, round¬
ish, triangular, pointed pods. The seeds are of a dark
brown colour, of a fragrant smell, and pungent, rather
saltish taste. The husks are separated from the rest by
beating them in a mortar.
-DTT 340
HG- Lesser car-
TINCTURA Tincture of
of cardamom cardamom
seeds.
OJjicinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Amomi repentis, E.
CARDAMOMI, L. D. Tincture
seeds.
The Edinburgh tincture is made by digesting for
seven days, four ounces of bruised cardamom seeds in
two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol. In the Lon¬
don formula, three ounces of the seeds are digested for
eight days in two pints of proof spirit. Dose two or
three drams.
342
b. Tinctura Cardamomi composita, L.D. Com- Compound
pound tincture of cardamom seeds. tincture 01
_ cardamom
Made by digesting two drams of lesser cardamom seeds.
seeds powdered, the same quantity of powdered ca¬
raway
Part IV. MATERIA
History of raway seeds (and in the London formula, of cochineal)
Simple and half an ounce of bruised cinnamon, and four ounces
Medicines. °f Stfme(l raisins* in tu’0 P^ts, (or according to the
v—'■'> Dublin college, two pounds), of proof spirit for 14
days.
A very grateful aromatic tincture, sometimes given
alone as a cordial, in a dose of three or four drams,
but more commonly added to stimulant draughts and
juleps, to which it gives a fine rich colour.
Galangal 39. MaRANTA GALANGA. GALANGA. Galan-
root. gal root.
Sometimes employed as a warm aromatic, in a dose
of about a scruple.
Class II. DIANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
Olire4oil Olea Europaca, E. OLIVA, L. IL The
' olive tree. OLEUM OLIVAL Olive oil.
Pure olive oil should have a fine rich greenish yellow
colour, with scarcely any perceptible taste or smell $
should be perfectly transparent, and should congeal at
about 38° of Fahrenheit. It is brought to us from the
south of France, from Italy, and the Levant. The best
is supposed to come from Florence.
Olive oil is chiefly employed as an emollient, both
externally and internally. Internally it is sometimes
employed as a gentle laxative, and to moderate the ac*
tion of acrid substances, especially poisons. It has
been given as an anthelmintic, either alone or formed
into an emulsion with ammonia.
.*45
Hedge hys-
sop.
41. Gratiola officinalis, E. GRATIOLA,
L. Hedge hyssop.
This plant, when dried, is sometimes employed as a
drastic purgative and anthelmintic, given in substance,
in a dose of from 20 to 30 grains, or by way of infu¬
sion, to the extent of 3 drams. Its use requires cau¬
tion.
„ 344
Rosemary.
347
Volatile
oil of rose¬
mary.
343
Spirit of
rosemary.
42. Rosmarinus officinalis, E, ROSMARI¬
NUS, L. D. Rosemary,
The tops of rosemary are used as a stimulant, and
form an ingredient in some tinctures. Rosemary owes
its stimulating powers to its essential oil, which is very
similar to camphor.
Officinal l3reparations.
a. Oleum volatile Rorismarini officinalis,
E. OLEUM RORISMARINI, L. Volatile oil of
rosemary.
This oil, like most of the other volatile oils of aro¬
matic plants, is obtained by distilling the plant with a
sufficient quantity of water to prevent burning, and se¬
parating the oil that floats on the surface of the distil¬
led liquor, by means of a funnel with a long capillary
tube.
Oil of rosemary is seldom employed alone, but it
may be given in a dose of a few drops as a stimu¬
lant,
b, Spmirus Rorismarini officinalis, E. SPL
RITUS RORISMARINI, L, Spirit of rosemary.
Made by distilling 2 pounds, or, according to the
M E D I C A, 6cc.
London college, a pound and a half, of rosemary tops, History of
with a gallon of diluted alcohol, and a sufficient quan-Simple ami
tity of water to prevent burning, distilling oft’ a gal- p®ci.nal
Jqu ivieaicincs.
Chiefly employed to form some compound tinctures,
or as an external stimulant, in which way it is com¬
monly used under the name of Hungary water.
„ 349
43. Salvia officinalis, E. SALVIA, L. D.Sage.
Sage leaves.
An infusion of sage leaves is sometimes employed as
a refreshing drink in fevers, and has been recommend¬
ed as a tonic in nervous debilities and dyspepsia. It
forms a good substitute for Chinese ‘ea.
__ 35®
44. Veronica Becabunga. BECABUNGA, L.Brooklime.
D. Brooklime. See Botany, p. 84.
A common succulent plant that has been recom¬
mended as an excellent antiscorbutic.
Order 3. Trigynia.
45. Piper nigrum. Black peppep. j5ia(
Ibis is brought from the Last Indies, being culti-?er‘
vated chiefly in Java and Malabar. White pepper is
the same fruit, with the black bark taken oft".
Pepper is one of the most heating spices, and is said
sometimes to act violently on the kidneys, so as when
taken in large quantities to excite nephritis. It is not
infrequently given internally as a stimulant, especially
in the form of powder. A few grains of white pepper
swallowed wdiole, are recommended by some practition¬
ers, as a remedy in the debility of the digestive or¬
gans.
46. Piper Cubeba. CUBEBA, L. Cubebs. Cubebs.*
Ihese are scarcely to be distinguished by the eye
from common pepper, except in being furnished with a
long slender stalk. They are brought from Java. In
stimulating properties they resemble pepper, but are
much weaker, and are seldom used.
47. Piper longum. Long pepper. Long pep.
T . " , Per*
Long pepper appears in small round grains, disposed
spirally in a long cylindrical head. It is extremely
pungent, and has a kind of saltish taste. It is employ¬
ed chiefly as an ingredient in an aromatic electuary
and tincture.
Class III. TRIANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
48. Valeriana officinalis, £. VALERI- Valerian
ANA SYLV ESTRIS, L. D. Valerian root. ro°t-
This root consists of a number of strings or fibres, of
a pale brownish colour, proceeding from a common
stock, and matted together. It has a very strong un¬
pleasant smell, and a warm, bitterish, acrid taste. It
imparts its smell to water distilled from it, and most of
its properties may be imparted to alcohol. Valerian
grows commonly in Britain, and the best is that which
grows in high, dry situations. The roots should be
taken up in autumn or winter.
Valerian is a valuable antispasmodic, and is properly
ranked among the most powerful of that class of reme¬
dies. It has been found efficacious in epilepsy, In which
it should be given in substance, in large doses, to the
5 ® 2 extent
48
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
y-r -
History of extent of a dram or two several times a-day. It is
Simple and useful in hysteria, and in cases of great nervous sen-
Oilicinal s[|)iilty. It is sometimes united with cinchona in the
Medicines., 0f an electuary. The usual dose is from 15 to 30
grains. Its unpleasant flavour is most eftectually con¬
cealed hy the addition of a little mace.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Tinctura Yaleriani, L. Tincture of va-
355
Tincture of
valerian, lerian
3S6
Resinous
extract of
wild vale¬
rian.
357
Saflion.
358
Syrup of
saffron.
This is made by digesting four ounces of valerian
root in coarse powder in two pints of proof spirit for
eight days, with a gentle heat. .
This tincture is given in the same cases in which va¬
lerian is useful in substance, in a dose of from two to
four drams j but it is not so efficacious as tbe powder,
or the following tincture.
b. Tinctura Valeriani ammoniata, L. D.
Ammoniated tincture of valerian.
Made by digesting for eight days, in a closely cover¬
ed vessel, four ounces of powdered valerian root in two
pints of compound spirit of ammonia.
This is perhaps the best form in which valerian can
be given, as its antispasmodic virtues are much improv¬
ed by the addition of ammonia. Dose a dram or two,
which is best taken in water a little warmed.
c. Extractum Valeriani Sylvestris Hesin-
osum, D. Resinous extract of wild valerian.
This extract is made by digesting for four days a
pound of powdered valerian in four pounds of rectified
spirit of wine •, then pouring off the tincture, and boil¬
ing the residuum in 12 pounds of water to two pounds.
The two liquors are to be strained separately ; the de¬
coction is to be boiled, and the tincture distilled, till
both are sufficiently thick, and they are then to be mix¬
ed together.
Of the effects of this extract we have had no expe¬
rience ; but we believe an extract made by inspissating
the ammoniated tincture, has been given with success
in the form of pills.
49. Crocus Sativus, E. CROCUS, L. D. Saf¬
fron.
Saffron is made from the stigmata of the above spe¬
cies of the crocus, which is cultivated for that purpose
in some parts of England, especially in Essex. Saffron
is also brought from abroad, but that of our oivn pro¬
duce is considered as the best. See Botany, p. 100.
OJffcinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Croci, L. Syrup of saffron.
This is made by infusing an ounce of saffron in a
pint of boiling distilled water for 12 hours, and boiling
the strained infusion with a sufficient quantity of double
refined sugar to form a syrup.
Syrup of saffron is chiefly used as a pleasant addition
to draughts and juleps, to which it imparts a fine yel¬
low colour.
into shreds, in 15 ounces of diluted alcohol for seven History of
days, and straining the tincture. a"d
By some practitioners this is considered as a good
remedy in chronic weakness, and is given in the dose of ^
a table spoonful undiluted, every morning. ^
co. Iris Florentina, E. IRIS, L. Florentine Florentine
4 orris,
orris.
This is brought from Italy in white, flattish, knotty
pieces, that are very difficult to break or powder. It
has an agreeable fragrant smell, and a slightly bitter
taste. It is employed chiefly as a perfume
51. Iris Pseudacorus. IRIS, D.
See Botany, p. 100.
359
Tincture of
saffron.
W ater flag. "Water flag.
365
Oats.
b. Tinctura Croci, E. Tincture of saffron.
Made by digesting an ounce of English saffron cut
Order 2. Digynia.
362.
C2. SACCHARUM OfFICINARUM. Sugar. SAC-Sugar.
CHARUM NON PURIFICATUM, E. L. SAC¬
CHARUM RUBRUM, D. Brown sugar. SAC¬
CHARUM PURIFICATUM, L. D. SACCHA- ^
RUM PURISSIMUM, E. Refined sugar. Refined
sugar.
On tbe chemical properties of sugar, see Chemistry.
Brown sugar is sometimes employed as a gentle laxa¬
tive, especially in clysters. Refined sugar is used chiefly
in making syrups and conserves, and in giving an agree¬
able taste.
OJffcinal Preparation.
364
a. Syrupus simplex, E. Simple syrup. Simple
Made by dissolving 15 parts of double refined sugar 1
in 8 of water, by a gentle heat.
53. Avena sativa, E. A^ ENA, L. Oats.
Oats are employed in medicine chiefly to form gruel,
which is made either from groats or oatmeal, and is an
useful diluent in febrile and inflammatory allections,
and is also used in clysters as an emollient. Poultices
are sometimes made of oatmeal, mixed with other sub¬
stances according to the nature of the case..
54. Triticum f L.} Common w&cat. C.£o.
FARINA. Flour. AMYLUM. Starch. ^
Flour and starch are sometimes used as emollients, Starch,
especially the latter, in the form of clysters or troches,
in cases of diarrhoea, dysentery, &c.
OJffcinal Preparations.
a. Mucilago Amyli, E. L. Mucilage of starch.
Made by triturating half an ounce of starch with one
pound of water, and then boiling the liquor till it be
sufficiently thick.
b. Trochisci Amyli, L. Troches of starch.
Composed of an ounce and a half of starch, six drams
of extract of liquorice, half an ounce of powdered I lo-
rentine orris root, and one pound and a half of double
refined sugar, made into a mass for troches, with muci-
lage of gum tragacanth.
These troches are employed as demulcents, to allay
the irritation of tickling coughs.
55. Hordeum
3.68
Mucilage
of starch.
3f9
Troches ox
starch.
Part IV.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
History of 55. HORDEUM DISTICHON, E. D. HORDEUM,
Simple and L. Common barley.
Officinal
Medicines. Common barley freed from the husks, and formed
into what is called pearl barley, is used in medicine as
an emollient in the form of decoction, or barley water.
749
37°
Common
barley.
371
Docoction
of barley
OJJicinal Preparations.
a. DecOCTUM IloRDEI DISTICHI, E. DECOCTUM
HORDEI, L. Decoction of barley.
The making of barley water requires more nicety
than is usually supposed. The following is the method
directed in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia.
Take of pearl barley two ounces } water five pounds.
First wash ofi’ the mealy part which adheres to the
barley w:ith some cold water; then extract the colour¬
ing matter by boiling it a little with about half a pound
of water. Throw this decoction away, and put the
barley thus purified into five pounds of boiling w'ater,
which is to be boiled down to one-half, and strain the
decoction.
37 2
Compound
decoction
of barley.
b. Decoctum Hordei
pound decoction of barley.
compositum, L. Com-
373
SarcocoL
374
Madder
root.
Made by boiling two pints of the decoction of barley,
two ounces of sliced figs, half an ounce of liquorice
root sliced and bruised, two ounces of stoned raisins,
in one pint of distilled water, boiled to two pints and
strained.
These decoctions may be used as common drink, in
pneumonia, and similar affections of the breast-
Class IV. TETRANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
56. Penaia sarcocolla. SARCOCOLLA, L.
Sarcocol. See Chemistry, N° 2493.
57. Rubia tinctorum, E. RUBIA, L. D. Mad¬
der root.
This root has been long reputed a specific in uterine
obstructions, but wre believe without any good founda¬
tion. It is recommended in the atrophy of children,
given in substance, in doses of a scruple or half a dram
several times a-day. Its property of tinging the bones
of animals has been already mentioned.
Contvayer- 5^* DoRSTENIA CONTRAJERVA, E.
YERVA, L. Contrayerva root.
CONTRA-
The root of this plant is knotty, an inch or two
long, about half an inch thick, of a reddish brown
colour externally, and pale within. From all sides of
it there shoot out long, rough, slender fibres, generally
loaded with knots. It has a peculiar kind of aromatic
smell, and its taste is somewhat astringent and bitterish,
with a light sweetish kind of acrimony, when chewed
for a considerable time. The fibres have little or no
taste or smell, therefore the tuberous parts alone should
be chosen.
This plant is perennial, and grows in South America
and some of the Caribbee islands.
Contrayerva has been employed as a stimulant diar
phoretic, in typhus fever, given in substance, in a dose
4
of from 30 to 40 grains j and a decoction of it, used as History of
a gargle, has been recommended in putrid sore throat. Simple and
Officinal
OJjicttial Preparation. Medicines.
376
a. Pulvis Contrayerva: compositus, L. Com- Compound
pound powder of contrayerva. powder of
J contra-
This is made by mixing together five ounces ofyerva.
powdered contrayerva, and one pound and a half of
powder of crabs claws. Dose about a dram, repeated
every three or four hours.
Class V. PENTANDRIA. Order 1. Monogynia.
59. Anchusa
Alkanet root.
TINCTORIA, E.
ANCHUSA, D. Alkanet
root.
This root is employed merely to give colour to an
ointment.
37S
SPIGELI A, Carolina
pink root.
60.
L. D.
E.
Spigelia MARYLANDICA,
Carolina pink root.
From 1 o to 20 grains of the root of this plant have been
given twice a-day to children between 2 and 12 years
of age, when troubled with worms. It generally ope¬
rates as a purgative \ but when it does not produce this
effect in a sufficient degree, proper doses of rhubarb,
jalap, 6r calomel, should be given with it. As the spi¬
gelia may be easily overdosed, and in that case produces
alarming symptoms, it should perhaps be erased from
the catalogue of vermifuge medicines, of which there
is a sufficient number without it, that are at least equal¬
ly efficacious, and much safer in their operation.
379
61. MenY.ANTHES TR1FOLIATA, E. TRIFOLIUM Marsh tre-
PALUDOSUM, L. D. Marsh trefoil.
This plant operates by purging and vomiting, in a
dose of a dram. It has been recommended in fevers
and intermittent®, but is seldom employed.
380
62. Convolvulus scammonia, E. SCAMMO-Scammory
N1UM, L. D. Scammony.
This is a gum resin which is brought from Sjria,
Mysia, and Cappadocia. The roots of this plant,
which are very long and thick, when fresh contain a
milky juice. To obtain this, the earth is removed from
the upper part of the roots, and the tops of these are
cut obliquely oft'. The milky juice which flows out, is
collected in a small vessel sunk in the earth at the lower
end of the cut. Each root furnishes only a few drams,
but it is collected from several vessels, and dried in the
sun. This is the true and unadulterated scammony.
It is light, of a dark gray colour, but becomes of a
whitish yellow when touched with the wet finger, is
shining in its fracture j has a peculiar nauseous smell,
and bitter acrid taste, and forms with water a greenish
milky fluid, without any remarkable sediment. In this
state of purity it seldom reaches us, but is commonlv
mixed with the expressed juice of the root, and even of
the stalks and leaves, and often with flour, sand, or
earth. The best to be met with in the shops comes
from Aleppo, in light spongy masses, having a heavy
disagreeable smell 5 friable, and easily powdered; of a
shining ash colour, verging to black j when powdered
of
75o MATERIA
History of of a light gray or whitish colour. An inferior sort is
Simple and brought from Smyrna in more compact ponderous
Officinal pieces^ not so friable, with less smell, and loss ensilj
powdered, of a darker colour, not so resinous, and fuU
* Dr Dun- of sand and other impurities*. See Chemistry , N
can's Dis- 2488.
pensatary. Scammony is one of the most drastic purgatives, and
as such is sometimes given in dropsy, in a dose of from
to 15 grains. It is also one ot the most common an¬
thelmintics j but in this latter case is generally combin¬
ed with a mercurial.
MED IGA, &c,
O fficinal Preparations,
a. Pur.vis JalapiE composites, E.
powder of jalap.
This is prepared by grinding together one part of Compound
powdered jalap and wo parts of supertartrate of potash P0W(ier Qf
into a fine powder.
The supertartrate of potash in this preparation is use¬
ful chiefly for assisting in reducing the jalap to a finer
powder, and thus rendering its operation milder. Dose
from half a dram to one dram.
Part IV,
History of
Simpic am}
Officinal
Compound Medicines.
Officinal Preparations,
3S1
Compound a> PuLVIS SCAMMONI^E COMPOSITUS, L. E. D. Ccm-
powder of powder of scammony.
scammony. re j
The London powder is composed of scammony,
hard extract of jalap, of each two ounces $ ginger, hall
an ounce: powdered separately, and then mixed to¬
gether. \
This powder in the Edinburgh Pharmacopoeia is di¬
rected to be composed of scammony, supertartrite of
potash, equal parts, rubbed together to a fine powder.
The Dublin formula directs of scammony and vitrio-
lated vegetable alkali, each two ounces, and ginger
half an ounce, powdered separately, and then mixed to¬
gether.
As the strength of these powders is different, their
doses must vary : from 10 to 30 grains of the Edinburgh
powder, and from 8 to 15 of the others, may be given
for a dose.
Compound PULVIS ScAMMONII COMPOSITUS CUM ALOE, L.
powder of Compound powder of scammony with aloes,
scammony #
with aloes. This is composed of six drams of scammony, hard
extract of jalap, socotorine aloes, of each one ounce
and a half, of ginger half an ounce, powdered se-
rately and mixed together.
Dose from 5 to 15 grains.
383
Powder of C. PuLVIS SCAMMONII CUM CaLOMELANE, L. Pow-
scammony der of scammony with calomeL
with calo¬
mel. This is composed of scammony half an ounce, calo¬
mel, double refined sugar, of each two drams, powder¬
ed separately and then mixed together.
This is well suited to cases of worms, and may he
given from 12 to 20 grains.
384
Electuary d. Electuarium Scammonii, L. D. Electuary of
of scammo- scammony.
ny.
Prepared of an ounce and a half of powdered scam¬
mony, cloves, ginger, of each six drams, essential oil
of caraway half a dram, and syrup of roses or orange
peel, a sufficient quantity to form an electuary.
A brisk warm purgative, dose from 15 to 30 grains.
.185
Jalap. 63. Convolvulus Jalapa, E. JALAPILM, L.
JALAP A, D. Jalap root.
The botanical and medical history of this simple
has been already sufficiently detailed under the ar¬
ticle Botany, p. 132. It remains here only to notice
the
b. ExtractuM Convolvuli Jalapa:, E. EX-Extract of
TPiACTUM JALAPII, L. EXTRACTUM JA-iala?-
LAPiE, D. Extract of jalap.
This extract, according to the Edinburgh process, is
made by digesting one pound of powdered jalap in four
pounds of alcohol for four days, pouring off the liquor,
and boiling the residuum for 15 minutes in five pounds
of distilled water, filtering the decoction while boiling
hot through linen. This decoction is to be repeated
with the same quantity of water, and botli decoctions,
when filtered, are to be boiled to the consistency of
honey. In the mean time the spirit is to be drawn off
from the tincture by distillation, till this also becomes
thick, when it is to be mixed with the watery extract,
and both evaporated in a bath of boiling water saturat¬
ed with muriate of soda, till there is formed a mass oi
a proper consistence for making pills.
This extract is a powerful purgative j it may be given
in a dose of from 5 to 15 grains.
_ 3SS
c, Tinctura Convolvuli Jalapa:, E. TINCTU-Tincture of
RA JALAPII, L. TINCTURA JALAPffE, D>laP’
Tincture of Jalap.
This tincture is made by digesting three ounces (ac¬
cording to the Edinburgh college) or eight ounces ac¬
cording to the colleges of London and Dublin, of
powdered jalap, in 15 ounces (or two pints London, or
two pounds Dublin), of diluted alcohol, for seven or
eight days, and straining the liquor through paper.
The dose of the Edinburgh tincture may he from
three to six drams j that of the others from two to four
drams.
389
64. Datura stramonium, E. STRAMONIUM. Thom aj)-
Thorn apple. See Botany, p. 137. Ple-
39°
65. HyOSCYAMUS NIGER, E. HYOSCYAMUS, Black hen.
D. Black henbane. bari^
This plant grows commonly on dunghills and uncul¬
tivated places in several parts of Britain. It produces
large, dark-coloured, woolly, jagged leaves, of a very
strong and peculiar smell, sparkling when burnt, as if
impregnated with nitre. These leaves are the princi¬
pal part employed in medicine, acting as a narcotic.
The seeds are also employed, and when smoked like
tobacco, are said to be an excellent remedy in toothach.
Wherever an anodyne is wanted, and opium dis¬
agrees, this herb, and the preparations from it, may be
prescribed. It is especially suited to spasmodic anti
colic affections, and to cases of chronic rheumatism and
arthritis.
Part IV. MATERIA
History of arthritis. Instances are also recorded of its beneficial
Simple and effects in mania and melancholy ; but in the last men-
Officinal tioned disorders, it has at least as often failed as it has
■ e 1^mcs-. succeeded, and is, on the whole, a doubtful remedy in
diseases belonging to the order of vesaniae. It does not
occasion costiveness like opium, and forms one of the
best substitutes for this expensive narcotic. Given in
large doses, it produces great debility, delirium, re¬
markable dilatation of the pupils of the eyes, convulsions,
and death. It is usually given in the form of extract,
but the leaves are sometimes applied fresh by way of
cataplasm to schirrous tumours and cancerous ulcers.
O fficinal Preparations.
391 a. Succus spissatus Hyoscyami nigri, E. In-
juicc^oftC spissate(i jl,ice of henbane.
henbane. This is made by bruising the fresh leaves, and putting
them into a hempen bag, in which they are strongly
compressed till the juice is extracted. This is evapo¬
rated in fiat vessels heated with boiling w ater, saturated
with muriate of soda, till it becomes of the consistence
of thick honey ; and after the mass lias become cold, it
is put into glazed earthen vessels sprinkled w'ith alcohol,
and closely covered.
13ose from two grains to 15 or 20, on extraordinary
occasions $ but if these large doses occasion unpleasant
effects, as headach, vertigo, vomiting, or purging, the
medicine must be discontinued.
Tincture of ^ Tinctura Hyoscyami nigri, E. Tincture of
henbane, henbane.
Made by digesting one ounce of the dried leaves of
henbane in eight ounces of diluted alcohol for seven
days, and straining. Dose from half a dram to a dram.
66. Nicotiana tabacum, E. NICOTIANA,
L. D. Tobacco leaves. See Botany, p. 137.
Besides its ordinary narcotic virtues, the smoke of
tobacco thrown up the bowels by way of clyster, has
proved an effectual remedy in obstinate colic.
MEDIC A, &c.
75i
393
Tobacco
leaves.
394
Tobacco
Officinal Preparations.
a. Vinum Nicotians tabaci, E. Tobacco wine.
Made by macerating one ounce of the dried leaves
of tobacco in one pound of Spanish white wdne for seven
days, and straining the liquor.
This has been sometimes employed as a diuretic.
Dose from 30 to 60 drops.
T 395 67. Chironia centaurium, E. CENTAURIUM
iaury61^11" MINUS, L. D. Lesser centaury.
A strong bitter, sometimes employed as a tonic in
the form of an infusion of the tops.
68. Strychnos Nux Vomica. Nux vomica. The
kernel.
The taste of this kernel is extremely bitter } it has
little or no smell, and is so hard, that it cannot be re¬
duced into powder by beating.
This nut is a very powerful narcotic, inducing even
death by its sedative powder, as, on dissection, no marks
of inflammation, or local affection, are to be discovered
in the stomach.
396
NTux vomi-
397
Cayenne
As a narcotic, it has scarcely been used, though it History of
has been recommended in mania, epilepsy, hysteria, &c. Simple and
It has been given in dysentery and intermittent fever, Officinal
in a dose of five grains twice a day} but it does not nes;
possess any superior medicinal powers *. * Murray's
69. Capsicum annuum, E. PIPER INDICUM,
L. D. Capsicum. Indian or Cayenne pepper. See
Botany, p. 138.
It has been given with manifest advantage in cases1)1
of gouty dyspepsia, in some hydropic affections joined
w'ith paralytic symptoms, and in the advanced and
sinking stage ot typhus and the malignant endemic
fever of the West Indies j also in the malignant sore
throat, in which it has a good effect, both when taken
into the stomach, and when used as a gargle. Bergius
relates, that he prescribed the seeds w'ith success in
obstinate agues. Of the dried and pulverized capsules,
the dose, internally, is from one to three grains. In
the advanced stage of the yellow fever, double the last
mentioned quantity has been given at a time. The
gargle is prepared by macerating the powder first in
warm vinegar, and afterwards adding a proper quantity
of hot w'ater, and continuing the maceration for a suffi¬
cient length of time. The proportions, two drams of
the capsicum to half a pound of each menstruum *. * Practi¬
cal Synop-
70. SOLANUM DULCAMARA. DULCAMARA, D. SIS’ vo1' iu
Bitter sweet. See Botany, p. 138. Bitter8
71. Atropa belladonna. E. BELLADONNA,sweet-
D. Deadly nightshade. See Botany, p. 138. Deadly
The whole plant is poisonous, and the berries, from nightshade,
their beautiful appearance, have sometimes proved fatal
to children. The symptoms excited are, a dryness of
the mouth, a trembling of the tongue, a very distressing
thirst, a difficulty of swallowing, fruitless efforts to vo¬
mit, and great anxiety about the praecordia. Deli¬
rium then comes on, with gnashing of the teeth, and
convulsions. The pupil remains dilated, and is not sen¬
sible even to the stimulus of light. The face becomes
tumid, and of a dark red colour. The jaws are fre¬
quently locked. Inflammation attacks the oesophagus,
stomach, and intestines, sometimes extending to the
mesentery, lungs, and liver, accompanied with violent
pains in the abdomen. The stomach is very insensible
to stimulus, and the peristaltic motion of the intestines
is destroyed. General relaxation, palsy, especially of
the lower extremities, convulsions, vertigo, blindness,
coma, and death succeed. The body soon putrifies,
swells, and becomes marked with livid spots j blood '
flows from the nose, mouth, and ears, and the stench is
insufferable. On dissection the blood is found to be fluid,
the intestines are inflated and inflamed, or eroded and
gangrenous. The best method of cure is to excite vo¬
miting as soon as possible, by emetics, and tickling the
fauces; to evacuate the bowels by purgatives and cly¬
sters, and to give largely, vinegar, honey, milk, and oil.
In some children who recovered by this treatment,
the delirium was succeeded by a profound sopor, ac¬
companied with subsultus tendinum; the face and ‘
hands became pale and cold, and the pulse small
hard, and quick. Their recovery w'as slow, and the
blindness continued a considerable time, but at last went f Duncan's
off j-. Dkpensa-
Ktor2b
752
MATERIA MEDICA, &e.
Part IV.
11 istorv of A medicine capable of producing such powerful ef-
Simple and fecta. demands flic utmost caution on the part of the
Officinal pVCscriber. He should begin with the smallest doses,
Medicines. increasing them very gradually to a double, triple, or
  v quadruple quantity (in which cases the intervals be¬
tween the repetitions -of the doses should be proportion-
ably lengthened) and desisting as soon as dryness or
stricture of the throat, or much diarrhoea, or great
languor, with sickness and vomiting, or vertigo, and
dimness of sight, come on. ... vi
It is best employed in substance, beginning with a
grain for adults, and an eighth or a fourth of a grain
for children. .
It has been employed in a great variety ot cases, as,
i In several febrile diseases j in obstinate intermit-
tents 5 and in the plague. 2. In inflammations •, the
gout. 3. In comatose diseases j in palsy, and loss 01
speech from apoplexy. 4. In spasmodic diseases', in
chorea, epilepsy, chincough, hydrophobia, melancholy,
and mania. 5. In cachectic affections ; in dropsies,
and obstinate jaundice. 6. In local diseases ', in a-
maurosis, ophthalmia, in schirrhus, and cancer.
OJficinal Preparations.
a. Succus spissatus Atropa: Belladonna:, E.
Inspissated juice of deadly nightshade.
This is made in the same way as the inspissated juice
See N° 391. Dose from one to five
400
Inspissated
juice of
deatHy illla 10
nightshade. of henW>
grains
40 x
Cinchona
bark.
402
Infusion of
cinchona
bark.
e. Tinctura Cinchona: ammoniata,
moniated tincture of cinchona.
72. Cinchona officinalis, E. CINCHONA,
L. CORTEX PERUVIANUS. Cinchona bark.
Peruvian bark. Jesuits bark.
The account of this valuable remedy already given
under Botany, p. 133. and the article Cinchona, has
been so ample, that we shall add nothing to it in this
place, but shall immediately proceed to notice the offi¬
cinal preparations, referring our readers for further in¬
formation on the simple, to Percival’s Essays, the Sy¬
nopsis Materia: Mediae, the Thesaurus Medicaminum,
and Hr Duncan’s Dispensatory.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Infusum Cinchona: officinalis, E. Infusion
of cinchona bark.
This is made by infusing an ounce of powdered cin¬
chona bark in a pound of water lor 24 hours, and fil¬
tering.
Dose from two to four ounces.
b. Decoctum Cinchona: officinalis, E. DE-
COCTUM CORTICIS PERUVIAN!, L. D. De¬
coction of cinchona bark.
Prepared by boiling an ounce of powdered cinchona
bark in about a pound and a half of water for 10 mi¬
nutes, and straining the liquor while hot.
This is scarcely so good a preparation as the infu¬
sion. The ordinary dose is three or four ounces.
Tincture of c. Tinctura Cinchona: officinalis, E. TINC-
cinchona TURA CORTICIS PERUVIANI, L. D. Tinc-
Vark. j.ure 0f cinchona bark.
Made by digesting four or six ounces of powdered
cinchona bark in about two or two pounds and a half History 0f
of diluted alcohol for seven or eight days, and strain-Simple and
ing the liquor through paper. \Pf.cl.nal
This is seldom given by itself, being generally add- . c “ne8’r
ed to the decoction or infusion. Dose three or four
drams to an ounce.
d. Tinctura Cinchona: composita, L. D. Com¬
pound tincture of cinchona bark. Huxham's tincture
of bark.
This is a very aromatic tincture of bark, made by
digesting two ounces of powdered cinchona, from half
an ounce to an ounce and a half of dried Seville orange
peel, three drams bruised Virginian snake root, a
dram of saffron, and two scruples of powdered cochin¬
eal, in 20 ounces or two pounds of proof spirit for 14
days, and straining.
Dose twro or three drams.
4°4
L. Am- Ammoni-
ated tinc¬
ture of cin-
Made by digesting four ounces of powdered cinchona chona.
in two pints of compound spirit of ammonia tor 10 days
in a close vessel.
As a preparation of cinchona bark, this is useless,
and as a stimulus it is not preferable to the compound
spirit of ammonia by itself. 405
f. Extractum Cinchona: officinalis, E. Ex-oJ’
. . cinchona
tract ol cinchona bark. barl.
This is made in the same manner as extract of jalap,
see N° 387.
g. Extractum Cinchona:, L. Extract of bark.
The following is the process of the London college
for making this extract.
Take of Peruvian bark, in coarse powder, one pound ;
distilled water, 12 pints. Boil for a hour or two, and
pour off the liquor, which, while hot, will be red and
pellucid, but, as it grows cold, will become yellow and
turbid. The same quantity of water being again pour¬
ed on, boil the hark as before, and repeat the boiling
until the liquor, on becoming cold, remains clear.
Then reduce all these liquors, mixed together and
strained, to a proper thickness by evaporation. This
extract must be prepared under two forms; one soft,
and fit for making pills, and the other hard and pul-
verizable.
The Dublin college gives separate processes for mak¬
ing their hard and soft extract of cinchona; but they
do not materially differ from the above.
All these extracts may be given in the form of pills,
in a dose of from 10 to 20 grains, or by way of clyster
in the quantity of a dram or two.
73. Cinchona Caribba.a, E.
Caribbean isles.
4°^
Cinchona of the cinchona
of the Ca-
ribean
This is a species of cinchona introduced here by Dr;siaiidi.
Wright. In medical properties it resembles the for¬
mer, and may be substituted for it.
74*
flower.
Lobelia syphilitica,
See Botany, p. 133.
E. Blue
407
cardinal Blue cardi¬
nal flower.
75-
Part IV.
History of 75. CePHAELIS IPECACUANHA, E.
Simple and ANHA, L. I). Ipecacuan root.
Officinal
Medicines. A pretty full account of ipecacuan lias been already
‘ given in the article Botany, under Psycotria Emetica,
P-
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
IPECACU-
Officinal Preparation.
408
Ipecacuan
root.
It appears that this drug, or something very similar
to the common ipecacuan, is the produce of several ve¬
getables, which are enumerated by Dr Duncan in his
Dispensatory.
Ipecacuan is given as an emetic, in full doses of a
scruple or 25 grains $ as an expectorant, in doses of one
grain, repeated every three or four hours j as a diapho¬
retic, given in combination with opium ; and as an an-
tispasmodic, given from three to six grains.
When properly administered, it proves servicteable in
the following diseases, viz. in intermittent fevers, a pa¬
roxysm of which has often been arrested by giving it as
an emetic about an hour before the paroxysm was ex¬
pected to come on 5 in continued fevers, given at the
^commencement as an emetic, and followed by a dia¬
phoretic regimen 5 in several inflammatory diseases, as
rheumatism, given as a diaphoretic 5 in pneumonia, ex¬
hibited to excite and keep up nausea without vomiting j
in dysentery, in which it was formerly deemed a speci¬
fic ; in exanthematous diseases, especially where the
eruption is disposed to recede •, in hemorrhages, given
in nauseating doses ; in several spasmodic aflections, as
epilepsy, asthma, dyspnoea, chincough, chronic diar-
rhosa, hysteria •, in mental alienation, as melancholia
and mania, given in large doses 5 in some kinds of
dropsy •, in jaundice ; in amaurosis.
Ipecacuan is best exhibited in substance ; but it is
often given in the form of a vinous infusion.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Vinum Ipecacuanha. Wine of ipecacuan.
This is made hy digesting two ounces of bruised ipe¬
cacuan root in about two pounds of Spanish white wine,
for about a week, and straining.
This preparation being more palatable than the ijie-
cacuan in substance, is well suited to delicate and
squeamish patients* It may be given from an ounce to
two ounces.
Powdered PuLVIS IPECACUANHA ET OPIT, E. PUL VIS
ipecacuan IPECACUANHA COMPOSITUS, L. D. PUL-
and opium. VIS DOVERI. Powder of ipecacuan and opium.
Compound powder of ipecacuan. Dover's powder.
This powder is prepared by triturating eight parts of
crystallized sulphate of potash, with one part of hard
dry opium, and one part of powdered ipecacuan, till
they are reduced to a very fine powder.
The crystallized salt in this process serves the purpose
of reducing the opium and ipecacuan to a state ot very
minute division, and thus renders them more effectual.
This is a valuable diaphoretic, and may be given from
10 to 20 grains j but where a long continued sweat is
desired to be kept up, it is better to give 10 or 15
grains at first, and 10 or 5 grains more a few hours
after.
Buckthorn ?6- Rhamnus catharticus, E. SPINA CER-
* VINA, L. Buckthorn. See Botany, p. 139.
Vol. Nil. Part II. f
. 409
Ipecacuan
wine.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
a. Syrupus Rhamni cathartici, E. SYRUPUS !vlcdlcmes'.
SPINA CERV1NA, L. Syrup of buckthorn,
The Edinburgh college directs this to be made with Syrup of
two parts of the depurated juice of ripe buckthorn her- lorn
ries, and one part of double refined sugar, boiled to
the consistence of a syrup. The London process is
more complex. It directs a gallon of the fresh juice of
ripe buckthorn berries, an ounce of bruised ginger, an
ounce and a half of powdered pimento, and seven
pounds of double refined sugar. The juice is to he set
aside for three days, and then strained from the faices.
The ginger and pimento are to be macerated for four
hours in a pint of the strained liquor. In the mean
time the rest of the juice is to be boiled down to three
pints ; then the sugar and the pint of juice in which the
spices had been macerated, are to be added, and the
whole boiled to the consistence of a syrup.
This syrup is a good cathartic, but is seldom given
alone, except to children. Dose from six drams to an
ounce and a half.
77. Vitis vintEera, E. The vine,
The remedies drarvn from the vine are wine,
and supertartrate of potash. ,
The properties of wine as a stimulant and cordial,
have been already mentioned. See N° 100. The wines
usually employed in medicine are,
Vinum album hispanum, white Spanish wine.
Vinum album rhenanam, Rhenish wine.
Vinum rubrum lusitanum, red Port wine.
The last, besides the stimulating power common to
all wines, possesses much astringency, and is therefore
better suited to cases of debility.
78. UVA PASS A. Raisins,
These are chiefly employed as emollients and demul-
4l3
Wine.
grapes,
. 4M
Raisins.
cents.
79. SuPERTARTRAS PoTASSA. SUPERTARTRIS Supi rtitr-
POTASSA. TARTARI CRYSTALLI, L. D.trate,oi'
CREMOR TARTARI, Supertartrate of potash.potasU’
Crystals of tartar. Cream of tartar.
For the chemical nature of this salt, see Chemistry.
This salt is employed in medicine chiefly as a gentle
laxative and refrigerant. As a laxative, it may be
given in the dose of from two drams to half an ounce,
mixed with syrup or honey, or dissolved in a large
quantity of barley water. In the latter way it has
been found a good diuretic in dropsies. As a refriger¬
ant, it is given in a diluted solution, sweetened with
sugar, or some pleasant syrup.
Officinal Preparations.
416
a. TaRTRAS PotASSA. TARTRIS POTASS A, E. Tartrale of
KALI TARTAR IS ATU M, L. ALKALI VE-potah.
GETAB1LE TARTARISATUM, D. Tartrate of
potash. Tartariscd kali. Tartarised vegetable alkali.
Soluble tai'tar.
This salt is prepared by adding to a solution of su¬
pertartrate of potash, a sufficient quantity of subcarbo-
5 C nate
754
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
4^7
Tartrate of
potash and
soda.
MATERIA MEDICA,
nate of potash, to neutralize the excess of tartaric acid.
For this purpose it usually requires about one part of
the alkaline carbonate to three parts of supertartrate of
potash. After neutralization, the liquor is filtered, and
set by to crystallize.
This salt forms an excellent cooling purgative, and
may be given in doses of from half an ounce to an
ounce. It forms a good addition to rhubarb.
b. Tartras Potass^ et SoDiE. TARTRIS PO-
TASStE et sod^e, e. natron TARTA-
RISATUM, L. SAL RUPELLENSIS, D. Tar¬
trate of potash and soda. 'I'artartzcd natron. Rochelle
salt.
&c.
Part IV.
418
■ 7 -
carbonate
of potash.
4I9<
Sweet vio¬
let.
420
Syrup of
violets.
Prepared by adding to a solution of supertartrate of
potash, a sufficient quantity of carbonate of soda, to
neutralize the excess of tartaric acid, filtering the li¬
quor, and crystallizing.
This triple salt is a more agreeable laxative than the
former, but is not so strong. Usual dose from one to
two ounces.
C. SuBCARBONAS PoTASSTE PURISSIMUS. CARBO-
NAS PQTASSiE PURISSIMUS, E. SAL TAR-
TARI. Purest subcarbonate of potash. Salt of tar¬
tar.
Prepared by burning all the tartaric acid from tar¬
tar, solution in water, filtration and crystallization.—
Similar in its uses with ^313. which see.
80. Viola odorata, E. VIOLA, L. D. Sweet
violet. See Botany, p. 141.
421
Red cur¬
rants-
422
Black cur¬
rants.
423
Inspissated
juice of
black cur¬
rants.
424
Syrup of
black cur¬
rants.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Viol^e odoratte, E. SYRUPUS
VIOL7E, L. D. Syrup of violets.
Made by macerating one pound or two pounds,
(L. D.) of the fresh petals of violets, in four pounds or
five pints (L.) or six pounds (D.) of boiling water for
24 hours, straining the liquor without expression, and
boiling it with a sufficient quantity of double refined
sugar, to make a syrup.
A gentle laxative for young children.
81. Rises RRBRUM. Red currants.
The fruit of red currants is used as a refrigerant in
febrile affections.
82. Ribes nigrum. Black currants.
Also employed as a refrigerant j and the following
preparations form a good domestic palliative in inflam¬
matory affections of the throat, and in tickling coughs.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Siiccus spissatus Ribis nigri. Inspissated juice
of black currants.
This is made by expressing and clarifying the juice
of ripe black currants, and then evaporating it in a
bath of water with muriate of soda, to a proper consist¬
ence.
b. Syrupus Ribis nigri. Syrup of black cur¬
rants.
Prepared by boiling the depurated juice of black History of
currants with a sufficient quantity of sugar to make a Simple and
Officinal
syiup. Medicines.
Order 2. Digynia. ' *
425
83. GeNTIANA LUTEA, E. GENTIANA, L. D. Gentian.
Gentian root.
The root of gentian is moderately long, slender,
branched, brownish on the outside, of a reddish yellow
or gold colour within. It is perennial, a native of the
mountainous parts of Germany, &c. whence the shops
are generally supplied with the dried roots.
Among the gentian brought to London, some years
ago, a root of a different kind was mixed, the use of
which occasioned violent disorders, and in some instan¬
ces, as is said, proved fatal. This root is externally of a
paler colour than gentian, and its longitudinal wrinkles
finer and closer j on cutting the two roots, the difference
is more remarkable, the poisonous root being white
without any degree of the yellow tinge which is deep
in gentian j nor is its taste bitter, like that of gentian,
but mucilaginous.
Gentian root is a strong flavourless bitter j in taste
less exceptionable than most of the other common strong
bitters, and hence among us most generally made use
of. The flavour and aromatic warmth wanting to ren¬
der it grateful, and acceptable to the stomach, are sup¬
plied by additions.
The root of this plant is a valuable substance, very
successfully and very generally employed as a stomachic
and strengthening medicine. It is particularly useful
in various chronic afiections connected with debility,
such as dyspepsia, diarrhoea, hysteria, chlorosis, dropsy.
It has also been given with good effect in intermittent
fevers, joined with the Peruvian bark j and in conva-
lescencies from all fevers. In these and other cases it
is combined with aromatics and chalybeates; sometimes
with acids 5 at other times with alkaline salts, especially
in dyspeptic and chlorotic affections, as also in certain
disorders of the bowels j with absorbents and aromatics
in cases of gout.
The use of this bitter, like that of many others, must
not, however, be carried too far, as by weakening the
energy of the nervous system, it predisposes to palsy
and apoplexy.
Officinal Preparations.
425
a. Infusum Gentians compositum, E. L. D. Compound
INFUSUM AMARUM. Compound infusion of gen- inf“ of
tian. Bitter infusion.
The Edinburgh infusion is made by steeping half
an ounce of sliced gentian root, one dram dried
peel of Seville oranges, half a dram of coriander seeds
bruised, first in four ounces of diluted alcohol for
three hours, and then adding one pound of water j
macerating without heat for twelve hours, and then
straining.
This infusion, according to the London Pharmaco¬
poeia, is made by macerating for an hour in boiling
water, twelve ounces by measure, one dranr of sliced
gentian root, one dram and a half dried orange peel,
half an ounce of fresh outer rind of lemons. The Dub¬
lin formula directs two drams of bruised gentian root,
half an. qvuiw fresh outer rind, of lemons, one dram and
PartIV. MATERIA
History of a half of dry orange peel, four ounces of diluted alco-
Simple and hoi, and twelve ounces of boiling water; and the in-
Mtd'icines ^us‘on 13 to ma(^e first hy alcohol and afterwards
■ ^ with the addition of water, nearly as in the Edinburgh
process.
These infusions form a good tonic remedy in debility
of the alimentary canal. A glass of them may be given
twice or thrice a-day, either alone, or with the addition
of some aromatic tonic tincture.,
Compound £. TlNCTURA GENTIANS COMFOSITA, E. L. TINC-
Uncture Of TURA AMARA. ELIXIR STOMACHICUM.
gentian. Compound tinctui’e of gentian. Bitter tincture. Sto-
machic elixir.
The Edinburgh tincture is prepared by macerating
two ounces of sliced and bruised gentian root, an
ounce of dried and bruised Seville orange peel, half an
ounce of bruised canella alba, and half a dram of pow¬
dered cochineal, in two pounds and a half of diluted al¬
cohol for seven days. The tincture of the London col¬
lege is made with two ounces of sliced and bruised gen¬
tian, one ounce of dried orange peel, half an ounce lesser
cardamom seeds, husked and bruised, digested for eight
days in two pints of proof spirit.
These tinctures are seldom given alone, but may be
administered in a dose of two or three drams in a glass
of water.
428
Compound
wine of
jentian.
c. Vinum Gentians compositum, E. VINUM
AMARUM. Compound wine of gentian. Bitter
wine.
Prepared of half an ounce of gentian root, one ounce
of cinchona bark, two drams of Seville dried orange
peel, one dram of canella alba, four ounces diluted al¬
cohol, two pounds and a half of Spanish w'hite wine.
The diluted alcohol is first poured on the root and bark
sliced and bruised, and after 24 hours adding the wine,
then macerating for seven days and straining. Dose
from two drams to half an ounce.
429
Extract of d- EXTRACTUM GENTIANAE LUTEA5, E. EX-
;entian. TRACTUM GENTIANS, L. D. Extract of gen¬
tian.
This is made by evaporating the saturated and strain¬
ed decoction of the root to a consistence fit for being
made into pills, under which form it is frequently pre¬
scribed in all those cases in which the infusion and tinc¬
ture are employed. Dose of this extract from ten
grains to half a dram. It is seldom given alone, but
generally in combination with aromatic and aloetic
powders, with myrrh, sulphurate of iron, &c.
84. Ulmus campestris, E. ULMUS, L. D. Elm
bark.
The inner bark of the elm is frequently employed in
cutaneous eruptions, as an alterative, or gentle diapho¬
retic, in the form of decoction.
Ojjicinal Preparation.
c, Decoctum Ulmi, L. Decoction of elm bark.
43°
Elm bark.
755
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicine".
43*
Eryngo
root.
433
Carrot.
r, 431
Oecoction
if elm
lark.
MEDIC A, &c.
Made by boiling four ounces of the fresh inner bark
of elm bruised, in four pints of water to two, and strain¬
ing. Dose about four ounces, repeated several times
a-day.
This medicine probably does not deserve the reputa¬
tion it has acquired.
85. Eryngium maritimum. ERYNGIUM, L.
D. Eryngo root. See Botany, p. 144.
86. Daucus carota, E. DAUCUS SYLVES-
TRIS, L. D. Wild carrot seed.
The seeds are sometimes employed as a carminative,
and have been recommended as a diuretic. They are
seldom used.
I he grated roots of cultivated carrot are frequently
applied as a poultice to cancerous and ill-conditioned
ulcers.
87. CoNIUM MACULATUM, E. ClCUTA, L. D. TTcmloek
Hemlock. See Botany, p. 145.
Hemlock has been employed chiefly in scrophulou8
and cancerous disorders, both internally and external'
ly, and in many of these cases, with considerable be'
nefit; in other instances, without any sensible relief*
even after being continued for a great length of time*
Like most proposers of new remedies, Stoerck has been
too profuse in his encomiums on hemlock. It has been
found useful in chronic rheumatism, and some cases of
gout, where opium disagreed, and in that acutely pain¬
ful complaint termed tic doloureux ; as also in caries
of the bones and bad venereal ulcerations. Dr Butter
prescribed it with marked success in the hooping-cough ;
and being less stimulant than opium, and less liable to
check expectoration, it generally answers better than
the inspissated juice of the poppy, in cases of phthisis
pulmonalis. The dried leaves may be given alone in
doses of five to 15 grains. With the inspissated juice
and powder are joined, according to the nature of the
disorder in which they are given, calomel, guaiacum,
ammoniacum, &c. In the administration of this, as
of all other narcotic medicines, it is proper to begin
with the smallest doses, afterwards gradually increasing
them to as much as the patients can well bear. In this
manner many instances are recorded where astonishing
quantities of hemlock have been taken, in cancerous
and other painful disorders, without disturbing the con¬
stitution. It is a sign that the medicine has been push¬
ed to its utmost length, when it disorders the head, sto¬
mach, or bowels. For external use, fomentations,
cataplasms, and plasters, are prepared from this vege¬
table *. # Practical
Synopsis,
Officinal Preparation.
a. Succus SPISSAXUS CoNII MACULATI, E. SUC- Inspissated
CUS SPISSATUS CICUT2E, D. Inspissated juice juice of
of hemlock. hemlock.
This is made by expressing hemlock which is gather¬
ed when the flowers are beginning to appear, and al¬
lowing the juice to stand six hours until the feces sub¬
side, then reducing the decanted juice to dryness in a
water bath.
5 C 2 This
756
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
Part IV.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
43.6
Creeping
skirret.
437
Cummin
seeds.
This extract may be given in a dose of two grams,
increasing it gradually as long as seems prudent.
88. Sium nodiflorum. SIUM, L. Creeping
skirret.
Formerly employed as an emmenagogue and lithon-
triptic, but now seldom used.
89. Cuminum Cyminum. CUMINUM, L. Cum¬
min seed. See Botany, p. 146.
Officinal Preparations.
* \ „ ^
438 a. Cataplasma Cumini, L. Cataplasm of cum-
Cataplasm min seed.
of cummin. . , 1 e 1 u
This is made of cummin seed one pound j 01 bay ber¬
ries, dried leaves of water germander, 1 irginian snake-
root, each three ounces j cloves one ounce ; rubbed to¬
gether into a powder, and formed into a cataplasm with
three times their weight of honey.
b. Emplastrum Cumini, L. Cummin plaster.
This is composed of cummin seeds, carraway seeds,
bay berries, each three ounces j Burgundy pitch three
pounds, and yellow wax three ounces. The pitch and
wax are first melted together, and the other ingredients
in fine powder mixed with them.
Both these preparations are intended for external ap¬
plication to the belly, in some disorders of the stomach
and bowels, which require such a stimulus.
90. Ferula Asafoetida, E. ASAFOETIDA,
E. D. Asafoetida. See Botany, p. 145* an(^ CHE¬
MISTRY, N° 2490.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Asafoetida purificata. Purified asafoetida.
Asafoetida is purified in the same manner as gum am¬
moniac.
43?
Cummin
plaster.
44°.
Asatbetida.
441
Purified
asafcetida.
e. Emplastrum Asafoetidte, E. Plaster of asa- History of
fcetida. S^Ple
Oflicmal
Made by melting together plaster of semi vitrified Medicines,
oxide of lead, asafoetida, of each two parts, and galba- ' v-—-
num and yellow wax, of each one part. piaster of
Applied to the belly in hysteria. asafoetida.
91. Bubon Galbanum, E. GALBANUM, L. !>• Gal{anuia,
Galbanum. See Chemistry, N° 2494.
Galbanum is employed in similar cases as asafoetida.
It is seldom given alone.
Officinal Preparations.
447
a. Galbanum purificatum. Strained galbanum. purified
Galbanum is purified by melting it, inclosed in a*3
bladder, by the heat of boiling water, and straining it
through linen. ^
b. TlNCTURA Galbani, L. Tincture of galbanum. Tincture of
galbanum.
This is made by digesting two ounces of galbanum,
cut into small pieces, in two pints of proof spirit, for
eight days, with a gentle heat and straining. Dose from
one to two drams.
449
c. Pilulte Galbani composite:, L. Compound Compound
galbanum pills.
Prepared of opoponax, myrrh, sagapenum, of each an
ounce, asafcetida half an ounce.
Similar to the asafoetida pills, and given in similar
doses.
45°
ANGELI- Angelica,
451
Emulsion of b. Lac Asafoetid^i, L. Emulsion of asafcetida.
asafcetida. .g made jn ^ sanie manner as the emulsion of
gum ammoniac (See N° 33^0> ant^ 13 given sindlar
doses.
«
Tincture of c. Tinctura Ferulte Asafoetidte, E. TINC-
asafeetida. TURA ASAFOETIDvE, L. D. Tincture of asafoe¬
tida.
This tincture is prepared by digesting four ounces of
asafoetida in two pounds and a half (E.), or two pounds
(DO, or two pints (L.), of rectified spirit of wine, for
about a week,
This is a good preparation of asafoetida, and may be
given in doses of from 20 to 60 drops.
Confound Pilule Asafoetidte composite, E. Com-
pills of asa- pound asafoetida pills. ,
Made by beating together asafoetida, galbanum, and
myrrh, of each eight parts, and one part of rectified oil
of amber, into a mass 'with simple syrup. Dose 15
grains, or a scruple, three or four times a day. Chiefly
in hysteria.
92. Angelica Archangelica, E.
CA, L. D. Angelica.
An elegant aromatic, but seldom employed.
93. CORIANDRUM SATIVUM, E. CORIANDRUM. Coriander
Coriander seeds. See Botany, p. 147-
94. Carum carui, E. CARUON, L. CAEUI,
D. Carraway seeds. See Botany, p. 147*
Officinal Preparations.
o. Oleum volatile Cari carui, E. OL. C A-Oil of car-
RUI, L. D. Volatile oil of carraway. raway*
Prepared by distillation in the same manner as the oil
of rosemary. A very warm stimulant. Dose two or
three drops.
454
b. Spiritus Cari carui, E. SPIRITUS CARUI, Spirit of
L. D. Spirit of carraway. cairawa .
Prepared by macerating half a pound of bruised ca¬
raway seeds in eight or nine pounds of proof spirit
for a day or two, and then with the addition of a suf¬
ficient quantity of water to prevent burning, distilling
off the spirit.
A good dram, where drams are required, as 111 flatu¬
lent colic. Dose half an ounce to an ounce.
455
95. PaSTINACA OPOPONAX. OPOPONAX, L. Opoponax.
Opoponax.
One of the gum-resins, brought from the East Indies
and the Levant. It possesses properties similar to those
of
Part IV.
History of of galbanum and asafoetida, and is usually employed in
Simple ami combination with them.
Officinal
Mediums., ^ Anethum graveolens, L. Dill-seed.
Dill^seed. This seed is of a nearly oval shape, convex on one
side and flat on the other, of a yellowish colour, of a
warm pungent taste and aromatic smell. Employed
sometimes as a carminative.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
757
457
Water of
dill.
45s
Sweet fen¬
nel seed.
459
Water of
sweet fen¬
nel.
460
Oil of fen¬
nel.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aq.ua distillata Anethi, L. Dill water.
A gallon of water distilled from a pound of bruised
dill seeds.
97. Anethum foeniculum, E. FOENICULUM,
L. D. Sweet fennel seeds. See Botany, p. 147.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aq.ua distillata foeniculi dulcis, L. D.
Sweet fennel water.
461
Parsley.
462
Aniseed.
.
Oil of ani¬
seed.
464
Compound
spirit of
aniseed.
Prepared as dill water.
b. Oleum volatile Foeniculi dulcis, D. Oil
of sweet fennel seeds. Prepared as the oil of rosemary,
&c.
98. Apium petroselinum, E. PETROSELIN-
UM, L. Parsley.
The seeds of parsley are carminative, and the root is
gently diuretic.
99. Pimpinella Anisum, E. ANISUM, L. D.
Aniseeds.
This plant is cultivated in Asia, and in the south of
Europe. The seeds have a peculiar grateful smell, and
a sweet aromatic taste.
They are gently stimulant, carminative and expec¬
torant.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum volatile Pimpinell.® anisi,E. OLE¬
UM VOLATILE ANISI, L. D. Volatile oil of
aniseed.
Prepared as the other volatile oils.
This oil freezes at no very low temperature. It is
a powerful and grateful stimulant. Dose, a drop or
two.
„ 465
Elder.
h. Spiritus Anisi compositus, L. Compound
spirit of aniseed.
From aniseed and angelica seed, of each half a
pound, proof spirit a gallon, and enough water to pre¬
vent burning, a gallon of spirit is distilled.
A very agreeable cordial in cases of flatulence.
Order 3. Trigynia.
100. Sambucus nigra, E. SAMBUCUS, L.
D. Elder leaves, bark, and berries. See BoTANY,
p. 148.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Succus spissatus BACCAt Sambuci, L. D. In¬
spissated juice of elder leaves.
Prepared in the same way as the juice of black cur¬
rants. See N° 422.
b. Unguentum Sambuci, L. UNG. SAMBUCI-
NUM, D. Elder ointment.
Prepared by boiling four pounds of elder flowers in
three pounds of mutton suet and a pint of olive-oil till
they are crisp, and then straining.
101. Rhus Toxicodendron, E. Poison oak.
The leaves of this shrub, which is a native of North
America, are very acrid, and have lately been intro¬
duced into practice by Dr Alderson of Hull as a re¬
medy for palsy. Dose half a grain or a grain. In
Edinburgh it has been less successful than with Dr Al¬
derson. See Alderson’s “ Essay on the Rhus Toxico¬
dendron,” and Duncan’s Dispensatory.
102. Linum usitatissimum, E. LINUM, L. D.
Common flax. Lintseed. See Botany, p» 149.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum Lini usitatissimi, E. Lintseed oil.
Expressed from the seeds by inclosing them in a
hempen bag after beating them in a stone mortar. It
should be expressed without heat.
Emollient. Has been given with success in some
cases of hcemoptysis, nephritis, colic, and some internal
inflammations. Dose an ounce or two, made into an
emulsion.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
466
Inspissated
juice of
elder.
Elder oint-
468
Poison oafe
. 4^9
Lintseed.
470
Lintseed
oil.
47i
103. Linum catharticum, D. Purging flax. SeePurging
Botany, p. 149. flax-
Class VI. HEXANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
gynia.
472
104. BerBERIS VULGARIS. BERBERR^D. Bar-Barberry,
berry.
The fruit is employed as a refrigerant. See Bota¬
ny, p. 159.
473
105. Allium sativum, E. L. D. Garlic. See Garlic.
Botany, p. 156, where a long account is given of its
nature and uses.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Allii, D. Syrup of garlic.
Prepared by macerating a pound of sliced garlic in
two pounds of boiling water in a close vessel for 12
hours, and then adding to the strained liquor four
pounds of double refined sugar.
106. Allium cepa. CEPA, D. Onion.
A gentle diuretic when raw, but chiefly used roasted
by way of a cataplasm.
474
Syrup of
garlic.
475
Onion.
476
107. Aloe perfoliata, E. ALOE SOCOTO-Aloes.
RINA, L. D. Aloes.
So
758
materia
History of So full an account of the several varieties of aloes
Simple and and their uses in medicine has been given under Bo-
Officinal
Medicines.
477
Powder of
aloes with
canella.
TANY, p. 158,
notice its
that it is necessary for us here only to
Officinal Pi'cparations.
HIERA PI-
478
Aloetic
powder
with guaia-
oum.
41?
Aloetic
powder
with iron.
480
Aloetic
pills.
481
Pills of
aloes and
asafcetida.
482
Pills of
aloes and
colocynth.
a. Pulvis Aloes cum Canella, L.
CRA. Powder of aloes with canella.
Prepared of a pound of socotorine aloes, and three
pounds of white canella, powdered separately and then
mixed together.
A warm stimulant cathartic. Dose 10 grains to 20.
Best given in the form of pill.
b. Pulvis Aloeticus cum Guaiaco, L. Aloetic
powder with guaiacum.
Prepared by mixing together an ounce and a half of
powdered socotorine aloes, an ounce of powdered resin
of guaiacum, and half an ounce of aromatic powder.
Dose as of the preceding.
c. Pulvis Aloeticus cum Ferro, L. Aloetic
powder with iron.
Prepared of socotbrine aloes, an ounce and a half,
myrrh two ounces, dry extract of gentian and vitriola-
ted iron, each an ounce, powdered separately, and mix¬
ed together.
This is considered as a good emmenagogue in a dose
of 15 grains.
d. Pilule aloeticte, E. D. PILULiE ALOES
COMPOSITiE, L. Aloetic' Pills. Compound pills
of aloes.
The Edinburgh aloetic pills are prepared by beating
together into a mass equal parts of powdered aloes and
soap. Those of the London college are made of an
ounce of powdered socotorine aloes, half an ounce of
extract of gentian, two scruples of oil of carraway seeds,
and enough syrup of ginger to form a mass. The Dub¬
lin pills are made of an ounce of Barbadoes aloes, with
half an ounce of extract of gentian, and two drams
of powdered ginger, formed into a mass with soap
jelly.
Any of these compositions forms a good cathartic for
sedentary people. Dose 10 to 20 grains.
e. Pilulah Aloes et Asafoetid^e, E. Pills of
aloes and asafcetida.
Prepared with equal parts of powdered aloes, asafoe-
tida and soap, made into a mass with mucilage of gum
arabic.
A good remedy in dyspepsia, especially in females.
Dose about 10 grains, twice a-day.
f. Pilule Aloes cum Colocynthide, E. Pills
of aloes with colocynth.
These are formed of socotorine aloes, scammony,
each eight parts, colocynth four parts, oil of cloves
and sulphate of potash with sulphur, each one part.
The aloes, scammony, and salt, are together reduced to
powder, and mixed with the colocynth previously beat
to a fine powder; then the oil is added, and the mass
formed with mucilage of gum arabic.
3
MEDIC A, &c: Partly.
A powerful purgative, well suited to melancholia and History of
similar diseases. Dose 10 to 20 grains. Simple and
Officinal
g. PlLULTE AlOES et MyrRILE, E. L. PILU-Medicines.
L7E RUFI. Pills of aloes and myrrh. Rufus's pills. ' v”'—'
4S3
Prepared of four parts of socotorine aloes, two parts Pills of
of myrrh, and two parts of saffron (one part L.), made^0^aBd
into a mass with syrup of saffron.
A good laxative and stomachic. Dose 15 or 20
grains.
h. Extractum Aloes, C. Extract of Aloes.
484
Extract of
aloes.
485
TINCTU- Tincture of
aloes.
Prepared as extract of gentian.
J.. Tinctura Aloes socotorinte, E.
RA ALOES, L. D. Tincture of aloes.
Made by digesting half an ounce of powdered soco¬
torine aloes and an ounce and a half ot extract of liquo¬
rice, in four ounces of alcohol and a pound of distilled
water (E.), or in eight ounces of proof spirit with the
same quantity of distilled water (L.), for a^ few days,
with a gentle heat and frequent agitation.
Dose about
an ounce.
486
k. Tinctura Aloes et Myrrhs, E. TINCTU-Tincture of
RA ALOES COMPOSITA, L. Tincture of aloes
and myrrh. Compound tincture of aloes.
This tincture, according to the Edinburgh process,
is prepared by first digesting two ounces of powdered
myrrh in a pound and a half of alcohol mixed with
half a pound of water, for four days j then adding an
ounce and a half of powdered socotorine aloes, and an
ounce of saffron ; digesting for three days longer, and
pouring off the tincture. The London tincture is
made by digesting three ounces of socotorine aloes and
the same quantity of saffron, in two pints of tincture of
myrrh, for eight days, and straining it.
These tinctures differ in strength 5 the Edinburgh
tincture may be given in a dose of half an ounce or six
drams j the London one in half that quantity.
• • 487
l. Tinctura Aloes tetherea, E. Etherial tine- Etheriai
ture of aloes. tincture of
aloes.
This tincture is prepared by digesting socotorine
aloes, and myrrh powdered, of each an ounce and a
half, with an ounce of sliced saffron, in a pound of sul¬
phuric ether with alcohol j first digesting the myrrh
alone for four days, then adding the rest, digesting for
four days longer, and straining.
More stimulating than the other tinctures. Dose
two or three drams.
488
m. Vinum Aloes socotorinje, E. VINUM A- wine of
LOETICUM, D. VINUM ALOES, L. Wine of aloes.
socotorine aloes. Aloetic wine. Sacred elixir.
The Edinburgh wine is prepared by digesting an
ounce of powdered socotorine aloes, and lesseh carda¬
mom seed, and ginger bruised, of each a dram, in two
pounds of Spanish white wine, for seven days, with oc¬
casional agitation and straining. The Dublin college
directs four ounces of powdered socotorine aloes, and
two ounces of powdered canella alba, in four pounds
of Spanish white wine for fourteen days, with frequent
agitation and then filtrating. In the London process,
the proportions are, eight ounces of powdered aloes,
two
PartIV. MATERIA
History of two ounces of powdered caneila, six pints of Spanish
Oftkinal white. wine’ and two Pints of proof spirit.
Medicines. This appears trom long experience to be a medicine
v1 excellent service. T. he dose as a purgative is from
one to two ounces. It may be introduced into tbe ha¬
bit, so as to be productive of excellent effects, as an al¬
terant, by giving it in small doses, at proper intervals:
thus managed, it does not for a considerable time ope¬
rate remarkably by stool 5 but at length proves pur¬
gative, and occasions a lax habit of much longer
continuance than that produced by other common ca¬
thartics.
489
Squill. I08. SCILLA MARITIMA, E. SCILLA, L. D.
Squill. See Botany Index.
^V hen the root of squill is taken in large doses, it
produces a violent vomiting and purging, and some¬
times strangury, bloody urine, and inflammation and
erosion of the stomach or bowels j in moderate doses it
proves emetic, without any farther consequence, and
in small doses, it is a good expectorant and diuretic.
It is chiefly employed as an expectorant in asthma and
peripneumony, and as a diuretic in dropsy.
490
Dried
squill.
Ojjicinal Preparations.
a. StlLLA MARITIMA EXSICCATA, E. SCILLA
EXSICCATA, L. SCILLiE PEEPARATyE, D.
Dried squill.
Squill is dried by first removing its outer coat, then
cutting it transversely iqto thin slices, and drying these
with a gentle heat.
The sign of its being properly dried is that it be ren¬
dered friable without losing its bitterness and acrimony.
This is an excellent mode of preparing squill, where it
is to be given in substance. Tbe dose of dried squill,
when reduced to powder and given as an expectorant
or diuretic, is from one grain to three.
Vinegar of b. AcETUM SciLLJE MARITIME, E. ACETUM
squill. SCILLiE, L. ACETUM SCILLITICUM, D.
Vinegar of squill.
This is made by macerating dried squill in vinegar
or distilled vinegar, with a proportion of proof spirit.
The proportions of the different colleges vary. The
Edinburgh college directs two ounces of squill to two
pounds and a half of distilled acetous acid, and three
ounces of alcohol 5 that of London a pound of squill,
six pints of vinegar, and half a pint of proof spirit;
while tbe Dublin proportions are half a pound of
squill, three pounds of vinegar, and four ounces of
proof spirit. The squill is first macerated with the
vinegar for some days with a gentle heat, then the
liquor is expressed, and the spirit added to it. Dose
from two drams to half an ounce, chiefly in composi¬
tion.
c 492
2>yrup cf
squill.
c. Syrupus ScilLjE MARITIME, E. Syrup of squill.
This syrup is made with two pounds of vinegar of
squill, and three pounds and a half of double refined
sugar, dissolved in a gentle heat.
A good expectorant. Dose from half an ounce to
an ounce..
MEDICA, &c. 759
d. Oxymel Scilea:, L. Oxymel of squill. History of
Prepared by boiling three pounds of clarified honey, Simple and
with two pints of vinegar of squill in a glass vessel, with Officinal
a gentle heat, to the consistence of a syrup. Medicines^
This is not so good a pi'eparation as the syrup of
squill, and is very apt to produce sickness. Dose three Oxymel of
or four drams. squill.
e. Conserva Scill^e, L. Conserve of squill.
This is made by beating together in a mortar, an
ounce of fresh squill and five ounces of double refined
sugar.
A very injudicious and nauseous preparation.
f. 1INCTURA SciLLjE, L. D. Tincture of squill.
'1 his tincture is prepared by digesting four ounces of
fresh dried squill, in two pints, or two pounds, of proof
spirit, for seven or eight days, and pouring oft’ the clear
liquor.
This is a good preparation of squill, especially when
it is intended as a diux*etic. Dose tweqty or thirty
drops.
494
Conserve of
squill.
. 49 S
Tincture of
squill.
496
g. Mel SciLLiE, L. MEL SCILLITICUM, D. Honey of
Honey of squill. squill.
Prepared by boiling together in a glass vessel, three
pounds of clarified honey and two pints of the tinc¬
ture of squill, to the consistence of a syrup. Dose, a
dram or two.
497
/r. Pilule Sc ill/e, L. PILULiE SCILLITI-PilIs-
CiE, E. D. Squill pills.
These, according to the London and Dublin col¬
leges, are to be prepared by beating together a dram
of fresh dried squill reduced to powder, three drams of
powdered ginger, three drams of soap, and two drams
of gum ammoniac, with a sufficient quantity of syrup
of ginger, or jelly of soap, to form a mass fit for mak¬
ing pills. In tbe Edinburgh process a scruple of dried
squill, in fine powder, a dram of gum ammoniac, a
dram of powdered lesser cardamom seeds, and a dram
of extracted liquorice, are beaten into a mass, with
simple syrup.
This is a good form of squill, when intended as an
expectorant. Dose from 10 to 15 grains.
498
109. LlLIUM CANDIDUM. LILIUM ALBUM, White lily.
D. White lily root. See BOTANY, p. I j6.
499
no. Acorus Calamus, E. CALAMUS ARO-Calamus>
MATICUS, L. Sweet flag. See Botany, p. i59. ™aUcus.
Order III. Tryginia.
500
in. Colchicum Autumnale,E. COLCHICUM,Colchium.
L. D. Colchicum, or meadow saffron. See Botany,
p. 161.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Syrupus Colchici autumnalis, E. Syrup of Syrup, of
colchicum. colchicmn
Prepared by first macerating an ounce of fresh col¬
chicum root, cut into thin slices, in 16 ounces of vine-
gar?
750 MATE HI A
History of gar for two days, with occasional agitation, and the
Simple and boiling the expressed liquor with 26 ounces ot double
Officinal rebned sugar into a syrup.
Employed as a diuretic, in a dose of from a dram to
an ounce or more.
M E I) I C A, See. Part IV.
Much recommended as a diaphoretic and stimulant, History of
in rheumatic affections and in cutaneous eruptions. Simple and
Dose from four to eight ounces twice a-day.
Medicines.
502
Qxymel of
colchicuni.
5°3
Sorrel.
6. Oxymel Colchici, L. Oxymel of cokhicum.
This is made in the same manner as the syrup, only
that two pounds of clarified honey are used instead ot
sugar to the pint of vinegar ol colchicum. It is given
in similar doses with the former.
112. Rumex acetosa, E. ACETOSA PRA-
TENSIS, L. ACETOSA, D. Sorrel. See Bo¬
tany, p. 160.
HEPTANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
Class VII.
gynia.
S°4
Ilorse-
chesnut.
E. HIPPOCA-
113. tEsculus hippocastanum
STANUM. Horse-chesnut bark and fruit.
The bark of horse-chesnut is a powerful astringent,
and has lately been recommended as a substitute lor
cinchona. It is certainly a good tonic, and may be
given in powder from half a dram to a dram j or a dram
of the extract ot it may be mixed with an ounce ot cin¬
namon Water, and given in the dose ot a tea spoonlul
three or four times a-day. A strong infusion of it,
snuffed up the nose, has long been employed as an
errhine.
Class VIII.
GYNIA.
OCTANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
^OS
"Eleaii.
506
Elemi oint-
S°7
Balm of
Gilead.
508
Mezereon.
S°?
Decoction
of meze¬
reon.
117.
L. I).
p. 168.
Polygonum Bistorta, E.
Great bistort or snakeweed.
Officinal
Medicines.
BISTORTA, ^
See Botany, Great bi¬
stort.
114. Amyris elemifera. ELEMI, L. Resin
of elemi. See Botany, p. 166. $ and Chemistry,
N0 2471.
Ojjicinal Preparations.
a. Unguentum Elemi, D. UNG. ELEMI
ment. COMPOSITUM, L. Elemi ointment.
Prepared by first melting a pound of elemi with two
pounds of mutton suet, and on removing them from the
fire, immediately adding 10 ounces of turpentine and
two ounces of olive oil, and straining the mixture.
A stimulating ointment, in much reputation with
some surgeons for cleansing ulcers.
Class IX. ENNEANDRIA.
GYNIA.
Order 1. Mono-
5”
118. LauRUS ClNNAMOMUM, E. C INN AMO-Cinnamon.
MUM, L. D. Cinnamon. The hark and its essen¬
tial oil. See Botany, p. 170. and 174.
article Ceylon*
See also the
Officinal Preparations.
Cinnamomi, E.
Cinnamon water.
S1*
AQUA CIN- Cinnamon
Barley cinna- water.
TINCTU-Tincture of
115. Amyris Gileadensis, E. BALSAMUM
GILEADENSE. Balsam or balm of Gilead. See
Botany, p. 166.
116. Daphne Mezereum, E. MEZEREUM,
L. MEZEREON, D. Mezereon or sparge laurel.
See Botany, p. 168.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Decoctum daphnes Mezerei, E. Decoction
of mezereon.
Prepared by boiling with a gentle heat two drams
of the bark of mezereon root, and half an ounce of
bruised liquorice root, in three pounds of water to two
pounds.
Z
a. Aq,ua Lauri
NAMOMI, L. D.
mon.
A gallon of water distilled from a pound of bruised
cinnamon.
An excellent cordial in a dose of two ounces,
^ . .5*3
h. Spiritus Lauri Cinnamomi, E. SRIRITUS Spirit of
CINNAMOMI, L. D. Spirit of cinnamon. cinnamon,
A gallon of proof spirit distilled from a pound of
bruised cinnamon.
Preferable to the former only where ardent spirits
are required.
c. Tinctura Lauri Cinnamomi, E.
RA CINNAMOMI, L. D. Tincture of cinnamon, cinnamon.
Made by digesting three ounces, or three ounces and
a half of bruised cinnamon, in about two pounds of
proof spirit, for about a week.
A better tonic than the spirit, as it contains the
astringent as well as aromatic principle of cinnamon.
Dose two or three drams.
d. Tinctura Cinnamomi Composita, E. L. Compound
TINCTURA AROMATICA, 1). Compound tine-tincture of
ture of cinnamon. Aromatic tincture. cinnamon.
Made by digesting an ounce (or six drams, L. D.)
of bruised cinnamon, an ounce (or two drams, D. or
three drams, L.) of bruised cardamom seeds, two
drams of powdered long pepper, (and two drams et
powdered ginger, L. D.) in two pounds and a half
(or two pounds, D. of two pints, L.) of proof spirit,
for seven days.
A very hot tincture, useful in asthenic atony of the
stomach. Dose two or three drams.
e.
der.
PuEVIS AROMAT1CUS, E. L. D.
. . 5I(5
Aromatic pow-Aromatic
pOW'
der.
The Edinburgh aromatic powder is prepared of equal
parts of cinnamon, lesser cardamom seeds, and ginger,
beaten together to a very fine powder. The propor¬
tions of the other colleges are cinnamon two ounces,
lesser cardamom seeds, ginger and long pepper, ot each
an ounce. Dose 10 grains to a scruple.
f. Electuarium aromaticum, E. D.
FECTIO AROMATICA, L. Aromatic electuary electuary
or confection. Cordial confection.
The
CON- Aromatic
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of Edinburgh electuary is made by mixing one
Simple and part of aromatic powder with two parts of syrup of
Medicines ora,n8e.P^e^* 1 hat of the Dublin college is prepared
» ' T * by ni*x^ng three ounces of conserve of orange peel with
lialf an ounce of powdered cinnamon, half an ounce of
powdered nutmeg, two drams oi powdered ginger, and
two drams of saffron, with an ounce of double refined
sugar, and beating them together with a sufficient quan¬
tity of syrup of orange peel into an electuary. The
London confection is made by first macerating half a
pound of zedoary in coarse powder, and half a pound
of saffron, in three pints of water for 24 hours, pressing
out the liquor, and evaporating it to a pint and a half,
and adding 16 ounces of compound powder of crabs
claws, of cinnamon and nutmeg each two ounces, cloves
an ounce, lesser cardamom seeds half an ounce, all in
fine powder, and two pounds of double refined sugar, so
as to form an electuary.
Of these compositions, the first is the best. Dose -a
518 scruple to half a dram.
Cassia bark. Laurus cassia, E. CASSIA LIGNEA, D.
Cassia bark. See Botany, p. lyj.
This is commonly employed instead of cinnamon,
and though not so delicate, is as efficacious as that ex¬
pensive drug. The buds of cassia are, we believe,
stronger than the bark.
Sr9
i Cassia wa-
i ter.
>■
Officinal Preparation,
Cassia w7ater.
520
Camphor.
a. Aqua Lauri cassia, E.
Distilled like cinnamon water, for which it is com¬
monly substituted.
120. Laurus camphora, E. The camphor tree.
CAMP HO BA, L. D. Camphor or Camphire. See
Botany, page 170. and 1745 and Chemistry, N°
2441. See also the article Camphora.
Internally camphor is administered as a diaphoretic
in typhoid fevers, in rheumatism, in low eruptive fe¬
vers, in a dose of from five to 20 grains j and as an an-
tispasmodic in hiccup, hysteria, epilepsy and in mania
and melancholia, especially in that maniacal affection
that sometimes takes takes place in lying-in women. It
is applied externally in cases of gangrene, to discuss in¬
dolent tumours, and to disperse collections of milk in
the breasts of w'omen who are weaning their infants.
Officinal Preparations,
521
Camphorat- a, Emulsio CAMPHORATA, E. Camphorated emul-
ed enml- sion>
won. . .
Prepared by first beating together two drams of
blanched sweet almonds, and a dram of double refined
sugar, then rubbing with these a scruple of camphor,
and gradually adding six ounces of water to make an
emulsion. Dose two or three ounces.
Camphora MISTURA CAMPHORATA, L. Camphorated mix-
| ted mix-*' t»re.
ture’ Made by rubbing a dram of camphor, first w'ith a
little rectified spirit of wine, and then with half an
ounce of double refined sugar, and adding gradually a
pint of boiling distilled water, and straining off the clear
liquor.
Vol. XII. Part II. f
MEDICA, &c. 761
Scarcely so active as the foregoing. I)oS3 much the History of
same. Simple and
Officinal
c. J INCTUR A Camphors, E. SPIRITUS CAM-Medicines.
PHORATUS, L. D. Tincture of camphor. Cam- -——-
phorated spirit. . 523
. 4 _ ... Tincture of
A solution of camphor in rectified spirit. The se-camphor,
veral colleges direct very different proportions, viz. the
Edinburgh an ounce, or two or three ounces, of cam¬
phor, to a pound of alcohol ; the London four ounces to
two pints ; and the Dublin college half an ounce to eight
ounces.
d. Oleum camphoratum, E. Camphorated oil. Caniphora-
A solution of camphor in oil olive, in the proportiont;(1 olb
of half an ounce of the former to two ounces of the
latter, made by triturating them together in a glass or
marble mortar. 525
e. LlNIMENTUM CaMPHORTE COMPOSITUM, L. Campliora-
LINIMENTUM CAMPHORaE, D. Compound ii.tediini-
niment of camphor.
Made by first mixing six ounces of water of pure
ammonia (L.), or 10 ounces of water of carbonated
ammonia (D.), with 16 ounces (or two pounds, D.) of
spirit of lavender, and distilling off the spirit from a
glass retort j then dissolving in the distilled spirit two
ounces (L.) or three ounces (D.) of camphor.
These three last are intended for external applica¬
tion in the cases above mentioned, and the last is the
most stimulating.
5**
i2r. Laurus nobilis, E. LAURUS, L. Bay.Bay.
See Botany, p. 171, and 172.
The leaves, berries, and expressed oil of the berries,
are employed in medicine.
527
122. Laurus Sassafras, E. SASSAFRAS, L. Sassafras.
D. Sassafras wood, root, and bark. See Botany, p.
*73-
Employed chiefly as a gentle diaphoretic or alter¬
ative in cutaneous eruptions, byway of decoction or in¬
fusion.
Officinal Preparations.
528
a. Oleum volatile Lauri Sassafras, E. OLE-Oil of sas-
UM SASSAFRAS, L. Oil of sassafras. safras.
Distilled as the other volatile oils.
Order 2. Trigynia.
529
123. Rheum palmatum, E. RHABARBARUM, Rhubarb.
L. D. Rhubarb. See Botany, p. 175.
Officinal Preparations.
53°
a. Infusum Rhei PALMATI, E. Infusion of rhu- Infusion of
barb. rhubarb.
Made by macerating half an ounce of bruised rhu¬
barb in eight ounces of boiling water for 12 hours ;
then adding an ounce of spirit of cinnamon, and strain¬
ing. Dose half an ounce to an ounce and a half.
531
b. Vinum Rhei palmati, E. VINUM RHA- Pihubarb
BARBARI, L. Rhubarb wine. . wine.
5 D The
762
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
532
Tincture of
rhubarb.
The Edinburgh wine is prepared by infusing two
ounces of sliced rhubarb and a dram of bruised canella
alba in 15 ounces of Spanish white wine, and two
ounces of diluted alcohol, for seven days, and straining
through paper. The London formula directs two
ounces and a half of sliced rhubarb, half an ounce of
bruised lesser cardamom seeds, and two drams of saflrou,
to be digested in two pints of Spanish white wine, and
half a pint of proof spirit, for 10 days.
The Edinburgh wine is the stronger, and may be
given in the dose of an ounce. Lose of the London,
about an ounce and a half, or a small wine glass
full.
c. Tinctura Rhei palmati, E. TINCTURA
RHABARBARI, L. D. Tincture of rhubarb.
Prepared by digesting three ounces (E.) or two
ounces (L. L.) of sliced rhubarb, half an ounce (E.)
or two drams (L. D.) of bruised cardamom seeds, (and
two drams of saffron (L. D.) in tvro pounds and a half
(E.) or two pounds (D.) or two pints (L.) of proof
spirit, for about a week, and straining.
As a purgative, this may be given in the dose of an
ounce j as a stomachic from two to four drams.
,, 533 , d. Tinctura Rhabarbari composita, L. Com-
tincture of pound tincture 01 rhubarb.
Prepared of two ounces of sliced rhubarb, half an
ounce of bruised liquorice root, two drams of powdered
ginger, and two drams of saffron, digested for 14 days
in 12 ounces of proof spirit mixed with a pint of distil¬
led water.
Uses and doses as of the preceding
534
Tincture of e. Tinctura Rhei et Aloes, E. Tincture of rhu-
rhubarb barb and aloes,
aad-aloes. +
Made by digesting 10 drams of sliced rhubarb, six
drams of powdered socotorine aloes, and half an ounce
of bruised cardamom seeds, in two pounds and a half of
diluted alcohol, for seven days.
Lose half an ounce to an ounce.
535
rhubarb0 0f f' Tinctura Rhei et Gentianje, E. Tincture
•and gen- °f rhubarb and gentian.
Made by digesting two ounces of. sliced rhubarb, and
half an ounce of sliced gentian root, in two pounds and
a half of diluted alcohol, for seven days, and strain¬
ing.
A good stomachic. Lose two or three drams.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Officinal Preparation.
Part IV.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Class X.
NIA.
LECANLRIA. Order 1. Monogy-
Bakamof I24- MyROXYLON PeRUIFERUM, E. BALSA-
?eru MUM PERUVIANUM, L. L. Balsam of Peru.
See Botany, p. 182, and Chemistry, N° 2484.
537
a. Tinctura Balsami Peruviani, L. Tincture
of balsam of Peru.
Made by digesting four ounces of balsam of Peru in Tincture of
a pint of rectified spirit of wine till the balsam is dis- balsam of
solved. Teru.
Lose half a dram to a dram and a half as a stimu¬
lant.
533
125. ToLUIFERA BALSAMUM, E. BALSAMUM Balsam of
TOLUTANUM, L. L. Balsam of Tolu. See Bo-Tolu-
tany, p. 182, and Chemistry, N° 2483.
Officinal Preparations.
539
54°
a. Tinctura toluifer^e Balsami, E. TINC-Tincture of
TURA BALSAMI TOLUTANI, L. L. Tincture |>a]5am of
of balsam of Tolu.
Made by digesting an ounce, or an ounce and a half
(L.), of balsam of Tolu, in a pound, or a pint (L.),
of alcohol, till the balsam is dissolved.
This is the best form of employing this balsam, and
it may be given mixed with honey, or, as in the follow¬
ing preparation, with syrup. Lose, half a dram to
two drams as an expectorant or stimulant.
b. Syrupus toluiferve Balsami, L. SYRUPUS s>tuP of
TOLUTANUS, L. Syrup of balsam of Tolu, orTolu*
balsajnic syrup.
The Edinburgh college direct this syrup to be pre¬
pared by mixing an ounce of the above tincture with
two pounds of common syrup. The London process is
to boil eight ounces of balsam of Tolu with three pints
of distilled water for two hours, strain the liquor, and
boil it with a sufficient quantity of double refined sugar
to make a syrup. The Edinburgh formula produces
both a cheaper and a stronger syrup.
126. Cassia Fistula.’ E. CASSIA FISTULA- Cassia fis-
RIS, L. L. Cassia fruit. See Botany, p. 181. tula>
Officinal Preparations. ^
a. Electuarium Cassl® Fistulte, E. ELEC-Electuary
TUARIUM CASSIiE, L. L. Electuary of cassia. ofcassia‘
This is prepared of four parts (E.), or half a pound
(L.), of the pulp of cassia; one part (E.), or an ounce
(L.), of the pulp of tamarinds j one part (E.), or two
ounces (L.), of manna ; and four parts or half a pound
of syrup of damask roses. The manna is first dissolved
in the syrup by a gentle heat, the pulps are then added,
and the whole evaporated to the consistence of an elec¬
tuary.
A gentle laxative. Lose two or three drams.
543
127. Cassia Senna, E. SENNA, L. L. Sen- Senna,
na leaves. See Wdodville, Lewis, and Lunean (c.)
Officinal
(c) This volume is now drawing very near a close, and it is indispensable that the present article should not
extend beyond it. It is therefore necessary that in the remaining part of the materia medica, we should be ex¬
tremely concise, and should omit all the natural history, and much of the medical history, of the simple articles,
pr una e y, m many cases, t iese circumstances have been anticipated under Botany j and where this has not been
the
PartIV.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
544.
Simple in¬
fusion of
senna.
f MATERIA
Officinal Preparations.
Simple infusion
a. InFUSUM SENNj£ SIMPLEX, L.
of senna.
Prepared by macerating an ounce and a half of sen¬
na, and a dram of powdered ginger, in a pint of boiling
water, for an hour, in a covered vessel. Dose about two
or three ounces.
Tartarized b. InFUSUM SEWN® TARTARISATUM, L. Tartar-
infusion of izcd infusion of senna.
senna.
Instead of ginger, half an ounce of bruised coriander
seeds and two drams of crystals of tartar are here added.
Dose as of the above.
Infusion of c. Infusum Tamarindi cum SennjE, E. Infusion
tamarinds of tamarinds with senna,
with senna.
Prepared by macerating an ounce of preserved ta¬
marinds, a dram (or two, three, &c. drams) of senna,
half a dram of bruised coriander seeds, and half an
ounce of brown sugar, in eight ounces of boiling water,
for four hours, in a glass vessel.
An excellent laxative. Dose from two or four ounces,
according to the quantity of senna.
Compound d. TlNCTURA^ SENILE COMPOSITA, E. TINC-
tincture of TUEA SENNiE, L. D. Compound tincture of
senna. senna.
The Edinburgh tincture is made by digesting two
ounces of senna, an ounce of bruised jalap root, and
half an ounce of bruised coriander seeds, in three pounds
and a half of diluted alcohol, for seven days, straining
the tincture, and adding four ounces of double-refined
sugar. The London and Dublin tinctures are made by
digesting a pound of senna, an ounce and a half of
bruised caraway seeds, half an ounce of bruised carda¬
mom seeds, and 16 ounces of stoned raisins, in a gallon
or nine pounds (D.) of proof spirit, for 14 days. Dose
half an ounce to an ounce and a half.
e. Electuarium Cassia Senn^e, E. ELECTU-
ARIUM SENNiE, L. D. Electuary of senna. Le¬
nitive electuary.
The Edinburgh and London electuaries are com¬
posed of eight ounces of pounded senna, four ounces of
powdered coriander seeds, three ounces of liquorice
root, half a pound or a pound of figs, half a pound of
pulp of tamarinds, half a pound of pulp of prunes (and
half a pound of pulp of cassia (L.), and two pounds and
a half of double refined sugar. That of Dublin is made
of four ounces of powdered senna, a pound of pulp of
French prunes, two ounces of pulp of tamarinds, a
pound and a half of molasses, and two drams of essential
oil of carraway. Dose about half an ounce.
Extract of f- ExTRACTUM CASSIiE SeNNAI, E. EXTRAC-
^nna. TUM SENNiE, L. D. Extract of senna.
S48
Electuary
of senna.
MEDICA, &c.
Made like other extracts that have been mentioned.
Dose 10 to 30 grains. Not much used.
g. Pulvis Senile compositus, L. Compound
powder of senna.
Composed of senna, crystals of tartar, each two
ounces, scammony half an ounce, and ginger two drams.
Dose two or three scruples.
128. ILematoxylon Campechianum, E. ILE-
MATOXYLON, L. D. LIGNUM CAMPE-
t HENESE. Logwood. See Botany, p. 183.
Officinal Preparation.
763
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
550
Compound
powder of
S5i
Logwood,
a. ExTRACTUM ILemaTOXYLI, L. Extract of log-Extract of
Wood. logwood.
Made by boiling logwood in successive portions of
water, and evaporating the mixed liquors to a proper
consistence. Dose a scruple to two scruples.
129. Swietenia Mahagoni, E.
bark.
553
Mahogany tree Mahogany.
bark.
130. Swietenia Febrifuga, E. Febrifuge Swi-Feb5rg.
etenia bark. swietenia.
These barks are good tonics, and may be used instead
of the cinchona.
131. Guaiacum officinale, E. GUAIACUM^uamcum.
L. D. Guaiacum wood, bark and resin. See Bo¬
tany, p. 181.; and for an excellent account of the na¬
ture and chemical properties of the resin, see Phil.
Trans, for 1806. p. 89.
Officinal Preparations.
a. DecoCTUM GuaIACI COMPOSITUM, E. Com- Compound
pound decoction of guaiacum. Decoction of the t^oot/s. decoction
. . ofguaia-
Made by boiling three ounces of guaiacum raspings,cu™-
and two ounces of stoned resins, in ten pounds of water
to five pounds j adding, towards the end, of sliced sassa¬
fras and bruised liquorioe root, each an ounce.
Given as a diet drink in cutaneous eruptions and
rheumatism, to the extent of a pint in the day.
b. TlNCTURA GuaIACI OFFICINALIS, E. Tincture Tincture of
of guaiacum. guaiacum.
Made by digesting a pound of powdered resin of
guaiacum in two pounds and a half of alcohol for ten
days, and filtering.
A good diaphoretic. Dose, two or three drams mix¬
ed with honey or syrup.
55 8
c. Tinctura Guaiaci ammoniata, E. TINC-Ainm<>niat»
TURA GUAIACI VOLATILIS, D. TINC-ed tincture
TURA GUAIACI,
guaiacum.
L. Ammoniated tincture of™^^'
5 D 2
This
the case, we here make a general reference to Woodville’s “ Medical Botany,” Lewis’s “ Experimental Hi<
.story,” Duncan’s “ New Dispensatory,” the “ Practical Synopsis,” and “ Thesaurus Medicatninum,
764
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines
MATE H I A
This is made by digesting four ounces of powdered
resin of guaiaeum in about one pound and a halt oi
ammoniated alcohol for seven days fthiee days Ij.),
and filtering.
More stimulant than the last. Dose one or two
drams.
Rue.
559
I32. RUTA GRAVEOLENS, E.
See Botany, p. 182.
RUTA, L. D. Rue.
M E D I C A, &e. Part IV.
zoin (two ounces of strained storax, L.) an ounce of History of
balsam of Tolu, and half an ounce of powdered socoto- Simple and
rine aloes, in two pounds of alcohol, for seven days (or Officinal
three days, L.), and straining.
This tincture forms a good expectorant, made into
an emulsion with honey 5 and it has been long, though
perhaps undeservedly, celebrated, as an external appli¬
cation to wounds.
56°
Volatile oil
of rue.
a.
rue.
561
Extract of
Distilled as other volatile oils. Used chiefly as an
anthelmintic. Dose from three to six drops.
6. Extractum Rutal graveolentis, E. EX-
TRACTUM RUTJE, L. D. Extract of rue.
Made like other watery extracts. Dose about one
scruple.
5*2
Simarouba.
563
Quassia.
133
L. D.
564
Yellow-
flowered-
rhododen¬
dron
565
Whortle¬
berry.
566
Storax.
567
Purified
Rtorax.
56S
Benzoin.
569
Compound
tincture of
benzoin,
Quassia Simaruba, E. StMAROUBA,
Simarouba, or mountain damson hark.
Used as a tonic in dysentery, obstinate diarrhoea, in¬
digestion, and intermittent fevers. Dose about a dram
in substance, or two drams in the form of decoction,
which is the better mode of exhibition.
134. Quassia excelsa, E. QUASSIA, L.
Quassia wood, bark, and root.
A strong bitter, and good tonic, generally given by
way of infusion, in the proportion of one to two drams
to a pint of water.
135. Rhododendron Chrysanthum, E. Yel¬
low-flowered rhododendron. See Botany, p. 184. and
Duncan’s Dispensatory.
136. Arbutus Uva Ursi, E. UVA URSI, L
D. Whortle-berry. See Botany, p. 184.
137. Styrax officinale, E. STYRAX, L.
STYRAX CALAMITA, D. Storax. See Bota¬
ny, p. 184. and Chemistry, N° 2481.
Ojjicinal Preparation.
a. Styrax purificata, L. D. Purified storax.
Storax is purified by dissolving it in rectified spirit,
straining the solution, and reducing it to a proper thick¬
ness by a gentle heat.
Employed chiefly as an ingredient in a tincture to be
mentioned immediately.
138. Styrax Benzoin, E. BENZOE, L. BEN-
ZOINUM. D. Benzoin or benjamim. See Botany,
p. 184. and Chemistry, N° 2480.
Officinal Preparations.
* I
a. Tinctura Benzoes composita, E. L. BAL-
SAMUM TRAUMATICUM. Compound tincture
of benzoin. Traumatic vulnerary, or friars balsam.
Prepared by digesting three ounces of powdered ben-
Medicines.
Officuial Preparations.
Oleum volatile Rut^e, D. Volatile oil of
570
b. Acidum Benzoicum, E. SAL BENZOINI, Benzoic-
D. FLORES BENZOES, L. Benzoic acid. 6'«/iacid.
of Benzoin. Flo wers of benjamin.
The Edinburgh process for obtaining this acid is, to
triturate 24 ounces of benzoin with eight ounces of car¬
bonate of soda } to boil this mixture in 16 pounds of
water, constantly stirring, straining the decoction j re¬
peat the boiling with six pounds of more water, strain¬
ing, mixing the two decoctions, and evaporating till
only two pounds remain, filtering again, and dropping
into the fluid diluted sulphuric acid as long as there is-
any precipitation j then dissolving the precipitated acid
in boiling water, straining the solution through linen,
and setting it aside to crystallize } and, lastly, washing
the crystals with cold water, and drying them.
For other methods of procuring this acid, and for an
account of its chemical properties, See Chemistry,
N° 714 seq.
Benzoic acid is employed as an expectorant, in a
dose of a grain or two.
5>il
139. CoPAIFERA OFFICINALIS, E. BALSAMUM Balsam of
COPAIVA, L. BALSAMUM COPAIBA, D. copaiva.
Balsam of Copaiva. See Botany, p. 185.
Order 2. DiGYNIA.
572
140. Dianthus Caryophyllus, E. CARYO-clove july-
PHYLLUM RUBRUM, L. D. Clove julyflower. flower.
See Botany, p. 196.
Officinal Preparations.
57^
U. SyRUPUS DlANTH.E CaRYOPHYLL^E, E. SY-Syrup of
RUPUS CARYOPHYLLI RUBRI, L. Syrup of clove july-
clove julyflower. flower.
Made by macerating a pound or two of the petals of
clove julyflowers fresh gathered, and freed from the
heels, in four pounds or six pints of boiling water for
12 hours in a glass vessel, straining the infusion, and
adding of double refined sugar, seven pounds, or as
much as is sufficient to form a syrup.
Order 4. Pentagynia.
574
141. Oxalis Acetosella. LUJULA, L. A-woodsor-
CETOSELLA, D. Wood sorrel. See Botany, rel.
p. 187.
Officinal Preparations.
575
a. Conserva AcetoselLjE, D. Conserve of wood conserve of
sorrel. wood sor¬
rel.
Made by heating the leaves of wood sorrel in a mar¬
ble mortar with a wooden pestle, first by themselves,
and then with three times their weight of double refined
sugar, till they are thoroughly combined.
Class XI.
Part IV.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines
Class XI. DQDECANDRIA. Order i. Mono
GYNIA.
577
'Compound
powder of
asarabac-
57s
White ca-
nella.
579
Cloves.
5S0
Pimento.
. S8r
Pimento
water.
582
Volatile
oil of pi¬
mento.
c ■5S3
Spirit of
pimento.
584
Pomegra
nate.
585
Ivino.
^ 58*5
Tincture of
kino.
142. Asarum Europium, E. ASARUM, L. D.
Asarabacca. See Botany, p. 190.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Pulvis Asari compositus, E. L. D. Com-
pouad powder of asarabacca.
Prepared according to the London and Dublin pro¬
cess, of equal parts ol asarabacca, sweet marjoram,
Syrian herb mastich, and lavender, dried and reduced
together to a fine powder. In the Edinburgh formula
there are used three parts of asarabacca, one of marjo¬
ram, and one of the lavender.
Used as an errhine.
143. Canella alba, E. L. D. See Botany,
p. 190.
Class XII. ICOSAXDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
GYNIA.
144. Eugenia Caryophyllata. CARYO-
PHYLLUS AROMATICUS, E. CARYOPHYL-
LA AROMATICA, D. Clove tree, and its essen¬
tial oil. See Woodville’s Botany, and Duncan’s Dis¬
pensatory.
145. Myrtus Pimenta, E. PIMENTO, L. D.
Pimento, Jamaica pepper, or allspice. See Botany,
p. 194.
O fficinal Preparations.
a. AquA Myrtle Pimento, E. AQUA PI¬
MENTO, L. Pimento water.
A gallon of water distilled from half a pound of pi¬
mento. Dose, a small wine glass full.
b. Oleum volatile Myrti Pimento, E. Vola¬
tile oil of pimento.
Distilled as other volatile oils. Given as a stimulus
in a dose of two or three drops.
c. Spiritus Myrti Fimentje, E. SPIRITUS
PIMENTO, L. D. Spirit of pimento.
A gallon of proof spirit distilled from half a pound
of bruised pimento. Dose about an ounce.
146. Punica granatum, E. GRANATUM,
L. D. Pomegranate. See Botany, p. 195.
147. Eucalyptus resinifera. KINO, E. L. D.
Kina. See Duncan’s Dispensatory.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Tinctura Kino, E. D. Tincture of kino.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 765
148. AmYGDALUS COMMUNIS, E. AMYGDA- History of
L/E DULCES, L. D. AMYGDALAE AMARiE, Simple and
L. Sweet and bitter almonds. See Botany, p. iqc. Offiybial
1 Medicines.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oleum Amygdali communis, E. OLEUM
AMT GDALARUM, L. D. Oil of almopds.
Expressed in the usual manner. Given as an emol¬
lient, ad libitum.
b. Emulsio Amygdalae communis, E. LAC
AMYGDALAE vel AMYGDALARUM, L. D.
Almond emulsion.
Made by beating an ounce of blanched sweet al¬
monds, or an ounce and a half, either by themselves, or
with hall an ounce of double refined sugar, and gradual¬
ly pouring on them two pounds and a half or two pints
of distilled water, to form an emulsion.
A gratelul demulcent, that may be drunk in any
quantity.
149. Prunus domestica, E. L. D. Prunes.
Used as a gentle laxative, chiefly in composition.
150. Prunus spinosa. PRUNUS SYLVESTRIS
L. Sloes,
Employed as an astringent.
o 587
Sweet and
bitter al¬
monds,
588
Oil of al¬
monds.
589
Almond
emulsion.
^ 590
Prunes.
591
Sloes.
59S
Conserve of Conserve
of sloes.
Officinal Preparation.
a. CoNSERVA PruNI SYLVESTRIS, L.
sloes.
Made by mixing any quantity of the pulp of sloes,
obtained by boiling them in water till they are soft,
and subsequent expression, with three times its weight
of double refined sugar,
Xi - : ’ *
Order 4. Pentagynia.
CO'?
151. PYRUS CYDONIA. CYDONIA MALUS, L. Quince
Quince seeds. See Botany, p. 197. seeds.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Mucilago Seminum Cydonii MALI, L.
cilage of quince seed.
594
Mu- Mucilage-,
of quince
Made by boiling one dram of quince seeds in eight
ounces of distilled w'ater, with a slow fire for 10
minutes, and then squeezing the mucilage through
linen.
Order 5. Folygynia.
152. Rosa Gallica, E. ROSA RUBRA, L. D.Redress-
Red rose buds. See Botany, p. 198.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Infusum RosiE gallics, E. INFUSUMInfusion cf
ROSiE, L. INFUSUM ROSARUM, D. Infusion roses-
of red roses.
Prepared by infusing one ounce of the dried petals of
red
Prepared by digesting two ounces of powdered kino
in a pound and a half of diluted alcohol, for seven days,
and filtering. Dose from one dram to three, as an as¬
tringent.
766
597
Syiup of
red roses.
59s
Honey of
roses.
MATERIA
History of red roses, in about two pounds and a half of boiling
Simple and water, in a glass or unglazed earthen vessel, ti co ,
Officinal then adding about half a dram of sulphuric acid, and
Medicines., about tw0 ounces ef double refined sugar. _
A pleasant refrigerant and gentle astringent, given
internally in hemorrhages, and much employed as a
gargle.
b. SyrupusRosal gallics, E. Syrup of red roses.
Made by macerating seven ounces of the dried petals
of red roses in five pounds of boiling water for 12 hours,
straining the liquor, and adding six pounds of double
refined sugar to make a syrup.
c. Mel ROSiE, L. D. Honey of roses.
Made by macerating four ounces of dried petals of
red rose buds in three pints of boiling distilled water,
for six hours, then straining the liquor, and boiling it
with five pounds of clarified honey to the consistence of
a syrup.
Conserve of d. CoNSERVA RoSiE RUBRjE, L. CONSERVA
roses. ROStE, D. Conserve of roses.
Made by beating the fresh petals of red roses with
three times their weight of double refined sugar till
they are thoroughly mixed.
153. Rosa Damascena, L. D. ROSA CEN-
TIFOLIA, E. The damask rose. See Botany,
p. 198.
Officinal Preparations.
a. AauA Ros^e centifolle, E. AQUA ROSiE,
L. D. Rose water.
A gallon of water distilled from six pounds of the
fresh petals of damask roses.
^ Chiefly employed as a perfume.
Syrup of b, SYRUPUS RoSiE CENTIFOLIJE, E. SYRUPUS
damask RQSiE, L. Syrup of damask roses,
roses.
Made by macerating one pound (E.) or seven
ounces (L.) of the fresh petals of damask r«ses, in four
pounds or four pints of boiling distilled water, and
adding to the strained liquor three pounds (E.) or six
pounds (L.) of double refined sugar, to make a sy¬
rup.
603
Hips. 154. Rosa canina, E. CYNOSBATUS, L.
Hips. See Botany, p. 198.
M E DI C A, &c. Part IV.
Made by boiling the juice of raspberry With a suffi- History of
cient quantity of double refined sugar to make a syrup. Simple and
n J Officinal
156. ToRMENTILLA ERECTA, E. TORMEN-Medicines.
TILLA, L. D. Tormentil root. See Botany,'
p. 199. Tormentil
157. POTENTILLA REPTANS. PENTAPHYL-™0 gog
LUM L. Common cinquefoil. See Botany, Common
p. J 99. cinquefoil.
158. Geum URBANUM. Avens or herb bennet.
Botany, p. 199. and the “ Practical Synopsis.’
fTM •_  oc o rroyill BllVlStltlltf! tor C.in
600
Damask
rose.
'601
Hose wa¬
ter.
604
Officinal Preparation.
609
See Avens.
This is considered as a good substitute for cinchona.
Class XIII. POLYANDRIA. Order 1. Mono-
GYNIA.
610
Conserve of a, CoNSERVA RoSjE CANDLE, E. CONSERVA
hips. CYNOSBATI, L. Conserve of hips.
Made by beating any quantity of the pulp of ripe
hips with three times its weight of double refined
605 SUgar-
Raspber- j rr. Rubus iDAius, L. JD. Raspberry. See Bo-
nss' tany, p. 198.
Officinal Preparation.
606
Syrup of 0. Syrupus fructus Rubi idtei, L. Syrup of rasp-
raspberries. berry juice.
159. PAPAVER RhOEAS. PAP AVER ERRATI-Commo*
CUM, L. Common red poppy. See Botany, p.rc P0^
204.
Officinal Preparation.
6ir
a. SYRVPUS PaPAVERIS ERRATICI, L. Syrup of Syrup of
red poppy. red
Four pounds of the fresh flowers of red poppy are
gradually mixed with four pints and a half of boiling
distilled water in a water bath, constantly stirring
them j they are then suffered to macerate for 12 hours,
the juice is pressed out and boiled with double refined
sugar into a syrup.
Generally added to narcotic draughts, juleps, &c.
160. Papaver somniferum, E. PAPAVER White
ALBUM, L. D. White poppy. Opium. See Bo-poppy-
tany, p. 204.
To dilate on any article, however important, is now
out of our power j we must therefore, besides the above
reference, refer our readers for the best accounts of
opium, to Dr Crumpe’s “ Inquiry,” Dr Duncan’s Dis¬
pensatory, the “ Practical Synopsis,” and Thesaurus
Medicaminum.
Officinal Preparations.
6x3
a. Opium purificatum, L. D. Purified opium. Purified
. • j- .opium.
A pound of opium, cut into small pieces, is digested
with 12 pints of proof spirit, with a gentle heat, till as
much as possible of the opium is dissolved. The tinc¬
ture is then filtered and distilled to a consistence proper
for making into pills or beating to powder.
Purified opium is commonly considered as rather
weaker than crude opium j two grains ol the softer
mass, and one grain and a half of the harder, being an
ordinary dose. ^
b. Pulvis opiatus, E. L. Opiate powder. Opiate
• • powder*
By the London process this is formed by mixing to¬
gether a dram of hard purified opium in powder, and
nine drams of burnt and prepared hartshorn. The
Edinburgh powder is prepared of one part of opium,
and nine parts of prepared carbonate of lime, rubbed
together to a very fine powder.
Ten grains of these powders contain one grain of
opium *, but the Edinburgh powder is rather the strong¬
er.
Part IV.
History of er- They are useful when it is required to administer
Simple and opium in very small doses.
Officinal
Medicines.
615
Opiate
pills.
616
Extract of
opium.
617
Troches of
liquorice
c. Pilule Opii, L. PILUL/E OPIATiE, E.
Opium pills. Opiate or thebaic pills.
The London pills are prepared of two drams of hard
purified opium in powder, and one ounce of extract of
liquorice, beaten together till they are perfectly united.
The Edinburgh pills are formed of one part of opium,
and seven of extract of liquorice, softened separately
with diluted alcohol, beaten into a pulp and mixed,
and then beaten with two parts of pounded Jamaica
pepper into an uniform mass.
The London pills contain two grains of opium, and
the Edinburgh one grain, in 10 of the mass.
d. Extractum Opii, D. Extract of opium.
Prepared by dissolving two ounces of purified opium
in one pound of boiling water, straining the liquor, and
adding, while warm, one pound of cold distilled wa¬
ter, exposing to the air for two days, filtering again,
and evaporating to the proper consistence of an ex-
ti-act.
MATERIA ME DIG A, &c. 767
opium. Thirty-six grains of the London, and 43 of History of
the Edinburgh preparation, contain about one grain of Simple and
opium.
e. Trochisci Glycyrrhizte cum Opio, E. TRO-
. CHISCI GLYCYRRHIZiE COMPOSITI, D.
1 opium. q'roc|ies 0f bquorice with opium. Compound troches
of liquoi'icc.
The Edinburgh troches are formed by triturating
two drams of opium, with half an ounce of tincture of
folu •, then adding by degrees five ounces of extract of
liquorice, softened in warm water, and eight ounces of
common syrup} and lastly, five ounces of powdered
gum arabic, and drying the mass till it is of a consist¬
ence to form troches, weighing ten grains each. The
Dublin formula directs two drams of purified opium to
be triturated with a dram of balsam of Peru, and three
drams of tincture of myrrh, till they are intimately mix¬
ed *, then to he added two drams of tincture of loin,
and nine oundes of extract of liquorice, softened in
warm water j when the whole is to be well beaten to¬
gether, and, with the addition of five ounces of pov'der-
ed gum arabic, formed into troches, weighing ten grains
each.
These troches are intended to allay irritation in
tickling coughs. About seven and a half of the Edin¬
burgh, and six of the Dublin troches, contain about one
grain of opium.
61S
Opiate
electuary.
f Electuarium Opiatum, E. CONFECTIO
OPIATA, L. Opiate electuary. Opiate confection.
The Edinburgh electuary is formed by mixing toge¬
ther six ounces of aromatic powder, three ounces of fine¬
ly powdered snakeroot, half an ounce of opium,, diffused'
in a sufficient quantity of Spanish white wine, and one
pound of the syrup of ginger. The London confection
is prepared of six drams of hard purified opium in pow¬
der j of long pepper, ginger, and carraway seeds pow¬
dered, each two ounces} and syrup of white poppy
boiled to the consistence of honey, three times the
weight of the other ingredients. The opium is first
mixed with the syrup, then the other powders added,
and the whole intimately blended.
These are intended as stimulating compositions of
Officinal
Medicines.
g. Electuarum mimosje Catechu, E. ELEC-1 >
TUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM, D. 6l9
CONFECTIO JAPONIC A. Electuary of catechu.
Japonic confection.
These electuaries are prepared of four ounces of ex¬
tract of catechu powdered, three ounces powdered
kino, one ounce of cinnamon, and the same of nut¬
meg in powder, one dram and a half of opium, diffu¬
sed in Spanish white wine, and two pounds and a quar¬
ter of syrup of red roses boiled to the consistence of
honey (E.) 5 or 14 ounces of syrup of ginger, and the
same of the syrup of orange peel, boiled to the consist¬
ence of honey (D.).
Powerful astringents, given in diarrhoeas. Ten scru¬
ples contain about one grain of opium, and the usual
dose is a tea spoonful frequently repeated.
67.0
h. Tinctura Opii, E. L. D. TINCTURA THE-Tincture of
BAICA. Tincture of opium. Thebaic tincture. Li- °Pluni-
quid laudanum.
The Edinburgh and Dublin tinctures are made by
digesting two ounces of opium in two pounds of diluted
alcohol, 14 days, and filtering. The London tincture
is made by digesting ten drams of powdered purified
opium in a pint of proof spirit for ten days.
These tinctures are considered as of nearly equal
strength. Dose as narcotics, 25 or 30 drops } as an-
tispasmodics, they are, like the solid opium, given in
much larger doses.
621
i. Tinctura Opii camfhorata, L. D. ELIXIR Camphorat-
PAREGORICUM. Camphorated tincture of opium. tincture
„ . ,. . r ol opium.
rare gone elixir.
Prepared by digesting one dram of hard purified
opium, one dram of flowers of benzoin, two scruples of
camphor, and one dram of essential oil of aniseeds, in
two pints of proof spirit, for ten days.
Half an ounce of this tincture contains about one
grain of opium. Usual dose about one dram or two.
622
k. Tinctura Opii ammoniata. Olim ElixirAmmoniar-
PAREGORICUM, E. Ammoniated tincture of opium, ed tincture
Made by digesting three drams of benzoic acid, three0* oinuiT1
drams of sliced saffron, two drams of opium, and half a
dram of volatile oil of aniseeds, in ten ounces of am¬
moniated alcohol, seven days, in a close vessel.’
An excellent antispasmodic, stronger than the last.1
Dose about one dram.
623
/. Syrupus Opii, D. Syrup of opium. Syrup of
opium.
Made by dissolving 48 grains of extract of opium in
three pounds of boiling water, and adding a sufficient
quantity of double refined sugar lo make a syrup.
An excellent narcotic for children. According to
Dr Duncan, an ounce of it contains about two grains
and a half of opium.
024
m. Syrupus Papaveris somniferi, E. SYRU-Syrup of
PUS PAPAVERIS ALBI, L. Syrup of white pop-'^te P°P'
pies.
The Edinburgh syrup is made by macerating two
pounds
pies.
63
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
Part IV.
625
Ladanum.
626
Compound
ladanum
plaster.
History of nnunds of sliced white poppy heads freed from the
Simple and seeds, in 3c pounds of boiling distilled water or J2
Officinal hourSj i)0iiing it to a third, and pressing out the liquor,
Medicines. whlch ig again boiled to one half, strained, and formed
v into a syrup with four pounds of double refined sugar.
The proportions in the London process are, thiee
pounds and a half of poppy heads, eight gallons of wa¬
ter, and six pounds of sugar.
A weak narcotic, not so certain as the last syrup.
161. Cistus CRETICUS, LADANUM, L. Lada-
num. See Chemistry, N° 2466.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Emplastrum Ladani compositom, L. Com¬
pound ladanum plaster.
Formed of three ounces of ladanum, one ounce of
frankincense, powdered cinnamon and expressed oil of
mace, each half an ounce, and one dram of essential oil
of mint.
A warm stimulating plaster.
Order 3. Trigynia.
162. Delphinium staphisagria. SIAPHIS-
AGRIA, L. D. Stavesacre.
Employed as an external application against ver¬
min.
163. Aconitum NECmontanum. Acconitum na-
fellus, E. ACONITUM, L. D. Blue monks¬
hood, or aconite. See Duncan's Dispensatory.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Succus spissatus Aconiti Napelli, E. Inspis¬
sated juice of aconite.
Made from the fresh leaves of aconite in the usual
manner. Dose from half a grain to three grams, twice
or thrice a day.
Order 4, Tetragynia.
^ 1.
164. Winteria aromatica, E. Winter’s bark.
Similar to canella alba.
Order 6. Folygynia.
165. Helleborus Niger, E. L. D. MELAM-
PODIUM. . Black hellebore. See BOTANY, p. 210.
627
iSlavesacrc.
6iZ
Blue
monkshood
629
Inspissated
juice of
aconite.
_ 630
Winter’s
bark.
631
Black hel¬
lebore.
Officinal Preparation.
632
Tincture of TlNCTURA HelLEBORI NIGRI, E. L. D.
bore^ ^e^e" ture of black hellebore.
Tine-
633
Stinking
hellebore.
History of
Cl VSS XIV. D1DYNAMIA. Order I. CjfMNO-Simple and
Offidn.il
SPERMIA. Medicine*.
167. IIyssopus officinalis, E. HiSoOPUS, ^ ^
D. Hyssop. See BOTANY, p. 216. Hysssop,
168. Mentha viridis. MEIsTHA SAI A, SpearniinL
L. D. Spearmint. See BOTANY, p. 217.
Officinal Preparations.
616
a. Aq.ua MentILF SATIV7E, L. D. Mint water. ^ulv'a"
A gallon of water distilled from a pqund and a half
of mint.
637
Prepared by digesting four ounces of black hellebore,
and about half a dram of powdered cochineal, in two
pounds and a half (E.), or two pints (L.), or two
pounds (D.), of diluted alcohol, for about a week.
Much celebrated as an emmenagogue. Dose about
a tea spoonful.
166. Helleborus foetidus. HELLEBORAS-
TEC, L. Stinking hellebore. See Botany,3 p. 210.
l>. Oleum volatile Mentilf Satiy^e,L. D. ''v 0- OR ot
latile oil of mint.
Distilled as other volatile oils.
c. Spiritus Mentha: sativae, L. Spirit of
mint.
A gallon of spirit distilled from a pound and a half
of mint.
638
169. Mentha Piperita, E. MENTHA PIPER-pepper-
IS, L. D. Peppermint. See Botany, p. 217. mint.
Officinal Preparations.
639
a. Aqua Menth.f Piperita:, E. AQUA MEN-Pepper-
TH2E PIPERIT1DIS, L. Peppermint water.
640
b. Oleum Volatile Mentha: Piperita:; veioilofpep-
Piperitidis, E. L. D. Oil of peppermint. pumm .
641
c. Spiritis Mentha: Piperita: vel Piperitidis, Spirit of
E. L. Spirit of peppermint. peppermint.
All these axe prepared in the same manner as similar
preparations of mint, possess similar properties, but ra¬
ther stronger. Dose of the water, a wine glass full ;
of the oil a drop or two ; ot the spirit, about an ounce. ^
170. Mentha Pui.ecium, E. PUI.EGHJM, L.r'y-
D. Pennyroyal. See Botany, p. 217.
Officinal Preparations.
643
a. Aqua Mentha: Pulegii, E. AQUA PULE-Penny-
GII, L. D. Pennyroyal water. ™Jter
b. Oleum volatile Mentha: Pulegii, E- oil M>n-
OLEUM PULEGH, L. D. Oil of pennyroyal. ny royal.
645
c. Spiritus Mentha: Pulegii, E. SPIRITUS Spirit of
PULEGII, L. Spirit of pennyroyal. pennyroyal.
Distilled in the same manner, and possessing similar
properties with the preparations of mint.
171. Lavendula spica, E. Lavendula, L. D.I^v^el
Lavender flowers. See Botany, p. 216.
Officinal Preparations.
647
a. Oleum volatile Lavandula: Spica:, E.
Part IV.
History of LEUM V OL ATILE
Simple and oil of lavender.
Officinal
Medicines. Distilled as other volatile oils
648
Spirit of
lavender.
MATERIA MEDICA, &c. 769
LA\ ENDULiE. Volatile Made by macerating a dram of the dried leaves of History of
foxglove in eight ounces of boiling water, with an ounce Simple and
of spirit of cinnamon, for four hours, and filtering. Medicines
Used principally in dropsical complaints. Dose half. ^ '1
an ounce, or one ounce, twice a-day.
659
b. Tinctura Digitalis purpurea, E. Tincture Tincture of
of foxglove. foxglove.
b. Spiritus Lavandulae spicae, E. SPIRITUS
LA\ ENDULaE, L. D. Spirit of lavender.
649
Compound
tincture of
lavender.
Two pounds of fresh flowering spikes of lavender to
eight pounds of alcohol, and seven pounds drawn olf,
(E.). A pound and a half of lavender to a gallon
(L.) or nine pounds (D.) of proof spirit, and five pints
(L.) or five pounds (D.) drawn off.
A powerful stimulus, seldom employed internally,
except in the following preparation.
c. Spiritus Lavandulae Spicae compositus, E.
SPIRITUS LAVENDULaE COMPOSITUS, L.
TINCTURA LAVENDULaE COMPOSITA, D.
Compound spirit of lavender. Compound tincture of
lavender.
Made by digesting an ounce (or half an ounce,
L. D.) of braised cinnamon, half an ounce of bruised
nutmegs, (two drams of bruised cloves, E.) and three
drams (or an ounce L.) of red Sanders shavings, in
three pounds (or three pints L.) of spirit of lavender,
and a pound (or a pint L.) of spirit of rosemary, for
about a week.
An excellent cordial in faintness or nausea. Dose
from 20 drops to a dram.
Syrian herb ^ TEUCRIUM MaRUM. MARUM SYRIA-
mastic 1. cum, L. D. Syrian herb mastich. See Botany,
. p. 216.
651 r
"Waterger- TEUCRIUM ScORDIUM. SCORDltJM, L.
ma*652 Water germander. See Botany, p. 216.
176. Marrubium vulgare, E. L. D. White
horehound. See Botany, p. 218.
177. Origanum vulgare. ORIGANUM, L.
D. Origanum, or wild marjoram. See Botany,
p. 218.
White
horehound.
653
Origanum.
. 6 54
Oil of ori¬
ganum.
655
Sweet mar¬
joram.
656
Balm.
Foxglove.
6sS
Infusion of
foxglove.
Prepared by digesting an ounce of the dried leaves
of foxglove in eight ounces of diluted alcohol, for seven
days, and straining through paper.
Much recommended in haemoptysis, and the early
stages of consumption, to diminish the frequency of the
pulse. Dose from 10 to 20 drops, twice or thrice a
day, gradually and cautiously increased.
Class XV. TETRADYNAMIA. Order 1. Si-
LICULOSAE.
660
181. Cochlearia officinalis, E. COCHLE-Gardeu
ARIA, D. COCHLEARIA HORTENSIS, L.scurvy'
Garden scurvygrass. See Botany, p. 225.
grass.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Succus Cochlear 1 ae compositus, E. L.
pound juice of scurvygrass.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Oleum Origani, L. D. Oil of origanum.
Distilled as other volatile oils. Much used in tooth-
ach.
178. Origanum Majorana, E. MAJORANA,
L. D. Sweet marjoram. See Botany, p. 219.
179. Melissa officinalis, E. MELISSA, L.
Balm. See Botany, p. 219.
Order 2. AnGIOSPERMIA.
180. Digitalis purpurea, E. DIGITALIS,
L. D. Foxglove. See Botany, p. 221. See also
Withering on Foxglove, Duncan’s Dispensatory, the
Practical Synopsis, and the 'Phesaurus Medicaminum.
Dose of the digitalis in substance about one grain,
gradually increased.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Infusum Digitalis purpurea*:, D. Infusion
of foxglove.
Vol. XII. Part II.
<56i
Com- Compound
juice of
scurvy-
According to the Edinburgh process, this is prepa-grai;S'
red by mixing juice of scurvygrass, juice of water
cresses, both fresh gathered, and juice of Seville oranges,
of each two pounds, with half a pound of spirit of nut¬
meg ; and after the feces have subsided, straining the
liquor. The London preparation is composed of two
pints of juice of scurvygrass, one pint of the juice of
brooklime, and the same of that of water cresses, and 20
ounces by measure of Seville orange juice, mixed and
strained as before.
A celebrated remedy in the scurvy, and cutaneous
eruptions. Dose from one to four ounces, twice or
thrice a-day.
662
182. Cochlearia armoracia, E. RAPHANUSldorse-ra-
RUSTICANUS, L, D. Horse-radish root. See Bo-dish root.
TANY, p. 226.
a. Spiritus Raphani compositus, L. D.
pound spirit of horse-radish.
Officinal Preparation.
663
Com- Compound
spirit of
horse-ra-
Two gallons or 18 pounds (D.) of proof spirit distil-dish,
led from fresh horse-radish root, and dried Seville orange
peel, of each two pounds ; fresh garden scurvygrass four
pounds, and bruised nutmegs an ounce.
Formerly much celebrated as an antiscorbutic, and
stimulant. Dose from half an ounce to an ounce.
Order 2. Siliquo&s:.
664
183. CarDAMINE PRATENSIS, E. CARDAMINE, Ladies
L. Ladies smock. See Botany, p. 226. smock.
665
183. SlNAPIS ALBA, E. SINAPIS, D. White Whitemus-
mustard seed. tai’d seed-
184. SlNAPIS NIGRA. SINAPIS, L. Common Common
mustard seed. See Botany, p. 228. mustard
t 5 E Officinalsc^'
materia MEDIC A, &c.
77°
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
667
Mustard
cataplasm.
663
Water
cresses.
Part IV.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Catapeasma Sintapeos, L. CATAPLASM A
SINAPXUM, D. Mustard cataplasm, or sinapism.
Prepared of equal parts of pov/dered mustard and
crumb of bread, made into a proper consistence with
vinegar. # . .
An excellent external stimulant application, in the
low stage ol acute diseases, and in other cases w'here
slight external inflammation is indicated.
i8ti. Sisymbrium nasturtium, E. NASTUR¬
TIUM AQUATICUM, L. D. Water cresses. See
Botany, p. 226.
Class XVI. MONADELPHIA. Order 1. Tri-
ANDRIA.
Tamarinds. 186. TAMAR1NDUS INDICA, E. TAMARINDUS,
L. D. Tamarinds. See Botany, p. 231.
670
Common
mallow.
Order 8. Polyandria.
187. Malva sylvestris, E. MALVA, L. Com¬
mon mallow. See Botany, p. 233.
Officinal Preparation.
6?T .
Decoction a. Decoctum pro ENEMATE, L. Decoction tor
for clysters. clysters.
Made by boiling one ounce of the dried leaves of
mallow, and one ounce and a half of dried chamomile
flowers, with a pint of water, and straining.
672
Marshmal¬
low.
673
Decoction
of marsh¬
mallow.
674
Syrup of
marsh¬
mallow.
*75
Order 3. Octandria.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
190. Polygala Senega, E. SENEKA, L. D.1 v—^
Seneka rooot. See Botany, p. 237. SeneS6
, root.
0fjieinal Preparation.
677
a. Decoctum Polygalas Senegte E. Decoction Decoction
of seneka. ofseneka-
Made by boiling one ounce of seneka root in two
pounds of water to 16 ounces, and straining.
Used in dropsy and rheumatic or arthritic com¬
plaints, and lately recommended in croup. Dose about
two ounces, three or four times a-day.
Order 4. Decandri a.
67S
191. PtEROCARPUS SaNTALINUS, E. SANTA-Itedsan-
LUM RUBRUM, L. D. Red sanders wood. ders wood.
Employed chiefly to give colour to a tincture.
679
192. Pterocarpus Draco, E. SANGUIS DRArDragon’s
CONIS, L. Dragon’s blood. See Chemistry, N0 bloocL
2467.
Employed as an astringent, but now seldom used.
6S0
193. SpaRTIUM ScOPARIUM, E. GENISTA, L. D. Common
Common broom tops. See Botany, p. 237.
broom.
Officinal Preparation.
6S1
188. Althtea officinalis, E. ALTIItEA, L.
Marshmallow root. See Botany, p. 233.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Decoctum Altilete officinalis, E. Decoc¬
tion of marshmallow.
Made by boiling four ounces of dried marshmallow
root bruised, and twro ounces of stoned raisins of the
sun, in seven pounds of water to five pounds, straining,
and when the feces have subsided, pouring off the clear
liquor.
A good emollient drink in inflammatory diseases.
b. Syrupus Althaee officinalis, E. SYRU-
PUS A LTIL'E /E, L. Syrup of marshmallow.
Made by boiling one pound of fresh marshmallow
root, sliced or bruised, in ten pounds or a gallon of wa¬
ter, to one half, and adding four pounds of double re¬
fined sugar to make a syrup.
A good emollient and demulcent in coughs, &c.
Class XVII. DIADELPHIA. Order 2. IIex-
andria.
a. Extractum Genistte, L. Extract of broom. ExtraGt
E, , broom,
mployed as a diuretic.
63 2
194. Dolichos Pruriens, E. DOLICHOS, D. cowhage.
Cowhage, or cow-itch. See Botany, p. 239.
6S3
195. Astragalus Tragacantha, E. TRAGA-Gum traga-
CANTHA, L. D. Gum tragacanth, or gum dragant. cantb-
This gum is a mere mucilage, and is employed as a
demulcent.
Officinal Preparations.
684
w / D
Common 189. FuMARIA OFFICINALIS. FUMARIA, D.
fumitory. Common fumitory. See Botany, p. 237.
•a. Mucilago Astragali Tragacanthte, E. Mucilage of
MUCILAGO TRAGACANTHtE, L. MUCILA- gum traga-
GO GUMMI TRAGACANTHtE, D. MucilagecantL
of gum tragacanth.
Made by macerating one ounce of powdered gum
tragacanth in eight ounces of boiling water (E.), or
half an ounce in ten ounces (L.), or one dram in eight
ounces (D.), and dissolving by subsequent trituration.
b. Pulvis Tragacantha: composites, L. Com-compound
pound powder of tragacanth. powder of
t> 1 o 1 1 • tragacanth.
Prepared of powdered gum tragacanth, gum arabic,
and starch, of each half an ounce, rubbed into a pow¬
der with three ounces of double refined sugar.
A demulcent powder, serviceable in tickling coughs,
strangury, ardor urinae, violent mucous diarrhoea, and
similar diseases.
6S6
196. GlYCYRRHIZA GLABRA, E. GLYCYR-Liquorice
RUIZ A, root.
Part IV. MATERIA
History of RHIZA, L. D. A.i(jitoiTce root and extract of liquo-
Simple and rice.
Medicines. as an em<>llient and demulcent, in substance, in
» —t— ■ decoction^ pills, electuaries, &c.
6S7
Extract of
liquorice.
Officinal Preparation,
a. EXTRACTUM GLYCYRRHIZrE GLABR/E,
TRACTUM GLYCYRRH1Z/E, L. 13.
of liquorice.
E. EX-
Extract
Prepared like other watery extracts.
6S8
Cabbage- 197. GeOFFRJEA INERMIS, E. GEOFFR^EA, D.
tree bark. Cabbage-tree bark.
Lately introduced into this country from the West
Indies as an anthelmintic, in the form of decoction.
Officinal Preparation.
Decoction a. Decoctum Geoffige,e Inermis, E. Decoc-
of cabbage- tion of cabbage-tree bark,
tree bark.
Made by boiling one ounce of powdered cabbage-
tree bark with a gentle fire in two pounds of water to
one pound, and straining. Dose to children a table
spoonful, to adults four; giving castor oil, and dilut¬
ing with acidulated drinks, if unpleasant symptoms
should arise.
690
Fenugreek 198. TrigoxELLA FoENUM GRECUM. FOENUM
seed. GRECUM, L. Fenugreek seed. See Botany,
p. 241.
Class XVIII. POLYADELPHIA. Order 3.
Icosandria.
691
Seville 199. Citrus Aurantium, E. AURANTIUM
orange. HISPALENSE, L. 1). Seville orange juice, peel,
and leaves. See Botany, p. 243.
Officinal Preparations.
692
Syrup of a. SYRUPUS ClTRI AURANTII, E. SYRUPUS
orangepeel. CORTICIS AURANTII, L. I). Syrup of orange
peel.
Prepared by macerating six ounces, or eight ounces
(L. D.) of the fresh outer rind of Seville oranges, with
three pounds or five pints (L. D.) of boiling water, for
12 hours in a close vessel, and adding to the filtered
liquor of double refined sugar four pounds, or enough
to make a syrup.
Used chiefly in composition.
693
Orange 6. AfKJA ClTRI AURANTII, E. Orange peel wa-
>eel wa- ter.
cr.
Ten pounds of water distilled from two pounds of
fresh orange peel, after due maceration.
A pleasant cordial water. Dose two or three
ounces.
694
! rincture of c. Tinctura Aurantii corticis, L. D. Tincture
! range peel of orange peel.
Made by digesting three ounces of fresh orange peel
in two pints or two pounds of proof spirit for three
days. Dose three or four drams to an ounce.
MEDIC A, &c.
d. Conserva Citri Aurantii,
VA AURANTII IDSPALENSIS,
VA CORTICIS AURANTII, D.
range peel.
771
E. CONSER- History of
L. CONSER- Simple ani
Conserve of 0- ^ffiybial
Medicines.
Prepared by beating the fresh rind of Seville oranges ^ in f
first by itself, and then with three times its weight °f orange peel
double refined sugar.
200. Citrus medica, E. LIMON, L. D. Le-Demon,
mon juice, peel, and essential oil. See Botany,
p. 242.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Aqua Citri medicje, E. Lemon peel water. Lemonpeel
water.
A gallon of water distilled from two pounds of fresh
lemon peel.
A pleasant aromatic water, similar to orange water.
b. SYRUPUS ClTRI MEDIC.dE, E. SYRUPUS LI-Syrup of
MON1S SUCCI, L. D. Syrup of lemon juice. lemonjuice.
Made by dissolving five parts (E.) or five pounds
(L.) or four pounds (D.) of double refined sugar, in
three parts or two pints (L.) or two pounds (D.) of fil¬
tered lemon juice.
A pleasant refrigerant syrup.
699
C. Succus LiMONIS SPISSATUS, L. Inspissated le-Inspissated
mon juice. lemonjuice
Prepared in the same manner as the inspissated
juice of elder berries.
Employed chiefly as a refrigerant, especially in bili¬
ous or remittent fevers.
Order 4. Polyandria.
7 no
201. Melaleuca Leucodendron, E. CAJE-Cajeput.
PUTA. Cajeput oil.
Used as an external stimulant in cases of luxation,
sprains, and rheumatic and gouty affections.
7®i
2C2. Hypericum perforatum. HYPERICUM, ^t ^ohl1!
L. St John’s wort. See Botany, p. 243,
Class XIX. SYNGENESIA. Order 1. Poly-
GAMIA ®Q,UALIS.
702
203. Leontodon Taraxacum, E. TARAXA- Dandelion.
CUAI, L. D. Dandelion root and leaves.
Reputed a diuretic, but scarcely employed in mo¬
dern practice.
7°3
204. Lactuca virosa, E. Wild lettuce. See Bo-M ild
TANY, p. 248. and Duncan’s Dispensatory. lettuce.
Officinal Preparation.
704
a. Succus SPISSATUS LaCTUC® VIROS®, E. In-Inspissated
snissated iuice of wild lettuce. juice ot
r J wild let-
Prepared as other inspissated juices ; employed as a luce,
narcotic and diuretic, principally in dropsies proceed¬
ing from visceral obstructions. Dose at first about
5 E 2 three
IT2
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Part IV.
History of three grains, gradually increased to 15 or more, twice
Simple and or thrice a-day.
Officinal *
Medicines.
BARB ANA, L. B.
706
Artichoke
leaves.
707
Southern¬
wood.
708
Decoction
for fomen¬
tation-
709
Sea worm¬
wood.
205. Arctium Lappa, E.
Burdock root.
Recommended as a diuretic, and given in the form
of decoction in dropsies, &c.
2c6. Cynara scolymus, E. CINARA SCOLY-
MUS, E. B. Artichoke leaves.
Employed as a diuretic.
Older 2. POLYGAMIA SUPERFLUA.
207. Artemisia Arrotanum. ABROTANUM,
L. Southernwood. See Botany, p. 251.
Officinal 1* reparation.
a. Becoctum pro fomento, L. Becoction for
fomentations.
Prepared by boiling for a little, of the dried leaves
of southernwood, the dried tops of sea wormwood, and
dried chamomile flowers, each an ounce, with half an
ounce of dried bay leaves, in six pints of distilled water,
and straining.
208. Artemisia maritima. ABSYNTHIUM
MARITIMUM, L. B. Sea wormwood. See Bo¬
tany, p. 251.
710
•Conserve of
sea worm¬
wood.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Conserva Absynthii maritimi, L.
of sea wormwood.
Conserve
215. TUSSILAGO FARFARA, E. TUSSILAGO, History of
L. B. Coltsfoot. See Botany, p. 2C2. Simple and
Officinal
216. AntHEMIS NOB1L1S, E. CHAMiEMELUM. Medicines.
L. B. Chamomile flowers. See Botany, p. 254. J
An excellent tonic and anthelmintic. Bose in sub-Colts foot,
stance about a scruple in powder, or one dram in
fusion. Used externally as an emollient and discutient,llou‘ei.s a
in the form of clyster or fomentation-
Officinal Preparations. ^
a. Becoctum Anthemidis nobilis, E. BECOC-D.ey®ctloH
TUM CHAMiEMELI, B. Becoction of chamo-^ama'
mile.
Prepared by boiling an ounce of chamomile flowers,
and half an ounce of bruised carraway seeds, in five
pounds of water (E-), or half an ounce of chamomile
flowers with two drams of sweet fennel seeds, in a pound
of water (B).
Used as a carminative clyster, or stimulant fomen¬
tation.
720
b. Extractum Anthemidis nobilis, E. EX-Estractof
TRACTUM CHAMEMELI, L- Extract of cha-cham0Dnlc*
njomile.
Prepared as other watery extracts. Bose from a
scruple to a dram, as a tonic and anthelmintic.
721
217. AntHEMIS PYRETHRUM, E. PYRETHRUM, Pellitory of
L. B. Pellitory of Spain. Spain.
Used chiefly as a masticatory in toothaeh.
Order 3. Polygamia Frustranea.
Prepared by heating the fresh tops of sea wormwood
with three times their weight of double refined sugar
into a conserve.
Employed as a tonic and stomachic in hypochon¬
driasis, epilepsy, &c. and as an anthelmintic. Bose
two drams to half an ounce, twice or thrice a-day.
711
Worm seed. 209. Artemisia Santonica, E. SANTONI-
CUM, L. B. Worm seed.
Employed as an anthelmintic. Bose from half a
dram to a dram, twice a-day, in powder.
210. Artemisia Absinthium, E. ABSINTHI-
wormvvood. UM VULGARE, L. B. Common wormwood. See
Botany, p. 251.
211. Tanacetum vulgare, E. TANACETUM,
L. B. Tansy, leaves and flowers. See Botany, p.
251.
A good tonic and anthelmintic. Bose half a dram
to four drams in substance, or a table spoonful of the
expressed juice.
212. Arnica Montana, E. L. B. German leo¬
pard’s bane. See Botany, p. 253, and Buncan’s Bis-
pensatovy.
213. Inula Helenium. INULA CAMP AN A,
L. B. Elecampane. See Botany, p. 253.
214. Solidago Virga Aurea. VIRGA AUR-
EA, B. Golden rod. See Botany, p. 253.
712
Common
7I3
Tansy.
714
JLeOpaid's
bane.
715
Elecam¬
pane.
7x6
Holden rod.
218. Centaurea
BENEBICTUS, l.
tany, p. 255.
BENEDICTA, E. CARBUUS Blessed
B. Blessed thistle. See Bo-^811®’
Class XX. GYNANBRIA. Order 5. Hex-
ANDRIA.
. 7.23
219. AristOLOCHIA SerpENTARIA, E. SERPEN-Virginian
TARIA VIRGINIANA, L. B. Virginian snake-snake root*
root. See Buncan’s Bispensatory, and the Synopsis
Materioe Medicse.
Employed as a stimulant and tonic in low fevers,
gangrene, &c. Bose in substance 10 grains to 30.
Officinal Preparation.
724
a. TlNCTURA AriSTOLOCHLE SerPENTARITE, E.Tincture or
T1NCTURA SERPENTARIiE, L. B. Tincturesnake j;oot
of snakeroot.
Prepared by digesting two ounces of bruised Virgi¬
nian snakeroot, and a dram of powdered cochineal, in
two pounds and a half of diluted alcohol, for seven days
(E.), or three ounces of snakeroot in two pints (L.)
or two pounds (B.) of proof spirit, for seven or eight
days. Bose from two drams to half an ounce.
Order 10. Polyandria.
220. Arum maculatum.
or wake robin.
ARUM, L. B.
7*5
Arum,Wake
robm.
Officinal
Fart IV.
MATERIA
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Officinal Preparations.
, a. Conserva Art, L. Conserve of arum.
726 Made by beating a pound and a half of the fresh
Conserve ot root arum bruised, with a pound and a half of double
refined sugar, into a conserve. Dose about a dram.
MEDICA, &c.
227. JUGLANS REGIA.
JUGLANS, L.
walnuts.
Employed as a tonic and anthelmintic.
Order 10. Monadelphia.
228. Pinus abies. The fir tree.
773
Unripe History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
737
Walnnt.
. 738
Fir tree.
Nutmeg
tree.
728
Oil of
mace.
Class XXI. MONOECIA. Order 1. Monogy-
nia.
221. Myristica mqschata, E. MYRISTICA^
L. D. Nutmeg tree.
Nux Moschata. Nutmeg. Macis. Mace. Ole¬
um Macis. Oil of Mace. See Duncan’s Dispensatory.
PiX Burgundica, E. D. Burgundy pitch.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Emplastrum Picis Burgundica:, D.
PLASTRUM PICIS COMPOS1TUM, L.
pound Burgundy pitch plaster.
739
Burgundy
pitch.
740
EM- Compound
Com-Bui'gundy
pitch plas¬
ter.
.729
Spirit of
nutmeg.
. 73? .
Birch juice.
73i .
Mulberries.
732
Syrup of
mulberry
juice.
733
Common
stinging
nettle.
734
Oak bark.
735
Extract of
oak bark.
_ 73d
Gall-nuts.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Spiritus Myristica: Moschata:, E. SPIRI-
TUS NUCIS M0SCHA17E, L. D. Spirit of nut¬
meg.
A gallon of spirit distilled from two ounces of well-
bruised nutmegs. A good cordial. Dose about bait
an ounce.
Order 4. Tetrandria.
222. Betula alba, D. Birch juice.
A gentle diuretic.
223. Morus nigra. Morus, L. Mulberries.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Syrupus Succi fructus Mori, L. Syrup of
mulberry juice.
Prepared in the same manner as the syrup of black
currant juice.
Employed as a refrigerant and demulcent.
224. Urtica dioica. URTICA, L. Common
stinging nettles.
Used as a rubefacient to paralytic limbs, which arc
whipped with nettles.
Order 8. Polyandria.
27 j. Quercus robur, E. QUERCUS, L. D.
Oak bark.
A powerful astringent, employed in passive hemor¬
rhages, diarrhcea, leucorrhoea, and similar cases. Dose
in substance 15 gi'ains to half a dram of the powdered
bark. Used externally by way of gargle, or lotion.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Extractum Quercus, D. Extract of oak
bark.
Prepared like other watery extracts. Dose 10 grains
to a scruple.
226. Quercus Cerris, E. L. D. GALLA. Gall-
nuts. See Duncan’s Dispensatory.
This is perhaps a more powerful astringent than oak
bark, and is employed in similar cases.
Prepared of two pounds of Burgundy pitch, one
pound of ladanum (L.) or of galbanum (D.), four
ounces of yellow wax, the same of yellow resin, and
one ounce of expressed oil of mace.
A stimulating plaster.
229. Thus, L. Frankincense.
Officinal Preparation.
^ 741
Frankin¬
cense.
a. Emplastrum Thuris compositum, L. Com-Compound
pound plaster of frankincense. plaster of
frankm-
Prepared of half a pound of frankincense, three cense,
ounces of dragon’s blood, and two pounds of litharge
plaster, adding the resins in powder to the melted li¬
tharge plaster.
230. Pinus balsamea. Hemlock fir.
743
BALSAMUM CaNADENSE, E. L. D. Balsam of Ca- Balsam of.
nada. Canada
231*
Pinus Larix. The larch.
Larch4
745
Terebinthina Yeneta, E. D. Venice turpen-Venice tur
tine. OLEUM VOLATILE P1NI, E. OLEUMpentin^
TEREBINTHINAE, L. D. Oil of turpentine. oil If tur.
The oil of turpentine is directed by the London col-peiltl u "
lege to he prepared by distillation from common tur¬
pentine.
Officinal Preparation.
747
Oleum volatile Pini purissimum, E. OLEUMPurified oil
TEREBINTHINiE RECTIF1CATUM, L. D.ofturpen-
Purified oil of turpentine. Spirit of turpentine. Une-
Distilled with the addition of water in well luted
vessels till the purest part of the oil has come over.
Stimulant and diuretic. Dose from 10 to 30 drops.
Mixed with an equal proportion of ether, it is much
recommended in calculus. It is an excellent applica¬
tion to chilblains and recent burns.
232. Pinus Sylvestris.
A. PlX LlQBIDA, E. D. Tar. Tar74
Officinal Preparation.
a. Unguentum Picis, E. L. D. Tar ointment. Ta/dnt.
Prepared by melting together equal parts of tar andnieiU
mutton
774 MATEKIA MEDICA, &c.
History of mutton suet (L. D.), or five parts of tar ami two parts
Simple and of vellow wax (E.).
Officinal Esteemed a good application in cutaneous diseases,
Medicines.^ eSpecJaJly tlnea capitis.
75°
Common
B. Terebinthika vulgaris, L. D. Common tur-
turpentine. pentine.
This, like other turpentines, is a stimulant and diu¬
retic.
Part IV.
234. Croton Eleutheria, E, CASCARILLA, History of
L. t). Cascarilla bark. Simple and
Officinal
An excellent aromatic tonic. Dose about half a
dram, or two scruples, two or three times a-day.
757
Cascaiilla
bark.
r . 75s
a. Tinctura Cascarillas, L. D. Tincture 0f Tincture of
... cascanlla.
cascarilla.
Officinal Preparations.
Yellow C. Resina flava, L. RESINA ALBA, D. \el-
rosin. - ]ow rosin. White rosin.
Employed chiefly in making stimulating ointments
and plasters.
Officinal Preparations.
752
Resinous ai Unguentum Resinosum, E. UNGUENTUM
Ointment. RESINyE FLAV^E, L. D. Resinous ointment.
Yellow basilican.
Prepared by melting together eight parts of hog’s
lard, five of white rosin, and two of yellow wax (E.) ;
or by melting together, of yellow rosin and yellow wax,
each one pound, over a slow fire, adding a pint or seven
ounces of olive oil, and straining the mixture while hot
(L.D.).
Cerate of b. Ceratum Resinae flavje, L. D. Cerate of
yellow yellow rosin.
rosin.
Prepared by melting together half a pound of the
preceding ointment, and one ounce of yellow wax.
These are intended as stimulating applications to
ulcers that do not heal or suppurate properly.
Resinous c‘ Emplastrum resinosum, E. EMPLASTRUM
plaster. LYTHARGYRI CUM RESINA, L. EMPLAS¬
TRUM ADHESIVUM. Resinous plaster. Litharge
plaster with rosin. Adhesive plaster.
Prepared by melting five parts (E.), or three pounds
(L.), of plaster of semivitrified oxide of lead (litharge
plaster), and adding one part (E) or half a pound (L.)
of white or yellow rosin powdered.
Employed, spread on linen, to form adhesive plas¬
ters, for keeping the edges of ulcers or recent wounds
together j for giving mechanical support to ulcerated
limbs, or keeping on other dressings.
755
Palmachn- 233. Ricinus communis, E. L. D. Palma christi
_sti seeds, seeds. See Botany, p. 271.
75<L
Castor oil.
O fficinal Preparation,
a. Oleum Ricini, L. Castor oil.
Expressed in the usual manner from the husked
seeds.
Castor oil is seldom prepared in this country, being
brought chiefly from the West Indies. When cold
drawn, it is milder, and less subject to become rancid,
hut it requires a larger dose than the common oil. It
is an excellent purgative, well suited to cases of colic
and worms, given either by the mouth, or by way of
clyster. Dose in the former case about one ounce, and
in the latter about two ounces.
1
Prepared by digesting four ounces of powdered cas¬
carilla bark in two pints or two pounds (D.) of proof
spirit for about a week, with a gentle heat. Dose
about one ounce ; best in composition with decoction or
infusion of cinchona.
759
b. Extractum Cascarillae, L. I). Extract ofExtr-ctof
cascarilla. casearilla.
Prepared in the usual way of making extracts. Dose
from 10 to 30 grains.
Order 10. Syngenesia.
760
235. Momordica Elaterium, E. CUCUMIS Wl1^ cu"
ACRE SITS, L. 1). Wild cucumber. cum
Officinal Preparation.
761
a. Succus Spissatus Momordica: Elaterii, E. Elatcmm.
ELATERIUM, L. Inspissated juice of wild cucum¬
ber. Etaterimn.
This is prepared by slicing ripe wild cucumbers^ ex¬
pressing the juice very gently, and straining it through
a very fine hair sieve j boiling it a little, and setting it
by for some hours, till the thicker part has subsided.
The supernatant fluid is then poured olf, and separated
by filtering from the thicker matter, which is to be
dried and kept for use.
A violent cathartic, employed in dropsy. Dose half
a grain to one grain.
762
236. CucuMIS CoLOCYNTHIS, E. COLOCYN- Colocynth.
THIS, L. D. Colocynth or bitter apple. See Bo¬
tany, p. 271.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Extractum Colocynthidis
Compound extract of colocynth.
763
COMPOSITUM, L. Compound
extract oi
colocyntli.
Prepared by digesting six drams of the pith of co¬
locynth, cut small, in a pint of proof spirit, with a
gentle heat for four days, then dissolving in the ex¬
pressed tincture one ounce and a half of powdered so-
cotorine aloes, and half an ounce of powdered scammo-
ny 5 and lastly drawing oflf the spirit, and adding to the
inspissated extract, a dram of husked cardamom seeds
in powder.
A strong cathartic and anthelmintic. Dose from 5
to 30 grains.
764
237. Bryonia alba. BRYONIA, D. Bryony Bryony
root. See Botany, p. 271. where it is described un-mot-
der the name of Bryonia dioica.
Class
Part IV.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
History of
Simple and CLASS XXII. D1CECIA. Order 2. DlANDRIA.
Officinal
Medicines. 228. SaLIX FRAGILIS. SALIX, D. Crack wii-
  j—low bark.
765
Crack wil- A good tonic, employed as a substitute for Peruvian
low bark. bark. Dose about one dram.
Order f. Pentandria.
75d J
Chio tur- Pistacia Terebinthus. TEREBINTHI-
pen me. ^ CHIA, L. Cbio turpentine.
Not materially different from the "other turpentines.
767
Masticdi. 24°* PistAc.ia Lenttscus, E. MASTICHE, L.
Mastich. See Botany, p. 276, and Chemistry, N°
2464.
768
Hop. 241. Humulus Lupulus. Hop.
A good narcotic, which has been found an excellent
substitute for opium. See an Inaugural dissertation de
Humulo Lupulo, lately printed at Edinburgh by Dr de
Roches ; and Kirby’s Tables, p. 94.
769
Order 6. Hexandria.
Sarsaparilla 242. SMILAX SARSAPARILLA, E. SARSAPA-
root. RILLA, Ij. D. Sarsaparilla root.
A slight diaphoretic, of little efficacy.
Officinal Preparations.
770
Decoction a. Decoctum Smilacis Sarsaparilue , E. DE-
of sarsapa- COCTUM SARSAPARILLA, L. D. Decoction
r^a‘ of sarsaparilla.
Prepared by digesting six ounces of sliced sarsaparilla
root in eight pints of distilled water, for two hours in
a heat of about 1950; then taking out the root and
bruising it, repeating the maceration \ then boiling the
liquor down to four pints, pressing it out, and straining
■ - the decoction.
771
Compound b. Decoctum SarsafarillyE compositum, L. D.
decoction Compound decoction of sarsaparilla,
of sarsapa- # .
rilla. Made by macerating six ounces of sliced and bruised
sarsaps ’dla root, one ounce of the hark of sassafras
root, in ten pints of distilled water, for six hours j then
boiling down to five pints, adding towards the end
three drams of mezereon, and straining the decoction.
A good diet drink, but scarcely superior to the com¬
pound decoction of guaiacum. Dose from four to
eight ounces, three or four times a-day.
Order 1 2. Monadelphia.
772
Juniper 243. JuNIPERUS COMMUNIS, E. JUNIPERUS,
berries. L, D. Juniper berries. See Botany, p. 278.
OJjicinal Preparations.
Oil of juni- O. OLEUM VOLATILE JuNIPERI COMMUNIS, E.
per OLEUM JUNIPERI BACCA, L. OLEUM
B ACC ARUM JUNIPERI, D. Oil of juniper
berries.
5 — 775
Distilled in the same manner as other volatile oils. History of
Stimulant and diuretic. Dose from three to ten Simple and
grains. Officinal
Medicines.
b. SpIRITUS JuNIPERI COMMUNIS COMPOSITUS, E. ' V—
SPIRITUS JUNIPERI COMPOSITUS, L. D_ 774 j
Compound spirit oi jumper. spirit of jn.
Nine pounds or a gallon of diluted alcohol distillednii)er'
from one pound of rvell bruised juniper berries, one
ounce and a half of bruised carx-away seeds, and the
same of sweet fennel seeds.
A good diuretic, but not superior to common gin.
. 775
244. Juniperus Lycia, E. OLIBANUM, L.ohbanu,n'
D. Olibanum. See Chemistry, N° 2487.
245. Juniperus Sabina, E.
Savine.
SABINA, L. D. Savine?
Reputed a specific in uterine obstructions, but gra¬
dually losing its celebrity. Dose in substance from
fifteen grains to two scruples. Applied externally
as an eschatotic to venereal warts and similar excres¬
cences.
Officinal Preparations.
777
a. Oleum volatile Juniperi Sabinas, E. O-Volatile oil
LEUM SABINA, D. Volatile oil of savine. ofsavine.
... 77s
b. Extractum Sabinte, L. D. Extract of savine. Extract of
savine.
Made like other extracts. Dose from 10 to 30
grains twice or thrice a day.
6 J 119
c. TINCTURA SABINA COMPOSITA, L.Compound
Compound tincture of savine. savine^ 0*
’Prepared by digesting one ounce of extract of savine /
in a pint of tincture of castor, and half a pint of tinc¬
ture of myrrh, till the extract is dissolved.
Given as an emmeaagogue, and as an antispasmodic
in hypochondriac affections. Dose from 30 drops to a
dram twice or thrice a day.
750
246. ClSSAMPELOS PAREIRA. PAREIRA BRA-Pareira
YA, L. Pareira brava root. See Duncan’s Dispen-root,
satory.
Class XXIII. POLYGAMIA. Order 1. Mo-
noecta.
751
247. STALAGMITIS CaMBOGIOIDES. GAMBO-Gamboge.
GIA, E. L. D. Gamboge. See Duncan’s Dispen¬
satory.
A violent cathartic and anthelmintic. Dose from I
or 2 grains or 10 or 15 grains. The latter chiefly in
cases of tenia.
782
248. VeRATRUM ALBUM, E. HELLEBORUS White hel-
ALBUS, L. D. White hellebore root. See Bo-leboreroot.
TANY, p. 281.
Officinal Preparations.
1), Decoctum Uellebori albi, L. Decoction of
white hellebore, of white
783
Made by boiling an ounce of powdered white helle¬
bore
hellebore.
776
History of bore root in two pints of distilled water to one pint, and
Simple and adding to the strained liquor when cold two ounces of
Officinal rectified spirit of wine.
Medicine?. Uset| ag a ]otjon) diluted, if necessary, in the itch, and
similar cutaneous affections.
MAT Eft IA MEDIC A, &c.
Officinal Preparations.
Part IV.
Tincture of TlNCTURA VeraTRI ARBI, E. Tincture of white
white hel- hellebore.
kbore.
78S
Ointment
of white
hellebore.
Prepared by digesting eight ounces of powdered
white hellebore root in two pounds and a half of diluted
alcohol for several days, and filtering through paper.
Employed occasionally to assist the operation of eme¬
tics and cathartics, in some apoplectic and paralytic
cases, in mania } dose in these cases from half a dram
to two drams. Employed also as a general stimulant or
alterative in cutaneous diseases, beginning with about
two drops twice or thrice a day, and gradually increas¬
ing the dose.
c. Unguentum Hellebori albi, L. D. Oint¬
ment of white hellebore.
Prepared by mixing four ounces of ointment of hogs
lard, with one ounce of powdered white hellebore, and
one scruple of essential oil of lemon.
Used in similar cases with the decoction.
-jSC
Catechu.
249. Mimosa Catechu, E. CATECHU, L. D.
Catechu, or Japaii earth. See Botany, p. 282.
A powerful astringent, employed in diarrhoeas, ute¬
rine hemorrhage *, and externally by way of lotion, or
lozenge, for ex ulcerations and aphthous ulcers of the
mouth. Dose internally from 15 grains to two scru¬
ples.
Officinal Preparations.
787
Infusion of
catechu.
a. Infusum Mimosa: Catechu, E.
JAPONICUM. Infusion of catechu.
INFUSUM
788
Tincture of
catechu,
b. Tinctura Mimosa: Catechu, E. TINCTU-
RA CATECHU, L. TINCTURA JAPONICA.
Tincture of catechu.
7S9
•Gum ara-
bic.
250. Mimosa Nirotica, E.
CUM, L. D. Gum arabic.
GUMMI ARABI-
A dry mucilage, very useful as an emollient and de¬
mulcent.
History of
Simple and
a. Mucirago Mimosa: Nirotica:, E. MUCI-
LAGO ARABICl GUMMI, L. D. Mucilage of'—  i
gum arabic. 7?°
Mucilage
Prepared by dissolving one part of powdered gum- of gum ara
arabic in about two of boiling water, and straining. l,lc-
79r
b. Emursio Mimosa Nirotica, E. EMULSIO Arabic
ARABICA, D. Arabic emulsion. emulsion.
Prepared, according to the Edinburgh process, in
the same manner as almond emulsion, with the addition
of two ounces of gum arabic, added while beating the
almonds. The Dublin emulsion is composed of two
drams of powdered gum arabic, half an ounce of large
almonds, three drams of double refined sugar, and one
pound of decoction of barley.
Employed in the same cases as almond emulsion.
c. Trochisci Gummosi, E. Gum troches.
Prepared of four parts of gum arabic, one of pow¬
dered starch, and 12 of double refined sugar, made in¬
to a mass for troches with water.
Similar in uses to the lozenges of starch. See N° 369.
792
Gum
troches.
793
251. PARIETARIA OFFICINARIS. PARIETARIA, Pehitory of
L. Pellitory of the wall. ^ wa*b
Order 2. Dioecia.
252.
Manna.
Fraxinus Ornus, E. L. D.
794
Manna-ash. Manna.
A mild purgative, well suited to children, but re¬
quiring some gentle aromatic to prevent griping. Dose
from a dram to half an ounce. Best in composition
with senna.
Prepared by macerating two drams and a half of
powdered extract of catechu, and half a dram of bruised
cinnamon, in seven ounces of boiling water, for two
hours, in a covered vessel, straining the liquor, and add¬
ing one ounce of simple syrup. Dose from one to two
ounces.
Prepared by digesting three ounces of extract of ca¬
techu, and two ounces of bruised cinnamon, in two
pounds and a half, or two pints (L.), of diluted alcohol,
for seven or ten days, and straining through paper.
Dose two or three drams.
Officinal Pi'eparation.
a. Syrupus Manna, D. Syrup of manna. Syrup of
Prepared by macerating half an ounce of senna in manna•
one pound of boiling water for twelve hours in a cover¬
ed vessel, straining the liquor, and adding one pound
of manna, and one pound of double refined sugar, to
make a syrup.
This forms an excellent purgative for children.
79^*
253. PANAX QuiNQUEFORIUM. GINSENG, L. Ginseng
Ginseng root. root.
A Chinese root, formerly much in repute as a stimu¬
lant, but now out of fashion.
c. Erectuarium Mimosa Catechu, E. ELEC-
TUARIUM CATECHU COMPOSITUM, D. CON-
FECTTO JAPONICA. Electuary of catechu. Ja-
ponica Confection. See preparations of opium.
Older 3. Trioecia.
254. Ficus Carica, E.
See Botany, p. 282.
CARICA, L. D.
-r- . 797
t Igs. Figs.
A gentle laxative, used chiefly in composition.
Crass XXIV. CRYPTOGAMIA.
RICES.
Order 1. Fl-
255. PORYPODIUM FlRIX Mas, E.
mix, l. Mal”L»
mix
root.
I Ieel<
I liver
Fem
jjar
4
Part IV. _ MATERIA
History of FIXTX MAS, D. Male fern root. See BoTANy,
Simile and p, 285.
Medicines substance lias been in great repute as an an¬
il  i thelmintic, especially in cases of ttenia, given in doses
of a dram or two, followed by a strong cathartic.
777
799
Iceland
liver-wort.
Order 3. Ai.gac.
256. Lichen Islandicus. Iceland liver-wort.
This lichen has lately become a fashionable remedy
as an emollient, in pulmonary consumption. It con¬
tains a great quantity of farinaceous and mucilaginous
matter, and is therefore highly nutritious.
See Synopsis Materue Medicae, and Thesaurus Me-
dicaminum.
Order 4. Fungi.
800
Female 257. BOLETUS IGNIARIUS, E. AGARICUS. Fe-
agaric. male agaric.
This substance has been much celebrated as a styp¬
tic ; and before ligatures were so much employed, was
used to stop haemorrhage from the mouths of bleeding
vessels during surgical operations. It is now out of
fashion.
Appendix. Palmje.
Mackaw
801 258. Cocos Butyracea. PALMA, E
Palm oil. tree. Palm oil. See Botany, p. 289.
A vegetable oily matter, employed as an external
emollient,
Chap. III. Mineral Substances.
Sect. I. Water.
803
Water.
259. Aqua. Water.
Though simple water forms no part of the Materia
Medina in the Pharmacopoeias, it is an article of so
much importance, both in diet and medicine, that it
ought not to be omitted here. We shall therefore
make no apology for inserting the following neat ac¬
count of it, given by Dr Duncan in the later editions
of his Dispensatory.
Showm* “ The chemical properties of water have been al-
rain water ready er i me rated. (See Chemistry, N° 384, ct seeji)
purest. The purest natural water is snow or rain water col¬
lected in the open fields *, that which falls in towns, or
is collected from the roofs of the houses, is contaminat¬
ed with soot, animal effluvia,' and other impurities 5
although, after it has rained for some time, the quanti¬
ty of these diminishes so much, that Morveau says that
it may be rendered almost perfectly pure by means of
a little barytic water, and exposure to the atmosphere.
Rain water, after it falls, either remains on the surface
of the earth, or penetrates through it, until it meets
with some impenetrable obstruction to its progress,
when it bursts out at some lower part, forming a spring
or well. The water on the surface of the earth, either
descends along its declivities in streams, which gradu¬
ally wearing channels for themselves, combine to form
rivers, w’hich at last reach the sea 5 or remains stag¬
nant in cavities of considerable depth, forming lakes or
ponds, or on nearly level ground, forming marshes.
Vol. XII. Part II.
MEDIC A, &c.
“ The varieties of spring water are exceedingly nu- History of
merous $ but they may be divided into soft, which are Simple and
sufficiently pure to dissolve soap, and to answer the Officinal
purposes of pure water in general; the hard, which I,vied^cmes-
contain earthy salts, and decompose soap, and are unfit 804
for many purposes, both in domestic economy, and in Varieties of
manufactories ; and the saline, which are strongly im-water-
pregnated with soluble salts. When spring waters pos¬
sess any peculiar character, they are called mineral wa¬
ters. River water is in general soft, as it is formed of
spring water, which, by exposure becomes more pure ;
and running surface water, which, although turbid
from particles of clay suspended in it, is otherwise very
pure. Lake water is similar to river water. The wa¬
ter of marshes, on the contrary, is exceedingly impure,
and often highly fetid, from the great proportion of
animal and vegetable matters which is constantly de¬
caying in them. gc
“ Mineral waters derive their peculiarity of character, Miuerai
in general, either from containing carbonic acid orwatcrs-
soda not neutralized, sulphurated hydrogen, purging
salts, earthy salts, or iron \ or from their temperature
exceeding in a greater or less degree that of other sur¬
rounding bodies. The following are the most celebrated. gc6
“ «• Warm Springs.—Bath, Bristol, Buxton, Matlock, Warm
in England. Barege, Vichy, &c. in France. Aix-la-springs,
Chapelle, Borset, Baden, Carlsbad and Toeplitzin Ger¬
many ; and Bisa, Lucca, Baia, and many others in Italy. 807
“ b. Carbonated Springs.—Pyrmont, Seltzer, Spa, Carbonated
Cheltenham, Scarborough. springs.
“ e. Alkaline.—Carlsbad, Aix-la-Chapelle, Barege, Alkaline.
Toeplitz. 809 ’
“ d. Sulphureous.—Enghien, Lu, Aix-la-Chapelle,Sulphure-
Kelburn, Harrowgate, Moft’ai, and many in Italy. ous*
“ c. Purging.—Sea water, Lemington Priors, Har-p^F^
rowgate, Lu, Carlsbad, Moftat, Toeplitz, Epsom, Sed- waters,
litz, Kelburn, and all brackish waters. Sir
“ f. Calcareous.—Matlock, Buxton, and all hard wa- Calcareous,
ters. 812
“ g. Chahjbeatc.—Hartfell, Denmark, Cheltenham, Chalybeate.-
Pyrmont, Spa, Tunbridge, Bath, Scarborough, Vichy,
Carlsbad, Lemington Priors. 813
“ Medical use.—Water is an essential constituent in Medical
the organization of all living bodies’, and as it is con-use °* wa~
tinuaily expended during the process of life, that waste ler‘
must l)e also continually supplied 5 and this supply is of
such importance, that it is not left to reason or to
chance, but forms the object of ah imperious appetite.
When taken into the stomach, water acts by its tem¬
perature, its bulk, and the quantity absorbed by the
lacteals. Water about 60 degrees, gives no sensation
of beat or cold •, between 60 degrees and 4^ it gives
a sensation of cold followed by a glow and increase of
appetite and vigour j below 45, the sensation of cold is
permanent and unpleasant, and it acts as an astringent
and sedative ; above 60, it excites nausea and vomiting,
probably by partially relaxing the fibres of the stomach,
for when mixed with stimulating substances it has not
these effects. In the stomach and in the intestines it
acts also by its bulk, producing the effects arising from
the distension of these organs; and as the intestinal
gases consist of hydrogen gas, either pure, or carbo¬
nated, or sulphurated, or phosphorated, it is probably
in part decomposed in them. It likewise dilutes the
contents of the stomach and intestines, thus often di-
4 3 F minishing
778
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
814
External
nse of wa
ter.
8l5
Hot bath.
MATERIA
mlnishing tlieir acrimony. It is absorbed by the lac-
teals, dilutes the chyle and the blood, increases their
fluidity, lessens their acrimony, and produces plethora
ad violem. Its effects in producing plethora and flui¬
dity are, however, very transitory, as it at the same
time increases the secretion by the skin and kidneys.
Indeed the effects of sudorifics and diuretics depend in
a great measure on the quantity of water taken a.ong
with them. .
Mineral waters have also a specific action, depend¬
ing on the foreign substances which they contain. It is,
however, necessary to remark, that their eflects are in
general much greater than might be expected from the
strength of their impregnations, owing probably to the
very circumstance ot their great dilution, by which
every particle is presented in a state ot activity, while
the lacteals admit them more readily than they would
in a less diluted state.
“ Carbonic acid gas gives to the waters which are
strongly impregnated with it, a sparkling appearance,
and an agreeable degree of pungency. In its effects
on the body it is decidedly stimulant, and even capable
of producing a certain degree of intoxication. It is oi
great service in bilious complaints, atony ot the sto¬
mach, nausea, and vomiting, and in all fevers ot the
typhoid type.
“ Alkaline waters produce also a tonic effect on the
stomach, but they are less grateful. T hey are particu¬
larly serviceable in morbid acidity of the stomach, and
in diseases of the urinary organs.
“ Sulphureous waters are chiefly used in cutaneous
and glandular diseases. Their effects are stimulant and
heating, and they operate by the skin or bowels.
“ Purging waters derive their effects from the neutral
salts they contain, especially the muriates ol soda, lime,
and magnesia, and the sulphates of soda and magnesia.
They are much more frequently used for a length of
time to keep the bowels open by exciting the natural
action, than to produce full purging. Used in this way,
instead of debilitating the patient, they increase his
appetite, health, and strength.
“ Chalybeate waters are used as tonics. They stimu¬
late considerably, and increase the circulation j but as
they also generally contain neutral salts, they act as
gentle laxatives. They are used in all cases of debility,
cachexia, chlorosis, fluor albus, amenorrhoea $ and, in
general, in what are called nervous diseases.
“ The external use of water depends almost entirely
on its temperature, which may be
“ I. Greater than that of the body, or above 970
Fahr. The hot bath.
“ 2. Relow the temperature of the body.
a. From 97 to 85, the warm bath.
b. From 85 to 65, the tepid bat^i.
c. From 65 to 32, the cold bath.
“ The hot bath is decidedly stimulant in its action.
It renders the pulse frequent, the veins turgid, the face
flushed, the respiration quick •, increases animal heat,
and produces sweat. If the temperature be very high,
the face becomes bathed in sweat, the arteries at the
neck and temples beat with violence, anxiety and a
sense of suffocation are induced 5 and if persisted in,
vertigo, throbbing in the heart, and apoplexy, are the
consequences. It is very rarely employed in medicine,
M E DIC A, &c. Fan IV.
except where there are hoi springs, as at Radon in History of
Switzerland. " ^'P1? and
“ The Russians and some other nations use the hot
. , MedKines.
bath as an article oi luxury.
“ The effects of the affusion of hot water have not
been ascertained 1 and it is probable, that when the heat
is not so great as to destroy the organization of the skin,
the very transient application ot the water would be
more than counteracted by the subsequent evaporation.
“ With regard to the action arising from their tem¬
perature, all baths below 970 differ only in degree, as
they all ultimately abstract caloric from the surface,
but with a force inversely as their temperature. S16
“ The warm bath excites the sensation of warmth, Warm
partly because our sensations are merely relative, and ijath-
partly because its temperature, though less than that of
the internal parts of the body, is actually greater than
that of the extremities, which are the chief organs of
touch. Rut as water is a much better conductor of
caloric than air, and especially than confined air, as
much caloric is abstracted from the body by water,
which is a lew degrees loxver than the external tempe¬
rature of the body, as by air of a much lorver tempera¬
ture. The warm bath diminishes the frequency ot the
pulse, especially when it has been previously greater
than natmal} and this effect is always in propoition to
the time of immersion. It also renders the respiration
slower, and lessens the temperature of the body, relaxes
the muscular fibre, increases the bulk of the fluids by
absorption, removes impurities from the surface, pio-
motes the desquamation and renewal of the cuticle,
and softens the nails and indurations of the skin.
44 The stimulant power of the warm bath is therefore
very inconsiderable, and its employment in disease will
be chiefly indicated by preternatural heat of the sur¬
face, and frequency of the pulse, rigidity of the mus¬
cular fibre, and morbid affections of the skin. It has
accordingly been found serviceable in many cases of
pyrexia, both febrile and exanthematous, in many spas¬
modic diseases, and in most of the impetigines. It is
contraindicated by difficulty of breathing and internal
organic aflections, and should not be used when the
stomach is full. 817
« The affusion of warm water very generally produces Affusion of
a considerable diminution of heat, a diminished fre-^aimva
quency of pulse and respiration, and a tendency to re¬
pose and sleep 5 but its effects are not very permanent,
and its stimulus is weak. It is recommended in febrile
diseases, depending on the stimulus of preternatural heat,
and in those attended Avith laborious respiration, and in
the paroxysms of hectic fever.
“ As the tepid bath and affusion produce eftects in¬
termediate between those and cold water, it is unne¬
cessary to enumerate them. S18
“ The cold bath produces the sensation of cold, which Cold bath,
gradually ceases, and is succeeded by numbness. It
excites tremor in the skin, and shivering. Fhe skm
becomes pale, contracted, and acquires the appearance
termed cutis anserina. The fluids are diminished in
volume, the solids are contracted, the caliber of the
vessels is lessened, and therefore numbness and paleness
are induced, and the visible cutaneous veins become
smaller. There is a sense of drowsiness and inactivity,
the. joints become rigid and inflexible, and the limbs
Part IV.
M ATE li IA
Sksnle^and npi6 a^ec^et^. 'Vl^1 })ains alu^ spasmodic contractions.
Officinal , resPllation is rendered quick and irregular, the
Medicines. Pu se slow, firm, regular, and small j the internal heat
u—v,   is at first diminished, but gradually and irregularly re¬
turns neaily to its natural standard ^ the extremities,
however, continue cold and numb, or swollen and li-
% id } the perspiration is suppressed, and the discharge
of urine is rendered more frequent and copious. If the
cold be excessive on its application, long-continued vio¬
lent shiverings are induced, the pulse ceases at the
wrist, the motion of the heart becomes feeble and lan¬
guid, there is a sensation ot coldness and faintness at
the stomach, and a rapid diminution of animal heat 5
and, at last, delirium, torpor, and death, are the con¬
sequences. It the application of the cold bath be not
carried to an excessive length, on emerging from the
water the whole body is pervaded by an agreeable sen¬
sation of warmth, and the patient leels refreshed and
invigorated.
“ The primary action of the cold bath is stimulant,
and the degree of this action is in proportion to the
lowness ot its temperature. This opinion is indeed di¬
rectly opposite to a theory of cold which has been ad¬
vanced with the confidence of demonstration. “ Heat
is a stimulus, cold is the abstraction of heat ; therefore
cold is the abstraction of stimulus, or is a sedative.”
To this we might oppose another theory, equally syllo¬
gistic, and nearer the truth. Free caloric is a stimulus,
cold is the sensation excited by the passage of free ca¬
loric out of the body ; therefore cold is a stimulus.
But, in fact, the action of cold is by no means so
simple. It is complicated, and varies according to its
intensity, duration, and the state of the system to which
it is applied. It acts at first as a stimulant, in exciting
sensation ; then as a tonic, in condensing the living
fibre ; and, lastly, however paradoxical it may appear,
as a sedative, by preventing that distribution of blood
in the minute and ultimate vessels, which is necessary
for the existence of sensibility and irritability, and by
the abstraction of the stimulus of heat.
“ The cold bath may be so managed as to procure
any of these effects, by regulating the length of time
819 for which it is applied.
d aflu- “ Cold affusion, or the pouring of cold water over the
l* body, is a very convenient way of applying the cold
bath in many cases. In this way cold is very suddenly
applied to the surface, its operation is instantaneous and
momentary ; but may be continued by repeated allu¬
sions for any length of time, and so as to produce its
extreme effects. Where the effects of cold affusion
may be thought too severe, sprinkling the body with
cold water, or water and vinegar, may be substituted.
“ The application of cold may be employed in fevers
and febrile paroxysms, when the heat is steadily above
the natural standard, and in many diseasesarising from
relaxation and debility. It is contraindicated when the
heat of the body is below 970, when there is any nota¬
ble perspiration from the surface ; and when there is
general plethora. Debilitated habits should be defend¬
ed from the violence of its action, by covering the body
with flannel.
“ In yellow fever, especially in those cases in which
the heat of the skin is excessive, it is particularly useful,
and ought to be long continued. In phrenitis and
ME Die A, &C. 779
other local inflammations, it promises to be of advan- History of
tage. In gouts its eftects are doubtful, being in some Simple and
instances salutary, in others destructive. A criterion Officinal
to enable us to determine when it ought or ought not Medicines-
to be resorted to, is much wanted. In inflammatory "
rheumatism and rheumatic gout it is decidedly useful.
It is of advantage in all the hemorrhagies and exanthe-
niata ; in tetanus, cholic, cholera, hysteria, mania, is¬
churia, and in burns ; and, in general, in all those lo¬
cal diseases in which solutions of acetate of lead, of mu¬
riate of ammonia, &c. are usually employed ; for the
good effects of these depend entirely on the diminished *
temperature * ” ' Dispensa-
Tor more respecting the utility of the cold affusion,3d
see Currie’s “ Medical Reports; and for an excellentcdit-P-l6S*
account of the effects and uses of baths, see Marcard
<lc la Nature ft dc V Usage des Bains, and a Treatise on
t old and Warm Bathing, lately published at Edin¬
burgh.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aqua DESTiLLATA, E. AQUA DISTILLA- Distilled
TA, L. 1). Distilled water. water.
From 10 gallons of spring water, the London col¬
lege directs four gallons to be drawn off, throwing
away the first four pints that come over. The Dublin
college directs 10 pounds to be distilled from 20
pounds, throwing away the first pound; while the col¬
lege of Edinburgh directs water to be distilled in very
clean vessels till two-thirds have come over.
Sect. II. Inflammable Substances.
, c Sir
260. Sulphur sublimatum, E. L. D. FLORES Sublimed
SULFHURIS. Sublimed sulphur. Flowers of Sul- su'pbur.
phur.
For an account of the chemical nature and properties
of sulphur, see Chemi^ry, Chap. ix.
As a medicine, sulphur is employed both internally
and externally. Internally it is given as a laxative, in
the dose of a dram or two, and as a diaphoretic in
smaller doses. Externally it is one of the most certain
remedies for the itch, and some other cutaneous affec¬
tions.
Ojjicinal Preparations.
822,
a. Sulphur sublimatum lotum, E. D. FLO- Washed
RES SULFHURIS LOTI, L. Mashed sublimedSiU!:,^jIIied
sulphur. Washed flowers of sulphur.
sulphur.
Sublimed sulphur is freed from the sulphureous acid,
which it has imbibed in the preparation, by boiling it
for a little in four times its weight of water, and after
pouring off the water in which it was boiled, washing
it by repeated affusions of cold water, till it no longer
imparts acidity to the water.
Sublimed sulphur should always be washed before be¬
ing used internally, otherwise it is very apt to disorder
the stomach and bowels.
S23
b. OLEUM sulphuratum, E. L. Sulphurated oil. Sulphurat.
Prepared by boiling one part of sublimed sulphur in
eight of olive oil (E.), or one part to four parts (L.), in a
large iron pot, till they are thoroughly united. Formerly
5 F 2 much
780
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
824
Sulphurat¬
ed petro¬
leum.
S25
Ointment
of sulphur.
826
Sulphuret
of potash.
-* See Kir-
li/'s Tables.
P- 43-
8*7
Precipita¬
ted sulphur
materia medica,
much used as an expectorant in coughs, in a dose of
from 10 to 40 drops, but now seldom used, except as
an external application to foul ulcers.
c. Petroleum sulfHcjratum, L. Sulphurated pe¬
troleum.
Prepared in the same manner as the last, with oil of
petroleum, and used for the same purpose.
d. Unguentum Sulphuris, E. L. D. Ointment of
sulphur.
Prepared by mixing half a pound (L.) or five ounces
(D.) of ointment of hog’s-lard, with four ounces (L.)
or three ounces (D.) of flowers of sulphur j or four parts
of hog’s-lard, with one of sublimed sulphur, adding to
each pound of the ointment, halt a dram of volatile oil
of lemons, or volatile oil of lavender (E.).
An excellent application in the itch. Ordinary quan¬
tity for an adult about four ounces, which should be
rubbed in at once.
e. Sulphuretum Potasste, E. KALI SULPHU-
HATUM, L. ALKALI VEGETAL 1LE SUL-
PHURATUM, D. HEPAR SULPHURIS. Sul¬
phuret of potash. Sulphurated kali* Sulphurated ve¬
getable alkali. Liver of sulphur.
For the preparation and chemical properties of this
substance, see Chemistry, N° 918.
Sulphuret of potash is seldom employed in medicine,
except as a remedy in violent mercurial salivation, in
which it is said to be very effectual *. It has lately
been much recommended, dissolved in lime water, as an
effectual external application in tinea capitis.
f Sulphur pr^xipitatum, L. D. Precipitated
sulphur.
&x. Piirt IV.
by boiling half a pound of it in a pint of distilled water, History of
and setting aside the solution to crystallize. Simple and
Succinic acid is now scarcely employed in medicine. Officinal
J J Medicines,
d. Oleum Succini purissimum, E. OLEUM r—»
SUCCINl RECTIFICATUM, L. D. Purified oil ^
of amber. of amber.
The Edinburgh college directs oil of amber to be
purified by distilling it in a glass retort with six times
its quantity of water, till two-thirds of the water have
passed into the receiver ; when the pure volatile oil
comes over, it is to be separated from the water, and
preserved in vessels closely stopped. The processes of
the other colleges do not materially differ from this.
Oil of amber is a powerful stimulant and autispasmo-
dic, useful in hysterical and similar disorders. Dose
10 or 12 drops. Used also externally in paralysis and
rheumatisms.
8 33
262. Bitumen petroleum, E. PETROLEUM,Petroleum,
L. PETROLEUM BARBADENSE, D. Petro¬
leum or rock oil. Barbadoes tar.
Officinal Breparation.
a. Oleum Petrolei, L. Oil of petroleum.
Prepared by distilling petroleum in a sand bath.
Employed as a stimulant and antispasmodic. Dose
from 10 to 30 drops. Also used as an external stimu¬
lant in strains and rheumatisms.
Sect. III. Acids.
834
Oil of pe¬
troleum.
*35
S28
Amber.
829
Succinic
acid.
830
Oil of am¬
ber.
83t
Purified
salt of am¬
ber.
Prepared by dissolving six ounces (L.) or four ounces
(D.) of sulplmret of potash, in one pound and a half
of distilled water, and adding diluted sulphuric acid
(L.), or diluted nitrous acid (D.), as long as there is
any precipitation. The precipitate is then to be se¬
parated by the filter, and washed till it has lost all aci¬
dity, and then dried.
Similar in its nature to washed sublimed sulphur,
but considered as rather milder.
261. Succinum, E. L. D. Amber. See Chemi¬
stry, N° 2476.
Amber in its natural state is not employed in medi¬
cine, except to make the following
Officinal Preparations.
a. Acidum Succini, E. SAL SUCCINI, D, L,
Succinic acid. Salt of amber.
b. Oleum Succini, E. L. D. Oil of amber.
For the preparation and chemical properties of these
substances, see Chemistry, N° 724, et scq.
c. Sal Succini purificatus, L. Purified salt of
amber.
The London college directs this acid to be purified
263. Acidum sulphuricum, E. ACIDUM VI-Sulphuric
TRIOLICUM, L. D. Sulphuric acid. Vitriolic acid. acid.
Oil of vitriol.
For the preparation and chemical properties of sul¬
phuric acid, see Chemistry, Chap. x. Sect. 1.
Undiluted sulphuric acid is seldom employed in me¬
dicine, except as an external stimulant and rubefacient,
in combination with fatty substances.
Officinal Preparations.
836
a. Acidum sulphuricum dilutum, E. ACIDUM Diluted
VITRIOLICUM DILUTUM, L. D. Diluted sul-sulphuric
phuric acid. Diluted vitriolic acid. Spirit of vitriol.
One part of sulphuric acid mixed with seven of wa¬
ter (E.), or one ounce with eight ounces of water (L.),
or two ounces, with 14 ounces of water (D.).
Diluted sulphuric acid is employed as a refrigerant
in fevers, astringent in hemorrhages, and tonic in dys¬
pepsia. Dose from 20 drops to a dram.
837
b. Acidum sulphuricum aromaticum, E. Aro-Aromatic
Elixir of vitriol. sulphuric
acid.
matic sulphuric acid.
Prepared by first
   _ mixing two pounds of alcohol
with six pounds of sulphuric acid, by gradually drop¬
ping the acid into the alcohol j digesting this mixture
with a very gentle heat in a close vessel, for three days ;
and adding one ounce and a half of bruised cinnamon,
and one ounce of bruised ginger j digesting again in a
close
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of close vessel, lor six days, and filtering the tincture
Simple and through paper in a glass funnel.
Officinal excellent stimulant and tonic, well suited to dys-
l^ints' peptic complaints. Dose from 15 to 40 drops.
<3 UnwL c- Sulphas Potassac, E. KALI VITRIOLA-
potash. TUM, l. alkali vegetabile YITRIO-
LATUM, D. Sulphate of potash. Vttriolated kali.
Vitridlated vegetable alkali. Vitriolated tartar.
For the nature and properties of this salt, see Che¬
mistry, N° 925, et seq.
The Edinburgh college directs this salt to he pre¬
pared by an immediate combination of sulphuric acid,
diluted with six times its weight of water, with as much
pure carbonate of potash, dissolved also in six times its
weight of water, as is sufficient to neutralize the acid.
The salt is procured from the solution by evaporation
and crystallization. The other colleges obtain this salt
by dissolving the saline mass that remains after the dis¬
tillation of nitrous acid, filtering and crystallizing as
before.
Sulphate of potash is a mild purgative, and may be
given in a dose of four or five drams, but it requires a
large quantity of water for its solution. It is employ¬
ed chiefly to assist in the pulverization of opium, scam-
mony, &c.
Sulphate of d. Sulphas POTASS,® CUM SULPHURE, E. SAL
potash with POLYCHRESTUS. Sulphate of potash with sulphur,
sulphur. ,$’#/ pohjchrest.
Prepared bv mixing together equal parts of powder¬
ed nitrate of potash and sublimed sulphur 5 injecting the
mixture gradually into a red-hot crucible; and, when
the deflagration ceases, allowing the salt to cool, and
putting it into a vessel that is to be closely stopped.
Similar in its effects with the last, but more easily
prepax-ed.
ME.DICA, &c.
This preparation is supposed to be a powerful lithon-
triptic, and the occasional use of it certainly appears
to prevent the formation of uric acid. It may be drunk
in the quantity of half a pint or a pint during the day.
c. Phosphas Sodas, E. Phosphate of soda.
For the preparation and nature of this salt, see Che¬
mistry, N° 1075, et seq.
An excellent laxative, prefex able to most other saline
cathartics, from its taste being but little unpleasant.
Dose from one to two ounces, which is best taken dis¬
solved in soup, beef tea, or gruel.
265. Nitras Potassa1, E. NITRUM, L. D.
Nitrate of potash. Nitre. Saltpetre. See Chemistry,
N° 942, et seq.
Nitrate of potash is used in medicine as a diaphore¬
tic, diuretic, and refrigerant. Dose from five to 20
grains..
781
840
Impure
carbonate
of soda.
Sect. IV. Alkalies and Alkaline Salts.
264. Carbonas Soda impurus, E. BARYLLA,
L. D. Impure carbonate of soda. Barilla. Fixed mi¬
neral alkali.
842
Water of
da.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
1 y— <
s4,3
Phosphate
of soda.
. S44
Nitrate of
potash.
Officinal Preparations.
s45
Purified
Nitrous acid. Nitrou*:
Officinal Preparations.
Carbonate «• Carbonas Soda;, E. NATRON PREPARA-
*f soda. TUM, L. ALKALI FOSSILE MITE, I). Car¬
bonate of soda. Vitriolated natron. Mild fossil al¬
kali.
Prepared by boiling impure carbonate of soda, bruis¬
ed or powdered barilla, till all the salt is dissolved,
then filtering the liquor, and setting it by to crystal¬
lize.
For an account of the nature and properties of this
salt, see Chemistry, N° 1085.
Employed in medicine chiefly as an antacid and li-
thontriptic. Dose from 10 to 30 grains.
b. Aqua supercarbonatis Soda, E. Water of
supercarbo- supercarbonate of soda.
sate of so- , .
Prepared by passing a stream of carbonic acid gas
through a solution ol carbonate of soda, as was di¬
rected for preparing the wrater of carbonate of potash.
See N° 315.
a. Nitrum purificatum, L. Purified nitre.
Purified by solution in boiling water, filtration, and nitre,
crystallization.
b. Acidum nitrosum, E. L. D.
Fuming spirit of nitre. acid.
Prepared by decomposing nitrate of potash by sul¬
phuric acid, in the manner mentioned under Chemis¬
try, Chap. x. Sect. 3.
It is in this state that the acid obtained from nitrate
of potash is generally employed in medicine, though
for certain purposes the nitric acid is to be preferred.
These acids are employed as refrigerants and diuretics,
largely diluted,, and in small doses, viz. from five to 20
drops, and also as tonics and general stimulants, as
mentioned below. Externally they act as stimulants or
escliarotics, according to their strength.
S47
c. Acidum nitrosum dilutum, E. L. D. Dilut-Diluted ni^
ed nitrous acid. Aquafortis. trous uci,i,
Prepared by mixing equal weights of nitrous acid
and water, taking care to avoid the noxious fumes.
Uses the same as of the last 5 but the diluted acid is
better calculated for internal exhibition. Doses about
double those of nitrous acid.
SaS
d. Acidum nitricum, E. Nitric acid. Nitric acid;
Prepared by redistilling nitrous acid in a retort with
an adapted receiver, with a very gentle heat, til! the
red portion has passed over, ami the remaining acid has
acquired the state of nitric acid. See Chemistry as
above.
This is the acid which has been so much recommend¬
ed of late as a cure for syphilis, in which it is admini¬
stered, diluted with water in the proportion of a dram
to a pint, which is to be taken at intervals through the
day, sucking it through a quill or glass tube, to avoid
injuring the teeth, and gradually augmenting the
quantity as far as the stomach will bear. Though the
advantages of nitric acid in syphilitic complaints appear
to have been overrated, it is no doubt a valuable succe-
daneum to mercury, and has, we believe, been of ser¬
vice in cases where mercurial preparations were inad¬
missible, or unsuccessful. Nitric acid, in its nascent
state,,
782
MATE RI A MEDIC A, &c.
Part IV.
History of
Simple and
Ofiicinal
Medicines.
849
Ointment
of nitrons
acid.
850
Spirit of
nitrous
ether.
851
Muriate of
soda.
state, as procured by an extemporaneous decomposition
of nitre by sulphuric acid, has been found of advantage
as a fumigation in correcting putrid effluvia.
1 c. Unguentum Acim nitrosi, E. Ointment of
nitrous acid. Oxygenated ointment.
Prepared by gradually mixing six drams of nitrous
acid with one pound of melted hog’s lard, and conti¬
nually agitating the mixture as it cools.
A good remedy in herpes, lepra, and some othei cu¬
taneous affections, and said to have succeeded as a sub¬
stitute for mercurial ointment.
f Spiritus ipTHERIS NITROSI, E. L. LIQUOR
iETHEREUS NITROSUS, D. Spirit of nitrous
ether. Ethereal nitrous liquor. Sweet spirit of nitre.
About three parts of alcohol and one of nitrous acid,
gradually mixed together, distilling over the spirit from
a water bath.
Diuretic, stimulant, and tonic. Dose 20 drops to a
dram.
266. Murias Sodje, E. SAL MURIATICUS,
L. SAL COMMUNIS, D. SAL MARINUS.
Muriate of soda. Sea salt. Common salt. See Che¬
mistry, N° 1046.
Muriate of soda is employed as a laxative and an¬
thelmintic. In the former way it is usually administer¬
ed in clysters ; in the latter it is given by the mouth,
in the dose of half a dram to an ounce or more. Ex¬
ternally, when dried by heat, it is used as a stimulant
and rubefacient.
Officinal Preparations.
Murias Sod^i exsiccatus, E.
SAL COM-
Dried muriate of soda.
853
Muriatic
acid.
267. Subboras Sod^e. BORAS SODiE, E. BO- History of
RAX, L. D. Subborate of soda. Boiax. See Che- Simple and
mistry, N° 1067. T®?1!131
' Medicines.
Sometimes given internally as a diuretic ; but gene- -v~—J
rally employed as a detergent to aphthous crusts and ill- s55
cerations in the mouth and fauces, either by way of lo-otuso£‘“te
tion, or made into a linctus with syrup or honey.
Sect. V. Soaps.
SAPO, E.
O • , 8'6
Spanish orcastile
857
852
Dried mu¬
riate of so- MUNIS EXSICCATUS, D
dii.
Muriate of soda is dried by roasting it over the fire
in a wide iron vessel, with occasional agitation, till it
ceases to decrepitate.
b. Acidum Muriaticum, E. L. D. Muriatic acid.
Marine acid. Spirit of sea-salt.
Prepared by decomposing muriate of soda by sulphu¬
ric acid, in the manner described under Chemistry,
Chap. x. Sect. 5.
Muriatic acid is used in medicine as a refrigerant,
diuretic, and stimulant. Dose irom 10 drops to 40 or
50. It is a good medicine in low fevers, largely dilu¬
ted and sweetened with sugar. In its nascent state, as
obtained by the extemporaneous decomposition of mu¬
riate of soda by sulphuric acid, it is an excellent fumi¬
gation, and in this respect is perhaps to be preferred to
the nitric acid.
Sidnhate of c. Sulphas Sod*, E. NATRON VITRIOLA-
■s.oda. TUM, L. ALKALI FOSSILE VITRIOLA-
TUM, D. SAL GLAUBERI. Sulphate of soda.
Vitriolated natron. Vitriolated mineral alkali. Glau¬
ber's salt.
Usually prepared by dissolving and neutralizing the
acidulous salt remaining after the preparation of muri¬
atic acid, filtering the liquor, evaporating, and setting
it aside to crystallize. See Chemistry, N° 1030.
A good purgative, but not suited to all stomachs.
Dose from one to two ounces.
268. Sapo Hispanus.
Castile soap. soap
The Edinburgh and London colleges particularize
the soap that should be used in medicine, as prepared
of olive oil and soda.
On the nature and properties of soap, see Chemistry.
Soap is employed both internally and externally.
Internally it acts as a gentle laxative, and is supposed
to possess lithontriptic powers. In this latter way it has
been given in the quantity of from half an ounce to an
ounce in the day. Excepting with this intention, it is
seldom given alone. Externally it is used as a stimu¬
lant and detergent, under the vai'ious forms mentioned
below.
Officinal Preparations.
a. TlNCTURA Saponis, E. LINIMENTUM SA-Tincture of
BONIS COMPOSITUM, L. LINIMENTUM soap.
SAPONACEUM, D. rJ 'incture of soap. Compound
liniment of soap. Saponaceous liniment. Opodeldoc.
The Edinburgh tincture is prepared by digesting
four ounces of soap shavings in two pounds of alcohol
for three days •, then adding to the filtered liquor two
ounces of camphor, and half an ounce of volatile oil of
rosemary, agitating them diligently. The London li¬
niment is composed of three ounces of soap, one ounce
of camphor, and one pint of spirit of rosemary •, that of
the Dublin college of two ounces of Castile soap, one
ounce of camphor, eight ounces of alcohol, and the same
of water, and two scruples of essential oil ot rosemary.
S5S
b. Tinctura Saponis et Opii, E. LINIMEN-Tincture @f
TUM ANODYNUM. Tincture of soap and opium. s°ap ancl
Anodyne liniment. opium.
Prepared in the same manner as the last, with the
addition, from the beginning, of one ounce of opium.
These tinctures or liniments are excellent stimulant
applications in cases of sprains, rheumatic pains, and
similar affections and the latter of them has been found
useful when applied to the tumid belly ot children that
are threatened with rickets.
c. Ceratum Saponis, L. D. Soap cerate.
Prepared by boiling one pound of powdered litharge
with a gallon or eight pounds (D.) of vinegar, over a
slow' fire, with constant agitation, till the mixture com¬
bines and thickens ; then adding eight ounces of soap,
10 ounces of yellow V'ax, and a pint or 14 ounces (D.)
of olive oil, and continuing the heat and agitation till
they are united to form a cerate. *
d. Emplastriim Saponis, L. EMPLASTRUMs© ap plas-
SAPONACEUM, E. D. Soap plaster. ter.
Prepared by mixing one part of soap with six of
melted
s59
Soap
cerate.
Part IV.
MATERIA
HistoK of melted litharge plaster (L. D.), or one part of sliced
tin.iple and soap, with four of plaster of semivitrified oxide of lead,
TVWAIMni antl two Parts of gum plaster melted together (E.).
  These are intended as discutient applications. .
Sect. VI. Earths and Earthii Salts.
861
Sulphate of 269. Sulphas Baryta-, F. TEERA PONDE-
banta. R0SA yjTfUOLATA. BARYTES. Sulphate of
Baryta. VitrMated ponderous earth. Banjtes. See
Chemistry, N° 1256, et scq.
Employed in medicine only for preparing the muri¬
ate of baryta.
. 8(52
Carbonate
of baryta.
270. Carbonas Baryta:, E.
DEROSA. Carbonate of baryta.
Chemistry, as above.
TERRA PON-
Hcanj spar. See
8*3
Muriate of
baryta.
OJfu inal Ereparations.
a. Murias Baryta:, E. Muriate of baryta.
Prepared by dissolving carbonate of baryta broken
into small pieces in a mixture of one part of muriatic
acid and three of water, filtering the liquor, evapora¬
ting and crystallizing. Where the carbonate of baryta
cannot be procured, this salt is obtained from the sul¬
phate, by a very complex process, for which see Dun-
can’s Dispensatory, and Chemistry as above.
Solution of h. Solutio Muriatis Baryta:, E. Solution of
muriate of muriate of barvta.
baryta.
Prepared by dissolving one part of crystallized mu¬
riate of baryta in three of water.
This has been recommended as a powerful stimulant
and tonic, in a variety of diseases. AVe believe it has
been of service in some cases of scrophula. Dose from
five to ten drops, twice or thrice a-day.
866
Lime-wa¬
ter.
865
271. Calx, L. CALX VIVA, E. CALX RE-
CENS USTA, D. Lime. Quicklime. See Che¬
mistry, Chap. xiii. Sect. 1.
Lime in substance is scarcely employed in medicine,
except by way of caustic, mixed with soft soap or pot¬
ash.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Aqua Calcis, E. L. D. Lime-water.
This is a saturated solution of fresh burnt quicklime
in water. After being made, it should be kept in ves¬
sels that are not too large, and carefully stopped, that
it may not imbibe carbonic acid from the air.
Lime-water is employed as an antacid and astrin¬
gent, a tonic, and an anthelmintic. Dose internally
from two to four ounces. As an anthelmintic it is
used in the way of clyster, to destroy ascarides. It is
also employed externally as a stimulant and detergent.
b. Linimentum Aqua: Calcis. OLEUM LINI
of lime-wa-CUM CALCE, E. Liniment of lime, or Lintseed
oil with lime.
Prepared by mixing equal parts of lintseed oil and
lime-water.
A useful application to recent scalds and burns.
MEDIC A, &<-.
272. Carbonas Calcis, E, Carbonate of lime.
Carbonas Calcis mollior, E. CRETA, L. D.
Chalk. Carbonas Calcis durior, E. MARMOR.
Marble. See Chemistry, N° 1230, ct seq.
Caibonate of lime in its soft state is much employed
in medicine as an antacid, and when powdered or pre¬
pared, it is applied externally to scalds and burns, and
to cancerous sores.
78.1
867
Liniment
ter.
Offcinal Preparations.
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
868
Carbonate
of lime.
869
Chalk.
870
Marble-
a. Carbonas Calcis pra:pabates, E. CRETA Prepared
PRAEPARATA, L. D. Prepared carbonate of lime. carbonate
Prepaved chalk. of lime.
This is chalk reduced to a very fine powder by tri¬
turation, levigation, diffusion in water, filtration, and
drying. Ordinary dose, as an antacid, from 15 grains
to a dram.
S72
b. Potio carbonatis Calcis, E. MISTURAclialk p°-
CRETACEA, L. D. Chalk potion. Uon-
Prepared, according to the Edinburgh college, by
triturating an ounce ol prepared carbonate of lime with
two ounces of mucilage of gum arabic, and half an
ounce of double-refined sugar j then adding gradually
two pounds and a half of water, and two ounces of spirit
of cinnamon.
The London and Dublin mixture is prepared by mix¬
ing one ounce of prepared chalk, six drams of double-
refined sugar, one ounce of powdered gum arabic, with
two pints or 30 ounces (D.), of distilled water.
Employed as an antacid, especially in diarrhoea, ac¬
companied by acidity in the intestinal canal. It may
be taken ad libitum.
873
c. Trochisci carbonatis Calcis, E. TROCHIS- Troches of
Cl CRETiE, L. Troches of carbonate of lime. c^!>onate
*71 1 1' 1 11 lime.
1 roc ties of chalk.
Prepared of four ounces of carbonate of lime, one
ounce of gum arabic, one dram of nutmeg, and six
ounces of double-refined sugar, powdered together, and
formed into a mass with water ( E.) j or, of four ounces
of prepared chalk, two ounces of prepared crabs claws,
half an ounce of cinnamon, and three ounces of double-
refined sugar, powdered and made into a mass with
mucilage of gum arabic (L.). Used as the preceding.
874
d. PuLVIS CARBONATIS Calcis COMPOSITUS, E. Compound
PUL VIS CRETiE COMPOSITUS, L. Compound powder of
powder of carbonate of lime. Compound powder 'H/oflirne^0
chalk.
Prepared of four ounces of prepared carbonate of
lime, half a dram of nutmeg, and halt a dram of cin¬
namon powdered together (E.) j or, of half a pound of
prepared chalk, four ounces of cinnamon, three ounces
of tormentil, and the same of gum arabic, and half an
ounce of long pepper powdered separately, and mixed
together (L.).
Used as antacids and tonics, in debility of the intes¬
tinal canal. Dose from 15 to 30 grains. S75
Water im-
c. Aqua Aeris Fixi, D» Water impregnated withpregnated
fixed air. W with fixed
Prepared‘
'84
SyS
Solution of
mu. iatc of
lime.
History of Prepamlfy passing a stream of carbonic acid gas
Simple niid arising from the decomposition of tluee ounces o
Officinal p0W(]el.eil white marble, and one half pound of diluted
Medicines. vjtrj0]jc mixed tvith an equal quantity ot Avater,
through six pounds of pure spring water, in a Nooth’s
apparatus, with occasional agitation.
An excellent tonic, refrigerant, and anti-emetic.
f. Solutio Muriatis Calcis, E. Solution of
muriate of lime.
Prepared by dissolving nine ounces of white marble
broken to pieces, in sixteen ounces of muriatic acid,
mixed with eight ounces of water j digesting for halt
an hour, pouring oil the liquor, evaporating to dryness,
dissolving the residuum in times its weight ot water,
and filtering the solution.
An excellent tonic, useful in cases of scrofula and
schirrus. Dose from 30 to 60 drops, twice or thnee a-
day.
Sulphate of 273. Sulphas Magnesl®, E. MAGNESIA M-
magnesia. TRIOEATA, L. D. SAL CATHARTICUS A-
MARUS. Sulphate of magnesia. Titriolated magnesia.
Epsom salt. See Chemistry, Chap. xiii. Sect. 4.
Used as a purgative, in a dose of an ounce to an
ounce and a half \ as a tonic and gentle stimulant, in
the dose of a dram or two diluted considerably, twice
a-day.
Officinal 'Preparations.
a. Carbonas Magnesia:, E. MAGNESIA AL¬
BA, L. D. Carbonate of magnesia. White Magnesia.
Prepared bv decomposing sulphate ot magnesia by
an equal weight of carbonate ot potash, each previously
dissolved in twice its weight of warm water, strained,
and then mixed, instantly adding eight times their
Aveight of warm Avater } then boiling the liquor lor a
little Avith agitation, and Avhen the heat is a little di¬
minished, straining the liquor through linen, and well
washing the poAvder that remains on the filter Avith
Avarm Avater, and drying.
An excellent antacid, and in cases of acidity, a laxa¬
tive ; also a good anti-emetic, Avhere the sickness is
accompanied Avith acidity. Dose from half a dram to
a dram.
h. Magnesia, E. MAGNESIA USTA, L. D.
Magnesia. Burnt or calcined magnesia.
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c. Part IV.
PHAS ALUMINiE, E. ALUMEN, L. D. Su* History of
persulphate of alumina and potash. Alum. See ClIE- Simple ami
MISTRY, N° 1418, et seq. Officinal
878
Carbonate
of magne¬
sia.
Alum is employed both externally and internally as
an astringent and tonic. Internally it is given chiefly
in haemorrhages } dose from ten grains to a scruple.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Alumen purificatum, L. Purified alum.
Prepared by boiling one pound of alum Avith one
dram of chalk, in a pint of distilled water, straining and
crystallizing.
M edicines.
882
Purified
alum.
883
879 _
Magnesia.
b. Sulphas Alumina exsiccatus, E. ALUMEN Dned sut-
USTUM, L. Dried sulphate of alumina.
alum.
Alum is freed from its Avater of crystallization by
melting it over the fire in an earthen or iron vessel,
and keeping it there till it ceases to boil.
Employed as an escharotic, to destroy fungous ex¬
crescences.
884
c. Aq,ua Aluminis composita. L. Compound compound
alum Avater. aluin wa‘
Prepared by dissolving half a dram of alum, and the
same of vitriolated zinc, in four ounces ot distilled
Avater.
Employed externally as a stimulant or astringent,
especially in ophthalmia, and as an injection in leu-
corrheea.
„ 885
d. PULVIS SULPHATIS ALUMINA COMPOSITES, L. Compound
PUL VIS STYPTICUS. Compound powder of sul-powder of
phate of alumina. Styptic powder. affimina °f
Composed of four parts of sulphate of alumina, and
one part of kino, rubbed together to a fine pmvder.
Astringent. Dose from 15 to 30 grains.
c. Cataplasma Aluminis, L. COAGULUM Alum curd.
ALUM1NOSUM, D. Alum cataplasm. Alum
curd.
Prepared by shaking any quantity of the Avhite of
egg with a piece of alum till a curd is formed.
A useful application to sore and Avatery eyes, spread
on linen, and applied at bed-time.
275. Bolus gallicus, L. French bole.
S87
French
This is pure magnesia, freed from carbonic acid, by
keeping it in a red heat for two hours, and putting it
up in closely stopped bottles.
Preferable to the former as an .antacid, wherever
the extrication of carbonic acid may he unpleasant, by
producing flatulency, especially for children.
550
Troches of c. TrochiscI MaGNESIAI, L. Troches of mag-
magnesia. nesia.
Prepared by triturating together four ounces of
551 burnt magnesia, trvo ounces of double refined sugar, and
Supersul- a scruple of powdered ginger, and forming a mass for
phate of a troches, Avith mucilage of gum arable.
lumine and
potash. 274. Supersulphas Alumina: et Potassa:. SUL-
4
A clayey earth, formerly employed as au antacid
or absorbent.
Sect. VII. Metals and Metallic Preparations.
888
275. AciDUM ARSENIOSUM. OXIDUM ARSE-Arsenieus
NliE, E. Arsenious acid. Oxide of arsenic. JFhite acid.
arsenic. See CHEMISTRY, N° 1536, et seq.
For an excellent account of the efiects of arsenic on
the living body, the modes ot obviating or counter¬
acting them, and of its medical use, see Duncan’s Dis¬
pensatory.
This substance is employed as a tonic in intermit¬
tent fever, but Ave consider it as a dangerous remedy.
For the mode of preparing and exhibiting it, see
Duncan’s
Part IV.
MATERIA
History of Duncan's Dispensatory as above, and Thesaurus Medi-
Simple and caminum.
Officinal
MEDICA, &c.
STIBIATUM KUFUJVT, ]>.
of antimony.
85
Medicines.
SS9
Sulphuret
of antimo¬
ny.
89d
Prepared
276. Sulphuretum Antimonii, E. ANTIMO*
NIUM, L. STIBIUM, D. Sulphuret of antimony.
For the natural history and chemical nature of this
substance, see Mineralogy Index, and Chemistry,
Chap. xiv. Sect. 12.
In its natural state, sulphuret of antimony is not
employed in human medicine, except to form the fol¬
lowing
Ojjicinal Preparations.
a. Sulphuretum Antimonii pileparatum, E.
ANTIMONIUM PRiEPARATUM, L. STIBI-
antimony.0^UM PEiEPARATUM, D. Prepared antimony.
89i
Oxide of
antimony
with sul¬
phur.
892
Vitrified
oxide of an¬
timony
with sul¬
phur.
893
Vitrified
oxide of an¬
timony
with wax.
894
Brown an-
timonial
sulphur.
Reduced to a very fine powder in the same manner
as chalk, &c.
b. Oxidum Antimonii cum sulphure per nitra-
tem Potass^, E. CROCUS ANTIMONII, L.
STIBIUM NITRO CALCINATUM, D. Oxide
of antimony with sulphur. Crocus of antimony.
Prepared by injecting into a red-hot crucible equal
weights of sulphuret of antimony and nitrate of potash,
powdered separately, and well mixed } separating the
reddish matter that remains after the deflagration is over,
from the whitish crust above it, and reducing the former
to powder, -which is to be well washed with hot water
till it is tasteless. Scarcely enaployed in medicine, ex¬
cept as the basis of other preparations.
c. Oxidum Antimonii cum sulphure vitrifica-
tum, E. ANTIMONIUM VITRIFICATUM, L.
Vitrified oxide of antimony with sulphur. Vitrified
antimony. Glass of antimony.
Prepared by gradually heating powdered sulphuret
of antimony till it ceases to emit sulphurous fumes, and
then melting it by an intense heat into a glass, which
is to be poured out on a heated brass plate.
Employed by the London colleges as the basis of their
antimonial wine.
d. OJcidum Antimonii vitrificatum cum cera,
E. Vitrified oxide of antimony with wax.
Made by adding to one part of melted yellow wax,
eight parts of vitrified oxide of antimony with sulphur,
and roasting the mixture over a gentle fire with con¬
tinual agitation for about a quarter of an hour, th6n
pouring out the mixture, and, when cold, grinding it
to powder.
This is similar to a medicine that was much esteemed
by Sir John Pringle, as a remedy in dysentery. Dose
from two or three to 20 grains* according to the age
and strength of the patient.
e. Sulphur stibiatum fuscum, D. KERMES
MINERALIS. Brown antimonial sulphur. Kermes
mineral.
For the preparations and nature of this substance,
8 95 see Chemistry, N° 1688.
Precipita¬
ted sulphu- f. Sulphuretum Antimonii pPv^icipitatum, E.
ret of anti-SULPHUR ANT. PRiECIP. L. SULPHUR
ffiony.
Vol. XII. Part II.
Precipitated sulphuret History of
Simple and
Officinal
Prepared by dissolving two pounds of prepared sul-Medicines,
phuret of antimony in four pounds of water of potash, 1 - v 1
mixed with three pounds of water, adding more, if ne¬
cessary, in a covered iron pot, over a slow fire for three
hours, frequently stirring with an iron spatula, straining
the liquor while hot, and precipitating the sulphuret by
diluted sulphuric acid ; then washing and drying the
precipitate. See Chemistry, N° 1688.
Employed like the last as a diaphoretic. Dose two
or three grains.
g. Murias Antimonii, E. ANTIMONIUM MU-JVIuriate of
RIATUM, L. STIBIUM MURIATUM CAUSTI-autlmoU)''
CUM, D. Muriate of antimony. Muriated antimony.
Butter of antimony. See Chemistry* p. 638.
Employed sometimes as a caustic, and for preparing
the following substance.
897
h. Calx Stibii pr^ecipitata, D. Precipitated PreciPlta'
calx of antimony. Powder of algaroth. antimony0
Prepared by adding eight ounces of muriated anti¬
mony to a filtered solution of eight ounces of mild ve¬
getable alkali, in 40 pounds of water, washing and
drying the precipitated powder.
898
i. Oxidum Antimonii cum phosphate Calcis, Oxide of
E. PUL VIS ANTIMONIALIS, L. PUL VIS antimony
STIBIATUS, D. Oxide of antimony with phosphate ^‘t^c^la3‘
of lime. Antimonial powder. iime>
For the preparation and nature of this substance, see
Chemistry, N° 1686. It is considered as nearly the
same with Jameses powder.
An excellent diaphoretic. Dose from five to ten
grains.
S99
k. Tartras Antimonii et Potass^e. TARTRIS Tanrate of
ANTIMONII, E. ANTIMONIUM TARTARI- antimony
SATUM, L. TART ARUM STIBIATUM, D.and Potash*
Tartrate of antimony and potash. Tartari%ed anti¬
mony. Slibiated tartar. Emetic tartar or tartar
emetic. See Chemistry, N° 1687, and Duncan’s
Dispensatory.
The Edinburgh and London colleges direct this to
be prepared by boiling together three parts of oxide of
antimony with sulphur, (see N° 891.) and four parts
of super-tartrate of potash, for a quarter of an hour, in a
glass vessel, straining the liquor, and setting it by to
crystallize.
Emetic } dose two or three grains at once, or better
half a grain or a grain at short intervals. Expectorant j
dose half a grain, repeated at long intervals of two or
three hours. Diaphoretic, in similar doses, combined
with opium, Sec. Alterative, in still smaller doses.
Externally stimulant and rubefacient.
1. Vinum tartritis Antimonii, E.
ANTIMONII TARTARISATI, L. yjNUM tart.rite of
TARTARI*STIBIATI, D. Wine of tartrite of an- -ultimony-
timony. Wine of tartari%ed antimony.
Prepared by dissolving tartrite of antimony and pot¬
ash either immediately in Spanish white wine, or first
in boiling water, and then adding the wine. The pro-
5 G portion^
900
VINUM Wine of
MATERIA MEDIC A, &c.
History*>f portions of the colleges vary j those of Edinburgh be- DEARGYKUS MURIATUS, L.
7B6
Part IV.
Simple and ing 24 grains of the salt to a pound of wine j ot Eon-
Oflicinal {|on ant| JJublin, 40 grains of salt to two ounces of
Medicines, foiling water, and eight ounces of wine j so that the
* ' v former contains two grains in every ounce by weight,
the latter four grains in every ounce by measure.
Doses of the Edinburgh wine as an emetic, an ounce,
or an ounce and a half, or at intervals half an ounce ;
as an expectorant or diaphoretic, a dram or two. 1 he
London and Dublin wine may be taken in about half
the above doses.
cury.
mate.
901
Antimonial
Antimonial wine.
902
Calcined
m. Vinum Antimonii, L.
Prepared by digesting an ounce of vitrified antimony
in powder, in a pint and a half of Spanish white wine,
for 12 days, with frequent agitation and straining
through paper.
This preparation might be omitted, as it is neither
so easily prepared nor so certain as the last.
11. Antimonium calc in atom, L. Calcined an-
suitimony. timonv. Diaphoretic antimony. See CHEMISTRY,
N° 1690.
Formerly much employed as a diaphoretic in a dose
of from five to 30 grains \ but since the introduction of
James’s powder and the analogous preparations, nearly
disused.
Compound PILULJE StIBII COMPOSITE, D. PILULiE
antimonial PLUMMEM. Compound antimonial pills. Plum-
pills. mer's pills.
Prepared by triturating together three ounces of
precipitated sulphur of antimony, and the same of mild
muriate of mercury } then adding a dram of extract of
gentian, and the same of hard Spanish soap, and form¬
ing a mass with soap jelly.
Formerly in great repute as an alterative.
904
Mercury.
90?
Purified
mercury.
906
Acetate of
mercury.
Corrosive muriated mercury.
See Chemistry, N° 1736.
277. Hydrargyrum, D. HYDRARGYRUS, E.
L. ARGENTUM VIVUM. Mercury. Quicksilver.
For an account of the chemical nature and proper¬
ties of mercury, and the modes of ascertaining its puri¬
ty, see Chemistry, p. 642.
We shall first notice the several officinal preparations
of mercury, and then subjoin a sketch of its uses and
the cases to which it is best adapted. -
007
Muiiate of
mercury.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Hydrargyrum purificatum, D. HYDRAR¬
GYRUS PURIFICATUS, E. L.
The Edinburgh process is to rub together four parts
of quicksilver, and one part of iron filings, and distil
from an iron vessel.
b. Acetas Hydrargyri. ACETIS HYDRAR-
GYRT, E. HYDRARGYRUM ACETATUM,
D. HYDRARGYRUS ACETATUS, L. Ace¬
tate of mercury. Acetatedmercury. See Chemistry,
N° 1749.
Scarcely employed at present, except as an external
stimulant or discutient.
c. Murias Hydrargyri, E. HYDRARGY¬
RUM MURIATUM CORROSIVUM, D. HY-
Muriate of mer- History of
Corrosive subli- Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
Prepared by boiling two pounds of purified quicksil-<
ver in two pounds and a half of sulphuric acid, in a glass
vessel, over a sand hath, to dryness, triturating the dried
mass when cold with four pounds of dried muriate of
soda, then subliming in a glass cucurbit with a heat
gradually increased, and separating the sublimed matter
from the sconce.
Used as a sialagogue } dose one-eighth to one-fourth
of a grain 5 as an external stimulus or escharotic to ve¬
nereal ulcers, chancres, and herpetic eruptions, in the
proportion of about a grain or more to the ounce of li-
^uid- 9c8
d. Submurias Hydrargyri, E. HYDRx\RGY-Submuriatc
RUM MURIATUM MITE SUBLIMATUM, D.ofmercury-
CALOMELAS, L. Submuriate of mercury. Sub¬
limed mild muriate of mercury. Calomel. See Chemis¬
try, N° 1742, where the process is much the same
as that of the Edinburgh college.
Given in most cases where mercury is indicated.
Dose, as a diaphoretic or alterative, about a grain ; as
a cathartic or anthelmintic, three to 10 grains 5 as a
sialagogue, one or two grains twice a-day.
9°9
e. Submurias Hydrargyri pra^cipitatus, E. Precipita-
HYDEARGYRUM MURIATUM MITE PRiE-ted s«bmu-
CIPITATUM, D. HYDRARGYRUS MURI-rialeof
ATUS MITE, L. Precipitated submuriate of mer-melclUy'
cury. Precipitated mild muriate of mercury.
Procured by adding to a solution of half a pound of
purified quicksilver in the same weight of diluted ni¬
trous acid, a solution of four pounds and a half of mu¬
riate of soda in eight pounds of boiling water j washing
and drying the precipitate.
Much the same in its effects and doses as the fore¬
going.
f. Calx Hydrargyri alba, L. White
mercury. White precipitate.
Prepared by dissolving first half a pound of sal am¬
moniac, and then half a pound of muriated mercury, in
distilled water, adding to the mixed solution half a
pound of water of prepared kali, filtering and washing
and drying the precipitate. See Duncan’s Dispensa-
tory- pn
g. Unguentum Calcis Hydrargyri alb^e, L. Ointment
Ointment of white calx of mercury. of white
- _ < calx ot mer-
Prepared by mixing a dram of the foregoing with cury.
an ounce and a half of ointment of hog’s lard.
Used to destroy vermin, and in some cutaneous erup¬
tions.
pt2
h. Oxidum Hydrargyri cinereum, E. PUL-cinereous
VIS HYDRARGYRI CINEREUS, D. Cinereous0XldVl
.. „ ’ mercury..
oxide ot mercury.
Prepared by dissolving four parts of purified quick¬
silver in five parts of diluted nitrous acid ; then gradu¬
ally adding 15 parts of distilled water, and pouring in
a sufficient quantity of water of carbonate of ammonia
to precipitate the whole of the oxide, which is to be
washed and dried.
910
calx of White calx
of mercury.
A
Part IV. . MAT EE, IA
History of A mild sialagogue and alterative. Dose from one
W.C and to five grains. Used also as a fumigation in syphilitic
Oihcinal eruptions b ^
Medicines.
^ ^ Unguentum Oxim IIydrargyhi cinerei,
Ointment Ointment of cinereous oxide of mercury.
nos"oxide"" ComPoset1 of one Pa, t of ^ foregoing, and three
of mercury. Parts ot *10hr’s ^ar^* Used for mercurial inunction.
Quicksilver L 11YDRARG YRUS CUM Creta, L. Quicksilver with
with chalk. cliaIk-
Prepared by triturating together three parts of puri¬
fied quicksilver and five parts ©f prepared chalk, till
the globules disappear.
A mild alterative. Dose from 10 to 30 grains.
Calcined /• HYDRARGYRUM CALCINATUM, D. HYDKAP-
Bicrcury. GYRUS C ALCINATUS, L. Calcined mercury. See
Chemistry, N° 1709.
A violent sialagogue. Dose half a grain to a
grain.
9i(5 “
Red oxide m. Oxidum Hydrargyri rubrum per Acidum
ot mercury. niTRICUM, E. HYDRARGYRUS NITRATUS
RUBER, L. HYDRARGYRUM SUBNITRA-
TUM, D. Red oxide of mercury by nitric acid, lied
mtj'ated mercury. Red precipitate. Sea Chemistry,
N° 1709.
Used as a stimulant or an escharotic in fungous ul¬
cers, &c.
917
Ointment n. UNGUENTUM OxiDI HyDRARGYRI RUBRI, E.
r<ox^^e Ointment of red oxide of mercury,
ol mercury. J
Composed of one part of the foregoing reduced te
fine powder, and eight parts of hog’s lard.
918
Yellow sub- O. SUBSULPHAS HYDRARGYRI FLAVUS, E. HY-
sulphate of DRARGYRUM SUBViTRIOLATUM, D. HY-
mercury. DRARGYRUS VITRIOLATUS, L. Yellow sub¬
sulphate of mercury. Subvitriolated mercury. Tur-
peth mineral. See Chemistry, N° 1720.
MEDIC A, &c.
r. Pilule Hydrargyri, E. L. D, Mercury
pills.
Prepared by triturating an ounce of purified quick¬
silver with the same weight of conserve of red roses in a
glass mortar, till the globules completely disappear, ad¬
ding occasionally a little mucilage of gum arabic, then
adding two ounces of starch, and beating the whole
with a little water into a mass, to he immediately di¬
vided into 480 equal pills (E). The London pills are
composed oi two drams of purified quicksilver, three
drams of conserve of roses, and one dram of poivdered
liquorice 5 and the Dublin pills of three drams of
quicksilver, the same of extract of liquorice, and a
dram and a half of purified liquorice root.
Four grains of the Edinburgh mass, three of the
London, and two and a half of the Dublin, contain
about one grain of mercury, so that the last are nearly
twice as strong as the first. Dose of the Edinburgh
pills as a sialagogue, from three to six, once or twice
a day.
587
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
921
Mercury
pills.
Unguentum Hydrargyri, E. Mercurial omt-Mcr(?u2n?al
ment. Blue ointment. ointment.
Prepared by triturating together one part of quick¬
silver with a little hog’s lard, till the globules disap¬
pear ; then adding one part of mutton suet, and as
much hog’s lard as with the first quantity, is equal to
three parts. Alsa formed with double or treble the
quantity of mercury.
Used for mercurial inunction. Quantity to be used
at once about four scruples or drams every other night,
or every night.
923
t. Unguentum Hydrargyri Fortius, L. D. Stronger
Stronger mercurial ointment. mercurial
° ointment.
Composed of two pounds of purified quicksilver, 23
ounces of prepared hog’s lard, and nn ounce of prepa¬
red mutton suet.
Quantity used at once, about two scruples or a dram.
'Employed chiefly as an errhine, mixed with liquor¬
ice powder or cephalic snuff.
919
Black sul- p. SuLPHURETUM HYDRARGYRI NIGRUM, E. HY-
phuret of DRARGYRUM SULPHURATUM NIGRUM,
mercury. jy HYDRARGYRUS CUM SULPHURE, L.
Black sulphuret of mercury. Mercury with sulphur.
Ethiops mineral.
Prepared by triturating together in a glass mortar
with a glass pestle, equal weights of purified quicksil¬
ver, and sublimed sulphur, till the globules of the for¬
mer disappear. See Chemistry, N° 1712.
Employed chiefly as an alterative in cutaneous dis¬
eases and glandular affections. Dose from five or 10
grains to a dram or more.
Red sul- <7- Hydrargyrum Sulfhuratum rubrum, D.
phuret of HYDRARGYRUS SULPHURATUS RUBER, L.
mercury. Red sulphuret of mercury. Factitious cinnabar. Ver¬
milion. See Chemistry, N° 1713.
Used principally as a fumigation for venereal ulcers
in the nose, mouth, and throat, and as an ingredient in
an ointment for the itch.
924
tt.Unguentum Hydrargyri mitius, L.D. Mild-MlIdcr
er mercurial ointment. Trooper's ointment.
meicuiial
ointment.
Formed of one part of the foregoing, and two of
prepared hog’s lard. Used chiefly to destroy vermin,
or for some cutaneous affections.
925
v. Emplastrum Hydrargyri, E. MercurialMercunuI
plaster.
Formed by melting one part of olive oil, and the
same of white rosin together j and when the mixture is
cold, rubbing with it three parts of quicksilver till the
globules disappear, afterwards adding by degrees six
parts of melted plaster of semivitrified oxide of lead,
and mixing the whole carefully together.
W. Emplastrum Ammoniaci cum HYDRARGY-pia^2^.f
RO, L. Plaster of gum ammoniac with mercury. gum ammo-
^ , , . . , . » uiac with
Prepared by triturating together three ounces of pu- mclt:ury.
rifled quicksilver, with about a dram of sulphurated
oil, till the globules disappear, and then adding gra¬
dually one pound of strained gum ammoniac melted.
5 G 2 .r.
788
History of ^ EMPLASTRUM LlTHARGYRI CUM IlYDRARGY-
Simple and ro, L. Litharge plaster with mercury.
Medicines Composed of three ounces of purified quicksilver,
u—^   about a dram of sulphurated oil, and a pound of melt-
ed litharge plaster.
These three last are employed as resolvents and dis-
cutients, in cases of venereal nodes and beginning in¬
durations.
MATERIA ME DIC A, &c.
Part IV.
Litharge
plaster with
mercury.
928
Ointment
of nitrate
o f mercury.
7/. UXGUENTUM NITRATIS HyDRARGYRI, E. UN-
GUENTUM HYDRARGYRI NITRATI, L. I).
UNGUENTUM CITRINUM. Ointment of nitrate
of mercury. Citi'ine ointment.
Prepared by first dissolving one part of quicksilver
in two of nitrous acid, and beating up the solution in a
glass mortar, with nine parts of olive oil, and three of
hog’s lard, previously melted together (or with 12
parts of hog’s lard, L. D.) till the whole is formed in¬
to an ointment.
A powerful stimulant and detergent ointment, useful
in inflammation and ulceration of the eyelids, and in
cutaneous affections.
929
Milder
ointment of E.
nitrate of
mercury..
UNGUENTUM NITRATIS HyDRARGYRI MITIUS,
Milder ointment of nitrate of mercury.
* Duncan's
Dispensa¬
tory.
Zinc.
9.31
Oxide of
Prepared in the same way as the last, except using
three times the quantity of oil and lard.
Mercury, or some of its preparations, is exhibited,
1. As an errhine, the subsulphate of mercury j 2. As
a sialagogue, mercury in almost any form *, 3. As a ca¬
thartic, the submuriate of mercury ; 4. As a diuretic,
the oxides, the muriate, and the submuriate, combined
with other diuretics 5 5. As a sudorific, calomel con¬
joined with a sudorific regimen ; 6. As an emmena-
gogue •, 7. As an astringent, muriate of mercury j 8.
As a stimulant, muriate of mercury } 9. As an anti-
spasmodic ; to- As an anthelmintic.
With some of these views, mercury is frequently ex¬
hibited, 1. In febrile tfiseases ; in obstinate agues. 2. In
inflammatory diseases, in indolent and chronic inflam¬
mations, especially of the glandular viscera, as the li¬
ver, spleen, &c. 3. In exanthematous diseases, vario¬
la. 4. In profluvia } in dysentery. 5. In spasmodic
diseases ; tetanus, trismus, hydrophobia, &c. 6.- In ca¬
chectic diseases j anasarca, ascites, hydrothorax, hydro¬
cephalus, &c. 7. In impetigines, serophula, syphilis,
lepra, icterus, &c. 8. In local diseases j in caligo cor-
neae, amaurosis, gonorrhoea, obstipatio, amenorrhoea
suppressionis, tumours of various kinds, herpes, tinea,
psora, &c. *
For a more particular account of the medical effects
and uses of mercury, we refer our readers to Cullen’s
Materia Medica, vol. ii. The Practical Synopsis,
vol. i. The Theasaurus Medicaminums and Murray’s
Elements, vol. i.
278. Zincum, E. L. D.. Zinc. See Chemistry,
p. 649.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Oxidum Zikci, E. ZINCUM CALCINA-
TUM, L. CALX ZINCI, E. FLORES ZINCI.
Oxide of zjne. Flowers of ‘zinc. See Chemistry, N°
*756'
Employed as a tonic and antispasmodic, chiefly in History of
epilepsy. Dose from three to 10 grains, three or four Simple and
«"■<*»m “si
b. Unguentum oxidi Zinci, E. Ointment of' ‘
oxide of zinc. Ointment
Composed of one part of the foregoing, and six parts °fE°cXMlc ^
of simple liniment.
Applied to the eye as an astringent, in cases of oph¬
thalmia, attended with debility and relaxation of the
vessels.
933
c. Sulphas Zinci, E. ZINCUM VITRIOL A-Sulphate of
TUM, L. D. Sulphate of zinc. Vitriolated zinc. z*nc*
JF/iite vitriol. See Chemistry, N° 1764.
Employed internally as an emetic, in the dose of
from 10 to 30 grains, and as an astringent and tonic
in a dose of from two to five grains, several times a
day. Externally as a stimulant and astringent, in the
form of lotion, collyrium, or injection.
934
d. Solutio Sulphatis Zinci, E. Solution of sul-Solution of
phate of zinc. sulphate of
zine.
Prepared by dissolving 16 grains of sulphate of zinc
in eight ounces of water; then adding 16 drops of di¬
luted sulphuric acid, and filtering through paper.
Used in most cases where the sulphate of zinc is em¬
ployed externally.
~ ^ T 935
e. Aqua Zinci vitriolati cum Camphora, L.'Water of
Water of vitriolated zinc with camphor. vitriolated
zme with
Composed of half an ounce of vitriolated zinc, halfcaniphor.
an ounce by measure of camphorated spirit, and two
pints of boiling water, mixed together, and filtered
through paper.
Used for an astringent lotion and collyrium. ^
f. Solutio acetitis Zinci, E. Solution of ace-Solution of
tite of zinc. acetite of
zinc.
Prepared by mixing together a solution of one dram
of sulphate of zinc, in 10 ounces of distilled water, and
a solution of four scruples of acetate of lead in 10
ounces of distilled water, allowing them to stand for
some time at rest, and filtering.
An excellent astringent collyrium.
279. Oxidum Zinci impurum,
D. Impure oxide of zinc. Tatty.
gy Index.
937
E. TUTIA, L. Impure ox-
See Mineral©- ide zine-
Officinal Preparations.
t, 93 s
a. Oxidum Zinci impurum pr^iparatum, E. Prepared
TUTIA PR iEP AR AT A, L. D. Prepared impure impure ox-
oxide of zinc. Prepared tatty.
Prepared in the same way as chalk, and other hard
substances.
939
b. UNGUENTUM OXIDI ZiNGT IMPURE, E. UN-Ointment
GUENTUM TUTTiE, L. D. Ointment of impure
oxide of zinc. Tatty ointment.
J zinc.
Composed of one part of the foregoing, and five
parts of simple liniment (E.), or of ary quantity of the
foregoing, and as much ointment of spermaceti, or of
hog’s-
Part IV.
MATERIA
soft ointment
History of bog’s lard as is sufficient to form a
Simple and (L. D.)
Oflicinal Used in similar cases with N° 932.
Medicines.
V," 9^0 280. Carbonas Zinci impurus, E. LAPIS CA-
Impure car-LAMINAIIIS, L. D. Impure carbonate of zinc,
bonate of Calamine. See Mineralogy Index.
zinc.
Officinal Preparations.
Prepared «• CARBONAS ZlNCI IMPURUS PR APPARATUS, E.
impure car- LAPIS CALAM1NARIS PR/EPARATUS, L.
bonate of X). Prepared carbonate of zinc. Prepared calamine.
zinc.
Prepared as chalk, &c.
Cerate2of Ceratum carbonatis Zinci impuri, E. CE-
impure car- RATUM LAPIDIS CALAMINARIS, L. D.
bonate of CERATUM EPULOTICUM. Cerate of impure
carbonate of zinc. Calamine cerate. Epulotic cerate.
Brown cerate. Turner's cerate.
Composed of one part of the foregoing, and five
parts ot simple cerate (E.), or of half a pound (L.),
or one part (D.) of the foregoing, the same of yellow
wax, and a pint (L.) or two parts (D.) of olive oil.
Employed chiefly as a dressing to sores and ulcers.
943
Tin.
944
Powder of
tin.
281. Stannum, E. L. D. Tin. See Chemistry,
P- 653.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Stanni fulvis, L. D. Powder of tin.
Prepared by granulating melted tin by agitation in
a covered wooden box rubbed with chalk $ or by stirring
while melted over the fire till it be reduced to a pow¬
der.
Employed as a mechanical anthelmintic, especially
in cases of taenia and lumbricus. Dose from two drams
to half an ounce.
945
Lead.
945
White ox-
» 282. Plumbum, E. L. D. Lead. See Chemistry,
P- 657.
Oxidum Plumbi albi, E. CERUSSA, L. D.
ide of lead. Wfllte oxide of lead. Ceruse. White lead. See CHE¬
MISTRY, N° 1856.
Officinal Preparations.
Compound o- Pulvis CerussjE compositus, L. Compound
powder of powder of ceruse.
ceruse.
Composed of five ounces of ceruse, half an ounce of
sarcocol, and half an ounce of gum-tragacanth, pow¬
dered together.
Intended as an external discutient, but inferior for
that purpose to the solutions of the salts of lead.
Ointment h. UNGUENTUM OXIDI PlUMBI ALBJ, E. UN-
of white ox-quENTUM ALBUM. Ointment of white oxide of
lead. White ointment.
Composed of five parts of simple ointment, and one
of white oxide of lead.
A cooling desiccative ointment, forming a useful
application in cases of excoriation.
c. Superacetas Plumbi. ACETIS PLUMBI, E.
icte of lead.
549
Snpcraee
tate of lead. CERUSSA ACETATA, L. D. SACCHARUM
lead.
M E D I C A, &c. 789
SATURN!. Superacetate of lead. Acetated ceruse. History of
Sugar of lead. See Chemistry, N* 1858. Simple and
Officinal
Chiefly employed in solution as an external refriger- Medicines,
ant or astringent, by way of lotion, collyrium, or injec- '“““’v
tion. Its external use being highly dangerous, ought
to be entirely abandoned.
. 95°
d. Unguentum acetitis Plumbi, E. UNGUEN- Ointment
TUM CERUSStE ACETATvE, L. D. UN-°^ce.tite
GUENTUM SATURNINUM. Ointment of ace-°U
tite of lead. Ointment of acetated ceruse. Saturnine
ointment.
Composed of one part of tbe foregoing, and 20 parts
of simple ointment (E.) or two drams of the foregoing,
two ounces of white wax, and half a pint or half a pound
of olive oil (L. D.).
A useful refrigerant ointment.
283. Oxidum Plumbi rubrum, E. MINIUM, L. Red9oxide
Red oxide of lead. Bed lead. See Chemistry, N° of lead.
i832:
This is now scarcely employed in medicine.
952
284 Oxidum Plumbi semivitreum, E. LI-Semiyitrifi-
THARGYRUS, L. D. Semivitrified oxide of lead. fd of
Litharge. See Chemistry, N° 1834.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Lithargyrus pr^eparatus, E. D.
litharge.
Reduced to an impalpable powder by levigation, &c»
in the usual manner.
954
h. Aqua Lithargyri acetati, L. LIQUOR Water of
LITHARGYRI ACETATI, D. EXTR AC TUM acetated
SATURNI. Water of acetated litharge. Extract o/’hthaige,
lead.
Prepared by mixing two pounds four ounces of li¬
tharge with a gallon of distilled vinegar, boiling to six
pints with constant agitation, then setting it aside till
the feces have subsided, and then straining.
^ 955
e. Liquor Lithargyri acetati compositus, D. Compound
AQUA LITHARGYRI ACETATI COMPOSI- water of
TA, L. Compound water of acetated litharge. litharge^
Prepared by mixing a dram of the foregoing with a
dram of proof spirit, and adding 14 ounces or a pint of
distilled water.
This is intended as a refrigerant application, and is
attended with effects similar to those of tbe superacetate
of lead, from which it however differs in its chemical
nature.
956
d. Ceratum Lithargyri acetati compositum, Compound
L. CERATUM LITHARGYRI ACETATI, D. cerate of
Compound cerate of acetated litharge.
953
Prepared Prepared
litharge.
Prepared by rubbing half a dram of camphor with a
little olive oil, and in the mean time adding gradually
two ounces and a half of aeetated litharge to a melted
mixture of four ounces of yellow wax, and nine ounces
of olive oil, stirring it till cold ; and lastly adding the
camphorated oil. Formerly much employed as a re¬
frigerant application, but differing in little, except in
consistence,
acetated
litharge.
79°
MATERIA
958
Irbn.
969
Purified
filings of
iron.
History of consistence, from the other combinations of lead with
Simple and fatty matters.
Medicines. e. EmPLASTRUM OXIDI PlUMBI SEMIVITREI, 1-
' v 1 EMPLASTRUM LITHARGYRI, L. D.
9S7 PLASTRUM COMMUNE. Plaster of semivitrified
semhitrifi- oxide of lead. Litharge plaster. Common plaster. Dia-
ed. oxide ef cullim plaster.
lead* Prepared by boiling together over a slow fire, one
part of semivitrified oxide ot lead in powder, and about
two parts of olive oil, adding a little hot water from
time to time, and constantly agitating till the litharge
and oil are uniformly mixed.
This plaster has been long employed to cover exco¬
riated surfaces, and to form plasters for supporting the
teguments in the neighbourhood of sores and ulcers.
For the ill effects of lead as a poison, see Fothergill’s
“ Cautions concerning Poisons of Lead and Copper.”
285. FERRUM, E. L. D. Iron. See Chemi¬
stry, p. 664.
Officinal Preparations.
a. Ferri Limatuiue purificat^e, E. Purified
filings of iron.
Filings of iron are purified by placing a sieve over
them, and attracting the purer particles through the
sieve by means of a good magnet.
Sometimes employed internally as a tonic and anthel¬
mintic, but their use is attended with an unpleasant ex¬
trication of hydrogenous gas.
b. Ferri oxidum nigrum purificatum, E.
SQUAMAE PURIFICATiE. Purified
black oxide of iron. Purified scales of iron.
This is a preparation of the scales of iron that col¬
lect about a smith’s anvil, by the magnet.
A better medicine than the former, as it is not at¬
tended with the extrication of hydrogen gas. Dose
from five grains to a scruple.
c. Carbonas Ferrt, E. FERRI RURIGO, L.
D. Carbonate of iron. Pustof iron. See Chemistry,
N° 1886, and 1929.
A good tonic, useful in general debility, and in ute¬
rine obstructions dependent on debility. Dose about a
scruple, several times a day.
d. Aqua Ferri aerati, D. Water of aerated
iron.
This is an artificial chalybeate water, prepared in the
same manner as N° 875. with the addition of a coil of
fine iron wire suspended in the water.
An excellent tonic, forming a good substitute for the
natural chalybeate waters. Dose a glass or two, twice
or thrice a day.
e. Vinum Ferri, L. VINUM FERRATUM,
D. Wine of iron. Chalybeate wine.
Prepared by digesting four ounces of iron filings in
four pints of Spanish white wine, for a month, with fre¬
quent agitation, and then straining the liquor.
A tonic formerly much used in chlorotic cases. Dose
from a dram to half an ounce.
2
MEDIC A, &c. PartIV.
f Sulphas Ferri, E. FERRUM VITRIOLA- History of
TUM, L. D. SAL MARTIS. Sulphate of iron. Simple and
Vitridated iron. Salt of steel. See Chemistry, N° officinal
^ Medicines.
I9°3* <   <
A good tonic, but apt to disagree with the stomach 9^4
and bowels. Dose from half a grain to one grain seve- ^ulphate of
# 00 1 rrvn
ral times a day.
pdo
Purified
black oxide FERRI
of iron,
961
Carbonate
of iron.
962
Water of
aerated
iron.
963
Wine of
iron.
g. Tinctura muriatis Ferri, E.
FERRI MURIATI, L. D. Tincture
TINCTURA Tincture of
of muriate of ™uliate 01
non.
966
The Edinburgh tincture is prepared by digesting
three ounces of purified black oxide of iron in powder,
and ten ounces of muriatic acid, with a gentle heat;
then adding, after the powder is dissolved, as much al¬
cohol as will make the whole liquor amount to two
pounds and a half. The preparations of the other col¬
leges do not materially differ from this. Dose from 10
to 20 drops, twice or thrice a day.
h. Ferrum tartarisatum, L. Tartarixed iron. Tartarized.
Prepared by mixing one pound of iron filings, and11011,
two pounds of poivdered crystals of tartar, into a thick
mass with distilled water, exposing them to the air for
eight days in a wide glass vessel, and then drying the
matter in a sand bath, and grinding to a very fine
powder. See Chemistry, p. 071. Dose from 10 to
30 grains.
9^7
286. Sulphas Ferri natives. Native sulphate Native sul-
of iron. Green vitriol. Green rnrmeras. phate of
copperas.
Officinal Preparations,
a. Sulphas Ferri exsiccatus, E.
ot iron.
968
Dried sulphate Dried sul¬
phate of
4 iron.
Prepared by exposing any quantity of sulphate of
iron to the action of a moderate heat, in an un-
glased earthen vessel, till it becomes white and perfect-
ly <lry- . .
Red oxide of iron. Red oxide
of iron.
b. Oxidum Ferri rubrum, E.
Colcothar of vitriol.
Prepared by exposing the foregoing preparation to
an intense heat till it is converted into a very red
matter.
970
C. EMPLASTRUM OXIDI EeRRI RUBRI, E. EM-Plaster of
PLASTRUM ROBORANS. Plaster of red oxidered^ude
of iron. Strengthening plaster.
Prepared by grinding eight parts of red oxide of
iron with three of olive oil j and then adding them
to a melted mixture of 24 parts of plaster of semivitri¬
fied oxide of lead, six parts ot white rosin, and three of
yellow wax.
. Used as an external application, spread on linen or
leather, in weaknesses of the back and loins.
d. Murias Ammonite et Ferri, E. FERRUM Mumte e
AMMONIACALE, L. Muriate of ammonia and iron.™1^
Prepared by mixing equal weights of red oxide of
iron, washed and dried, and muriate of ammonia, and
subliming, E. Dose from three to ten grains.
e. Tinctura Ferri ammoniacalis, L. Tincture Tincture of
r . . . ammoma-
ot ammomacal iron. cal jron.
Prepared
Part IV.
History of Prepared by digesting four ounces of the preceding,
Simple and with a pint of proof spirit, and straining.
Medicdnes • ^set^ s*mi^ar cases with the tincture of muriate of
. aiMiu^ iron, which is, however, to be preferred to it.
973
Tincture of
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
c. Unguentum subacetitis Cupri, E.
of subacetite of copper.
acetated
iron.
J] Tixctura l erri acetati, D. Tincture of
acetated iron.
Prepared by rubbing together in a glass mortar, ace¬
tated vegetable alkali, and vitriolated iron, of each an
ounce, till the mass deliquesces, and then adding dur¬
ing the trituration two pounds of alcohol, and straining
the solution.
A powerful astringent and tonic. Dose 20 or 20
drops.
Ihe preparations of iron, given in a moderate dose,
gradually x’aise the pulse, improve the colour of the
face, and increase the alvine, urinary, and cuticular
excretions. Their taking proper effect is denoted by
fetid eructations and black stools.
J hese tonics are indicated chiefly in cases of pre¬
ternatural discharges, or suppression of natural secre¬
tions or excretions, proceeding from a languor and
sluggishness of the fluids, and general weakness of the
solids. They are therefore useful in passive haemorrha¬
ges, in dyspepsia, hysteria, and chlorosis ; in most of
the cachexiae, in cancerous affections, and in the gene¬
ral debility that often remains after acute diseases or
excessive haemorrhages.
The preparations of iron, when given too largely,
or improperly, produce headach, anxiety, heat of skin,
and not unfrequently haemorrhages or vomiting, pains
in the stomach, and spasms and pains in the bowels.
They are improper wherever the circulation is already
too quick, the solids too tense and rigid j and where
there is any stricture and spasmodic contractions of the
vessels.
974
Copper.
976
Prepared
verdigris.
977
Oxymel of
■verdigris.
287. Cuprum, E.L.D. Copper.
674.
See Chemistry,
975
Subacetate
of copper.
Subacetas Cupri. SUBACETIS CUPRI, E.
AERUGO. Subacetate of copper. Vet'digris. See
Chemistry, N° 1995.
Employed chiefly as an escharotic, to destroy cal¬
lous edges or fungous flesh, or as a stimulant to foul
ulcers.
Officinal Preparations.
a. JErugo PRtEPARATA, L. D. -Prepared verdi¬
gris.
Prepared like other substances not soluble in wa¬
ter.
b. Oxymel AEruginis, L. Oxymel of verdigris.
Prepared by dissolving one ounce of prepared verdi¬
gris in seven ounces of vinegar, straining through linen,
and boiling with 14 ounces of clarified honey to a pro¬
per consistence.
Sometimes used as a detergent gargle to venereal ul¬
cerations of the mouth and tonsils, but with much pre-
camtion. More generally employed, mixed with some
stimulant ointment, as an external stimulant and escha¬
rotic.
79I
Ointment History of
Simple and
Officinal
Prepared by mixing 15 parts of resinous ointment, Medicines,
and one part of subacetite of copper. v ^
d. Liquor Cupri ammoniati, D. AQUA CU-ofsubace
PRI AMMONIATI, L. AQUA SAPPHARINA. titc of cop-
Water of ammoniated copper. Sapphire water. Per-
1 repared by the Dublin college, by mixing fourWater°f
grains of prepared verdigris, and two scruples of sal anfmon^a"
ammoniac, with eight ounces of fresh made lime wa- te coi'iK’r'
ter, digesting for 24 hours, and pouring off the clear
liquor.
Used as a stimulant and detergent lotion.
980
288. Sulphas Cupri, E. CUPRUM VITRIO-SulPhate of
LATUM, D. VITRIOLUM CCERULEUM. Sul-copI,er•
phate of copper. Vitriolated copper. Blue or Roman
vitriol. Blue stone. See Chemistry, N° 1972.
Sometimes given internally as an emetic, in the dose
of from two to five grains, and as a tonic, a grain or
two, several times a-day; but its internal use is danger- -
ous. More frequently employed as an escharotic-
Officinal Preparations.
a. Solutio Sulphatis Cupri composita, E.
981
 , A- Compound
QUA STYPTICA.
of copper. Styptic water. sulphate of
copper.
Prepared by boiling three ounces of sulphate of cop¬
per, and the same of sulphate of alumina, in two pounds
of water, till they are dissolved j then adding one ounce
and a half of diluted sulphuric acid to the liquor previ¬
ously filtered.
Employed chiefly as a styptic for stopping superficial
haemorrhages, or bleedings at the nose.
982
b. Ammokiaretum Cupri, E. CUPRUM AM-Amm0!lia-
MONfATUM, D. Ammoniaret of copper. Ammo-of' cep“
niated copper. per*
Prepared by the Edinburgh college, by rubbing two
parts of the purest sulphate of copper with three parts
of carbonate of ammonia carefully together, hi a glass
mortar, till the effervescence has entirely ceased, and
they unite into a violet-coloured mass, which is to be
wrapt up m blotting paper, and dried, first upon a
chalk stone, and afterwards by a gentle heat, and put
into a phial that is to be closely stopped.
Employed as a tonic and antispasmodic, chiefly in 1
cases of epilepsy. Dose about half a grain or a grain,
gradually increased to four or five grains, three or four
times a-day.
983
c. Pilulte ammoniareti Cupri, E. Pills of am-Phis of am¬
moniaret of copper.
Composed of 16 grains of ammoniaret of copper in
fine powder, and four scruples of crumb of bread, beat¬
en into a mass with a sufficient quantity of water or
carbonate of ammonia, and immediately divided into 32
equal pills.
One or two of these pills is a moderate dose.
For an account of the ill effects arising from copper
as
moniaret of
copper.
792
History of
Simple and
Officinal
Medicines.
MATERIA MEDICA,
as a poison, and the means of detecting and obviating
&C.
985
Nitrate of
silver.
tbem/see Fothergill’s Cautions concerning the Poisons
of Lead and Copper, and Duncan’s Dispensatory.
289. Argentum, E. L. D. Silver. See Che¬
mistry, p. 681.
Officinal Preparation.
a. Nitras Argenti, E. NI-
TRATUM, L. D- CAUSTICLM LLNARE.
Nitrate of silver. Nitrated silver. Lunar caustic.
Prepared by dissolving in a phial, with a gentle heat,
four ounces of the purest silver flattened into plates, and
cut into pieces, in eight ounces of diluted nitrous acid,
mixed with four ounces of distilled water, and evapo¬
rating to a dry mass, which is to be put into a large
crucible, and placed on a gentle fire, increased gradu-
... I _ O i:c„ . ttien nmirmir it into
way of philosophical experiment
searches on Nitrous Oxide.
crucible, ana piaceu uu gem-.v, *   p uenny ueeu vi — 1> j 1
ally till the mass flows like oil; then pouring it into least'arresting the progress of the disease
•   Vipatpd and anointed with tallow, t.*. *>mnlrwed with sreat caution.
iron pipes previously heated and anointed with tallow,
and when cool, putting it into a glass vessel to be well
stopped. . , .
Employed chiefly as an escharotic, to destroy the
callous edges of ulcers, warts, and other excrescences ;
but lately much recommended, and employed with
some success, as a tonic in cases of epilepsy. It should
be begun in very small doses, about one-eighth or one-
fourth of a grain, dissolved in distilled water, or made
into a pill with crumbs of bread, gradually increasing
the dose to a grain or more, twice or three times a-day.
Part IV.
See Davy’s Re- History of
Simple and
Officinal
292. GasHydROGENEUM. Hydrogen gas. In flam- Medicines.
viable air. See Chemistry, N 373> etseq.
Hydrogen gas diluted with about ten times its quan- Hydrogen
tity of atmospheric air, has been recommended in asth¬
matic complaints; but its success has not equalled the
expectations of physicians.
293. Gas HyDROGENUM CARBONATUM. Carbo- Carbonated
nated hydrogen gas. See Chemistry, N° 412. hydrogen
This gas, which is so deleterious when respired in
its pui e state, has been strongly recommended when
diluted with about 20 parts of atmospheric air, as a re¬
medy in phthisis, in some cases of which it has evi¬
dently been of service, relieving the symptoms, and at
least arresting the progress of the disease. It should,
however, be employed with great caution, and at first
largely diluted.
Carbonic
294. Gas acidum carbonicum.
gas.
Fixed air. See Chemistry, N° 595.
990
acid Carbonic
acid gas.
pSd
Oxygenous
gas,
Chap. IV. Gaseous Substances.
Gas Oxygenum. Oxygenous gas.
Besides the solution of this gas in water (see N
87 c.), used internally as a tonic and refrigerant, the
gas itself, as evolved from fermenting substances, is a
good stimulant or antiseptic application to foul ulcers
and cancerous sores. The modification of this sub¬
stance which is contained in yeast or barm, has been
much employed of late in typhus, but we believe with
no material benefit.
Vital
Caloric. Heat. See
991
ClIEMI- Caloric.
987
Gaseous
oxide of
azote.
290.
air.
On the nature and properties of this gas, see Chemi¬
stry, N° 341.
When air, with an increased proportion of oxygen,
is respired, it acts as a powerful stimulus, increasing
the circulation and animal heat, raising the spirits, and
producing a temporary increase of vigour and activity,
followed, however, in a short time, by corresponding
languor and weariness. From its stimulant effects, the
respiration of superoxygenated air has been much re¬
commended in various cases of debility, as chlorosis,
epilepsy, asthmatic and dropsical affections ; but it
seems now falling into disuse, from a conviction that
practitioners were too sanguine in their expectations.
See Alyon Essai sur ks Proprietes Medicinales dc
VOxygene, 8vo. Ward Dissert. Inaug. de Medicina
Pnevmatica, Edin. 1800. Hodge’s Dissert. Inaug.
de Oxygenio, Edin. 1S01 ; and the Practical Sy¬
nopsis.
291. Gas Azoti oxidum. OXIDUM NITRO-
SUM. Gaseous oxide of azote. Nitrous Oxide. See
Chemistry, p. 493* 494* where the nature and effects
of this gas are detailed at sufficient length.
295. Caloricum.
stry, Chap. iii.
It would be in vain for us here to attempt any ac¬
count of the effects of heat on the human body, and
these have been amply detailed, both by chemical and
physiological writers. It acts as a powerful stimulus,
and as such is often employed, especially m the form of
warm and vapour baths, in various cases of debility and
atony of the system. The effect and uses of the warm
and vapour baths have been already mentioned under
Water, as have the effects and uses of the cold bath.
.. 99s
296. Lumen. Light. See Chemistry, Chap. 11. Light.
Besides its effect on the eye, in producing vision, light
evidently acts as a general and powerful stimulus, rais¬
ing the spirits, and increasing the vigour and activity
of the body. See Rush’s Lectures on Animal Lite.
297. Electricitas. Electricity.
Common electricity acts as a powerful stimulus on
the system, in proportion to the degree of concentra¬
tion in which it is applied. When applied under the
form of a stream, or continued discharge of electric
fluid, its effects are the most gentle; but in gene¬
ral, when applied in the form of sparks, it is more
active, but its eftects are mord confined ; and when ap-
903,
Electricity.
._.nedy in some cases of debility and atony
powers; but it is not yet much employed except by
3
Part IV.
MATERIA
Medines.
History of lectricity has been found of service, chiefly in cases of
Simple and paralysis, and of uterine obstruction dependent on debi-
Officinal jj^
, For the mode of applying electricity to the body,
under its various states, we must refer to Cavallo’s Me¬
dical Electricity, and Cuthbertson’s Practical Electri¬
city and Galvanism.
MEDIC A, &c.
ADDENDUM.
793
994.
Galvanism.
298. Galvanismus. Galvanism.
This modification of electricity is found to have pro¬
duced still greater effects on the human body, when ap¬
plied under particular circumstances, into which we
have not now room to enter. Much has of late been
written on the efficacy of this powerful agent in the
cure of various diseases, but like most other new reme¬
dies, its powers have been greatly overrated. It ap¬
pears to have been most Successful in cases of local
paralysis, or nervous atony. In particular, it has
in several instances relieved deafness, especially that
species which seems to arise from torpor of the auditory
nerve.
For the effects of galvanism on the body, and its ap¬
plication in medicine, see Wilkinson’s Elements of
Galvanism, vol. ii. p. 441. J Cuthbertson’s Electricity
and Galvanism j the Edinburgh Medical and Surgical
Journal, &c.
History of
Simple ami
Officinal
The following was omitted among the preparations !V~cjlcincs',
of iron.
g-. Carbonas Ferri pralcipitatus, E. Precipi-pre^tat.
tated carbonate of iron. ed carbo¬
nate of
Prepared by decomposing a solution of sulphate ofiron*
iron by a solution of carbonate of soda j washing and
drying the precipitate.
Similar in its virtues 10961. Dose five to 30 grains.
The space allotted to this article was so small, and
the time for preparing it so short, that it is, of neces¬
sity, much less full and complete than it might other¬
wise have been. As it was impossible, under such cir¬
cumstances, to produce any thing like an original and
complete treatise, the compiler has endeavoured to
render as useful as possible the selection that he found
it necessary to make, and to supply the unavoidable de¬
ficiencies by a reference to the most respectable works
on the subject.
INDEX.
Acetate of potash, N° 311
of mercury, 906
Acid, acetous, impure, 305
distilled, 306
strong, 307
camphorated, 309
acetic, 307
benzoic, 570
succinic, 829
sulphuric, 835
aromatic, 837
vitriolic, 835
nitrous, 847
nitric, 848
muriatic, 853
marine, ib.
arsenious, 888
iconitum neomontanum, 628
A'sculus hippocastanum, 504
Affusion of warm water, 817
cold water, 819
Alcohol, common, 294
pure, 295
ammoniated, 237
aromatic, 243
fetid, 246
Alkali, volatile, mild, 238
vegetable, fixed, 312
mineral, fixed, 840
Allium sativum, 473
475
cepa,
Vol. XII.
Part II.
Aloes,
Althaea officinalis.
Alum,
Amber,
Ammonia prepared,
Ammoniacum,
Ammoniaret of copper,
Amomum, zingiber,
cardamomum,
repens,
zedoaria,
Atm/gdalus communis,
Amyris elemifera,
gileadensis,
Anethum graveolens,
fceniculum,
Angelica archangelica,
Angustura,
Antacids,
Anthelmintics,
Anthemis nobilis,
pyre thrum,
Antimony,
vitrified,
tartarized,
calcined,
diaphoretic,
Antispasmodics,
Apium petroselinum,
Apple, bitter,
Apples, esculent, list of,
N° 476 Aquafortis, N° 847
672 Arbutus uva ursi, 565
881 Aristolochia serpentaria, 723
828 Aimica montana, 714
238 Arsenic, white, 888
324 Artemisia abrotanum, 707
982 maritima, 709
336 santonica, 710
340 vulgaris, 712
ib. Artichoke, 708
339 Arum maculatum, 725
587 Asarabacca, 576
505 Asarum europSeum, ib.
506 Asafcetida, 440
456 Ass's milk, character of, 58
458 Astragalus tragacantha, 683
450 Astringents, 170
331 Atropa belladonna, 399
191 Avens, 609
185 B.
718 Balm, 656
721 of Gilead, 507
889 Balsam of Peru, 536
892 of Tolu, 538
899 of Copaiva, 571
902 of Canada, 743
ib. Barbet'ry, 472
179 Barilla, 840
461 Bark, Peruvian or Jesuit’s, 401
762 Barytes, 861
90 Bath, hot, 815
5H • Bath*
794
Bath, warm,
cold,
Bay,
Bees-wax,
Benzoin or benjamin,
Berberis vulgaris,
Berries, esculent, list of,
Bistort, great,
Bittersweet,
Borax,
Broom,
Bryonia alba,
Bubon galbanum,
Buckthorn,
Butter-xm!ik, nature of,
C.
Cabbage-tree bark,
Calamine,
Calamus aromaticus,
Calomel,
Caloric,
Calx of mercury, white,
Camphor,
Canella alba,
Cantharides,
Capsicum annuum,
Carbonate of ammonia,
of potash,
of soda,
impure,
of baryta,
of lime,
prepared,
of magnesia,
of zinc, impure,
M
N° 816
ib.
C26
3*9
568
472
88
5io
398
855
680
764
446
411
81
688
940
499
908
991
910
520
578
267
397
238
3!3
841
840
862
868
781
878
940
prepared, 941
of iron, 961
precipitated, 995
Cardamine pratensis, 664
Cardamom seeds, lesser, 340
Cardinal flower, blue, 407
Carum carui, 45 2
Cascarilla, 757
Cassia bark, 518
fistula, 541
senna, 543
Castor, 247
Cataplasm, 231
of cummin, 438
mustard, 667
alum, 886
Catechu, 786
Centaurea benedicta, 7 22
Centaury, lesser, 395
Cephaelis ipecacuanha, 4o8
Cerate of spermaceti, 263
white or simple, ib.
of cantharides, 269
resinous, 753
soa.p, 859
of impure carbonate of zinc, 942
of calamine, ib.
epulotic brown, or Turner’s, ib.
compound of acetated litharge, 956
ATERIA MEDIC A, &c
Cerusse, ^ 94^
Chalk, 869
Chamomile flowers, 718
Charcoal, 292
Chemical remedies,
Chesnut, horse, 5°4
Chironea centaureum, 395
Cinchona officinalis, 401
cariboea, 4°^
Cinnamon, 511
Cistus creticus, 625
Citrus aurantium, 691
medica, 696
C/ot’e July flower, 57 2
Cloves, 579
Cochineal, 27 5
Cochlearia officinalis, 660
armoracia, 662
Colchicum autumnale, 500
Colony nth, 7^ 2
Colts foot, 7I7
Columbo root, 332
Condiments, nature of, 103
Confection, aromatic, 517
opiate, 618
japonic, 619
Confections, general remarks on, 224
Conium maculatum, 434
Co7iserves, general remarks on, 225
Conserve of squill, 494
wood sorrel, 575
of sloes, 59 2
of roses, 599
of hips, 604
of orange peel, 695
of sea wormwood, 710
of arum, , 72^
Contrayerva, 375
Convolvulus scammonia, 38°
jalapa, 385
Cookery, general remarks on, no
Copaifera officinalis, 571
Copper, vitriolated, 980
Coriandrum sativum, 451
Cowhage, or cowiteh, 682
Cresses, water, 668
Crocus sativus, 357
of antimony, 891
Croton eleutheria, 757
Cubebs, 352
Cucumber, wild, 760
Cucumis colocynthis, 762
Cullen's materia medica, 5
arrangement, 132
Cuminum cyminuni, 437
Curcuma longa, 335
Curd, alum, 886
Cynara scolymus, 706
D.
Daphne mezereum, 508
Darwin's arrangement of remedies, 135
Datura stramonium, 389
.Decoctfow of barley, 371
compound, 372
of cinchona, 402
Index.
Decoction of elm bark, N° 431
of mezereon, 509
compound, of guaiacum, 556
for clysters, 671
of marshmallow, 673
ofseneka, 677
of cabbage-tree bark, 689
for fomentations, 7o8
of chamomile, 7J9
of sarsaparilla, 770
compound, 771
of white hellebore, 783
Dianthus caryophyllus, 572
Diaphoretics, 149
Diet, writers on 16
of the sick, remarks on, 121
Digitalis purpurea, 657
Distillation, 211
Diuretics, 152
Dolichos pruriens, 682
Dorstenia contrajerva, 375
Dragon's blood, 679
Duncan's New Dispensatory, 12
E.
Earth, japan, 786
Elaterium, 7^r
Elder, 465
Electricity, 993
Electuaries, general remarks on, 223
Electuai'y of scammony, 384
aromatic, 5*7
of cassia, 542
of senna, 548
opiate, 618
of catechu, 619
Elemi, 5°5
Elm bark, 43°
Elutriation, 200
Emetics, I43
Emollients, *64
Emulsion of gum ammoniac, 326
of assafoetida, 442
camphorated, 521
almond, 589
arabic, 791
Errhines, I58
Eryngium maritimum, 432
Escharotics, I93
Ether, sulphuric, 298
with alcohol, 299
aromatic, 383
vitriolic, 298
Evapoi'ation, in pharmacy, 209
Eucalyptus resinifera, 585
Eugenia caryophyllata, 579
Expcctoran ts, 14^
Extract of valerian, resinous 35^
of jalap, S8?
of cinchona, 4°5
ef gentian, 429
of aloes, 484
of senna, 549
of logwood, 552
of rue, J61
Extract
Index.
Extract of opium,
of broom,
of Uquorice,
of chamomile,
of oak bark,
of cascarilla,
compound, of colocynth,
of savine,
Extracts^nA resins, general remarks on, 226
F.
Fennel, sweet,
Fern root,
Filings of iron, purified,
Filtration,
Fish considered in general,
Flax, purging,
Flowers, esculent, list of,
of benzoin,
of sulphur,
of zinc,
Food, considered in general,
proper quantity of,
should be sufficient to nourish the
body,
manner of taking,
derived from quadrupeds,
birds,
reptiles,
serpents,
fishes,
insects,
worms,
vegetable, considered generally,
Foxglove,
Frankincense,
Fraxinus ornus,
Funguses, esculent, list of,
G.
Kxalbanam, 446
Gall nuts, 736
Galvanism, 994
Gamboge, 781
Garlic, 473
Gas, oxygenous, 986
hydrogen, 988
carbonated, 989
carbonic acid, 990
Gentiana lutea, 425
Geqffroca inermis, 688
Geum urbanum, 609
Ginger, 336
Glycyrrhi’za glabra, 686
Gmelin’s continuation of Murray, 8
Gorgonia nobilis, 288
Grains and seeds, esculent, list of, 92
Granulation, 199
Gratiola officinalis, 345
Guaiacum officinale, 555
Gum ammoniac, 324
tragacanth, 683
arabic, 7^9
K.
FLccmatoxylon campeachianum, 551
MATERIA
N° 616 Hartshorn,
681 Hellebore, white,
687 Helleborus niger,
720 Helleborus foetidus,
735 Hemlock,
759 Henbane,
763 Hirudo medicinalis,
778 Honey,
acetated,
of squill,
of roses,
458 Hop,
798 Horehound, white,
959 Horseradish,
20 2 Humulus lupulus,
76 Hydrosulphuret of ammonia,
471 Hyoscyamus niger,
87 Hyssop,
570 hedge,
821 I.
931 Jalap,
17 Incitantia, catalogue of,
21 Infusion of cinchona,
compound, of gentian,
22 of rhubarb,
23 of senna, simple,
24 tartarized,
61 of tamarinds with senna,
68 of roses,
69 of foxglove,
70 of catechu,
77 Invertentia, catalogue of,
78 Ip ecacuan,
82 Iris florentina,
657 pseudacorus,
741 Iron, vitriolated,
794 tartarized,
94 Juglans regia,
Juice, inspissated, of henbane,
MEDICA, &.c.
N° 253 Leopard's bane,
782
of deadly nightshade, 400
of hemlock,
of aconite,
lemon,
of wild lettuce,
of wild cucumber,
Juniperus communis,
lycia,
sabina,
K.
Kcempferia, rotunda,
Kermes mineral
Kino,
Kirby's tables,
L.
Lactuca virosa,
Ladanum,
Laudanum, liquid,
Laurus, cinnamomum,
cassia,
camphora,
nobilis,
sassafras,
Leeches,
Leguminous plants, list of.
Lemon,
Lettuce, wild,
631 Levigation,
633 Lewis's materia medica,
434 Ley, mild,
390 caustic,
285 Lichen islandicus,
276 Light,
278 Lime,
496 with pure kali,
598 Liniments, ointments, and cerates,
768 of ammonia,
652 volatile,
662 simple,
768 camphorated,
241 soap,
39° anodyne,
634 of lime water,
345 Linum usitatissimum,
catharticum,
385 Liquor of mild volatile alkali,
137 acetated volatile alkali,
402 volatile, of hartshorn,
426 vitriolic, ethereal,
530 oily, ethereal,
544 Hoffman’s anodyne,
545 ethereal nitrous,
546 Liquorice,
596 Litharge,
658 Lithontriptics,
787 Liverwort, Iceland,
140 Lobelia syphilitica,
408 Logwood,
360 Lytta vesicatoria,
361 M.
964 Madder,
966 Magnesia,
737 vitriolated,
391 calcined,
white,
435 Mahogany bark,
629 Malt liquors, character of,
699 Manna,
704 Marshmallow,
761 Marrubium vulgare,
772 Mastich,
775 Materia medica, definition of,
776 writers on,
late foreign writers
334 . on*
894 Measures and weights,
585 Melaleuca leucodendron,
13 Melissa officinalis,
Mentha viridis,
703 piperita,
625 pulegium,
620 Mercury,
511 purified,
518 acetated,
520 muriated, corrosive,
526 mild,
527 calcined,
285 nitrated, red,
91 subvitriolated,
696 with sulphur,
5H2
795
N07H
703
198
6
3H
316
799
99 2
865
318
232
242
242, 244
320
525
857
858
867
469
471
239
240
254
296
302
ib.
850
686
952
192
799
407
551
267
374
879
877
879
878
553
99
794
672
652
767
1
4
J4
206
700
656
635
638
642
904
9°5
906
907
909
9*5
916
918
Mezereum
796
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Mczereum or mczereon,
Mimosa catechu,
nilotica,
Mixture, musk,
camphorated,
chalk,
Mixtures and emulsions,
Momordica elaterium,
Monro's medical chemistry,
Moschus moschiferus,
Mucilage of starch,
of quince seeds,
of gum tragacanth,
of gum arabic,
Mucilages, general remarks on,
Muriate of ammonia,
and iron,
of baryta,
of antimony,
of mercury,
mild, sublimed,
precipitated,
N° 508
786
Murray's (Dr) apparatus medicaminum
(Mr) elements of materia
medica,
observations on the action
of medicines,
arrangement.
Musk,
Mustard, white,
789
2C2
522
872
228
760
9
2 CO
368
594
684
790
227
235
971
863
896
907
908
9°9
11
Myristica moschata,
Myroxylon peruiferum.
Myrrh,
Myrtus pimento,
N.
Micotiana tabacum,
Nightshade, deadly,
Nitrate of potash,
of silver,
Nitre,
Nuts, esculent, list of,
Nutrientia, catalogue of,
Nutmeg,
Nux vomica,
o.
Oak bark,
Oil, use of, as a condiment,
ammoniated,
of hartshorn,
animal, or Dippel’s,
of wine,
olive,
lintseed,
camphorated,
of almonds,
of mace,
castor,
sulphurated,
of amber,
of petroleum,
of vitriol,
volatile, of rosemary,
Oil, volatile, of carraway,
of fennel,
of aniseed,
of sassafras,
of rue,
of pimento,
of mint,
of peppermint,
of pennyroyal,
of lavender,
of origanum,
of cajeput,
of turpentine,
purified,
of juniper,
of savine,
Ointment of spermaceti,
cantharides,
powder,
12
J3
2 CO
665
666
727
536
327
580
393
399
844
985
844
136
727
396
734
108
242
257
258
300
344
470
524
588
728
756
823
830
834
835
347
N° 453
60
563
28
c6o
582
637
640
643
647
654
700
746
747
773
777
262
272
274
273
321
322
467
co6
749
752
785
82 c
849
ib.
infusion,
simple,
wax,
elder,
of elemi,
tar,
resinous, '
of white hellebore,
of sulphur,
of nitrous acid,
oxygenated,
of white calx of mercury, 911
of cinereous oxide of mer¬
cury, 913
of red oxide of mercury, 917
mercurial, 922
of nitrated mercury, 928
milder, 929
of oxide of zinc, 932
of impure oxide of zinc, 939
tutty, ib.
of white oxide of lead, 948
white, ib.
of acetite of lead, 950
of subacetite of copper, 978
Olibanum, 775
Opium, 612
Opodeldoc, 857
Opoponax, 455
Orange, Seville, 691
Origanum vulgare, 653
majorana, 655
Onds root, florentine, 36°
Oxa/is acetosella, 574
Oxidation, 217
Oxide of arsenic, 888
of antimony with sulphur, 891
vitrified, 892
with wax, 893
with phosphate of
lime, 898
of mercury, cinereous, 912
• red, 916
of zinc, 931
impure, 937
4
Oxide of lead, white, N°
red,
semivitrified,
of iron, black, purified,
red,
of azote, gaseous,
Oxymel, simple,
of squill,
of colchicum,
of verdigris,
P.
Papaver rheeas,
somniferum,
Parsley,
Pastinaca opoponax.
Pearl-ashes,
Peneea sarcocolla,
Pepper, black,
long,
Cayenne,
Jamaica,
Percival's propositions on the action
of medicines, J 23—
Petroleum,
sulphurated,
Pharmacy, definition of,
Phosphate of lime,
of soda,
Phosphorus,
Physeter macrocephalus,
Pills, general remarks on,
compound, of assafeetida,
of galbanum,
aloetic,
of aloes and assafoetida,
colocynth,
myrrh,
Rufus’s,
squill,
opiate,
compound antimonial,
Plummer’s,
mercurial,
of ammoniaret of copper
Pimento,
Pimpinella anisum,
Pink, Carolina,
Pinus abies,
balsamea,
larix,
sylvestris,
Piper nigrum,
cubeba,
longum,
Pistacia tei'ebinthus,
lentiscus,
Plaster of cantharides,
compound,
simple,
gum, _
cummin,
of assafoetida,
compound ladanum,
Index.
Plaster, compound, of Burgundy,
pitch, N° 740
of frankincense, 742
resinous, 754
860
925
926
927
soap,
mercurial,
of gum ammoniac with mer¬
cury,
litharge with mercury,
of semivitrified oxide of lead, 957
" ' ih.
common or diaculum,
of red oxide of iron, 920
strengthening, ib.
Plasters, 233
Poison oak, 468
Poli/gala senega, 676
Polygonum bistorta, 510
Poly podium filix mas, 798
Pomegranate, 584
Poppy, red, 610
white, 612
Potash, 317
with lime, 318
Potion, chalk, 872
Pot-herbs, list of, 86
Powder, compound, of crabs claws, 284
of myrrh, 329
of contrayerva, 376
of scammony, 381
compound, of scammony with
aloes, 382
of scammony with calomel, 383
MATERIA
Quassia simaruba,
Quercus cerris,
Quicksilver,
with chalk.
Quince seeds,
R.
Raspberry,
Refrigerants,
Remedies, action of, considered, 122
Revertentia, catalogue of,
Rhamnus catharticus,
Rhubarb,
Rhododendron chrysanthum,
Rhus toxicodendron,
Ricinus communis,
Roots, esculent, catalogue of,
Rosa gallica,
centifolia,
canina,
Rosmarinus officinalis,
Rust of iron,
Rida graveolens,
compound, of jalap,
of ipecacuan and opium,
Dover’s,
of aloes with canella,
aloetic with guaiacum,
iron,
aromatic,
compound, of senna,
compound, of asarabacca,
opiate,
compound, of gum traga-
canth,
of carbonate of
lime,
of chalk,
of sulphate
lumina,
styptic,
of algaroth,
antimonial, or James’s,
of tin,
compound, of ceruse,
Powders, general remarks on,
Precipitate, white,
red,
Prunus domestica,
spinosa,
Pterocarpus santalinus,
draco,
Punica granatum,
Pyrus cydonia,
Quassia,
of
MEDICA, &c.
N° 562 Smilax sarsaparilla,
736
9°4
914
393
386
4°9
ib.
477
478
479
516
53°
377
614
685
874
ib.
885
ib.
897
898
944
947
220
910
916
39°
391
678
679
384
393
363
S.
Saffron,
Sagapenuin,
Sage,
Sal ammoniac,
polychrest,
Salix fragilis.
Salt, common,
of hartshorn,
Rochelle,
of tartar,
of benzoin,
of amber,
purified,
petre,
sea or common,
Glauber’s,
Epsom,
of steel,
Sambucus nigra.
Sarsaparilla,
Sarcocol,
Sassafras,
Savine,
Scammony,
Scilla maritima.
Scurvy-grass, garden,
Secernentia, catalogue oi,
Seneka root,
Senna,
Shoots and stalks, esculent, list of
Sialagogues,
Silver, nitrated,
Simarouba,
Simples, collection and preservation
of,
Sinapis alba,
nigra,
Sisymbrium nasturtium, '
Siam nodiflorum,
Skirret, creeping,
Sloes,
797
N° 769
723
856
398
236
239
3X3
876
934
936
Snakeroot, Virginian,
Soap, Castile,
Solanum dulcamara,
Solution of volatile alkali, caustic,
of mildest vegetable alkali,
650 of muriate of baryta,
167 of lime,
-126 of sulphate of zinc,
141 of acetite of zinc,
411 compound, of sulphate of cop-
329 per, 981
564 Sorbentia, catalogue of, 139
468 Southernwood, 707
733 Spartium scoparium, 680
83 Spermaceti, 261
595 Spices, uses of, 107
600 Spigelia marilandica, 378
603 Spirit, ardent, uses of, 102
346 of sal ammoniac, strong, 236
961 of volatile alkali, 237
539 of ammonia, ib.
succinated, 245
Mindererus’s, 240
357 of ammonia, compound, 243
330 of hartshorn, 254
349 of wine, rectified, 294
233 of vitriolic ether, 297
839 compound, 301
765 proof, 304
104 of rosemary, 348
256 of carraway, 454
417 compound of aniseed, 464
418 of cinnamon, 515
570 camphorated, 523
829 of pimento, 583
831 of mint, 637,0.
844 of peppermint, 641
851 of pennyroyal, 645
854 of lavender, 648
877 compound, 649
964 compound, of horse-radish, 663
465 of nutmeg, 729
769 of juniper, 774
373 of vitriol, 836
527 of nitre, fuming, 846
776 sweet, 850
380 of nitrous ether, ib.
489 of sea salt, 853
660 Sponge, 290
138 Squill, 489
676 St John’s wort, 701
543 Stalagmitis cambogioides, 781
84 Stavesacre, 627
161 Stimulants, 17 7
985 Stone-fruit, esculent, list of, 89
562 Storax, 566
Strychnos nux vomica, 396
194 Styrax officinale, 566
665 benzoin, 568
666 Subacetate of copper, 975
667 Subborate of soda, 855
436 Subcarbonate oi ^ol'd.'ski, 313
ib. impure, 312
591 purest, 418
Submuriate
798
Submuriate of mercury, . ^
precipitated,
Subsulphate of mercury', yellow,
Sugar, uses of, I0°’
of lead,
Sulphate of potash,
with sulphur,
of soda,
of baryta,
of magnesia,
of alumina, dried,
of zinc,
of iron,
dried,
of copper,
Sulphur, sublimed,
precipitated,
antimonial brown,
Sulphuret of potash,
of antimony,
precipitated,
of mercury, black,
red,
Superacetate of lead,
Supersulphate oi alumina and potash,
Supertartratc of potash,
Sivietenia mahagoni,
febrifuga,
Synopsis of materia medica,
of materia medica, arrange¬
ment of,
Syrup of acetous acid,
ginger,
saffron,
buckthorn,
violets,
black currants,
garlic,
squill,
colchicum,
T olu,
clove julyflower,
red roses,
damask roses,
raspberry,
red poppy,
opium,
white poppy,
marshmallow,
orange peel,
lemon juice,
mulberries,
manna,
Syrups, general remarks on,
T.
Tamarindus indica,
Tanacetum vulgare,
Tar,
Tartar, crystals or cream of,
soluble,
emetic,
Tartrate of potash,
and soda,
of antimony and potash,
I
MATERIA MEDICA, &c.
908
9°9
918
362
949
838
839
854
861
877
883
933
964
968
980
821
827
894
826
889
895
9J9
920
949
881
415
553
554
10
133
310
338
358
412
420
424
474
492
501
540
573
597
602
<6c6
611
623
624
664
'692
698
732
795
229
669
7I3
748
4J5
416
889
416
41?
889
Thesaurus medicaminum,
Thistle, blessed,
Thorn apple,
Tin,
Tincture of castor,
compound,
of musk,
cantharides,
myrrh,
columbo,
ginger,
cardamom seeds,
N<
10
722
389
943
248
249
251
268
328
333
337
341
compound, 342
355
valerian,
ammoniated,
■ saffron,
jalap,
henbane,
cinchona,
compound,
ammoniated,
of bark, Huxham’s,
compound, of gentian,
bitter,
of assafoetida,
galbanum,
aloes,
and myrrh,
compound,
ethereal,
of squill,
cinnamon,
compound,
aromatic,
camphor,
rhubarb,
compound,
and aloes,
and gentian,
of balsam of Peru,
of Tolu,
compound, of senna,
of guaiacum,
ammoniated,
compound, of benzoin,
of kino,
opium,
camphorated,
ammoniated,
thebaic,
of black hellebore,
lavender, compound,
foxglove,
orange peel,
snakeroot,
cascarilla,
compound, of savine,
of white hellebore,
catechu,
soap,
and opium,
of muriate of iron,
ammoniacal iron,
acetated iron,
Tinctures, general remarks on,
356
359
388
332
403
403, d,
404
4°3, d.
427
ib.
443
448
485
486
ib.
487
495
5*4
5*5
ib.
523
532
533
534
535
537
539
547
557
558
569
586
620
621
622
620
632
649
659
694
724
758
779
784
788
857
858
965
972
973
230
Tobacco,
Toluifera balsaraum,
Tonics,
Torrnentilla erecta,
Torpentia, catalogue of,
Trituration,
Troches, general remarks on,
of starch,
of liquorice with opium,
g"m» C1.
01 cRxborititc 01 limCy
chalk,
magnesia,
Turmeric root,
Turpentine, 5 enice,
common,
Chio,
Tutty,
U.
Valeriana officinalis,
Veratrum album,
Verdigris,
Vinegar,
radical,
aromatic,
of squill,
Viola odorata,
Vitis vinifera,
Vitriol, white,
green,
blue,
JJlmus campestris,
Urtica dioica,
Index.
N° 393
538
J74
607
142
*91
222
369
617
792
873
ib.
880
335
745
750
766
937
W.
Wakcrobin,
Walnut,
Water,
of ammonia,
pure ammonia,
carbonate of ammonia,
acetate of ammonia,
prepared kali,
carbonate of potash,
potash,
pure kali,
Hungary,
barley,
dill,
sweet fennel,
cinnamon,
cassia,
pimento,
rose,
mint,
peppermint,
pennyroyal,
orange peel,
lemon peel,
snow or rain purest,
varieties of,
medical use of,
external use of,
distilled,
354
782
975
105
3°7
308
491
419
4i3
933
967
980
43°
733
725
737
802
236
ib.
239
240
3J4
3I!
3l6
ih.
348
371
457
459
512
5*9
581
6oi
636
639
643
693
697
803
804
813
814
820
Water
Index.
M
N° 842
866
875
884
Water of supercarbonate of soda,
lime,
impregnated with fixed air,
compound alum,
of vitriolated zinc with cam~
phor, 935
of acetated litharge, 954
compound, 955
of aerated iron, 962
of ammoniated copper, 979
sapphire, ib.
Wafers, mineral, 805
ATERIA MEDICA, &c.
Whortle berry,
Willow bark,
Wine, uses of,
tobacco,
ipecacuan,
compound, of gentian,
bitter,
of aloes,
rhubarb,
of tartrate of antimony,
antimonial,
of iron,
■^° Whiter a aromatica,
765 Wormsced,
loo, 413 Wormwood, sea,
394 common,
409
4?8 Z.
ib. Zedoaj'u, round,
488 ^ long,
531 Zinc,
900 calcined,
9° I vitriolated,
963
799
N° 630
711
709
712
334
339
930
931
933
END OF THE TWELFTH VOLUME.
DIRECTIONS for placing the PLATES of Vol. XII.
Part I.
Plate CCXCVI. to face
CCXCVII.
CCXCVIII.
CCXCVIII. 2(1,
CCXCIX.
€CC.
1
page 60
62
- 264
396
Part II.
CCCI—CCCXIY. - - - 536
CCCXV. . - 680
>(